Alger has touched upon a problem of

major importance. With the growing emphasis in college curriculums on electronic

circuits, field theory, information theory,
and many other recent developments, the
time available for study of machinery is being severely limited, and in some colleges
there is even thought of eliminating the
systematic study of machinery altogether.
With the important part that machines
play in the applications of electrical engineering today, this would appear to be a

grievous mistake. However, it is evident

that the methods of presenting machinery,
basically unchanged in most curriculums
for decades, must be radically overhauled.
In such an overhaul it seems highly desirable to make better use of equivalent circuits as a unifying concept, to show the
basic similarities of various types of machines. Field theory may be called upon
to establish the validity of the circuit concepts, but there is strong evidence that
circuit methods are simpler and easier to

Temperature Rise of Dry-Type

Transformers
A. A. HALACSY
MEMBER AIEE

THE CALCULATION of the temperature rise of dry-type transformers

differs from that of liquid-filled transformers because radiation from the core
and coil plays a considerable part in the
heat transmission and because the temperature of the cooling air is not as uniform as that of liquids. Very little, if
anything has been published about calculation of temperature rise of dry-type
transformers for design purposes. This
paper presents a method for such a
calculation.

Limitations
This paper deals only with the temperature rise of the coils of dry-type transformers.
Only the steady state of the coils is
considered. This is the temperature at
which they stay at unchanged load, voltage, and ambient temperature. Transient phenomena, like temperature rise
due to short circuits, are not discussed;
neither is forced air cooling. Air is mentioned as coolant throughout the text.
The results are applicable to other gases
by changing the constants accordingly.
High- and low-voltage (and tertiary,
if any) parts of a coil are considered as
separate units, because different amounts
of heat are generated in those parts perPaper 58-155, recommended by the AIEE'Transformers Committee and approved by the AI EE
Technical Operations Department for presentation
at the AIEE Winter General Meeting, New York,
N. Y., February 2-7, 1958. Manuscript submitted
October 11, 1957; made available for printing
November 26, 1957.
A. A. HALACSY is with the H. K. Porter Company,
Philadelphia, Pa.

456)

unit volume of copper and per-unit heattransfer area. Experience has shown that
the high- and low-voltage parts of a coil
frequently have quite different temperatures.

Proposed Procedure
In sumnmary, this paper proposes calculating the temperature rise by the following method:
1. Calculating the total watts WI which
can be dissipated at a series of coil temperatures T, where T= Tamb+ Trie, and
drawing a curve

WI=f(T)

(1)

in Cartesian co-ordinates.
2. Calculating the total watts W2 generated
in the coil at the same series of temperatures
T, and drawing another curve

W2 =f2( T)

(2)

apply than field methods in obtaining

numerical results, and therefore should be
fully utilized.
The author would again like to thank
Alger for his encouragement which has beeti
one of the important motivations in the
preparation of the present paper.
REFERENCE
DEFINITIONS OF ELECTRICAL TBRMS:

1.

ING MACHINERY.

ROTAT-

ASA C42.10-1957, American

Standards Association, New York, N. Y., 1957.

These mathematical expressions are for

the steady state, where w is the heat
energy leaving the area A of the surface
per-unit time; T is the temperature of
the surface; TA is the bulk temperature of
the surrounding fluid; TB is the temperature of an opposite surface; F is the
view factor, a function of the geometry
of the two opposite surfaces; e is the
emissivity; x is the length of the path
with the cross section A through which
the heat streams; and S, h, and k are
constants.
All the heat from the surface of a solid
is transferred to a fluid by radiation and
convection. In the case of a dry-type
transformer, the fluid is air. Conduction
is mentioned only because an additional
temperature drop across a solid insulating
layer covering the copper is caused by
convection.

Radiation
Only a negligible error is introduced if
the temperature of the enclosure is considered to be equal to that of the coolant
in equation 1, in cases where the enclosure
forms the opposite surface to radiation in
a conventional dry transformer.
TB = TA

(6)

in the same Cartesian co-ordinates.

3. Reading the coil temperature rise Tcoil,
where Tc0 = (T- Tamb), at the intersection
of the two curves, WI and W2.

Calculation is simplified if equation 3

is made similar to equation 4. Such a
form is quite arbitrarily written in the
center of equation 7

Heat Dissipation

w,= qAF=SAFe(T4 -TA4)

(7)
This equation, being arbitrary, holds
only if qr is defined as follows

Heat is transferred by radiation, convection, and conduction. Radiation follows the Stefan-Boltzmann law in a somewhat modified form
(3)
Wr-S.4 F e(T4 -TB4)
Convection follows Newton's law
wc=hA (T-TA)
(4)

qr Se(T4-TAI)
=

The numerical value of the StefanBoltzmann constant is properly converted

to watts,/sq in (square inch) X (degrees

Kelvin)4

S=36.8X 10-12

Conduction follows Fourier's law

A

w5= k -(T -TB)

x

(5)

(8)

is

(9)

The relative emissivity of the surface

e =0.9

(10)

Ilal,acsy-Temperature Rise of Dry-Type Transformers

AUGUST 1 958

Table 1. Constants for Temperature Calculations

qc, Watts/Sq In

q, Watts/

TA* T-TA* SqIn Lt=0.5

T*

q=qr +qo, Watts/Sq In

L=1.5

L=1

L=2

L=2.5

L=3

L=0.5

L=1

L1.S

L=2

L=2.5

L=3

(234. S +T)

254.5

75... .30.... 45...0.203... .0.170... .0.143... .0.130....0. 121 ... .0.114 ....0.109....0.373....0.346....0.333....0.324... .0.317.. .0.312.... 1.21
85....30.... 55...0.264....0.219.... 0.184.... 0.166 ....0.154.... 0 146 ....0.140.... 0.481.... 0.448.... 0.431.... 0.419.... 0.411.... 0.404....1.25
110.... 30.... 80.. .0.433.... 0.351... .0.295....0.267.... 0.248.... 0.235 .... 0.224.... 0.781.... 0.729.... 0.701.... 0.679....0.666.... 0.657.... 1.35
140 .... 30 .... 110 ... 0.690.... 0. 523....0.439....0.396 ... 0. 369 ... 0. 349 .... 0.333 ... 1. 209 .... 1.125 .... 1.085....1.057 .... 1.040....1.020 .... 1.47
180.... 30.... 150... 1.14 .... 0.776 ... 0. 652 .... 0.590 .... 0.548....0.518 .... 0.495 .... 1.906 .... 1.782 .... 1.722 .... 1.680.... 1. 653....1.630....1.63
210 .... 30.... 180...1.525 .... 0.962 .... 0.810 .... 0.731 .... 0.678 .... 0.6458....0.616 .... 2.487....2.335 .....2.259 .....2.203 .... 2.171 .... 2.141 ... 1.75
*

All

temperatures measured in C. t All L measured in feet.

for materials used on the surface of

dry transformer coils. Pooling all this
information results in",2

q,=33.2 X 10-1( T4T-TA4) watts/sq in (11)

if T's are in degrees Kelvin; and thus the
heat in watts wr, transferred by radiation
through an A-sq-in surface at (T- TA)
degrees centigrade (C) temperature difference between surface and ambient, may
computed by equation 7.
(12)
wr =qrAF
Typical values of qr are listed in Table
I.

Convection
While the Stefan-Boltzmann constant
S is a purely dimensional constant, the
heat-convection coefficient h in equation
4 is a function of the geometry of the particular device and of the properties and
condition of the cooling air. A film of
air is heated by conduction from the vertical surface of the dry transformer coil
and begins to rise as it becomes lighter
than its surroundings. Thus a flow of
the air is started.
Indeed the best correlation3 of test
W
w
qr.--

=It

_T i
iIIII
I I .t I:-tt
__4 __

SO.N57=4_+
_

5_

4
3 _ 06

IIIi-

I;

HI,
,.
r
-1~

li r
l_T tX

2>l_T-

20

5>>

ls7+

VILXJ

--;

I I

02

0.1IL

T;w3C *.C

T: a

1 It
I!5

I0*

75 85 110 140 180 210

Fig. 1. Heat transfer constants; q = convection and radiation, qc = convection only

AUGUST 1 958

NP.
NN=f(NGXNP)

(13)
The value of the (NGX NP) product
determines the nature of the air flow,
turbulent or laminar. In the usual temperature range and at atmospheric pressure the air flow is laminar, along naturally cooled dry transformer coils. A
simplified equation is derived from equation 11 and given for h in this range in
textbooks,3 which may be written4 with a
dimension, watts/sq in, as follows

h=1.23X10-3(T-TA)O.26

(14)

Multiplying by (T- TA) gives, in watts/

sq in,
1.23X10-3(T-TA)2
(15)
Typical values of q, are listed in Table I
for L = 0.5- to 3-foot-high coils.
A combination of equations 4, 14, and
15 gives, in watts, the heat wc transferred by convection through A-sq-in
surface at (T- TA) C temperature difference.

wc-=qA

(16)

Total Heat Transferred

The sum of equations 12 and 16 gives
the total watts W, dissipated from the coil,
at a (T- TA) C temperature difference:
W1 =wr +w =(qrF+qc)A
(17)

FT
.

0.3

results regarding convection from a

vertical surface to air was presented in
terms of moduli used in aerodynamics as
the Grashof number NG, the Nusselt
number NN, and the Prandtl number

This is rewritten for the purpose of a

simplified calculation as
W1=(qr+qc)FA +q(1 -F)A
(18)
q =qr+qc
(19)
Within the usual limits of temperatures, T, to T2, which prevail in practical
dry-type transformers, both q's are well
approximated by exponential functions,

one

coil.

function for each L height of the

q(T, -TA\"
q2 \T-TAI/

(20)

The logarithm of this function is obviously a linear function

log,o q, - logio q2
=n[log,s (TL-T'A)-log,o(T2-TA)J (21)
where
n = 1.25 for q,
n= 1.28 to 1.77 for qr
n = 1.36 approximately for q
and the temperatures are measured in C;
see Appendix I.
Straight lines represent such functions
on a double-log-scaled graph paper, Fig.
1, for L=0.5- to 3-foot-high coils.

Grouping of Surface Sections

It is more practical to split the total
surface A into n sections, A,,, and to group
together the sections with similar heattransfer characteristics than to consider
an over-all view factor for the whole surface area. Equation 18 is rewritten accordingly
WI =q

n
FnAIn+qGE(1-Fn)A
I

(22)

The most practical grouping is into internal and external surfaces.

Internal Surfaces
Internal surfaces are those on which
F,=O, because radiation is cancelled by
an opposing surface. Such are the inside
surface of a coil facing the core, and surfaces of cooling ducts. For these
n
WI =

qCEA int

(23)

Of course, the statement Fn = 0 is

strictly true for these surfaces only if the
opposite surface intercepting the radiation
is at the same temperature and has the
same emissivity. The differences ob-

Halacsy-Temperature Rise of Dry-Type Transformers

457

Kw

0.5
_i

8
4
8
2
8
4
8
WIuM OF COOUNG DUCT. INCHES

Fig. 2. The corretion factor Kw versus

radial width of a cooling duct

The length L is of course always the

cooling length, which does not include
the end fillers or spacers made of insulating material, but only the length from the
bottom to the top face of the copper,
minus the axial width of any gap in the
surface; e.g., the cooling length of a
pancake coil is L= (number of pancakes)
X (axial width of one copper pancake).
The cooling length of an uninterrupted
barrel coil is L = (length of copper coil) (end pitch).
The narrower the cooling duct, the more
it chokes the airstream and reduces cooling. Published test results proved that
air masses farther than 3/8 to 1/2 inch
from the vertical surface do not participate appreciably in the cooling, so that
the influence of the width of the cooling
duct levels off around 1-inch width. Fig.
2 shows the values of a correction factor
K. for the width of the duct. Combining equations 23 and 25, and K,, gives
n

Fig. 3. Graphic detemination of the view

angle B between coils

Wi =

qcl {IL [2DnAv,duotX T2(number of spacer, n) (width of

spacer, n]Kb,,

Kj,,,}

(26)

External Surfaces, View Factor

Fig. 4. Graphic determination of the view

angle p between disks
served in the discussed group of transformers usually can be neglected, but can
be taken into account by further subgrouping, adding correction factors to
equation 22, in cases where these differences warrant it.
Proper judgment has to be used to determine how many square inches of each
area are heat-transfer units. For example, the part of a surface covered by
spacer sticks in a cooling duct is not one.
The surface of those ducts which are
blocked by some obstacle at their entrance
or exit and have no air circulation are not
ones. Such obstacles can be heavy leads,
most likely in a low-voltage coil of great
kva capacity, protruding insulation of
taps, bracings or clampings of the coil,
protruding core clamps, etc. The blocked
ducts can be considered by a factor
(number of ducts) TIP

_
b=

Fp= 1-2)

(27)

The view angle a is the solid angle

within which the point views an obstruction to radiation, and 2,r solid angle is the
surface area of a half-sphere of unit radius
seen unobstructed. Parts of the same or
of anotlher coil and phase barriers between
coils obstruct radiation. Averaging for a
certain area A. gives the view factor of
that area

metrv. Thus, the view factor can be calculated for their axial section, see Fig. 4.

Solid Insulation Layers

Any solid insulation 1/32 inch or more
thick over the copper must be taken into
account because a temperature drop
occurs across solid insulations according
to equation 5. This drop is negligible for
less than 1/32 inch of insulation, and
approximated well enough by reducing the
q's for 20 C by 0.01 watt/sq in for each
1/32-inch thickness.

Summation of the Heat Transferred

The watts transferred through each
part of the coil surface are totaled according to equation 22, and this calculation is
carried through for a series of tempera-

-I

Soc

roo___ I_PW
I ---.-

TOC

600

Fn=l--

Zfap
I

2rP

-_ _1_-

500

I-

400

I0 I/ _

---

(28)

The outer surface of a coil has cylindrical symmetry. Fringe effects can
be neglected, therefore the surface can be
reduced to a circular circumference of a
section across the axis, and the solid
angles to plane angles 0,,; see Fig. 3.
Equation 28 reduces to equation 29

(number of blocked ducts)

(number of ducts)
(24) I F=l-

An = LKb [2DnAV, duet X w2(number of spacers) (width of one spacer)]

(25)

458

External surfaces are the ones from

which radiation is not fully cancelled.
The view factor for a point P of such a
surface is, by definition,

can be averaged from few values. The

calculation is carried out for the center
phase, the hottest in a 3-phase transformer, where, by reasons of symmetry,
it is enough to consider only one quarter
of the circumferential circle. The shaded
view angles 3,B see obstruction as shown in
Fig. 3, at points p= 2 and p= 6.
The same treatment can be applied to
surfaces between disks, where the surfaces are rings and have a circular sym-

TO
40

CAM ENT

110- C TOTAL
CO* C RISE

s0
50

Fig. 5. Graphic determination of temperature of coil shown rn Fig. 6

7rp

(29)

The view angle ,B changes continuously

around the circumference; therefore it

Fig.
6.High-voltage pr of2
14 STICKS

NQ3

5 75

Fig. 6. Hi'Sh-voltage part of coil

Halacsy-Temperature Rise of Dry-Type Transformers

A.UGUST 1.958

tures in the range where the final temperature is expected. It is sufficient to

select certain significant temperatures,
such as 55, 80, 110, 150, and 180 C rise
above 30 C ambient and suppose a linear
continuity of W1 between them.
Of course, such a calculation is done
easily in a preprinted tabular form and by
a single setting of the slide rule, as the only
terms changing with the temperature are
q and q, in equation 22. The resulting
tabulated function represents equation 1.

Table II. Calculations and Test Results Compared

VT

I is the rms value of the coil current in

amperes; pw=0.67X1104 ohm/in/sq in
for copper, and a corresponding value for
other conductor materials. Values of
the factor (234.5+T)/254.5 are given in
Table I.
The stray losses'-" are Y % of the d-c
losses and can be accounted for by a

Equation 32 is the amplified form of

equation 2.

Temperature Rise

........

112'/2

.......

Difference

Test

test values were generally considered

satisfactory. There were two cases
amnong the 30 reported where the difference was 11 C, one positive, the other
negative. These cases will probably
prove to be extreme or erroneous if more
results will enable a statistical evaluation.

Test Results

From equation 15,

T2 -TA
log q,-log q47s-1.25
!log(Ti-TA)-log(Tg-TA)] (34)
From equation 11,
qc2

qri T14-TA
qT2 T24 -TA4
log qr,-log qr2 10(T4- TA4)-

(35)

(5

log(T24-TA4) (36)

It is more convenient to have an exponential function, though arbitrary, on

the right-hand side, thus
log q'-lIog q,2

Calculated

Test Difference

Appendix IL. Temperature Rise

of Coil Shown in Fig. 6
Heat Transferred
The initial calculations for the cylindrical
inner surface (one side of a duct) of the coil,
shown as no. 1, are as follows:
diameter= 12. 7
circumference- 11. 75X 36. 85
less (14 spacersX0. 375 inch each) -5.25
cooling circumference-36.85-5.25=31.60
k, for 3/8-inch-wide duct -1
circumference cooled by convection= 1 X
31. 60 = 31. 60 inches
The calculations for the cylindrical inner
surface (both sides of a duct) of the coil,
shown as no. 2, are as follows:
mean diameter= 13. 675 inches
2X (mean circumference) -2(13.675X T)
-85.60
less (14 spacersX0.375 inch eachX2)
=-10.50
circumference -85.60-- 10.50
cooling
-75.10
k. for 3/8-inch-wide duct = 1
circumference cooled by convection =1 X
75.10=75. 10 inches
The calculations for the cylindrical outer
surface of the coil, shown as no. 3, are as
follows:

([log(T,-TA)-log(T2-TA)] (37)

where n by combination of equations 36 and

37 is as follows

log( Ti4- TA4)-log( T24- TA4)

log( T, -TA ) -log( T2 -TA)

(38)

The values of n calculated from equation

38 for a series of temperatures are as follows:
Ti

Table II shows a series of test results

compared with calculations made according to the method of this paper. Differences of
8 C between calculated and

Voltage

Appendix 1. Calculation oF
Heat-Transfer Function

The curves representing equations 1 and

2 or rather, 22 and 32, intersect where just
as much heat is transferred as is generated,
so that balance is reached. The temperature read at that point is the steady
state of temperature of the coil; Fig. 5.
Appendix II is a sample calculation for
the sample coil, Fig. 6.
The temperature calculated in this
way is the average temperature of
the respective high-voltage, low-voltage,
tertiary, etc., part of the coil shown in
Fig. 6.

AUGUST 1958

112!/2

Calculated

600 ... 81
.
73 . 79 ..... -6
......1.. 120 .
80 .
71
73 .......-2
120 . 70 . 76 ..... -6
0
70
7. 120 . 69 . 69 .....
480
77
...
-3
150 ........
480 .. 48 . . 55 ......-7
66 ......
120
70
53
78 ... -8
150 ........
480
-6
....59..
-4
61 ...-4... 120
150
70 .....74
4,160 .57
65
150
69 .....
i68 ...-3... 120 . 68
-1
4,160
.6 .....
225
480
55
61
-6
6
120..
72
225
... .400. ...... 87
2
76
11
480 . 67 ...
225 ... .....
480 ...... 72
74.. ..
-2 .
3
80...... 74.. .. 71
225
-3
480.........
4
.......160 68...... 71
71 ....
-7
300 ...... ..
79
480. 63
62...
62
i68
I...... 120
- 115
.12
300 ........ 2,400 ..
0
60 ...
70 75
72 ..... 78.
500 ........ 6,763 ...72
-6 .
67
4
5
-2
500 ........ 6,763 .. 76.
5.60
71
Rf fi O
480
500 ........12.000 ...74 . 84...
-10 . 120. 92 ..... 90
2
.
750 ........ 4,160 ... 58 . 62 .
-4
72 ..... 66
6
480
.
.
750 ...
56 ...... 60
-4 . 480 . 75
70 . 5
4,160
0. 480 . 78
72.
6
1,000 ... 12.000 . 76 ...... 76.

~~~~~~~(31)

Since fy, is small in practical dry transformers, it is permissible to write

(32)
W2=fy vW(234.5+ T)/254.5

Voltage

112/ ........71 2,400

.

niultiplise

y
fy=l+100

Temperature, C

Three-Phase
Transformers,
Kva

Heat Generation
Equation 2 shows the total watts generated versus temperature. D-c losses
account for the largest portion of the total
watts generated. These d-c losses are,
at T C,
+T)
(30)
"P01A (234.5
VrI'P25
254.5

Low-Voltage Coil
Temperature, C

High-Voltage Coil

(Ti-TA)

358 ...... 55
80
383 ..
413
110
453 ..
150 .

T2

diameter= 14. 65
circumference= 14. 65 X =46. 00
view factor derived geometrically, 1- F
=0.486
0. 486X46.00=22.40
total of circumferences cooled only by convection = 129.10 inches
cooling length=15.75-0.22=15.53

(T2-TA)

log (Ti-TA)10 (T2-TA)

log (T,4-TA4)10 (T2'-TA')

3
0.
0 .....
413
453
483 .

-0 162 .....
110 .......... -0.139 ..
... -0 135
150

180.

Halacsy-Temperature Rise of Dry-Type Transformers

..

-0.078 .

..
..

-0.208.... 1 .28
.
-0 197
1. 42
.
-0 215
1.59
-0 138 ....
1.77

459

area cooled by convection=15. 53X129.10

-2,005 sq in
circumference cooled by radiation and convection = (1 -0 . 486) X 46. 00 = 23.60
area cooled by radiation and convection
-15.5.3X23.60=366.5 sq in

The total heat transferred is as follows:

C rise
above 30 C= 45. 5.80... .110
C total =
75. 85.... 110. ..140
260.6. .322.8..535... .740
2,005 X q=
366.5Xq=
122.0..158... .257...397.6
WI, watts= 382.6. .480.8. .792.. 1,137.6

Heat Generated
The calculations for the heat generated

are as follows:

Discussion
N. A. Hills (Moloney Electric Company of
Canada, Ltd., Toronto, Ont., Canada): In
dry-type transformer temperature-rise
calculations, designers are interested in
obtaining rises that are close to the temperature class limits. With this in mind
I would think the process as outlined in
this paper could be simplified by establishing the watts loss at the temperature
limit for the class and obtain the temperature rise by reference to Fig. 1,
rather than by a graphical plot as in Fig. 5.
If the rise is close to the desired limit, as it
should be, the error introduced would be
quite small.
This approach in effect establishes relationships between surface watts/sq in and
temperature rises for different duct lengths
and with duct-size corrections that could be
listed in a relatively short table. This form
for the information would be easy to incorporate into a computer design program.
I would appreciate the author's comments
on the following:

1. How great an error is introduced by

assuming that the correction for duct
length and the correction for duct size can
be considered independently.
2. Fig. 2 would indicate that two 1/4-inch
ducts would be preferable to. one 1/2-inch
duct. Our experience would indicate that
this is not so.
3. No mention is made of the relative
effectiveness of ducts which have hot surfaces on one side only as compared with
ducts with hot surfaces on both sides.
J. J. Kunes (Westinghouse Electric Corporation, Sharon, Pa.): This paper describes an interesting method of calculating the temperature rise of dry-type transformers, derived from the familiar equations
for the three modes of heat transfer. Because it will be placed in the literature, however, I would like to argue the following
point for the record.
Equation 18 seems an unnecessary comnplication of equation 17. It would be more
straightforward to calculate directly the
total heat dissipated by convection, and
then calculate the heat dissipated by radi-

460

copper wire, 0.112 X0.220=0.024620 sq in

deduction for round corners= 0.000838
cross-sectional area A =0.024620-0.00838
=0.023782 sq in
length of wire=42.80X240 turns= 10,260
inches
-=41. 7 amperes, 12= 1,740
Substitution of these values in equation 31
gives

V2o 1,740 X 0.67X 10-6 X 10,260/0.023782

=

503 watts

For different temperatures (in C) the

total watts generated (from equation 30)
are as follows:

C=
220... 75...85... 110.. .140
W2, watts=503.. .606.. .626.. .676. ..737

ReFerences
1. ELECTRICAL COILS AND CONDUCTORS (book).
H. B. Dwight. McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.,
New York, N. Y., 1945, p. 51.
2. THREE PHASE INDUCTION REGULATOR (Der
Drehstrom Induktionsregler) (book), H. F. Schait.

Julius Springer, Berlin, Germany, 1927.

HEAT TRANSMISSION (book), W. H. McAdams.

McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1954, pp. 167,

3.

173.
4. CoNvERsioN FACTORS (book), 0. T. Zimmerman, I. Lavine. Industrial Research Service Inc..
Dover, N. H., 1955, pp. 29, 77.
5. Dwight, op cit., pp. 26-32.
6. STRAY CURRENT LossEs IN STRANDED WINDINGS OF TRANSFORMERS, H. J. Kaul. AIEE Transactions, vol. 76, pt. III, June 1957, pp. 137-49.
7. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CONSTANTS (book),
G. W. C. Kaye, T. H. Laby. Longmans, Green and
Company, London, England, 1948, p. 81.

ation, using the areas involved in each case.

This would eliminate the approximation involved in the value of the exponent n for q.
Also the view factor F would be used with
radiation, where it has physical significance,
instead of in a convection term.

If the author has conducted any such

compromise temperature-rise tests, any
information or comments he may have to
offer on this subject should also be very
helpful to this working group in preparing
proposals for compromise temperature rise
tests on dry-type transformers.

M. F. Beavers (General Electric Company,

Pittsfield, Mass.): The author has presented an analysis of a rather complex
problem of heat flow as applied to dry-type
transformers. As indicated in this study,
convection and radiation play a large part
in the heat-flow problem in such arrangements as concentric coil surfaces and adjacent core surfaces in dry-type transformers.
However, in an oil-immersed transformer,
radiation plays such a minor role, that the
proximity effect of the winding and of the
core on each other is negligible. Therefore,
for the purpose of determining temperature
rises, it has been found entirely satisfactory
to make compromise tests (such as the shortcircuit temperature-rise test) on oil-immersed transformers in which the core is
excited at a very low value-essentially

REFERENCE

impedaince voltage.

In the case of dry-type transformers, however, a compromise temperature-rise test,

in which the core and windings are not at
their respective temperatures simultaneously, is subject to error and requires either
further tests or a fundamental understanding of the interrelations of heat flow which
pennit certain corrections to be applied to
the compromise test result.
It is not clear from the paper as to the
test method used by the author, but it is
assumed that the test data presented in this
paper were obtained under the conditions
of a load-back heat run such as recommended in the revised Test Code for drytype transformers proposed by the AIEE
Project Group on "Methods for Making
Ternperature Rise Tests on Transformers."'
This working group is hopeful of ascertaining a compromise test on dry-type
transformers which will permit making a
temnperature test on a single unit. The
writer has recently conducted some compromise tests on single units which, with
certain corrections, show some promise of
being substantially equivalent to data
obtained on the same units under load-back
test conditions. These data are being
prepared for presentation in the near future.

1. ASA TRANSFORMER STANDARDS C57.22-TEBPERATURE RISES TESTS ON TRANSPORMERS, AIR3:E

Project Group. Electrical Engineering, vol. 72,
Jan. 1953, pp. 70-74.

L. C. Whitman (General Electric Company,

Pittsfield, Mass.): The calculation of the
temperature rise of the dry-type transformers is considerably more involved than
for liquid-immersed transformers due to the
poor thermnal conductivity of the air medium
and the existence of considerable radiation
effects. In a liquid-immersed transformer,
a thin oil film suppresses radiation effects so
that internal radiation effects are practically
nonexistent.
The author has outlined one approach to
the heat-transfer problem in dry-type
transformers and he is to be commended for
his basic approach. I would like to offer a
few suggestions which consider some of the
effects encountered in the application of this
approach to actual cases.
The thermal gradients between component parts of dry-type transformers are of
considerable magnitude, and interaction
between core and windings, between the
windings themselves, and between the
windings and casing, must be considered.
The assumption is made that, "...temperature of the enclosure is considered to be
equal to that of the coolant...." If Dr.
Halascy is referring to the core and coils of a
dry-type transformer operating without an
enclosing casing this is essentially correct as
the walls of a room are presumably of the
same temperature as the ambient air.
However, the conventional ventilated drytype transformer has an enclosing sheetmetal casing with ventilating louvers for
safety, appearance, and partial shielding
from dirt, as well as from possible water
dripping from condensate of overhead pipes.
This casing temperature is somewhat
higher than the room ambient temperature.
From heat-run data, the average temperature rise of this casing is in the range of 15%

Halacsy--Temperature Rise of Dry-Type Transformers

AUGUST 1958