RB 13

CSE Research Bulletin
ISSN 0219-0370
January 2000
Reorganisation of School
In April 1999, the School of Civil & Structural
Engineering was re-organised into four divisions,
namely, the Divisions of Environmental & Water
Resources Engineering, Geotechnical &
Transportation Engineering, Construction
Technology & Management, and Structures &
Mechanics. Two positions of Vice Deans were also
created, the Vice-Dean (Academic), who oversees
academic matters including teaching workloads and
MSc programmes, and the Vice-Dean (Research),
who takes charge of postgraduate programmes by
research and other research matters. The new
organisational structure is to enable the School to
better focus on niche areas of teaching and
research. Under the new structure, the Head of
Construction Technology & Management will
concurrently serve as Director of the Centre for
Advanced Construction Studies (D-CACS@ntu.edu.
sg), the Head of Geotechnical & Transportation
Engineering also assumes the post of Director of
the Geotechnical Research Centre (D-GRC@ntu.
edu.sg), while the Head of Environmental and Water
Resources Engineering is also Director of the
Environmental Engineering Research Centre (DEERC@ntu.edu.sg). The other two research centres
within the School are the Centre for Transportation
Studies (D-CTS@ntu.edu.sg) and the Protective
Technology Research Centre (D-PTRC@ntu.edu.
sg). In the coming years, the five research centres
are expected to evolve into the focal points for
research activities within the School. The School
aims to become a Civil Engineering School of
choice, and to rank among the top civil engineering
schools in Asia in the not too distant future, with
niche areas of academic and research excellence.
The School will work towards attracting a steady
flow of prominent overseas visitors, establishing
more research collaboration with other institutions,
and pursuing greater cross-disciplinary teaching and
research. A new undergraduate curriculum has been
designed and implemented to better prepare the
students for the emergence of a knowledge-based
economy. In the coming years, more MSc
programmes are likely to be introduced, and the
number of well qualified postgraduate research
students will increase.
file:///D|/CEE_old/RESEARCH/Bulletin/1999_2000/HTM/INDEX.HTM (1 of 2)9/27/2003 10:46:37 AM
NO. 13
Official Launch of the Environmental

Engineering Research Centre (EERC)
The Environmental Engineering Research Centre
(EERC), which has been jointly set up by NTU and
the Ministry of the Environment (ENV), was officially
launched on 6 September 1999 at the ENV
Penthouse. Dr Cham Tao Soon, President of NTU,
Dr. Cham Tao Soon President, NTU (right) and Mr. Tan
Gee Paw, Permanent Secretary, ENV, viewing exhibits at
the offical launch of EERC
delivered the opening address at the launch
ceremony, which was witnessed by Mr Tan Gee
Paw, Permanent Secretary, ENV. Other
distinguished guests present at the launch
ceremony included Mr Lee Suan Hiang, Chief
Executive, Productivity and Standards Board (PSB)
and Mr Tang Kin Fei, President, SembCorp
Engineering Private. In conjunction with the launch,
NTU signed three separate Memoranda of
Understanding (MOUs) for research collaboration
with the ENV, PSB and SUT (SembCorp Utilities &
Terminals Pte Ltd). Later in the same afternoon, six
more MOUs for research collaboration were signed
at the School between NTU and Cooperative
Research Centre (CRC) for Waste Management and
Pollution Control Ltd, Australia, the Regional
Institute of Environmental Technology (RIET), ST
Assembly Test Services Ltd, NatSteel Ltd, SH Soil
Works Pte Ltd and JPL Industries Pte Ltd. The
afternoon signing ceremony was graced by his
Excellency, Mr Murray McLean, the Australian High
Commissioner. The signing of the MOUs highlighted
the already excellent working relationship between
NTU and the various environmental partners, and
signalled the mutual desire to further expand the
scope and depth of the ongoing collaboration.
The new Centre is a multi-disciplinary research
centre whose mission is to serve as a focal point for
CSE Research Bulletin
For more information about the latest developments

within the School, you are invited to take a cyber
tour of the School at the following web site: http://
www.ntu.edu.sg/cse/
upstream research and development in

environmental engineering, particularly in the
development of niche home-grown technologies in
the area of environmental management to meet
local and regional needs. The centre has identified
four main functions :
Research & Development, with the focus on
wastewater technology, management of water
quality, solid waste, air pollution, and industrial and
hazardous wastes; waste recycling and reuse; sea
water desalination; clean technology and
development of environment friendly materials, etc.
Education and Training, which will involve
organising and conducting seminars, workshops and
specialised training courses for the continuing
education of local and regional professionals and
government officials.
Professor Chen Charng Ning, Deputy President, NTU

delivering the welcome address at the MOU signing
ceremony between NTu and six industry partners
Information and Resource Centre, to monitor

regional developments in the areas of government
policies, legislation and regulations for
environmental management.
Technology Transfer and Industrial Service, to facilitate information exchange through seminars,
workshops and short courses, to be conducted by invited prominent professionals or researchers on stateof-the-art developments relevant to the region. Staff from the centre will also offer specialised consultancy
services to regional and international organisations.
One key role of the EERC is to serve as an R&D support infrastructure for the local Environmental
Technology (ET) companies. By tapping the technical capabilities and state-of-the-art facilities of the
centre, it is hoped that the local ET companies will be able to carry out their R & D activities more cost
effectively, and hence be better able to sustain their competitive edge to meet the regional challenges.
The EERC values opportunities to work with other organisations in areas of mutual interest. If you have
any proposals for possible research collaboration, do email the Centre Director at D-EERC@ntu.edu.sg.
More information about the Centre can be found at the following web site : http://www.ntu.edu.sg/centre/
wwweerc/eerc.htm
Please read the DISCLAIMER before you begin exploring the CSE Research Bulletin.
Copyright 2000 School of Civil & Structural Engineering, NTU. All rights reserved.
file:///D|/CEE_old/RESEARCH/Bulletin/1999_2000/HTM/INDEX.HTM (2 of 2)9/27/2003 10:46:37 AM
CSE Research Bulletin No. 13. January 2000: In Focus
ISSN 0219-0370
January 2000
Reorganisation of School
In April 1999, the School of Civil & Structural
Engineering was re-organised into four divisions,
namely, the Divisions of Environmental & Water
Resources Engineering, Geotechnical &
Transportation Engineering, Construction
Technology & Management, and Structures &
Mechanics. Two positions of Vice Deans were also
created, the Vice-Dean (Academic), who oversees
academic matters including teaching workloads and
MSc programmes, and the Vice-Dean (Research),
who takes charge of postgraduate programmes by
research and other research matters. The new
organisational structure is to enable the School to
better focus on niche areas of teaching and
research. Under the new structure, the Head of
Construction Technology & Management will
concurrently serve as Director of the Centre for
Advanced Construction Studies (D-CACS@ntu.edu.
sg), the Head of Geotechnical & Transportation
Engineering also assumes the post of Director of
the Geotechnical Research Centre (D-GRC@ntu.
edu.sg), while the Head of Environmental and Water
Resources Engineering is also Director of the
Environmental Engineering Research Centre (DEERC@ntu.edu.sg). The other two research centres
within the School are the Centre for Transportation
Studies (D-CTS@ntu.edu.sg) and the Protective
Technology Research Centre (D-PTRC@ntu.edu.
sg). In the coming years, the five research centres
are expected to evolve into the focal points for
research activities within the School. The School
aims to become a Civil Engineering School of
choice, and to rank among the top civil engineering
NO. 13
Official Launch of the Environmental

Engineering Research Centre (EERC)
The Environmental Engineering Research Centre
(EERC), which has been jointly set up by NTU and
the Ministry of the Environment (ENV), was officially
launched on 6 September 1999 at the ENV
Penthouse. Dr Cham Tao Soon, President of NTU,
Dr. Cham Tao Soon President, NTU (right) and Mr. Tan
Gee Paw, Permanent Secretary, ENV, viewing exhibits at
the offical launch of EERC
delivered the opening address at the launch
ceremony, which was witnessed by Mr Tan Gee
Paw, Permanent Secretary, ENV. Other
distinguished guests present at the launch
ceremony included Mr Lee Suan Hiang, Chief
Executive, Productivity and Standards Board (PSB)
and Mr Tang Kin Fei, President, SembCorp
Engineering Private. In conjunction with the launch,
NTU signed three separate Memoranda of
Understanding (MOUs) for research collaboration
with the ENV, PSB and SUT (SembCorp Utilities &
Terminals Pte Ltd). Later in the same afternoon, six
more MOUs for research collaboration were signed
at the School between NTU and Cooperative
Research Centre (CRC) for Waste Management and
Pollution Control Ltd, Australia, the Regional
file:///D|/CEE_old/RESEARCH/Bulletin/1999_2000/HTM/infocus.htm (1 of 3)9/27/2003 10:47:17 AM
schools in Asia in the not too distant future, with

niche areas of academic and research excellence.
The School will work towards attracting a steady
flow of prominent overseas visitors, establishing
more research collaboration with other institutions,
and pursuing greater cross-disciplinary teaching and
research. A new undergraduate curriculum has been
designed and implemented to better prepare the
students for the emergence of a knowledge-based
economy. In the coming years, more MSc
programmes are likely to be introduced, and the
number of well qualified postgraduate research
students will increase.
Institute of Environmental Technology (RIET), ST

Assembly Test Services Ltd, NatSteel Ltd, SH Soil
Works Pte Ltd and JPL Industries Pte Ltd. The
afternoon signing ceremony was graced by his
Excellency, Mr Murray McLean, the Australian High
Commissioner. The signing of the MOUs highlighted
the already excellent working relationship between
NTU and the various environmental partners, and
signalled the mutual desire to further expand the
scope and depth of the ongoing collaboration.
The new Centre is a multi-disciplinary research

centre whose mission is to serve as a focal point for
upstream research and development in
For more information about the latest developments environmental engineering, particularly in the
within the School, you are invited to take a cyber
development of niche home-grown technologies in
tour of the School at the following web site: http://
the area of environmental management to meet
local and regional needs. The centre has identified
www.ntu.edu.sg/cse/
four main functions :
Research & Development, with the focus on
wastewater technology, management of water
quality, solid waste, air pollution, and industrial and
hazardous wastes; waste recycling and reuse; sea
water desalination; clean technology and
development of environment friendly materials, etc.
Education and Training, which will involve
organising and conducting seminars, workshops and
specialised training courses for the continuing
education of local and regional professionals and
government officials.
Professor Chen Charng Ning, Deputy President, NTU
delivering the welcome address at the MOU signing
ceremony between NTu and six industry partners
Information and Resource Centre, to monitor

regional developments in the areas of government
policies, legislation and regulations for
environmental management.
Technology Transfer and Industrial Service, to facilitate information exchange through seminars,
workshops and short courses, to be conducted by invited prominent professionals or researchers on stateof-the-art developments relevant to the region. Staff from the centre will also offer specialised consultancy
services to regional and international organisations.
One key role of the EERC is to serve as an R&D support infrastructure for the local Environmental
Technology (ET) companies. By tapping the technical capabilities and state-of-the-art facilities of the
centre, it is hoped that the local ET companies will be able to carry out their R & D activities more cost
effectively, and hence be better able to sustain their competitive edge to meet the regional challenges.
The EERC values opportunities to work with other organisations in areas of mutual interest. If you have
any proposals for possible research collaboration, do email the Centre Director at D-EERC@ntu.edu.sg.
More information about the Centre can be found at the following web site : http://www.ntu.edu.sg/centre/
wwweerc/eerc.htm
Please read the DISCLAIMER before you begin exploring the CSE Research Bulletin.
Copyright 2000 School of Civil & Structural Engineering, NTU. All rights reserved.
CSE Research Bulletin No. 13. January 2000: Research Projects
ISSN 0219-0370
January 2000
NO. 13
Recycling Marine Clay

and Industrial Solid
Wastes into Valueadded Products
Large amounts of marine
clay are often generated
Quality Improvement of Recycled Rainwater and Innovative Use of the in major construction
Waste Generated during its Treatment
projects that involve deep
excavations, as in some
Under this Innovation Development Scheme (IDS) project, NTU will conduct of the MRT projects. This
project will study the
joint research with JPL Industries Pte Ltd and Productivity and Standards
feasibility of recycling the
Board on converting sludge generated during wastewater treatment into
marine clay and other
useful products for the construction industry, such as high strength
construction aggregates, bricks and pavement. The studies will determine the industrial solid wastes into
characteristics of the sludge and other potential wastes, and investigate the value-added products,
and the minimisation and
feasibility of converting them into useful construction products, and
treatment of the marine
commercialising those products. Specifications for the products, and for
setting up the testing laboratory and manufacturing plant, will also be tested clay and other industrial
solid wastes. The total
and established.
project research funding
is $7.9 million with
Project co-ordinator: Show K Y (ckyshow@ntu.edu.sg).
support from NSTB at
$1.7 million over three
years.
Project co-ordinator :
Darren Sun
(ddsun@ntu.edu.sg)
file:///D|/CEE_old/RESEARCH/Bulletin/1999_2000/HTM/Research_projects.htm (1 of 6)9/27/2003 10:47:30 AM
Re-Utilisation of By-products From Steel-Making Into value-added

products
Steel manufacturing generates a large amount of a waste by-product, ladle
slag, which has been classified as industrial solid waste by ENV, and is thus
not suitable for direct land disposal. This joint project between NatSteel and
EERC aims to develop commercially useful products from the wastes, which
if viable, could potentially form a new business for NatSteel which is in line
with the Groups policy of being environmentally friendly. The total project
funding is $6 million with $1.1 million support from NSTB over three years.
Project co-ordinator : Darren Sun (ddsun@ntu.edu.sg)
Development of
Enhanced Photo
Catalytic Oxidation
Technology
The project will focus on
developing the EPCO
(Enhanced Photo
Catalytic Oxidation)
technology, and the
commercial application of
EPCO membrane
reactors, for purification of
treated wastewater. The
study will characterise
and derive the reaction
mechanism for the
destruction of biological
and organic species;
investigate the mass
transfer between solid
and liquid phase in EPCO
membrane reactors;
investigate the membrane
efficiency for separation
catalyst in EPCO
membrane reactors; and
evaluate the feasibility of
commercial application for
turning treated
wastewater into high
quality industrial/potable
water. The total research
funding is $0.5 million for
three years.
Project co-ordinator :
Darren Sun (ddsun@ntu.
edu.sg)
Steel Fibre Reinforced (SFR) Concrete Material And Fibremat Hardening Research on Flat-Plate
System For Structures To Resist Blast Effects
Structures
The PTRC has carried out extensive work on the development of static
constitutive models to define the tensile characteristics of steel fibre
reinforced concrete (SFRC). However, analytical and small-scale statical
studies cannot provide the solution to problems in a dynamic environment.
For this reason, the PTRC has been involved with Land and Estates
Organisation (MINDEF) on explosive tests of SFRC panels. The experience
has provided a better understanding of the dynamic behaviour of the
material. The effects of high strain rate on material behaviour in a dynamic
environment will be quantified as part of this investigation.
Project co-ordinator : Lok T S (ctslok@ntu.edu.sg)
The flat-plate structural

system is increasingly
being used in modern
high-rise residential
buildings, due to its
buildability and overall
cost effectiveness. In
many such buildings, the
columns tend to be
elongated in cross section
and their layout irregular.
As a result, the design
methods recommended
for typical flat-plate
buildings in the
International Building
Codes are not applicable.
This joint Building and
Construction AuthorityNTU research project
aims to produce a reliable
design procedure for
irregular flat-plate
structures, within the
shortest possible time.
The research programme
includes testing of
individual as well as large
multiple-panel flat-plate
floor specimens. The
experimental and
theoretical studies will
cover the important
factors that determine the
behaviour of flat-plate
structures, from the lower
level of the serviceability
limit state up to the
ultimate limit states and
beyond.
Project co-ordinator : S
Teng (csteng@ntu.edu.sg)
Other recently approved research projects are summarised below. You are welcome to email the
investigators concerned for more information on their projects.
PROJECT TITLES
PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR
Three Dimensional Finite Element Modelling of Reinforced Concrete

Structures.
(Collaboration with Imperial College, UK)
A/P Fan S C (cfansc@ntu.edu.

sg)
Prof M Pavlovic (Imp Col)
Dr Lee C K
A/P Leong E C (cecleong@ntu.
edu.sg)
Prof M Kamon
A/P H Rahardjo
A/P Teh C I
Prof K Kogure
Dr S Noto
A/P Luk Y K (cykluk@ntu.edu.
sg)
Strength Improvement of Peaty Soils.

(Collaboration with University of Kyoto, Japan)
Development of a Freight Research Strategy.

Shear Strength of RC Columns Under Multi-Directional Loading.
(Collaboration with Univ. of Tokyo, Japan)
Photo-degradation of Organic Pollutants by UV/Oxidation Process.
Utilisation of Marine Clay for Innovative Building and Construction

Materials.
(Collaboration with ENV)
Behaviour of Concrete Flat-Plate Slabs Under General Loading.
(Collaboration with Cambridge University, UK)
Instability and Liquefaction of Reclaimed Land under General Stress

Conditions.
Ast/P P Irawan (cirawan@ntu.

edu.sg)
Prof K Maekawa (Univ of
Tokyo)
A/P S Teng
Prof Tay J H (cjhtay@ntu.edu.
sg)
A/P Goh Ngoh Khang
Dr Chia L S (NIE)
Prof Tay J H (cjhtay@ntu.edu.
sg)
Dr Chu J
Dr Show K Y
A/P S Teng (csteng@ntu.edu.
sg)
Prof Cheong H K
A/P Lee S C
Dr P Irawan
Dr C T Morley (Cambridge Univ)
Asst Prof Chu J (cjchu@ntu.
edu.sg)
Prof David Hight (Imperial
Coll)
Asst Prof
K Adalier
Asst Prof J H Cahyadi

(chcjong@ntu.edu.sg)
Permeability and Pore Structure of Blended Cement Concrete.
A/P Chan K S
Use of Biotechnology in Treating Oil-Polluted Seawater.
Asst Prof Stephen Tay
(ctltay@ntu.edu.sg)
Prof Tay J H
A/P F Wilson
Dr Lee Krumholz (Univ of
Oklahoma)
Wind Characteristics of Thunderstorms and Their Effects on Wind
A/P Edmund Choi (cechoi@ntu.
Loading Design in Singapore.
edu.sg)
A/P J W Brownjohn
A/P Chan Weng Kong (MPE)
A/P Adrian Law (cwklaw@ntu.
The Effect of External Flow on Interior Air Quality.
(NTU-CUED collaboration)
edu.sg)
A/P Edmund Choi
Dr Rex Britter (Univ of
Cambridge)
Dr Chu Jian (cjchu@ntu.edu.
The Effect of Principal Stress Rotation on the Strength and Deformation sg)
Behaviour of Singapore Soils.
A/P Leong E C
(Collaboration with Imperial College)
Dr R Jardine (Imp Col)
Prof V Choa
Ast/P Darren Sun (ddsun@ntu.
Development of Enhanced Photo Catalytic Oxidation.
(Inter-school research centre project)
edu.sg)
Prof Tay J H
A/P Lok T S (ctslok@ntu.edu.
sg)
Effects of Impact and Penetration on Conventional Construction.
(Inter-school research centre project)
A/P Fan SC
Ast/P Kevin Tsung
A/P S Teng (csteng@ntu.edu.
Punching Shear Strength of Flat-Plate Structures.
(NTU/CIDB)
sg)
Prof Cheong H K
A/P Lee S C
Dr P Irawan
Mr Steven Cheong G T (CIDB)
A/P Goh Pong Chai
Development of an Integrated Multiple Base Station Infrastructure to
(cpcgoh@ntu.edu.sg)
Support Concurrent High Precision Differential GPS Applications.
(NTU/NSTB)
A/P Tommy Wong
Impact of Rainwater from Buildings without Roof Gutters. (NTU/ENV
(cswwong@ntu.edu.sg)
Collaboration)
A/P Shuy E B
Steel Fibre Reinforced (SFR) Concrete Material and Fibremat

Hardening System for Structures to Resist Blast Effects.
Damage Assessment of Lightly Reinforced Concrete Beam-Column
Joints under Reverse Cyclic Loading.
Dynamic Response of Rock Tunnels Subjected to Blast Load.
Instrumentation and Monitoring of Rock Caverns During Construction
and Operation.
Elastic Constants of Aluminium Truss-Core Sandwich Panel.

CIDB-NTU Collaborative Research Initiatives on Water tightness and
Evaluation of Building Envelope.
Management of Quantity and Quality of Storm Runoff Using on-Site
Infiltration Pits
(NTU-ENV Collaboration )
Analysis of frame structures in fire

sg)
A/P Zhao J
A/P Pan T C (cpan@ntu.edu.sg)
A/P Hao Hong (chhao@ntu.edu.
sg)
A/P Zhao Jian (cjzhao@ntu.
edu.sg)
A/P Tor Y K
Dr J Sharma
sg)
A/P Edmund Choi (cechoi@ntu.
edu.sg)
Mr Allen AL Ng (CIDB)
A/P Shuy E B (cshuyeb@ntu.
edu.sg)
A/P Tommy Wong
A/P Chui P C
AP Tan K H (ckhtan@ntu.edu.
sg)
A/P Fung T C
Prof G. England (Imp Col)
CSE Research Bulletin No. 13. January 2000: Research Activities
ISSN 0219-0370
January 2000
NO. 13
Inside this issue, there are thirty-four technical articles highlighting the Schools research
activities in the areas of Construction, Environment, Geotechnics, Structures, Surveying,
Transportation and Water. You are welcome to email the respective authors to find out more
about their work.
All the research articles are available in the form of PDF (portable document file) format. If you do not
to download and install the Acrobat Reader for Windows 95,
have PDF, please click
Windows 3.1, Window-NT, DOS, Macintosh, OS2, LINUX, etc. To view and print the articles, run Acrobat
Reader and click the links below.
Construction
Analysis of Premature Failures in CFRPStrengthened RC Beams

Design & Build Practice in the Singapore
Public Sector
Construction Automation in Improving
Construction Productivity in Singapore
A Simple Approach to Strength and
Stability of Steel Columns in Fire
A Rankine Approach for Fire Resistance
of Steel Frames
Effect of Stress-Path on the Failure of
Concrete Under Tri-Axial Stress State
Constitutive Model of Concrete Under
Multi-Axial Stresses
Hybrid Precast Concrete Beam
Environment
Removal of Color and TOC Using a TiO /

2
Fe O Suspended Bubble Photo Catalytic

2 3
Oxidation Reactor
Optimizing the Preparation of Activated
Carbon from Digested Sewage Sludge and
Coconut Husk
Reuse of Treated Municipal Wastewater in
Urban Agriculture: A Hydroponic Study
Biomass Growth and Retention in Anaerobic
Filters
Long Term Predictions of Phosphorus
Dynamics in Kranji Reservoir
Use of Industrial Sludge for Concrete
Aggregates
file:///D|/CEE_old/RESEARCH/Bulletin/1999_2000/HTM/Research_activities.htm (1 of 5)9/27/2003 10:48:02 AM
Geotechnics
Behaviour of Cracked Diaphragm Walls

Dynamic Testing of The Bukit Timah
Granite Material Using the Split
Hopkinson Bar
Effect of Soil Movements on Piles
Interpretation of Initial Horizontal Stresses
in Rock Using the Hydraulic Fracturing
Test Measurements
A Brief Geotechnical Analysis of an
Earthquake: Cukurova-1998
Structures
Surveying
Near-Real-Time Measuring of Sea Level

Using GPS
Transportation
Comparison of the HCM and Singapore

Models of Arterial Capacity
Driver Stopping Response Latency at
Signalised Junctions
Mobility Model for Urban Public
Transportation
3D Crack Simulation Using Boundary Element

Method
Shear Strength and Behaviour of BeamColumn Joints Under Cyclic Loading
Elastic Moduli of Concrete - A Micromechanics
Approach
Shaking Table Tests of RC Model Structures
Under Simulated Ground Shocks
Dynamic Properties and Serviceability of
Floor Slabs with Human-Structure Interaction
Fuzzy Probabilistic Damage Analysis of Rock
Mass to Explosive Loads
Steel Fibre Reinforced Concrete Panels
Exposed to Air-Blast Loading
Water
Taylor Dispersion by Surface Waves

GIS as a Tool for Management of Oil-spill
incidents in the Coastal Environment
Performance of a Membrane Wave Barrier of
Finite Draft
Riprap Failure Around Bridge Piers Under LiveBed Condition
The Second GRC (Geotechnical Research Centre) Lecture on

Anisotropy In Soils - Its Measurement And Practical Implications was
delivered by Professor David Hight on 27 November 1998.
The GRC organised a 3-day Seminar on Characterisation Of Soil For

Design And Analysis by David Hight, Nick Shirlaw, and Chu Jian from 1-3
December 1998.
In April 1999, CTS staff

organised a customised
workshop on the use of the
Sea-Space Capacity Model
developed by CTS for
officers of MPA.
CTS conducted a short

course on Traffic Planning
for Industrial Land Uses for
officers of JTC during the
months of March and April
1999.
The Centre For Transportation Studies (CTS) organised the

Conference On Transportation Into The Next Millennium in September
1998 at the Mandarin Hotel Singapore, which coincided with the
implementation of the Electronic Road Pricing (ERP) system. The
conference was supported by the Land Transport Authority as well as
transport research centres at the University of California, Berkeley; Leeds
University; Monash University; and University of Sydney. About 150
delegates from 20 countries participated in the Conference, which was
opened by the Minister for Communications, Mr Mah Bow Tan. The
ASEAN Transport Ministers who were in Singapore for an ASEAN meeting
also attended the Opening as guests of the Minister. In addition to the
technical sessions, the delegates also had the opportunity to visit both the
ERP system and the CityCab GPS Dispatch Centre.
At the request of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA), CTS conducted

two courses for officials from developing countries under the Singapore
Technical Assistance Programme for Sustainable Development. One was
on Urban Traffic Management and Control which was held from 1 to 11
December 1998 and attended by 12 government officials from Bhutan,
China, Fiji, Maldives, Mauritius, Mongolia, Seychelles, Thailand, Tonga
and Vietnam. The other was on Transport Planning and Design conducted
from 11 to 21 January 1999, which was attended by 11 participants.
The Centre for

Advanced Construction
Studies (CACS) conducted
a short course attended by
65 participants on
Construction Claims & How
to Resolve Them by Assoc
Prof Goh Phai Cheng & Prof
Dennis Ballou from 3-24
August 1998
The CACS conducted a

seminar on Management of
Large Scale Construction by
Prof Dennis Ballou & A/P
Lim Ewe Chye on 20 August
1998, attended by 102
participants
CACS conducted a short

course on Construction
Management Training
Programme for Bhutan
Engineers & Managers from
24 August to 4 September
1998, which was attended
by 5 participants
CACS conducted a
seminar on Concrete
Floating Bridges in the U.S.
A by Myint Lwin, Department
of Washington, USA on 15
March 1999, which was
attended by 90 participants
CACS organised the Dr

Tan Swan Beng Memorial
Symposium at the Mandarin
Singapore from 18 to 19
March 1999. It was attended
by 185 participants
CACS conducted a
seminar on Risk
Management by Dr Takayuki
Minato, Asian Institute of
Technology, Thailand, on 4
April 1999.It was attended
by 50 participants
A/P Edmund Choi has successfully developed a Testing Device for the
Field Testing of Water Tightness of Building Envelope for the Building and
Construction Authority (BCA), under their Innovation Development
Scheme. A patent has been applied, and is now under the patent pending
status. The patent will be jointly owned by A/P Choi and his industrial
partner.
Prof A Appan was invited

to deliver a paper titled
Water Pollution and health in
some megacities in South
East Asia at the Conference
on Water and Security in
South East Asia & Oceania.
The conference was
A/P Edmund Choi has developed a Testing Method with Defined
sponsored by the Global
Testing Parameters for on-site water tightness testing of curtain walls and Environmental Change and
windows for BCA. The method and the parameters have been adopted by Human Security Project of
the IHDP and HDP,
BCA for their CONQUAS Scheme for building quality assessment.
Canberra, Australia, from 16
to 19 November 1998
As the chairman drafting the Wind Loading Code for Singapore, A/P
Edmund Choi represented Singapore at the APEC network group
Prof A Appan was invited
meeting on Code alignment in the APEC region. He is also a member of
to deliver a paper titled
the International Codification Forum sponsored by the International
Economic and Water Quality
Association for Wind Engineering.
aspects of Rainwater
Catchment Systems, at the

International Symposium on
Efficient Water use in Urban
Areas, Innovative ways of
finding water for Cities, in
Kobe, Japan, from 8-10 June
1999
CSE Research Bulletin No. 13. January 2000: Research Reports
ISSN 0219-0370
January 2000
NO. 13
Abstracts of all the research reports are available in the form of PDF (portable document file) format. If
to download and install the Acrobat Reader for
you do not have PDF, please click
Windows 95, Windows 3.1, Window-NT, DOS, Macintosh, OS2, LINUX, etc. To view and print the article,
run Acrobat Reader and click the link below.
Abstracts of research reports
file:///D|/CEE_old/RESEARCH/Bulletin/1999_2000/HTM/Research_reports.htm9/27/2003 10:48:26 AM
CSE research Bulletin No. 13
January 2000
RESEARCH REPORTS
Interpretation of In-Situ Tests in Clay with Particular Reference to Reclaimed Sites
Candidate: Cao Laifa

Report No: CSE/PhD/1998/15
A solution to the undrained expansion and subsequent contraction of both spherical and
cylindrical cavities in modified Cam clay material has been developed. The solution was
applied to the interpretation of in-situ tests including the piezocone test, the self-boring
pressuremeter
test
and
the
dilatometer
test.
Soil
parameters,
especially
the
overconsolidation ratio estimated from these in-situ tests, are in good agreement with
results obtained by other investigation methods. An intensive test program comprising insitu and laboratory tests was conducted at four recently reclaimed sites in Singapore. The
proposed methods of interpretation have been modified for application in clays which are
still undergoing consolidation. The degree of consolidation predicted from in-situ tests has
been found to agree well with that obtained from laboratory tests and field observation.
Soil parameters derived from in-situ tests have also been found to be reasonable.
January 2000
Nonlinear Finite Element Analysis of RC Plates and Shells Using the Unified
Strength Theory
Candidate: Wang Fang

Report No: CSE/PhD/16
A new finite element model of RC plates and shells has been successfully developed by
using the present plastic-damage material model in combination with the proposed
strength criterion for concrete. The new plastic-damage model requires only one
parameter in derivation. It is capable of predicting with reasonable accuracy the overall
responses of not only the ultimate load-carrying capacity, but also the progressive failure
modes and failure crack pattern for all the numerical examples given in the thesis. In
addition, it is able to reveal the weak spots so as to make optimised structural design
possible.
January 2000
Riprap Protection and Failure Mechanisms at Bridge Pier
Candidate: Lim Foo Hoat

Report No: CSE/1999/PhD/ 17
Experiments conducted under live-bed conditions show that a riprap layer at a cylindrical
bridge pier will fail in either one of the following two modes: total disintegration or
embedment. The study proposes a criterion to demarcate the limiting condition between
the two types of failure. It also confirms that embedment failure is a more common failure
mode of riprap layer under live-bed conditions. The causes of embedment failure are twofold: (1) bed feature destabilization; and (2) differential mobility. Bed level fluctuations
caused by the propagating bed features result in bed feature destabilization whereas
differential mobility is due to the different response of the riprap stones and bed sediments
to the flow field. Experimental results also show that the riprap layer can degrade to an
equilibrium level for a given flow condition. Finally, the study proposes a semi-empirical
equation to compute the maximum depth of riprap degradation, which occurs at the upper
end of dune regime.
January 2000
Fluid Transients Induced Vibration in a Pipeline System
Candidate: Wang Zhongmin

The main objectives of the study were to establish a computational model and numerical
methods for the coupled phenomena, and hence to evaluate the performance of a long
water supply pipeline subjected to a strong earthquake load.
The governing equations for the fluid transients and the induced structural responses of a
fluid-filled pipe system were derived. The effects of fluid transient pressure on pipe
vibration in the longitudinal and lateral directions, and the torsion about the longitudinal
axis are reflected in the structural vibration equations. The effect of pipe movement on the
fluid, through Poissons coefficient and other coupling terms, is in turn included in the
extended fluid transient equations. A solution procedure combining the method of
characteristics (MOC) and the finite element method (FEM) was used to solve the coupled
equations. A feedback-loop-iteration approach was adopted in the procedure.
Application of the FSI model to a typical water-supply main and an artificial seismic loading
on the pipe main indicates that the magnitude of the induced pressure is discernible and
could be considerable in some cases, such as during concurrent dynamic structural
loading (earthquake) and fluid flow interruption (pump failure).
January 2000
Experimental and Numerical Study of the Behaviour of Piles Subjected to Lateral

Soil Movement
Candidate: Pan Jieliang

Report N0: CSE/PhD/1999/19
Experimental and numerical studies were carried out to study the behaviour of piles in soft
clay when subjected to lateral forces induced by horizontal soil movements from nearby
construction activities such as deep excavations, tunnelling and approach embankments.
In the experimental study, a uniform soil movement profile was applied on model piles
embedded in soft clay. Both single piles and coupled pile tests with different pile flexibility
and pile fixity conditions were carried out. Three-dimensional finite element analyses were
also carried out to back analyse the model pile tests. The results showed fairly reasonable
agreement with the model test results. The computed distributions of the maximum soil
pressures acting along the pile shaft were similar to the corresponding model pile test
results. Based on the experimental data and numerical analyses, some simplified limiting
soil pressure distributions have been proposed for preliminary design of these piles.
January 2000
Effects of construction methods and concrete cracking on the performance of

propped diaphragm walls
Candidate: Poh Teoh Yaw

Diaphragm walls are increasingly being used in Singapore for supporting propped
excavations. In this research, three case histories of propped excavations were back
analysed and extensive parametric studies were conducted to study the effects of concrete
cracking on their performance. Also, case histories of wall panel construction were
evaluated to provide a better understanding of the effects of the wall construction on
adjacent ground deformations and changes in lateral earth pressures. In addition, the
performance of a well-instrumented jet grout trial and the production grouting at a site in
Singapore were evaluated to investigate the effects of jet grouting on the diaphragm walls,
adjacent ground, and nearby structures.
January 2000
Discrete Element Modelling of Jointed Rock Masses under Dynamic Loading
Candidate: Chen Shou Gen

This study investigated the discrete element code, UDEC, in modelling the behaviour of
jointed rock masses under dynamic loading. The project was done in three phases.
Firstly, the UDEC was verified on wave attenuation in rock material and at joints. It was
found that the UDEC is able to model wave propagation in jointed rock masses. However,
some improvements had to be made for modelling explosion problems. The UDEC was
then improved and a coupled method of UDEC and AUTODYN was proposed to model the
detonation process and the wave propagation in jointed rock masses.
The dynamic
equation of state of rock material was incorporated into the UDEC to model the behaviour
of the rock material under high strain rate. Finally, the improved UDEC was utilised to
model a field explosion test. The modelling results are significantly better than the
predictions of empirical formulae.
January 2000
Dynamic Buckling of Columns and Plates under Intermediate Velocity Impact
Candidate: Cui Shijie

It was realized a few decades ago that dynamic buckling of structures depends on both the
amplitude and duration of impact load. Most previous studies of dynamic buckling of
structures were, however, focused on either high velocity or low velocity impact, neglecting
the loading duration effect. The present project investigated the dynamic buckling
characteristics of columns and plates under intermediate velocity impact with consideration
of both the amplitude and duration effect. The project involved analyzing the previously
obtained test data, deriving close form solutions for columns by using the nonlinear
dynamics theory, and numerically calculating the dynamic response and buckling of plates.
The dynamic buckling, yielding and collapsing criteria of columns and plates were defined.
Their relationships with the structural properties such as slenderness ratio, aspect ratio,
boundary conditions and material parameters, as well as the amplitude and duration of
impact load were derived and explicitly presented. Buckling and post-buckling
characteristics are also discussed with respect to structural and loading properties.
January 2000
Coastal Zone Environmental and Resource Management
Principal Investigator: Tan Soon Keat

Report No: CSE/1998/59
This report presents the findings of an attempt, firstly, to illustrate that sandy sediment
accumulates in some natural sediment sinks in Singapore waters, secondly, to locate
them, and, finally, to estimate the probable quantity and rate of sediment accumulation
there.
The evidence gathered so far shows that natural sinks for sediment deposit are located at
the confluence of tidal streams. Examples of locations are the Raffles Shoal, Sultan Shoal
and Sister Shoal. Sediment at these areas has been dredged and used as landfill
materials. The investigation at Sister showed that a sandpit of 120 m by 70 m trapped a
total of 4684 m3 of sediment over a period of 6 months, making an average sediment
deposit of 1.1 m over a period of 1 year.
January 2000
Flow and Entrainment Characteristics of Density Stratified Liquids In A Slotted

Compartment Induced by A Submerged Flow Stream
Principal Investigator: Chen Charng Ning

Report No : CSE/98/60
This project investigates the entrainment characteristics and feedback mechanisms in

mixing layer oscillations induced by a flow beneath a rectangular compartment. An
approximate unified equation was derived for estimating the mixing rates across a density
interface in rectangular and circular tanks with partially open bottoms, induced by a
submerged flow stream beneath the tanks. The dynamics of a free shear layer, formed as
the flow passed underneath a submerged rectangular compartment, were studied under
both non-impinging and impinging conditions. Under non-impinging conditions, the flow
resembled a wall jet. The presence of large vortical structures in the mixing layer above
the potential core was observed and quantified. The passage frequency of these
structures was well predicted by the linear stability theory. Fluid-dynamic and fluidresonance feedback mechanisms were studied for the flow under impinging conditions.
Two resonating conditions in fluid-resonance feedback were studied: liquid column mass
oscillations and internal wave oscillations. The results show that, when fluid-dynamic and
fluid-resonance conditions co-exist, the two feedback mechanisms may compete for
control of the mixing layer oscillation frequency.
10
January 2000
Evaluation of Risks in BOT Projects
Principal Investigator: Robert Tiong

The project involved an international survey on risk management of BOT projects in

developing countries with emphasis on power projects in China. The objectives of the
survey were:
To identify the unique or critical risks associated with China's BOT projects;
To evaluate the effectiveness of measures to mitigate these risks;
To examine the adequacy of key contract clauses used in the first state approved BOT
project in China (Laibin B) that are related to these risks and to propose possible
improvements to these contract clauses;
To provide a risk management framework for investing in future BOT projects in China.
Ten unique or critical risks associated with China's BOT power projects, in descending
order of criticality, were identified: Tariff Adjustment, the Chinese Parties' Reliability and
Creditworthiness, Dispatch Constraint, Change in Law, Exchange Rate and Convertibility,
Force Majeure, Financial Closing, Delay in Approval, Expropriation and Corruption. Most
measures for mitigating each of these risks were regarded as effective or very effective
while a few were only fairly effective. The key contract clauses related to these risks in
Laibin B contracts were regarded as generally adequate. However, improvements are
needed in the area of foreign exchange approvals and tariff adjustments. A risk
management framework for investing in China's BOT projects was also recommended.
11
January 2000
Development of the Asymptotic State Concept For Soils and Its Application to Slope
Stability Analysis
Principal Investigator: Chu Jian

A new state concept, the so-called asymptotic state, has been proposed based on
experimental studies on sand and clay. Further experimental study was carried out on a
laboratory compacted residual soil to verify whether the asymptotic state could also be
established for residual soils. Compaction, consolidation, triaxial drained, triaxial
undrained, stress/strain path, and ring shear tests were conducted to establish the stressstrain behaviour of the tested soil. The stress-dilatancy relation at the asymptotic state
was established. The effect of water infiltration on the strain hardening and softening
behaviour of the soil was also studied through stain path tests.
The anisotropic strength behaviour of an undisturbed residual soil was studied. The failure
envelopes determined for both horizontal and vertical cut specimens were curved and
went through the origin. Both drained and undrained strengths in the horizontal direction
were stronger than that in the vertical direction. The instability behaviour of an undisturbed,
unsaturated residual soil was also investigated.
The residual strength of two different residual soils was studied. The residual friction angle
for both residual soils at unsaturated state was in the order of 20 to 300. The residual
strength measured was relatively high. However, this was expected for soil with a clay
fraction of 20%. There was no residual strength when the soil was soaked in water.
12
January 2000
Strength and Deformation Characteristics of Granitic Rocks In Singapore
Principal Investigator: Zhao Jian

Project No: CSE/1999/63
The project studied the strength and deformation characteristics of the Bukit Timah granite
of Singapore under static and dynamic compression.
Tests, including static uniaxial
compression and triaxial compression at different confining stresses, dynamic uniaxial

compression and triaxial compression at different loading rates and confining stresses,
were conducted.
The studies show that the Bukit Timah granite exhibits typical class II post-peak behaviour
under uniaxial compression and at high confining stresses, it exhibits class I post-peak
behaviour, under static compression loads. The strength characteristics can be described
by the Hoek-Brown criterion.
The compressive strengths (both uniaxial and triaxial) of the granite increase with
increasing loading rate. The failure mode becomes more brittle with increasing loading
rate.
Modulus of elasticity and the Poisson's ratio, however, are not significantly effected by the
confining stress and loading rate.
The study confirmed and quantified the change of strength of the granite with change of
loading rate, and also examined the mechanism of the change in strength. It provides a
better understanding on the behaviour of the rock under dynamic loading.
13
January 2000
Large Prestressed High Strength Concrete Deep Beams
Principal Investigator: Tan Kang Hai

Project No: Cse/1999/64
This research comprises two sections. Part A focuses on the general behaviour, analysis
and design in the shear strength of large reinforced and post-tensioned concrete deep
beams. The influence of main steel ratio, concrete strength, shear span-to-overall-height
ratio, overall height and prestress force on deep beams were investigated.
A total of 46 beams were tested in Part A. A simple strut-and-tie model based on the
Canadian Code was used for the predictions of 46 reinforced and post-tensioned deep
beams, together with 233 specimens collected from literature.
Studies in Part B focus on the strut-and-tie approach to shear strength predictions of deep
beams. Both non-prestressed and prestressed deep beams as well as deep beams with
web openings were considered.
A different strut-and-tie model was used that
encompasses non-prestressed deep beams, deep beams with web openings and
prestressed deep beams. All the predictions were verified by experimental results and
code predictions. It was shown that the proposed strut-and-tie model in Part B agrees well
with all the different case studies.
14
January 2000
The Effect Of Rainfall On The Slope Stability Of Residual Soil In Singapore
Principal Investigator: Rahardjo Harianto

This research project was undertaken to characterise the soil properties of the residual
soils of Singapore and to study the mechanism of rainfall-induced slope failures.
The residual soils of the sedimentary Jurong Formation were found to have an effective
cohesion, c of approximately 30 kPa, an effective angle of internal friction, of 26
degrees and a b angle of 26 degrees. Field instrumentation revealed that maximum
changes in matric suction occur near the ground and the decrease in matric suction during
rainfall events is highly dependent on the surface conditions of the slope.
Field
reconnaissance showed that rainfall-induced slips are relatively shallow (one to two
metres). The daily and antecedent rainfalls are important triggering factors for landslides in
the residual soils of the sedimentary Jurong Formation.
Hysteresis was found to have a profound effect on the shear strength behaviour of
unsaturated soils. Soils following a wetting curve were found to have lower strengths than
soils following a drying curve. The stress path followed during shearing was found to affect
the strength of the soil. The shear strength obtained from constant suction shearing tests
was lower than that measured in the infiltration shearing tests.
15
January 2000
Flux Boundary Conditions For Geotechnical Problems
Principal Investigator: Rahardjo Harianto

The effect of typical flux boundary conditions, such as infiltration and evaporation, on porewater pressures in a residual soil slope was investigated through the use of field
instrumentation. The depth of infiltration was found to be approximately 3.0 metres and the
infiltration rates varied from 20% to 30% of the rainfall rate. The evaporation rate was
determined to be approximately 5 mm/day. Through field instrumentation, laboratory tests
and numerical analyses, the majority of infiltration was found to occur at the crest of a
slope. The factor of safety of a slope was found to increase by 34% during evaporation
and to decrease by 27% during infiltration under a typical rainfall event.
Horizontal drains that were installed in the face of a slope were found to be ineffective for
intercepting infiltration and were unable to maintain matric suctions in the slope.
Horizontal drains located at the toe of the slope were found to be beneficial for slope
stability since they prevent rises in the groundwater level.
Soils at wetting were found to be more brittle and had a lower Youngs Modulus than soils
at drying. It was also found that rapid deformation occurs at failure during infiltration. This
may explain the possible catastrophic nature of rainfall-induced landslides.
16
January 2000
Floating Tied System for Offshore Airport
Principal Investigator: Wibisono Hartono

This research investigated the possible implementation of a new system of floating airport.
Unlike the other systems that are also currently under research, it does not move and
oscillate under the action of waves and wind, however it still makes use of the buoyancy of
seawater to resist the gravity forces.
The floating tied system is a box like concrete
structure fixed to the seabed by a fibre composite cable system. The cable system forms a
diagonal bracing at each side of the box so that the structure will be fixed in both vertical
and horizontal direction. The research studied the structural behaviour of the floating tied
system under static and dynamic loads (seismic excitation) using the Finite Element
method. A comparison of the structural dynamic responses with and without incorporating
the mass of surrounding water was made.
17
January 2000
Biological Treatment Of High Strength Wastewaters Using Attached Biomass Films
Principal Investigator: Francis Wilson

The purpose of the study was to investigate aspects of the use of the Rotating Biological
Contactor (RBC) to treat high strength wastewater in a tropical climate. Total organic
carbon (TOC), BOD and COD were used as analytical parameters to determine the
efficiency of treatment of the wastewater. The experiment used high influent
concentrations (400 - 6500 mg COD/L) and high loading rates, applied to a laboratory
scale rotating disc system operating under ambient temperatures in Singapore. The results
indicated that the RBC system, under these temperature conditions, could produce high
treatment efficiencies, with effluent qualities meeting the local sewer discharge standard of
215 mg/L for loads up to 21 g TOC/m2 .d.
Correlation studies of the three analytical
parameters of TOC, BOD and COD produced high correlation coefficients, and it was
therefore concluded that the quicker TOC test would be satisfactory for use as the main
analytical parameter.
18
January 2000
Investigation and Studies on the Design of Reinforced Concrete Composite

Structures
Principal Investigator: Chiew Sing Ping

The research work described in this report can be broadly divided into two parts. Part A of
the report touches on the general aspects of finite element modeling and analysis, and
experimental comparison and verification of important structural elements such as
concrete-filled composite columns. This includes numerical simulation, study of the
influence of boundary conditions on the simulation of failure mode of steel circular hollow
section (CHS) columns and simulations of concrete-filled steel CHS composite columns.
Part B of the report details the development of a damage model of 3-D interface element
which can be incorporated into an existing finite element code to model the interface bond
behavior between the concrete and steel surfaces which exists in all concrete-steel
composite elements.
19
January 2000
Wind and Wind-driven Rain Characteristics in Singapore
Principal Investigator: Edmund C.C. Choi.

This project is a study on the wind and wind-driven rain (WDR) characteristics in
Singapore. Buildings and their performance are affected by wind-driven rain in many
ways. Water leakage into the interior of a building can cause damage to building contents,
deterioration of interior finishing and disruption of daily life of the occupants.
Water
penetration and absorption also leads to the decay and deterioration of building material.
A good understanding of the wind-driven rain phenomenon will help to prevent and
minimize these problems.
This project investigates the unobstructed wind-driven rain over an open field. It looks into
three important areas of WDR, intensity-duration relationship, driving rain intensity
coefficient, Cdr(Ih), and raindrop size distribution (DSD). The intensity-duration relationship
studies the intensity of vertical rainfall and driving rain at short duration. The study of the
driving rain coefficient investigates the relationship of WDR with wind and rain.
Another factor which affects wind-driven rain is the wind itself.
Its characteristics,
especially the characteristics of wind during thunderstorms, are investigated.
Wind
properties such as gust factors, velocity profile and also the co-occurrence of wind and
rain are also being studied.
20
January 2000
Biotechnological Application on Wastewater Treatment
Principal Investigator: Tay Joo Hwa

The objective of the project is to investigate biogranulation in various biological processes

in wastewater treatment such as upflow anaerobic sludge blanket reactors, anaerobic
filters, hybrid reactors and others.
One major accomplishment of the project is the development of a biological selection

pressure, termed Microbial Load Index (MLI), to represent relative substrate sufficiency
to which the biomass is subjected during startup of reactors. The MLI provides a useful
tool to quantitatively measure and expedite startup and biogranulation processes. Another
important finding of the study is that media porosity plays a more important role than
media surface area in the performance of anaerobic filters. It has been established that
support media of larger porosity promote growth of suspended granules with less
likelihood of clogging. A neural fuzzy technique was developed to model the complex
systems instead of conventional kinetic methods. The model, combining the merits of both
neural networks and fuzzy systems, has successfully simulated the anaerobic systems
and presented a good prediction of system upset one hour in advance. A molecular
mechanism model of sludge granulation based on proton translocation-dehydration theory
was proposed in this project. The experimental results showed that proton translocating
activity on bacterial surfaces was a crucial factor in sludge granulation.
21
CSE Research Bulletin No. 13. January 2000: Publications
ISSN 0219-0370
January 2000
NO. 13
The CSE publications list is available in the form of PDF (portable document file) format. If you do not
to download and install the Acrobat Reader for Windows 95,
have PDF, please click
Windows 3.1, Window-NT, DOS, Macintosh, OS2, LINUX, etc. To view and print the article, run Acrobat
Reader and click the link below.
CSE publications list
file:///D|/CEE_old/RESEARCH/Bulletin/1999_2000/HTM/Publications.htm9/27/2003 10:49:58 AM
January 2000
PUBLICATIONS
Anandrajah, A.* and Chu, J., 1998. The strength behaviour of an undisturbed residual soil.
Proceedings of the 13th Southeast Asian Geotechnical Conference, 6-20 November,
Taipei, pp. 7-12.
Appan, A. and Rahman, A.*,1998. Recycling of wastewater an inevitable option for
cities: The case of Singapore. Proceedings of the 8th Water Symposium, Stockholm
International Water Institute, Stockholm, Sweden, 10-13 August.
Appan, A., 1998. Water pollution and health in some megacities in South East Asia.
(Invited Paper) Proceedings of the Workshop on Water and Security in South East Asia &
Oceania, sponsored by the Global Environmental Change and Human Security Project of
the IHDP and HDP, Canberra, Australia, 16-19 November.
Appan, A., 1999. Economic and water quality aspects of rainwater catchment systems.
(Invited paper) International Symposium on Efficient Water use in Urban Areas: Innovative
ways of finding water for cities, 8-10 June, Kobe, Japan.
Appan, A., 1999. Trends in water demands and the role of rainwater catchment systems
in the next millennium. (Keynote address) Proceedings of the 9th International Conference
on Rainwater Catchment Systems, Petrolina , Brazil, 6-9 July.
Appan, A., 1999. Water supply and sanitation: trends and developments. (Invited paper)
Proceedings of the 9th Water Symposium, Stockholm International Water Institute,
Stockholm, Sweden, 9-12 August.
Bo Myint Win*, Cao, L.F., Chu, J. and Choa, V.*, 1998. One dimensional consolidation
tests on Singapore marine clay at Changi. Proceedings of the 13th Southeast Asian
Geotechnical Conference, 6-20 November, Taipei, pp. 199-206.
Brownjohn, J.M.W. and Xia, P., 1999. Finite element updating of a damaged structure.
Proceedings of the IMAC 17, Florida, USA, pp. 457-462.
Brownjohn, J.M.W., 1998. Dynamics of an aerial cableway system.
Structures, UK, Vol. 20, No. 9, pp. 826-836.
Engineering
Brownjohn, J.M.W., Pan, T.C. and Choi, E.C., 1998. Dynamic loading and response for a
tall building. Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Tall Buildings, Hong
Kong, 9-11 December, pp. 730-735.
Cai, J., Zhao, J. and Hudson, J.A.*, 1998. Computerised rock engineering systems with
neural networks and expert system. Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering, Vol. 31, pp.
135-152.
Cao, L.F., Na, Y.M.*, Bo Myint Win*, Choa, V.* and Chang, M.F., 1998. Evaluation of
sand densification by in-situ tests. Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on
Ground Improvement Techniques, Singapore, October, pp. 93-100.
January 2000
Chan, T.K., Soh, C.K. and Fung, T.C., 1998. Experimental study of a full-scale multiplanar
tubular XT-joint. Proceedings of the 8 th International Symposium on Tubular Structures in
the area of Static and Fatigue Behaviour of Connections, pp. 131-138.
Chang, M.F. and Zhu, H., 1998. A t-z curve with consideration of modulus degradation for
pile analyses. Proceedings of the 13th Southeast Asian Geotechnical Conference, Taipei,
November, pp. 461-466.
Chang, M.F., Choa, V.* and Bo Myint Win*, 1998. Use of in-situ tests in land reclamation
projects in Singapore. Proceedings of the 13th Southeast Asian Geotechnical Conference,
Taipei, November, pp. 755-762.
Chang, M.F., Tsen, C.N.* and Kho C.M.*, 1998. Performance of cast-in-place piles
socketed into limestone for a bridge foundation in Singapore. Proceedings of the Regional
Symposium on Sedimentary Rock Engineering, Taipei, November, pp. 60-65.
Chen, C.N. and Shuy, E.B., 1998. Flow and entrainment characteristics of density
stratified liquids in a slotted compartment induced by a submerged flow stream. NTUCUED Collaboration Project Report CUED-01, School of Civil and Structural Engineering.
Chen, C.N., Adrian Law, W.K. and Sun, W.D.*, 1999. Measures to mitigate the formation
of sandbars at coastal drainage outlets. ENV-NTU-NUS Joint Research Seminar, 31 May.
Chen, S.G. and Zhao, J., 1998. A data processing and management method for cavern
deformation monitoring. Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering, Vol. 31, pp. 125-131.
Chen, S.G. and Zhao, J., 1998. A study of UDEC modelling for blast wave propagation in
jointed rock masses. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences, Vol.
35, pp. 93-99.
Cheng, N.S. and Chiew, Y.M., 1998. Modified logarithmic law for velocity distribution
subjected to bed seepage. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 124, No. 12, pp.
1235-1241.
Cheng, N.S. and Chiew, Y.M., 1998. Turbulent open-channel flow with upward seepage.
Journal of Hydraulic Research, IAHR, Vol. 36, No. 3, pp. 415-431.
Cheong H.K., 1998. Engineering education in Singapore - towards a new paradigm.
ASAIHL Seminar on New trends in higher education: market mechanisms in higher
education towards the 21st century, Jakarta, Indonesia, July.
Cheong, H.K., Hao, H. and Cui, S.J.*, 1998. Effect of damping on the intermediate impact
buckling properties of column.
International Symposium on Strength Theories:
Applications and Development, Xian, China, September.
Cheong, H.K., Hao, H. and Cui, S.J.*, 1999. Fluid-solid impacted buckling of imperfect
columns. Proceedings of the 13th ASCE Engineering Mechanics Conference, The Johns
Hopkins University, Baltimore MD, USA, 13-16 June, Session M3B, Paper no. 3.
January 2000
Chiew, S.P., Soh, C.K. and Wu, N.W., 1999. SCF equations for the fatigue design of
multiplanar tubular XT-joints. Proceedings of the 9th International Offshore and Polar
Engineering Conference, ISOPE-99, Brest, France, 30 May to 4 June, Vol. IV, pp. 82-89.
Chiew, S.P., Soh, C.K., Fung, T.C. and Soh, A.K.*, 1999. Numerical study of multiplanar
tubular DX-joints subject to axial loads. Journal of Computers and Structures, UK, July,
Vol. 72, No. 6, pp. 749-761.
Choi, E.C.C. and Wang, Z.H.*, 1998. Study of pressure-equalization of curtain wall.
Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, Netherland, Vol. 73, pp. 251266.
Choi, E.C.C., 1998. Water penetration testing criteria for high-rise buildings. Proceedings
of the 5 th International Conference on Tall Buildings, Hong Kong, pp. 656-661.
Choi, E.C.C., 1999. Characteristics of wind and wind-driven rain during tropical
thunderstorms. Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Wind Engineering,
Denmark, pp. 729-736.
Choi, E.C.C., 1999. Wind-driven rain on building faces and the driving rain index. Journal
of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, Netherlands, Vol. 79, pp. 105-122.
Chu, J. and Leong, W.K., 1999. Discussion on Static liquefaction of very loose sand.
Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 36, No. 3, pp. 578.
Chu, J., 1999. Discussion on Quasi-steady state: a real behaviour? Canadian
Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 36, No.1, pp. 190-191.
Chu, J., Bo Myint Win* and Choa, V.*, 1999. Determination of undrained shear strength of
clay by direct simple shear tests. Proceedings of the 11th Asian Regional Conference on
Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Seoul,
16-20 September, Vol. 1, pp. 4952.
Chu, J., Chong, K.L*. and Wee, S.E.*, 1998. Instability behaviour of a residual soil.
Proceedings of the 13th Southeast Asian Geotechnical Conference, 6-20 November,
Taipei, pp. 41-46.
Chu, J., Leong, W.K., Jai, X.L.* and Lee, C.W.*, 1999. Stability of submarine granular
slopes. Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Landslides and Stability and
Safety of Infrastructures, Singapore, 27-28 July, pp. 139-147.
Chuang, P.H. and Kong, S.K.*, 1998. Strength of slender reinforced concrete columns.
Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 124, No. 9, pp. 992-998.
Chuang, P.H. and Li, X., 1999. Nonlinear frame analysis using flexibility approach with
mathematical programming application.
USNCCM99 Book of Abstracts,
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USACM/USNCCM99 5 US National Congress on Computational Mechanics, University
of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado, 4-6 August, pp. 488-489.
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Chuang, P.H., Goh, A.T.C. and Wu, X.*, 1998. Modeling the capacity of pin-ended slender
reinforced concrete columns using neural network. Journal of Structural Engineering,
ASCE, Vol. 124, No. 7, pp. 830-838.
Cui, S.J.*, Cheong, H.K. and Hao, H., 1998. Theoretical analysis of dynamic buckling of a
column under intermediate velocity impact.
Proceedings of the 5th International
Conference for Young Experts on Structural Engineering, 18-21 August, Shenyang, China,
pp. 150-160.
Cui, S.J.*, Cheong, H.K. and Hao, H., 1999. Dynamic buckling of simply-supported
columns under axial slamming. Journal of Engineering Mechanics, ASCE, May, Vol. 125,
No. 5, pp. 513-520.
Cui, S.J.*, Cheong, H.K. and Hao, H., 1999. Experimental study of dynamic buckling of
plates under fluid-solid slamming. International Journal of Impact Engineering, UK, Vol.
22, pp. 675-691.
Cui, S.J.*, Hao, H., and Cheong, H.K., 1999. Dynamic buckling investigation of column
under impact load. Proceedings of 13th ASCE Engineering Mechanics Conference, The
Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore MD, USA, 13-16 June, Session M1C, Paper no. 6.
Dong, Y.X. and Chiew, S.P., 1998. Influence of boundary conditions on the modeling of
steel CHS tubular columns. Proceedings of the 8th International Symposium on Tubular
Structures, Singapore, 26-28 August, pp. 417-424.
Dong, Y.X., Zhang, C.H.*, Wang, G.L.* and Chiew, S.P., 1999. Non-overlapping
conditions for crack face displacement of anisotropic bodies. Journal of Theoretical and
Applied Fracture Mechanics, UK, May, Vol. 31, No. 2, pp. 99-104
Dong, Y.X., Zhang, C.H.*, Wang, G.L.* and Chiew, S.P., 1999. Strain factor ratio criterion
for crack extension in anisotropic plates. Journal of Engineering. Mechanics, ASCE,
January, Vol. 125, No.1, pp. 119-122.
Findikakis, A.N.* and Law, A.W.K. 1999. Wind-mixing in temperature simulations for lakes
and reservoirs. Journal of Environmental Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 125, No. 5, pp. 420428.
Fung, T.C. and Chow, S.K.*, 1999. Responses of blast loading by complex time step
method. Journal of Sound and Vibration, Vol. 223, No. 1, pp. 23-48.
Fung, T.C. and Tan, K.H., 1998. Shear stiffness for Z-core sandwich panels. ASCE
Journal of Structural Engineering, Vol. 124, No. 7, pp. 809-816.
Fung, T.C., 1999. Higher order accurate least squares methods for first order initial value
problems. International Journal for Numerical Methods in Engineering, Vol. 45, pp. 77-99.
Fung, T.C., 1999. On the accuracy of Galerkin methods in time domain.
Vibration and Control, Vol. 5, No. 2, pp. 155-174.
Journal of
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Fung, T.C., Fan, S.C. and Sheng, G.*, 1998. Mixed space-time finite elements for
vibration response analysis. Journal of Sound and Vibration, Vol. 213, No. 3, pp. 409-428.
Fung, T.C., Soh, C.K., Gho, W.M.* and Cheung, B.L.Y.*, 1998. Current understanding of
completely overlap tubular joints. Proceedings of the 8th International Symposium on
Tubular Structures in the area of Static and Fatigue Behaviour of Connections, Singapore,
26-28 August, pp. 239-247.
Gasmo, J.*, Hritzuk, K.J.*, Rahardjo, H. and Leong, E.C., 1999. Instrumentation of an
unsaturated residual soil slope. ASTM Geotechnical Testing Journal, Vol. 22, No. 2, pp.
134-143
Gasmo, J.M.*, Hritzuk, K.J.*, Rahardjo, H. and Leong, E.C., 1999. Instrumentation of an
unsaturated residual soil slope. Geotechnical Testing Journal, GTJODJ, June, Vol. 22,
No. 2, pp. 128-137.
Goh, A.T.C., 1999. Soil laboratory data interpretation using generalized regression neural
network. Civil Engineering and Environmental Systems, Vol. 16, pp. 175-195.
Goh, A.T.C., Teh, C.I. and Wong, K.S., 1999. Analysis of piles subjected to embankment
induced lateral soil movements - closure. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental
Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 125, No. 5, pp. 427.
Guo, C.J. and Zhao, J., 1998. Engineering properties of the weathered carbonate rocks
of Singapore. Regional Symposium on Sedimentary Rock Engineering, Taipei, Taiwan.
Gupta, A.* and Soh, C.K., 1999. An intelligent interactive tutoring system: our experience
at NTU. Proceedings of the 2nd UICEE Conference on Engineering Education, Auckland,
New Zealand, pp. 222-224.
Hao, H. and Ang, T.C., 1998. Analytical modeling of traffic-induced ground vibrations.
Journal of Engineering Mechanics, ASCE, Vol. 124, No. 8, pp. 921-928.
Hao, H. and Zhang, S.Y., 1999. Spatial ground motion effect on relative displacement of
adjacent building structures. International Journal of Earthquake Engineering and
Structural Dynamics, Vol. 28, pp. 333-349.
Hao, H., 1998. Vibration in buildings caused by moving vehicles. Proceedings of the
Acoustics and Vibration Asia 98, Singapore, 11-13 November.
Hao, H., Ma, G.W. and Zhou, Y.X., 1998. Assessment of damage zone generated by
underground explosion. International Symposium on Structural Theories: Application &
Developments, Xian, China, 9-11 September.
Hao, H., Ma, G.W. and Zhou, Y.X., 1998. Numerical simulation of underground explosion.
International Journal for Blasting and Fragmentation, Vol. 2, pp. 383-395.
Hao, H., Ma, G.W., and Zhou, Y.X., 1998. Damage assessment of surface structures
subjected to ground shock excitation. Proceedings of the 5th International Conference for
Young Experts on Structural Engineering, 18-21 August, Shenyang , China, pp. 142-149.
5
January 2000
Hao, H., Wu, Y.K., Ma, G.W. and Zhou, Y.X., 1998. Characteristics of ground motions
induced by construction blasting in jointed rock mass. Proceedings of the Acoustics and
Vibration Asia 98, 11-13 November, Singapore.
Hartono, W., 1998. A floating tied system for an offshore airport. Ocean Engineering, Vol.
25, No. 7, pp. 591-596.
Jeyaseelan, S., 1999. Microbial activities in suspended growth and attached growth in
acidogenous and methanogenous phases in anaerobic digestion. Proceedings of the 2nd
International Symposium on Anaerobic Digestion of Solid Waste, 15-18 June, Barcelona,
Spain, Vol. II, pp. 125-128.
Jeyaseelan, S., 1999. Use of filterability constants as dewatering characteristics of oily
sludge. Proceedings of the 2nd International Symposium on Anaerobic Digestion of Solid
Waste, 15-18 June, Barcelona, Spain, Vol. II, pp. 164-167.
Krumholz, L.R.*, Harris, S.H.*, Tay, S.T. and Suflita, J.M.*, 1999. Characterization of two
subsurface H2-utilizing bacteria, Desulfomicrobium hypogeium sp. nov. and
Acetobacterium psammolithicum sp. nov., and their ecological roles. Applied and
Environmental Microbiology. Vol. 65, pp. 2300-2306.
Law, A.W.K. and Wang, H.W.*, 1998.
Simultaneous velocity and concentration
measurements of buoyant jet discharges using combined DPIV and PLIF. Proceedings of
the 2 nd International Symposium on Environmental Hydraulics, Hong Kong, pp. 211-216.
Law, A.W.K., 1999. Wave-induced surface drift of an inextensible thin film. Journal of
Ocean Engineering, UK, Vol. 26, Issue 11, pp. 1145-1168.
Lee, C.K. and Hobbs, R.E.*, 1998. Automatic adaptive finite element mesh generation
over rational B-spline surfaces. Computer and Structures, Vol. 69, No. 6, pp. 577-608.
Lee, C.K. and Hobbs, R.E.*, 1999. Automatic adaptive finite element mesh generation
over arbitrary 2D domain using advancing front technique. Computer and Structures, Vol.
71, No. 1, pp. 9-34.
Lee, C.K. and Lo, S.H.*, 1998. On using different procedures for the construction of
smoothed stress in finite element method. International Journal for Numerical Methods in
Engineering, Vol. 43, No. 43, pp. 1223-1252.
Lee, C.K. and Lo, S.H.*, 1998. On using different stress recovery procedures in ReissnerMindlin finite element modelling. Proceedings of the 4 th World Congress on Computational
Mechanics. Buenos Aires, Argentina (CD-ROM Proceeding).
Lee, C.K. and Lo, S.H.*, 1999. A full 3-D finite element analysis using adaptive refinement
and PCG solver with back interpolation. Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and
Engineering, Vol. 170, No. 1-2, pp. 39-64.
Lee, C.K., 1999. Automatic adaptive mesh generation using metric advancing front
approach. Engineering Computations, Vol. 16, No. 2, pp. 230-263.
January 2000
Lee, C.K., Sze, K.Y.* and Lo, S.H.*, 1999. On using degenerated solid shell elements in
adaptive refinement analysis. International Journal for Numerical Methods in Engineering,
Vol. 45, No. 6, pp. 627-659.
Leong, E.C. and Rahardjo , H. 1998. Matric suction changes in a residual soil slope. Civil
Engineering Research Bulletin, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, January,
pp. 22-23.
Leong, E.C. and Rahardjo, H., 1998. A review on soil classification systems. Proceedings
of the International Symposium on Problematic Soils, Sendai, Tohoku, Japan, 28-30
October, pp. 493-497.
Leong, E.C. and Rahardjo, H., 1999. Discussion on soil-water characteristic curves for
compacted clay. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE, Vol.
125, No. 12, pp. 629-630.
Leong, E.C., Rahardjo, H., Chiam, S.L.* and Gan, C.C.*, 1998. Suction profiles of a
residual soil slope as affected by climatic conditions. Proceedings of the 2nd International
Conference on Unsaturated Soils, Beijing, China, 27-30 August, Vol. 1, pp. 231-236.
Leong, E.C., Rahardjo, H., Deustcher, M.S.* and Quan, C.N.*, 1998. Instrumentation and
a data acquisition system for the study of a residual soil slope at a remote site.
Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Unsaturated Soils, Beijing, China, 2730 August, Vol. 1, pp. 383-388.
Leong, E.C., Rahardjo, H., Tang, S.K.* and Chiam, S.L.*, 1998. Role of soil cover in
maintaining slope stability. Proceedings of the 13th Southeast Asian Geotechnical
Conference, Taipei, Taiwan, 16-20 November, pp. 99-104.
Leong, W.K., Chu, J. and Teh, C.I., 1999. Instability behaviour of a granular fill.
Proceedings of the Australia and New Zealand Conference on Geomechanics, 15-17
February, Horbat.
Li, Q.M. and Jones, N.*, 1999. Shear and adiabatic shear failures in an impulsively loaded
fully clamped beam. International Journal of Impact Engineering, Vol. 22, pp. 589-607.
Li, Q.M., 1999. Dissipative flow model based on dissipative surface and irreversible
thermodynamics. Archive of Applied Mechanics, Vol. 69, pp. 379-392.
Lie, S.T. and Lan, S.*, 1998. A boundary element analysis of misaligned load-carrying
cruciform welded joints. International Journal of Fatigue, July, Vol. 20, No. 6, pp. 433-439.
Lie, S.T. and Lan, S.*, 1999. Computer prediction of misaligned welded joints. Advances
in Engineering Software, September, Vol. 30, No. 9, pp. 56-63.
Lie, S.T. and Li, Q., 1998. Analysis of tubular joints using coupled finite element and
boundary element methods. Proceedings of the 8th International Symposium on Tubular
Structures, 26-28 August, Singapore, pp. 341-346.
January 2000
Lie, S.T. and Xu, K., 1999. Time-domain boundary element method for transient response
of semi-infinite problems. Boundary Elements Communications, Vol. 10, No. 1/2, pp. 9-13.
Lie, S.T., Cen, Z.* and Xu, K., 1999. Analysis of 2D crack using symmetric galerkin
boundary element method. Boundary Element Technology XIII, Las Vegas, USA, 8-10
June, pp. 163-172.
Lie, S.T., Li, Q. and Cen, Z.*, 1998. Modelling tubular joints using a combination of finite
and boundary elements. Proceedings of the 8th China-Japan Symposium on Boundary
Element Method, Beijing, China, 11-15 May, pp. 257-266.
Lim, S.Y. and Cheng, N.S., 1998. Scouring in long contractions. Journal of Irrigation and
Drainage Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 124, No. 5, pp. 258-261.
Lim, S.Y. and Chiew, Y.M., 1998. Effect of an upstream pile on pier scour.
River
Sedimentation - Theory and Applications, Jayawardena, Lee and Wang (eds).
Proceedings of the 7th International Symposium on River Sedimentation, Hong Kong, 1618 December, pp. 153-158.
Lim, S.Y., 1998. Closure to "Equilibrium clear water scour around an abutment Journal of
Hydraulic Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 124, No. 10, pp. 1069-1073.
Lim, S.Y., 1999. Translation of Chapter 6: Bed form movement of the book Mechanics
of Sediment Transport by Chien, N. and Wan Z. from Chinese to English, published by
ASCE Press, January, pp. 193-248.
Lin, K.*, Wong, K.S. and Wong, I.H.*, 1998. FEM analysis of embankment over soft soil
foundation treated with DCM columns. Proceedings of the 2 nd International Conference on
Ground Improvement Techniques, Singapore, October.
Liu, Q., Zhao, J., Lee, K.W. and Yang, K.S.*, 1999. Potential rock cavern development in
the Jurong sedimentary formation. Proceedings of the World Tunnel Congress '99, Oslo,
Norway.
Lo, E.Y.M., 1998. A constrained dual membrane wave barrier. Proceedings of the 2nd
International Symposium On Environmental Hydraulics, 16-18 December, Hong Kong, pp.
923-928.
Lo, E.Y.M., 1998. A flexible dual membrane wave barrier. Journal of Waterway, Port,
Coastal, and Ocean Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 124, No. 5, pp. 264-271.
Lo, S.H.* and Lee, C.K. 1998. On using selective refinement scheme in adaptive finite
element analysis. Proceedings of the 4th World Congress on Computational Mechanics.
Buenos Aires, Argentina (CD-ROM Proceeding).
Lo, S.H.* and Lee, C.K., 1998. An optimal adaptive refinement strategy for full 3-D finite
element analysis. Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Computational
Structures Technology. Edinburgh, Scotland, pp. 109-113.
January 2000
Lo, S.H.* and Lee, C.K., 1998. Error estimation of degenerated shell elements.
Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Computational Structures Technology.
Edinburgh, Scotland, pp. 95-99
Lo, S.H.* and Lee, C.K., 1998. On constructing accurate recovered stress fields for the
finite element solution of Reissner-Mindlin plate bending problems. Computer Methods in
Applied Mechanics and Engineering, Vol. 160, No. 1/2, pp. 175-191.
Lo, S.H.* and Lee, C.K., 1998. On using special hybrid hexahedral element for the
analysis of thin wall structures. Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Tall
Buildings. Hong Kong, China, Vol. 2, pp. 533-538.
Lo, S.H.* and Lee, C.K., 1998. Selective regional refinement procedure for adaptive finite
element analysis. Computer and Structures, Vol. 68, No. 4, pp. 325-341.
Lok, T.S. and Cheng, Q.H., 1998. Influence of shear deformation on geometrically nonlinear deflections of composite laminated plates. Proceedings of the 2nd International
Conference on Thin-Walled Structures, Singapore, December, pp. 289-296.
Lok, T.S. and Pei, J.S.*, 1999. Blast and impact resistance of concrete reinforced with
externally-bonded glass fibremat. Proceedings of the 9th International Symposium on
Interaction of the Effects of Munitions with Structures, Berlin, Germany, May, pp. 9-17.
Lok, T.S. and Xiao, J.R., 1998. A constitutive model of concrete with/without steel fibre
reinforcement. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Strength Theories:
Applications and Developments, Xian, China, Science Press, New York, September, pp.
681-686.
Lok, T.S. and Xiao, J.R., 1998. Tensile behaviour and moment-curvature relation of steel
fibre reinforced concrete. Magazine of Concrete Research, UK, December, Vol. 50, No. 4,
pp. 359-368.
Lok, T.S. and Xiao, J.R., 1999. Effect of membrane action on the response of steel fibre
reinforced concrete panels subjected to air-blast. Proceedings of the 9th International
Symposium on Interaction of the Effects of Munitions with Structures, Berlin, Germany,
May, pp. 31-38.
Lok, T.S., Cheng, Q.H. and Heng, L.* 1999. Equivalent stiffness parameters of truss-core
sandwich panel. Proceedings of the 9th International Offshore and Polar Engineering
Conference, International Society for Offshore and Polar Engineering, Brest, France, June,
Vol. IV, pp. 292-298.
Low, H.Y.*, Hao, H., and Ma, G.W., 1998. Numerical simulation of two types of RC slab
under blast loading. International Symposium on Structural Theories: Application &
Developments, Xian, China, 9-11 September.
Luk, J.Y.K. and Ramsay, E.D.* 1998. An assessment of two driver information systems for
route diversion. Proceedings of the International Conference on Transportation into the
Next Millennium. Singapore, pp. 39-49.
January 2000
Luk, J.Y.K., 1998. Land use changes, public transport and travel demand in Australian
cities. Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Transportation and Traffic
Studies, Beijing, pp. 40-49.
Ma, G.W. and Hao, H., 1999. Damage model for structural masonry. Proceedings of the
13th ASCE Engineering Mechanics Conference, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore
MD, USA, 13-16 June, Session M3C, Paper no. 6.
Ma, G.W., Hao, H. and Iwasaki, S.*, 1999. Plastic limit analysis of a clamped circular plate
with unified yield criterion. International Journal of Structural Engineering and Mechanics,
Vol. 7, No. 5, pp. 513-525.
Ma, G.W., Hao, H. and Zhou, Y.X., 1998. Modeling of wave propagation induced by
underground explosion. Journal of Computers and Geotechnics, October, Vol. 22, No. 34, pp. 283-303.
Ma, G.W., Hao, H. and Zhou, Y.X., 1998. Spectral characteristics of ground shock waves.
Proceedings of the Acoustics & Vibration Asia98, 11-13 November, Singapore.
Ma, G.W., Hao, H., and Iwasaki, S.*, 1999. Unified plastic limit analysis of circular plates
under arbitrary load. Journal of Applied Mechanics, ASME, June, Vol. 66, No. 2, pp. 568570.
Ma, G.W., Hao, H., Iwasaki, S.*, Miyamoto, Y.* and Deto, H.*, 1998. Plastic behavior of
circular plate under soft impact. International Symposium on Structural Theories:
Application & Developments. Xian, China, 9-11 September.
Melville, B.W.* and Chiew, Y.M., 1999. Time scale for local scour at bridge piers. Journal
of Hydraulic Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 125, No. 1, pp. 59-65.
Menon, A.P.G. and Chin, K.K.*, 1998. The making of Singapore's electronic road pricing
system. Proceedings of the International Conference on Transportation into the next
Millennium, Singapore, pp. 179-190.
Mines, R.A.W.*, Li, Q.M., Alias, A.*, Birch, R.S.* and Close, J.A.*, 1998. On the
measurement of the crush behaviour of structural foams in polymer composite sandwich
construction. Experimental Mechanics, editor, I.M. Allison, Proceeding of the 11th
International Conference on Experimental Mechanics, Oxford, pp. 287-292.
Nguyen, M., Cheong, H.K. and Chan, T.K., 1998. Analysis of reinforced concrete beams
bonded by FRP plates. Journal of Building Sciences and Technology (Special issue)
Ministry of Construction, Vietnam.
Olszewski, P. and Tan, C.S.*, 1999, Use of walking as a mode of travel in Singapore. 78th
Annual Meeting of the Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C., USA.
Pan, T.-C. and Lu, Q.R., 1998. Response of Singapore buildings to long-distance
earthquakes. Invited Paper, Proceedings of the Asia-Pacific Workshop on Seismic Design
and Retrofit of Structures, 10-12 August, Taipei, Taiwan, pp. 466478.
10
January 2000
Pan, T.-C., 1998. Estimation of peak ground accelerations of the Malay Peninsula due to
distant Sumatran earthquakes. GeoForschungsZentrrum Potsdam, Germany, Scientific
Technical Report STR98/14, pp. 340359.
Pan, T.-C., 1998. Region report Republic of Singapore. Invited Paper, Proceedings of
the Multi-Lateral Workshop on Development of Earthquake and Tsunami Disasters
Mitigation Technologies and Its Integration for the Asia-Pacific Region, 30 September - 2
October, Earthquake Disaster Mitigation Research Centre, Kobe, Japan, pp. 7276.
Pan, T.-C., 1998. Seismic loading requirements for Singapore buildings. Journal of
Earthquake Engineering, Earthquake Engineering Society of Korea, Vol. 2, No. 3, pp. 8798.
Pan, T.-C., 1998. Seismic loading requirements for Singapore buildings. Invited Paper,
Proceedings of the 1st International Symposium on New Development in Earthquake
Hazard Mitigation Technology for Moderate Seismicity, Seoul National University, 3-4
August, Seoul, Korea, pp. 150162.
Park, R.*, Tanaka, H* and Li, Bing, 1998. Flexural strength and ductility of high strength
concrete columns. ACI Special Publication - 176, "High Strength Concrete in Seismic
Regions", pp. 237-258.
Rahardjo, H., Leong, E.C. and Han, K.K.*, 1998. Shear strength characteristics of residual
soil under infiltration. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Problematic Soils,
Sendai, Tohoku, Japan, 28-30 October, pp. 461-464.
Rahardjo, H., Leong, E.C., Gasmo, J.M.* and Deutsher, M.S.*, 1998. Rainfall-induced
slope failures in Singapore: investigation and repairs. Proceedings of the 13th Southeast
Asian Geotechnical Conference, Taipei, Taiwan, 16-20 November, pp. 147-152.
Rahardjo, H., Leong, E.C., Gasmo, J.M.* and Tang, S.K.*, 1998. Assessment of rainfall
effects on stability of residual soil slopes. Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference
on Unsaturated Soils, Beijing, China, 27-30 August, Vol. 1, pp. 280-285.
Robert Tiong, L.K., 1998. Financing and risk management of infrastructure projects.
Economic Bulletin, A Journal of Singapore International Chamber of Commerce, October,
pp. 5-8.
Shang, J.L.*, Shen, L.T.*, Zhao, Y.H. and Zhao, J., 1999. Dynamic constitutive equation
of the Bukit Timah granite. Chinese Journal of Rock Mechanics and Engineering, (in
Chinese), Vol. 17, pp. 634-641.
Sharma, J.S., 1998. Effect of mechanical properties of surcharge on the behaviour of soft
ground stabilized by stone columns. Proceedings of the 13th South East Asian
Geotechnical Conference held in Taipei, Taiwan, November.
Show, K.Y. and Tay, J.H., 1999. Influence of support media on biomass growth and
retention in anaerobic filters. Journal of Water Research, Vol. 33, No. 6, pp. 1471-1481.
11
January 2000
Shuy, E.B. and Chua, H.C.*, 1999. Fluid-dynamic feedback in shear layer oscillation
below a submerged sluice gate. IAHR Journal, Vol. 37, No. 1, pp. 107-120.
Shuy, E.B., Chui, P.C., Chua, H.C.* and Chen, C.N., 1998. Entrainment across a density
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Research, Vol. 36, No. 2.
Soh, C.K., Chiew, S.P. and Dong, Y.X., 1999. Damage model for concrete-steel interface.
ASCE Journal of Engineering Mechanics, Vol. 125, No. 8, pp. 979-983.
Soh, C.K., Fung, T.C., Chan, T.K. and Nakacho, K.*, 1998. SCF of T tubular joints
reinforced with doubler plates. Transactions of JWRI, Japan, Vol. 27, No. 1, pp. 105-108.
Tan, K.H., Kong, F.K.* and Weng, L.W.*, 1999. Discussion with authors closure on High
strength reinforced concrete deep and short beams: shear design equations in North
American and UK Practice. ACI Structural Journal, March/ April, Vol. 96, No. 2, pp. 314 315.
Tan, T.H. and Cheong, H.K., 1998. An apparatus for testing concrete under active and
passive confining stress. International Symposium on Strength Theories: Applications and
Development, Xian, China, September.
Tao, N.F.* and Brownjohn, J.M.W., 1998. Estimation of ground motion acceleration and
building response to a long distance earthquake. Journal of Earthquake Engineering, Vol.
2, No. 3, pp. 477-485.
Tay, J.H. and Show, K.Y., 1998. Efficient granular/low sludge processes in anaerobic waste
treatment. Invited Paper for A Workshop on Wastewater Works Upgrades for Optimal
Performance & Sludge Minimisation, Environmental Technology Institute, Singapore, 23-24
November, pp. 1-57.
Tay, J.H. and Show, K.Y., 1998. Media-induced hydraulic behavior and performance of
upflow biofilters. Journal of Environmental Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 124, No. 8, pp. 720729.
Tay, J.H. and Show, K.Y., 1999. Reclamation of wastewater sludge as innovative building &
construction materials. 4th World Congress on R99 - Recovery, Recycling, Re-integration,
Geneva, Switzerland, 2-5 February, Vol. 5, pp. 252-257.
Tay, J.H., Anthony Goh, T.C. and Show, K.Y., 1999. Use of Flyash in Jet Grouting. Invited
Paper for the ENV-NTU-NUS Joint Research Seminar, Ministry of the Environment,
Singapore, 31 May.
Tay, S. T.-L., Hemond, H.F.*, Polz, M.F.*, Cavanaugh, C.M.* and Krumholz, L.R.*, 1999.
Importance of Xanthobacter autotrophicus in toluene biodegradation within a contaminated
stream. Systematic and Applied Microbiology, Vol. 22, pp. 113-118.
Tay, S. T.-L., Hemond, H.F.*, Polz, M.F.*, Cavanaugh, C.M.*, DeJesus, I.* and Krumholz,
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contaminated stream. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. Vol. 64, pp. 1715-1720.
12
January 2000
Ting, S.K. and Zhou, J.*, 1998. Mobile factory for improving construction productivity.
Proceedings of the 1st Workshop on Asean Infrastructure Planning and Management,
Bangkok, Thailand, 29 September 1 October, pp. 101-108.
Ting, S.K. and Zhu, Y.*, 1998. Procurement methods used in the construction industry.
Proceedings of the 8th KKNN Seminar on Civil Engineering, National University of
Singapore, Singapore, 30 November 1 December, pp. 344-349.
Ting, S.K. and Zhu, Y.*, 1999. The development of design and build In Singapore. Invited
paper, Proceedings of The Dr Tan Swan Beng Memorial Symposium on Excellence in
Infrastructure Engineering, Singapore, 18-19 March, pp. 229-235.
Tiong, L.K. and Shami, M.*, 1998. Construction process re-engineering. Proceedings of
the Conference on Asean Infrastructure Planning and Management in Bangkok, 29
September 1 October, organised by AIT & CACS.
Tiong, L.K., Ting, S.K., Wang, S.Q.* and Ashley, D.*, 1999. Evaluation and management
of foreign exchange and revenue risks in BOT projects. Invited Paper, Proceedings of the
Dr Tan Swan Beng Memorial Symposium Excellence in Infrastructure Engineering,
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13
January 2000
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14
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16
CSE Research Bulletin No. 13. January 2000: Editoral Board
ISSN 0219-0370
Shuy Eng Ban - Chairman

Robyn Collins (Language editor)
Carmel Heah (Language editor)
Chin Chen Onn
Fung Tat Ching
Low Bak Kong
James Luk
Niall MacAlevey
Tor Yam Khoon
Wang Jin-Yuan
Lee Chi King (Online edition)
January 2000
NO. 13
ADDITIONAL COPIES AND ENQUIRIES

For general enquiries about this publication, and to
request for hard copies, please write to :
The Dean
School of Civil and Structural Engineering
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Email : D-CSE@ntu.edu.sg
Published by Dean
School of Civil and Structural Engineering, Nanyang Technological University
file:///D|/CEE_old/RESEARCH/Bulletin/1999_2000/HTM/editoral_board.htm9/27/2003 10:50:12 AM
January 2000
Analysis of Premature Failures in CFRP-Strengthened RC Beams

Reinforced concrete (RC) beams strengthened with steel or fibre reinforced plastic (FRP) plates
commonly fail due to either debonding of the plate or concrete ripping-off, premature shear failure or
a combination of these because of the plate-end termination effect. The tension force carried by the
plate is transferred to the beam by the adhesive layer and the concrete cover. At the free ends of the
plate, discontinuity of the beam stiffness occurs, and stress-concentration in the adhesive layer or in
the interface between concrete and the tension reinforcing steel at the plate-end region is an important
cause of debonding or concrete ripping-off failures of the strengthened beam. This article presents an
analysis of premature failures of RC beams strengthened with FRP plates with emphasis on the
debonding and ripping-off failure modes. The work was based on the results of tests on a series beams
strengthened with carbon fibre reinforced plastic (CFRP) plates.
Debonding of the plate
Debonding of the plate is a delamination between the plate-adhesive-concrete at the plate-end region
of the strengthened beam. This failure may be limited by the maximum stresses in the adhesive being
not greater than the bonding strength between plate-adhesive-concrete at the plate-end region. A key
problem in the debonding analysis is the determination of the stress-concentrations. Maximum
stresses in the adhesive layer can be predicted based on the interaction behaviour between the plateadhesive-concrete while the bond strengths may be determined from the single or double-lap bond
tests between the applied FRP plate, adhesive and concrete.
Using a number of assumptions in addition to conventional plane-section beam theory, the stressconcentration in the adhesive layer is predicted. The strain in the concrete tension surface can be
calculated using the beam theory for the unplated beam under external loading and the additional
force carried by the FRP plate (Figure 1a). The relationship between the strains in the concrete and the
plate is expressed as a function of the shear deformation in the adhesive layer. The maximum shear
stress 0 in the adhesive layer can then be predicted by the following equation:
0 =
2M 0
q lp
1 2
V
+
l p ba 2 0 l p
4
(1)
where and are coefficients depending on the properties of the FRP plate, adhesive used and the
stiffness of RC beam, lp is the length of the plate, b a is the width of the adhesive layer, q is the
uniformly distributed load, and V0 and M0 are the shear force and bending moment at the platetermination position of the beam respectively.
Shear stress-concentration in the adhesive layer obtained using equation (1) compared well with the
results obtained from the finite element analysis of the RC beam strengthened with glass FRP plate
which was tested by Saadatmanesh and Ehsani (1991) and failed in debonding of the plate (see Figure
2).
The developed formulation is in closed form and is easily applied for practical analysis and design.
However, its limitation is that the maximum shear stress may not theoretically be close to the
termination point of the plate because full effectiveness of the adhesive may be at a certain distance
from this point. Calibration of this analysis with experiments is required for a given FRP and
adhesive.
January 2000
Ripping of concrete
As high-modulus epoxies have been developed and used in strengthening works, the ripping of the
concrete layer between the longitudinal reinforcing steel and the plate has been indicated as the
common premature failure mode of CFRP beams. Concrete ripping-off initiates from the shear crack
started at the plate end due to the high-stress-concentration in the adhesive layer. The shear crack then
results in the eccentricity between the plate and the steel bar layer. Hence, unlike debonding of the
plate, stress concentration occurs between the concrete and steel bar layers.
Based on the test results of CFRP strengthened beams, the distribution of the strains along the plate at
ultimate load of the beams can be divided into 3 distinct zones (see Figure 1-b), namely, the destressed zone, the bond development zone and the composite behaviour zone. The de-stressed
zone is the first 50mm (of the order of the concrete cover thickness) of the plate, where the strains in
the plate are negligible because of the shear cracks formed from the end of the plate. The composite
zone is where the plated beam is considered to have composite action up to failure. The bonddevelopment zone is the transition between the de-stressed and composite zones. Theoretical and
experimental research show that the length of the bond-development zone ldev is a function of the
concrete cover, the beam effective depth and a parameter, , which depends on the properties of the
plate, adhesive and concrete cover. The value of ldev should be greater than the effective bond length
between plate-adhesive-concrete.
Based on this composite model, two approaches to predicting the concrete ripping-off failure load can
be used. In the first approach, ripping-off failure can be limited by the stresses at the interface
between the reinforcing bar and concrete; these should not exceed the tensile and shear strengths of
concrete. The interface stresses can be determined as the concrete block cantilever subjected to the
shear stress acting in the adhesive layer. The shear stress in the adhesive layer is calculated on the
assumption that the tension force in the plate is linearly changing in the bond-development zone.
Table 1 shows the predicted and the experimental failure loads of the CFRP beams tested in the
School. The limitation of this approach is that the cracking intervals in the plated beam are not well
understood because of the presence of the plate in the concrete surface. Therefore, using the formula
to determine the cracking intervals of the conventional RC beam in this analysis requires more
research and adjustment.
In the second approach, concrete ripping-off or other premature failures may be prevented by limiting
the plate strain at the end of the bond-development zone to a certain value, depending on the bond
properties of a given CFRP plate, adhesive and concrete, as well as the shear span of the beam. This is
called the plate-end strain limit method, and is being developed in the present work.
Conclusion
Theoretical and experimental work on CFRP-strengthened beams is in progress. While

model beams have been tested so far, the next phase involves tests on full-size beams. The
current theoretical work is focused on the plate-end strain limit approach to analyze the concrete
ripping-off, premature shear failure and the combination of these failure modes of CFRP strengthened
beams.
Nguyen D Minh, (pt404637@ntu.edu.sg)

Chan Toong Khuan (ctkchan@ntu.edu.sg)
Cheong Hee Kiat (chkcheong@ntu.edu.sg)
a)
January 2000
P/2
uniformly distributed load q
C
L
M
N
dp
cracks concrete beam neutral axis

reinforcing bar
debonding of the plate with failure in plateadhesive-concrete interface

b)
concrete beam
neutral axis
CFRP plate
ldev
composite
behavior zone
composite
theoretical
value of p
C
L
dp
cracks
P/2
concrete
ripping-off
Tp
adhesive layer
CFRP plate
de-stressed bond
zone development
the plate-end
strain pe
zone
straindistribution
along the
plate
Figure 1. a) Debonding of the plate; b) Concrete ripping-off
Shear stress in adhesive (MPa)
0.6
0.5
Finite element solution [3]
Present solution
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
40
80
120
160
Distance from the end of the plate (mm)
200
Figure 2. Shear-stress distribution in the adhesive layer of GFRP beam that failed in debonding of the
plate, as tested by Saadatmanesh and Ehsani (1991)
Beam
fcu (ft )
(MPa)
B1150
B1100
B950
33 (3)
33 (3)
33 (3)
Table 1. Predicted and experimental failure loads of CFRP strengthened beams

Flexural Shear cap. Pu (kN)
lp (mm) p
Tp
Pu (kN)
error
cap. (kN) (kN)
(mm) (kN)
theo.
exper.
(%)
1150
340 32.40 82
114
68.61
58.9
16
1100
365 32.40 82
114
63.91
57.3
12
950
440 32.40 82
114
53.0
56.2
-6
Failure mode
ripping.-off
ripping.-off
ripping.-off
January 2000
Design and Build Practice in the Singapore Public Sector

Introduction
The Design & Build (D&B) procurement method is an agreement between the owner and a single
entity to perform both design and construction under a single contract. Portions or all of the design and
construction may be performed by the entity or subcontracted to other companies. It first evolved or
rather re-evolved in the 1950s and early 1960s due to the increased competitiveness in the construction
industry and the drawbacks in the Conventional method. It was perceived to have the advantages of
single point responsibility, virtually guaranteed fixed cost and completion date, fitness for purpose,
buildability of design concept and fewer claims. During the 30 to 40 years that followed, D&B
transformed from a procurement method that was mostly used to procure utilitarian facilities into a form
that was suitable for various types of project. Numerous variations have also developed from it: Package
Deal; Design, Manage and Construct; Develop and Design; Novation Design & Build; and Build,
Operate and Transfer (BOT).
Background information
The Singapore government has recognised the importance of the construction industry and its role in
overall socio-economic development and has taken measures to improve it. A number of major
government agencies were set up for developing and monitoring specific areas in the construction
industry. They are the Housing Development Board (HDB), the Jurong Town Corporation (JTC), the
Lands & Estates Organization (LEO), the Land & Transportation Authority (LTA) and the Public
Works Department (PWD). Among the various measures taken was the choosing of D&B as one of
the fronts to enhance buildable designs in order to improve productivity and achieve construction
development which is the ultimate goal.
The development of D&B in Singapore
In Singapore, the initial use of D&B was not in the private sector as in many other countries. Instead, it
was first implemented in the public sector. During the 1970s and 1980s, nearly all the public sector
bodies responsible for procuring construction services in Singapore tried to award their contracts on a
D&B basis, though on a rather limited scale. Over the following 7 years, other agencies also took part in
$1,200
$1,000
$800
Public Sector
$600
Private Sector
$400
$200
$0
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
Chart 1. D&B projects awarded by public and private

sector (by value of contracts S$ millions)
the D&B market (Table 1). By 1998, there were 133 D&B projects adding up to S$8.8 billion worth of
contracts awarded on a D&B basis. Of these, 87 projects, or 69% of the total value were awarded by
the public sector. The value of public D&B building projects has increased steadily over the years
January 2000
(Chart 1). The number of contracts awarded increased dramatically in 1995, almost tripling the number
in 1994. The figure has remained steady at over S$1,000 million ever since. The value of private sector
D&B building projects also started to increase from 1995. However, the economic crisis in the region in
1998 has reduced the contract values in both sectors, with the private sector being more affected.
Table 1. D&B practised in public agencies
Year for full

implementation
Project description
No. of D&B projects
awarded since 1991
Size (million S$)
Type of D&B
HDB
1991
JTC
1995
LEO
1992
LTA
1984
PWD
1995
residential
Camp
MRT line
Schools
25
Factory &
dormitory
7
41
$100-$200
D&B
$25-$200
D&B
$40-$200
D&B
$200-$300
D&B
$10-$25
Develop and
Construct
The practice of D&B in Singapore and its characteristics

When adapting to the D&B approach, the organisation structure and some aspects of the method were
modified by the agencies so as to make it suitable for their own particular practice. This resulted in a
unique D&B practice in the Singapore construction industry. There are basically two types of D&B
approaches practised in the public sector: traditional D&B and its alternative - Develop and Construct.
Only the PWD uses the latter approach while the former is more widely practised (Table 1). Due to the
fact that most of the consulting firms are small, no designer-led D&B teams were formed. Contractors
lead all the D&B teams. The consultants are sub-contracted under the contractor. The other unique
characteristic of the organisation structure is the formation of a supervision team and its relationship to
the contractor and clients during the construction. The quality of the construction has been observed to
suffer from the D&B approach. Yet no standard or effective methods have been found to avoid this.
The industry is aware of such issues and each agency has made its own adjustments to the arrangement
of the supervision team. The formation of the supervision team can take place in three ways and the
contractual arrangement can also vary.
The forming of supervision teams
Three ways to form the supervision team were defined in public agencies:
a) The supervision team is directly appointed by the consultants under the design-builder's team.
b) The supervision team is jointly appointed by the consultants and the client.
c) The supervision team is solely appointed by the client and takes charge during construction.
Contractual arrangement between the supervision team, contractor and client
There are two types of contractual relationship for supervision teams:
a) The client signs only one contract with the contractor for the whole project. The site supervision
is included in this lump-sum contract.
b) The client signs a direct supervision contract with the supervision team.
Through interviews and statistics gathered from the CIDB, it can be concluded that most issues in the
outcome of D&B projects do conform to the perceived advantages to varying degrees.
January 2000
a) The number of claims from contractors and variation orders from the clients were reduced
significantly-by up to at least 70%.
b) The number of in-house staff involved in D&B project construction is much less. Usually only
1 to 3 in-house staff members are needed for a single project.
c) The construction time for D&B was 3 to 4 months less than similar traditional projects.
However, some agencies have pointed out that such time saving is very insignificant compared to
the 4 to 5 years total project span.
d) The common scenario is that the project cost is higher in the first few projects, then becomes
more competitive with traditional projects.
e) The Agencies agree that new innovations do occur from time to time. Yet the frequency is not
yet impressive.
Conclusion
For public D&B projects in Singapore, the following are recommended in future practice:
a) Two stage selection tendering is a good way to achieve a better understanding of the briefing for
consultants and proposal for client.
b) The agencies' control over the construction should be reinforced so as to ensure the quality of
construction. Such control could be adjusted according to the demand of finishes and
workmanship required.
c) A more specific briefing is needed so as to minimise the contractor's opportunity to compromise
quality for profit.
d) An environment of mutual trust and understanding of professions in the construction industry is
needed to ensure the success of D&B projects.
D&B in Singapore is at a relatively early stage of development. Various adjustments were made when
adopting this approach to suit the Singapore construction industry. New adjustments to the tendering
strategy and construction quality control are still ongoing. The results of these adjustments should be
further studied after the completion of the projects. However, up to now, the D&B approach has been
accepted reasonably well by the construction industry in Singapore. Though problems still exist, once the
industry is more experienced with it, the outcome can only be better.
Reference
Ting, S.K. and Zhu, Y., "Design And Build Practice In The Singapore Public Sector", 7th East AsiaPacific Conference on Structural Engineering and Construction (EASEC-7), Kochi, Japan, August 2729, 1999, pp. 1709-1714.
Ting Seng Kiong (cskting@ntu.edu.sg)
January 2000
Construction Automation in Improving Construction Productivity in

Singapore
Nature of the construction industry
Construction operations bring sophisticated resources and technologies together and convert them into
the physical components of a project. The whole process of construction for most types of building
generally consists of 20~30 different skilled trades and these operations are performed in the field with
some uncontrollable external factors such as inclement weather conditions and equipment breakdowns.
The nature of construction, namely the large scale, open job site, and extensive fragmentation in the
construction process gives rise to the chaotic dynamic features of the production process in construction
which are not faced by factory based mass production industries. The effects of technological advances
are not as obvious in construction as in manufacturing. This situation ultimately contributes to the
productivity lag in the construction sector compared to the developing status of productivity in other
industries. In Singapore, the construction sector contributes 6% of the countrys GDP. Innovations to
improve productivity in construction are thus not only necessary but also imperative.
A process oriented solution
The widely acknowledged difficulties and complications in construction resulting from the chaotic nature
of the production process determine that the effective solution for improving productivity should be a
process oriented approach. Past technical innovation experiences have proved that single-task oriented
technology improvement did not have a major impact on the overall construction productivity
performance and often resulted in problems of poor process and resource interaction or island of
technology. Using information technology in construction makes it possible to set up a process oriented
reengineering model and to shape it in reality with the help of current available mechanisation
technology. Major changes are taking place with respect to construction processes, products,
organisations, resources, markets, methods, and technological strategies. Many of the efforts are being
carried forth in the name of Computer Integrated Construction (CIC). Faced with the chaotic nature of
construction production, increasing the ability of data processing and data storage alone cannot be
enough to bring out a process oriented solution to improve construction productivity. Standardisation
must be added into this model to improve productivity. Reflecting on past experience of productivity
improvement in manufacturing, productivity can be increased only if every task involved in the
production process has a clear, simple, rigid definition. This productivity improvement model is built up at
the cost of losing flexibility in the manufacturing process. This new approach for improving construction
productivity involves building up a construction process friendly environment by way of CIC and a
standardised production in the aspects of material, process and final product. Based on this approach, a
model of a mobile or moving factory was set up [1]. In the model, a well defined process friendly
working environment must be built up for virtual information sharing between different stages of
construction where CIC technology is involved. Meanwhile this environment provides a comfortable
construction job-site working area that is immune to the random influence of outside factors like adverse
weather. It simplifies and standardises the work in situ by using a large quantity of prefabrication
members in design and construction. The mobile factory is set up on the basis of standardisation and
the application of CIC technology.
January 2000
The development of construction automation system

A well integrated and standardised construction process is expected to be established to assist
construction firms in response to the difficult environment. In Japan, more and more construction
companies recognise it to be their most strategic option when facing the challenges of increasing
competition. In their approach, the development of a Construction Automation System is a leading part
of this whole innovation strategy. Under this strategy, several types of Construction Automation Systems
were developed such as Shimizus SMART system, Obayashis BIG Canopy system, Taiseis T-Up
system, Takenakas Roof Push-Up Construction Method and Kajimas AMURAD system. These
systems have different approaches but the same objective. An indoor factory-like working environment
is established so that the process of site construction is immune to the random bad weather which
accounts for 20% of the construction delay in the conventional method. The wide use of heavy
transportation technology and prefabricated members standardise the production process in construction
to avoid a lot of unnecessary repetition in operation and to diminish the unskilled work in construction. It
is reported that an Automated Construction System will cut the man-hours required in construction by
30% and reduce the volume of industrial waste by 50%. With the introduction of CIC, the whole process
of construction, including design, procurement and site construction, is integrated. Management for the
whole process is computerised and automated construction is realised.
The construction industry in Singapore mainly follows the traditional procurement method, with a main
contractor responsible for undertaking the work. Projects are normally divided into two packages:
substructure and superstructure, which may not necessarily be undertaken by the same company. Main
contractors in Singapore use nominated or domestic specialist supply and fix subcontractors for such
work as structural steel, mechanical and electrical engineering installations and landscaping. To improve
productivity in construction, Singapore has set up its own development guideline based on the
investigation of its construction productivity status in the 1992 CIDB Construction Productivity Task
Force Report. In the report the construction sector in Singapore was perceived as a low productivity
sector due to its low-tech image and visible employment of a large number of foreign workers. The
indicator of square meters of completed construction per man-day revealed that Japans construction
productivity was 30% higher than Singapores and Finlands highly prefabricated industry was 60%
higher than Singapores. As a long-term strategy, the features of a high productivity project were well
defined and outlined as follows: 1) High degree of standardisation in grid layout and sizes of components;
2) Building systems and installation details which are simple, easy to construct and repetitive; 3) Designs
that use or facilitate the use of a high degree of prefabrication or pre-assembled forming systems;
4) Architectural details applied in design to minimise the use of wet trades, replacing them with dry
components or semi-dry trades; 5) Well managed construction with proper planning and working details
supplied; 6) High level of mechanisation and good housekeeping; 7) Skilled workers in the relevant
trades, entering and leaving the project on schedule. The task force concluded that Singapore must be
prepared for a quantum leap in the level of prefabrication with an accompanying high level of
standardisation.
From the late 1970s, the construction industry in Singapore faced similar problems to Japan, such as
labour force shortage, the aging of skilled workers, labour protection and heavy workload. These
problems have led to the difficulty the local construction industry has in attracting new workers. In 1996,
the Singapore construction industry had a shortfall of about 16% in technical personnel. Only 10% of site
workers in Singapore were certified as skilled in 1995. This is actually a very low rate compared to that
in Japan and Finland whose skilled worker rate reaches 65%. In construction, structural work is the
most labour-intensive site job so it has the highest potential for productivity improvement. Using
prefabricated structural members on site will significantly reduce labour power input. The use of
January 2000
prefabrication and standardisation in the construction process will simplify the operation on site and
substantially reduce the dependence on the skill of site workers. Greater usage of prefabricated
components is recommended in the design of buildings. BCA aims to increase usage of prefabricated
concrete components from the current level of 7% to 15% by 2005.
A Comparison: Projects in Japan versus the China Square Project in Singapore [2]
Obayashi Corporation successfully completed two projects in Japan using the Big Canopy System.
Presently, there is one more project in Kobe using the System. The China Square project in Singapore
was the first commercial building project on which this system was used, though previously it was used
on a housing project construction (Table 1). A comparison of the work unit ratio (man-day/square
meter) of the projects in Japan and the project in Singapore reveals the difference in productivity
performance in the different construction environments (Table 1).
Table 1. Profiles of the different Big Canopy projects
Project Name
No. of Unit
No. of Floor
Total Area (m2)
Building Height (m)
No. of Pre-cast Member
Ave. Time per Floor (day)
No. of Worker
Work Unit Ratio
(man-day per square meter)
Nomura Yachiyo Nexus Kashii Hinode-cho N China Square

(Japan)
(Japan)
(Japan)
(Singapore)
254
114
301
Commercial
26
20
33
28
33,307
16,081
38,664
42,653
90.5
69.1
114.3
138.3
8376
3,919
8,781
8,200
8.0
6.79
6.65
6.0
29.5
26.9
17.6
50
0.19
0.22
0.10
0.196
Unlike in the conventional method, there are no different trade categories in this system. All workers in
construction are labelled as multi-skilled worker which means the whole process of site construction
does not rely much on workers skill as a large quantity of well finished prefabricated components are
used. The effect of labourer skill is diminished in this construction method more than in any other
conventional one. For instance, in Obayashis past projects, only 30 workers were needed in the
construction of skeletal structure instead of 120 workers in the conventional method. Large structure
members are assembled before installation and almost no wet work can be seen in situ. Therefore the
whole working area is cleaner than usual. The process of construction scarcely produces construction
rubbish. A comfortable working area is created. In such an automation system, workers do not have to
climb up and down and safety is improved.
Conclusion
For a long time, large-scale, open site and extensive fragmentation of the construction process have
been the main difficulties in achieving better construction productivity performance. Past task oriented
technical innovation did not have a major impact on the overall construction productivity performance. A
process-oriented approach is carried out under CIC and there is standardisation of the whole
construction process. The application of CIC in construction builds up a friendly information sharing
virtual environment. Through standardisation, the construction production is simplified for process
management. The development and application of a Construction Automation System brings about a
construction friendly environment that eliminates the effect of weather. A factory like working
environment is set up at the job site where the project plan is turned into the building structure to
complete the innovation chain of productivity improvement in construction.
January 2000
References
[1]
Ting Seng Kiong & Zhou Ji, Mobile Factory For Improving Construction Productivity,
Workshop Proceedings on ASEAN Infrastructure Planning & Management, Bangkok, Thailand, 1998,
pp. 101-108.
[2]
Ting, S.K. and Zhou, J., Construction Automated System in Singapore, 7th East Asia-Pacific
Conference on Structural Engineering and Construction (EASEC-7), Kochi, Japan, August 27-29, 1999,
pp. 1621-1626.
Ting Seng Kiong (cskting@ntu.edu.sg)
January 2000
A Simple Approach to Strength and Stability of

Steel Columns in Fire
Introduction
A simple and direct analytical formula has been derived to determine the fire resistance of steel
columns. Based on the Rankine principle, the proposed formula allows the strength and the
stability aspects of a steel column at a particular temperature to be separately determined. Here,
the evaluation of column strength is based on the rigid-plastic theory, while the stability
consideration is based on the elastic buckling theory. By considering the two factors in this
manner, the proposed approach allows for their interaction. The proposed formula can be used
for both axially and eccentrically loaded columns, and no calibration against test results is
needed. The proposed formula has been verified against a set of published test results and
predictions using EC3-1.2 design formulae[1]. The comparison study shows consistently good
agreement with both the test results and the EC3 formulae considered.
Proposed Rankine formula
At each particular temperature T, the proposed Rankine formula allows the interaction of the
rigid-plastic collapse load Pp and the elastic buckling load Pe to determine the critical load Pc as
follows:
1
1
1
=
+
Pc (T ) Pp (T ) Pe (T )
(1)
The Pp of an axially loaded column is simply the yield load Py. But for an eccentrically loaded
column or a column with end moments, Pp is reduced by the bending stresses and is less than Py.
To take the combined action of compressive force and bending moments into account, the
following simplified strength criterion is adopted to determine the reduced Pp.
Pp (T )
Py (T )
M (T )
=1
M p (T )
(2)
where Py(T) = f y(T)A is the yield load at T in the absence of M(T); f y(T) = k y(T) f y is the yield
strength of material at elevated temperatures; k y(T) is the reduction factor of yield strength f y;
M(T) = Pp (T)e is the maximum bending moment along the column length in which e is the
equivalent eccentricity; M p (T) = f y(T)Zp is the sectional plastic moment of resistance at T in the
absence of Pp (T); and Zp is the plastic-section modulus.
For axially loaded columns and eccentrically loaded columns bending into symmetric single
curvature, the maximum Pe(T) is given as follows:
Pe (T ) =
2 E(T ) I
2
le
(3)
where E(T) = kE (T)E is the elastic modulus of material at elevated temperatures; kE (T) is the
1
January 2000
reduction factor of elastic modulus E; I is the moment of inertia; and le is the effective length.
The Rankine approach makes the following assumptions:
a. Temperature distribution within a member is uniform;
b. Member is perfectly straight;
c. Flexural buckling about the major or minor principle axis is determined separately;
d. Local and torsional buckling are not considered;
e. Effect of axial force on M p is ignored.
The variations of E and f y with respect to elevated temperatures are assumed to comply with
EC3-1.2. The reduction factors for the slope of linear elastic range kE (T) and the effective yield
strength k y(T) for the non-linear stress-strain relationships in the code are applied to E and f y,
respectively.
Verification study
In this study, the proposed formula is verified against a set of column test results and the EC-1.2
design formulae. A total number of 102 full-scale standard fire test results on hot-rolled Isection steel columns have been collected from the literature[2, 3] to form the database. These
test data comprise a wide range of columns of different slenderness ratios, end conditions and
loading levels. All the columns were subjected to uniform heating, with failure temperature
above 400 C, and were free to expand.
Both the proposed formula and the EC3 design formulae are applied to determine the failure
temperatures of all columns subjected to given external loads. The predictions of both
approaches are then compared to the test results. Table 1 summarises the regression analyses
for both the approaches, showing that the proposed formula yields a mean of 1.052 for the
failure temperature ratios (the ratio of predicted to test failure temperatures) of the 102 columns,
with a coefficient of variation (COV) of 6.64 %. A large proportion of the failure temperature
ratios lie between 1.0 and 1.1, and the variation of the values is small, changing from 0.87 to
1.29. For axially loaded columns, the proposed formula gives extremely accurate predictions on
the failure temperature while for eccentrically loaded columns, it tends to give an average of 7
% overestimate.
On the other hand, the EC3 design formula yields a conservative prediction of failure
temperatures for axially loaded columns with a mean of 0.963. However, it yields
unconservative predictions for eccentrically loaded columns, with a mean of 1.093. These lead
to an average overestimate of 4.9 % on the failure temperatures when all the 102 columns are
considered, with a COV of 10.53 %. This discrepancy is relatively greater than that of the
proposed formula.
Proposed
Rankine
Formula
EC3-1.2
Design
Formulae
Table 1. Comparisons of predictions of failure temperature ratio

Column type
Overall
Axially loaded
Eccentrically loaded
Col. No.
102
34
68
Mean
1.052
1.019
1.069
COV(%)
6.64
5.54
6.56
Col. No.
102
34
68
Mean
1.049
0.963
1.093
COV(%)
10.53
6.97
9.36
January 2000
Conclusions
The proposed Rankine formula is an empirical approach which does not take initial
imperfections and residual stresses into account. But through the comparison with test results
and predictions by EC3, it has been established that the proposed formula based on the Rankine
principle is simple, reliable and consistent. It can be applied as a quick tool to assess the fire
resistance of steel columns.
References
[1] Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures: Part 1.2. General Rules. Structural Fire Design.
(EC3-1.2). (1995). Draft ENV 1993-1-2, Commission of European Communities, Brussels,
Belgium.
[2] Talamona, D. (1995). Buckling Curves in Case of Fire - ECSC 7210 SA
316/515/931/618 : Fire Resistance of Steel Columns With Eccentric Load, CTICM, Report
No. INC-96/450-DT/VG Part 1, Saint-Remy-les-Chevreuse, Paris.
[3] Schleich, J.B., and Cajot, L.G. (1996). Buckling Curves in Case of Fire: Draft Final Report,
Part I (Main text), CEC Agreement 7210-SA/316/515/618/931, ProfilARBED-Recherches,
Luxembourg.
Toh Wee Siang (cwstoh@hotmail.com)

Tan Kang Hai (ckhtan@ntu.edu.sg)
Fung Tat Ching (ctcfung@ntu.edu.sg)
January 2000
A Rankine Approach for Fire Resistance of Steel Frames

Introduction
A novel and simple analytical approach has been derived to determine the fire resistance of
steel frames. Based on the Rankine principle, the proposed approach allows the strength
and the stability aspects of a steel frame at a particular temperature to be separately
determined. Here, the evaluation of frame strength is based on the rigid-plastic theory,
while the stability consideration is based on the elastic buckling theory. By considering the
two factors in this manner, the proposed approach allows for their interaction. The proposed
approach has been verified against the test results on six portal frames and the predictions
of a finite element model (FEM). Apart from one prediction, the comparison study shows
consistently good agreement with both the test results and the FEM predictions.
Proposed Merchant-Rankine approach
At each particular temperature T, the proposed Rankine approach allows the interaction of
the rigid-plastic collapse load factor p and the elastic buckling load factor e to determine
the critical load factor c as follows:
1
1
1
=
+
c (T ) p (T ) e (T )
(1)
Alternatively, if the critical temperature Tc is of interest while the applied working loads
remain constant, i.e. c(Tc) = 1.0, a trial-and-error procedure is necessary to determine Tc
such that the sum of 1/p (Tc) and 1/e(Tc) is equal to unity.
For a steel frame at T, the p (T) is evaluated according to the plastic theorems incorporating
temperature effects[1]. For simple rigid frames, all possible mechanisms are easily
visualised. The direct method of combined mechanisms is the most convenient manual
way of deriving p (T). For more complex problems, the first-order elastic-plastic hinge
method[2] can be used. On the other hand, the e(T) can be evaluated by using the proposed
second-order elastic-plastic hinge method with appropriate modifications [3].
The proposed approach makes the following assumptions:
a. Temperature distribution within a member is uniform.
b. Members are perfectly straight, isotropic and prismatic.
c. Members buckle in the plane of frame only.
d. Local and lateral torsional buckling are not considered.
e. Applied working loads are concentrated and proportional.
The elastic modulus E and the yield strength f y are two dominant parameters in the
proposed Rankine approach. In the rigid-plastic analysis to determine p , the steel stressstrain relationship is assumed to be perfectly plastic; in the elastic-buckling analysis to
determine e, the steel stress-strain relationship is assumed to be linearly elastic. The
variations of E and f y with respect to elevated temperatures are assumed to comply with
EC3-Part 1.2[4].
January 2000
Verification study
In this study, the proposed Rankine approach is verified against the test results of six simple
portal frames[5], as well as the predictions of the FEM developed by Toh[3]. The details of
the frame tests are given in Figure 1, and the analytical results of both the Rankine
approach and the FEM are then compared to the test results in Table 1. Apart from one
frame, the predictions of the Rankine approach are within the accuracy of 10 % error,
compared to the test results. The maximum error of 23 % corresponds to Frame 6; this
particular test result may not be representative due to experiment error. Compared to the
FEM results, the Rankine predictions seem to be more consistent and accurate. The
maximum errors in the predictions merely exceed 5 % of the FEM values.
Frame
fy
F1
F2
F1
F2
(cm)
(cm) (N/mm ) (kN) (kN)
119
117
395
56
14
124
117
395
84
21
124
117
382
112
28
125
150
389
20
125
150
389
24
125
150
389
27
6.7
l/2
l/2
All sections: IPE 80
Figure 1. Details of frames.

Table 1. Analytical results of frames by Rankine approach.
Rankine approach
Frame
At predicted Tc
p
Test
FEM
Tc (C)
Tc (C)
Tc (C)
(1)
(2)
(3)
% error bet.
(1) & (2)
(1) & (3)
1
2
1.105 10.567 1.000

1.100 11.041 1.000
625.4
544.3
600
530
620.5
544.8
4.24
2.70
0.80
-0.09
3
4
5
6
1.119
1.463
1.527
1.605
451.4
521.7
457.9
402.7
475
562
460
523
458.2
530.7
478.6
425.3
-4.97
-7.16
-0.45
-23.01
-1.48
-1.68
-4.32
-5.32
9.425
3.161
2.899
2.651
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
Conclusions
The proposed Rankine approach serves as a simple tool for assessing the fire resistance of
steel frames, from the simple interaction of stability and strength aspects. The verification
study shows that this approach yields consistently good agreement with both the test results
and the FEM predictions.
January 2000
References
[1] Fung, T.C., Tan, K.H., and Toh W.S. (1999). Rigid plastic analysis of frames under
fire conditions, submitted to J. Structural Engineering & Mechanics.
[2] Tan, K.H., Fung, T.C., and Toh, W.S. (1999). A first-order elastic-plastic analysis of
steel frames in fire, Conference Proceedings of EASEC-7, Japan.
[3] Toh W.S. (1999). Stability and strength of steel structures under thermal effects. PhD
thesis submitted to Nanyang Technological University.
[4] Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures: Part 1.2. General Rules. Structural Fire Design.
(EC3-1.2). (1995). Draft ENV 1993-1-2, Commission of European Communities,
Brussels, Belgium.
[5] Rubert, A. & Schaumann, P. (1986). Structural steel and plane frame assemblies
under fire action, Fire Safety Journal, Vol. 10, pp. 173-184.
Toh Wee Siang (cwstoh@hotmail.com)

Tan Kang Hai (ckhtan@ntu.edu.sg)
Fung Tat Ching (ctcfung@ntu.edu.sg)
January 2000
Effect of Stress-Path on the Failure of Concrete Under

Tri-Axial Stress State
To improve the ductility of concrete, transverse reinforcement is often used to create a state of triaxial
stress in the concrete brought about by the lateral expansion of the concrete. The mobilisation of
passive confining stress as a reaction of the reinforcement to the expanding concrete is different from
the active confining stress condition often employed in triaxial test chambers. In other words, the
stress paths are different under these two conditions. Calibration of constitutive formulation based on
active confining stress may not be applicable to that under passive confining stress. This study focuses
on the subtle differences resulting from the two different confining conditions.
Specimens from three groups of concrete with different unconfined compressive strengths were tested
under different confining conditions for the investigation. The dimensions of the concrete cylinders
were 100 x 300 mm. The specimens were subjected to a constant confining pressure for active
condition whereas for the passive condition, confining pressure corresponding to a predetermined
lateral stiffness Kst was used. Experimental results indicated that the failure envelope under passive
40
Axial stress, 1 (MPa)
Extrapolated failure envelope

of passive confinement
Failure envelope of active

confinement
30
20
2=1.90 MPa
10
2=0.50 MPa
2=1.20 MPa
2=2.76 MPa
Compressive strength: 23.74 MPa
0
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
Confining Stress, 2 (MPa)
Figure 1. Stress-path under passive confinement

confinement is different from that of active confinement (see Figure 1). The failure envelope of
passive confinement was observed to be more non-linear than that of active confinement.
From the tests results, it was also found that for the same grade of concrete under passive
confinement, the higher the stiffness of lateral confinement, the closer the failure envelope to that of
January 2000
active confinement. The above observation suggests that the stress-path can influence the shape of the
failure envelope and different stress-paths will result in different failure envelopes.
However, the differences between them were quite insignificant. For engineering purposes, it is
reasonable to consider that the effect of stress-path on failure envelope is negligible and the failure
envelope can be assumed to be stress-path independent. Using the five-parameter multiaxial failure
criteria, the compressive meridian of the failure envelope (see Figure 2) can be expressed as follows:
f l'
f l'
f = f 0.713 + 1.713 1 + 9.577 ' 2 '
f co
f co
'
cc
where
'
co
f cc' = peak strength of confined concrete; f l' = lateral confining pressure on concrete;
f
'
co
= unconfined compressive strength of concrete
Normalized, 1 / f c (MPa)
3.0
2.5
Proposed failure envelope
2.0
1.5
1.0
active
Kst =750 MPa
0.5
Kst =1500 MPa

Kst =3000 MPa
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
Normalized, 2 / fc (MPa)
Figure 2. Experimental results compared with proposed failure envelope
It is important to note that for passive confinement, provided the maximum mobilisable confining
stress is high enough that the specimen reaches its peak strength before attaining this confining stress.
For a particular stiffness of lateral confinement, the concrete may reach its peak strength at a certain
confining stress, termed the critical confining stress (2p), which can be lower than the maximum
mobilisable confining stress. Although the effect of stress-path on failure envelope appeared
January 2000
insignificant, the stress level of the critical confining stress was found to be a function of stiffness of
lateral confinement as well as the uniaxial compressive strength of concrete. (see Figure.3)
Normalized, 2p (MPa)
12
Best fit of G80
10
8
6
Best fit of G25

4
Best fit of G50
G25
G50
G80
2
0
0
1000
2000
3000
Normalized, K
st
4000
5000
(MPa)
Figure 3. Relationships between critical confining stress and stiffness of lateral confinement
For the same grade of concrete, the higher the value of Kst , the higher the stress level of 2p , which
means higher peak compressive strength can be achieved. In practice, for the case of concrete
confined by lateral reinforcement, if the confining stress provided by the yield strength of
reinforcement is less than the value of 2p , the peak strength of concrete is similar to that of active
confinement. Otherwise, concrete will attain its peak strength at 2p before the reinforcement reaches
its yield strength and any increase in yield strength of reinforcement cannot further enhance the
compressive strength of confined concrete. Therefore, the determination of critical confining stress is
important in practice.
Tan Teng Hooi (cthtan@ntu.edu.sg)

Paulus Irawan (cirawan@ntu.edu.sg)
January 2000
Constitutive Model of Concrete Under Multi-Axial Stresses

Concrete is a heterogeneous material with highly non-linear behaviour. To analyse the behaviour of concrete
structures realistically, a reliable constitutive model that is able to simulate this non-linearity is needed. Several
constitutive models of concrete under multi-axial stresses have been proposed in the past. However, most of
these models can only predict the behaviour of concrete under monotonic loading. Few existing constitutive
models can adequately simulate the behaviour of concrete under cyclic loading.
The source of concrete non-linearity generally can be traced to continuum fracture and plasticity. Maekawa and
Okamura (1983) developed a combined elasto-plasticity and fracture model for two-dimensional problems of
concrete, which was expanded to three-dimensional model by Maekawa et al. in 1993. The model is called the
Triaxial Elasto-Plastic Fracture Model (TEPF), in which concrete is regarded as a set of infinitesimal elastoplastic components. The parallel springs represent concrete elasticity, and dashpots represent concrete
plasticity. Broken springs are used to indicate damage in concrete. The summation of the contribution made
by the internal stress in each non-damaged element of the constituents is considered as the total stress in
concrete. So the elastic strain is proportional to the internal stress intensity applied to non-damaged
components.
The TEPF model is an effective constitutive model for concrete which has been was proven to cover the plastic
and fracturing characteristics of concrete under monotonic loading. This model has clear physical meaning for
every component, and has a simple and reliable mathematical formula to be applied in Finite Element Method
(FEM). However, the TEPF model cannot simulate the hysteresis behaviour of concrete, although the
degradation of stiffness due to the damage in the concrete can be represented.
This research aims to develop a path-dependent constitutive model for concrete under hysteresis loading using
the TEPF approach. The model named the Triaxial Elasto-Plastic Viscoelastic Fracture model (TEPVF) can be
obtained by using an extra element to manage the energy consumption during the unloading and reloading. The
energy consumption of concrete during unloading and reloading can be simulated by the viscous dissipation of
energy as represented by the additional dashpot in parallel with the Hooke's spring, as shown in Figure. 1.
The hysteresis characteristic of concrete in the new TEPVF model will be investigated in four parts, namely,
the volumetric elasticity and fracture, deviatoric elasticity and fracture, shear plasticity and volumetric plasticity
(dilatancy). The hysteresis behaviour of concrete in these four parts is the main subject of the study. The
constitutive equation of concrete under multi-dimensional cyclic loading can be expressed in the incremental
form as:
d {} = [M ] ( [I ] + [L] ) d {} + C I1e d {VE } + C ee d [DE ]{ee }

1
(1)
January 2000
where and are total stress and total strain respectively, M and L are continuum fracture and plasticity
matrix respectively, VE and DE are damping functions to represent the hysteresis behaviour of concrete in
volumetric and deviatoric elasticity respectively, ee is the elastic deviatoric strain tensor and C I1e and Cee are
functions to account for the various influencing factors.
A parametric investigation, employing mostly
experimental tests of concrete in a tri-axial chamber, is currently being done to determine the functions that
affect the hysteresis behaviour of concrete under multi-axial stresses.
Damaged
Viscoelasticity
Plasticity Elasticity
Total Stress
Internal Stress
Total Stress
Figure 1. Schematic Outline of Triaxial Elasto-Plastic Viscoelastic Fracture system

Reference
[1]
Maekawa, K. and Okamura, H. (1983), "The Deformational Behaviour and Constitutive Equations for
Concrete Using Elasto-Plastic and Fracture Model", Journal of the Faculty of Engineering, The
University of Tokyo (B), Vol. XXXVII, No. 2, pp.253-328
[2]
Koichi Maekawa, Jun-ichi Takemura, Paulus Irawan, and Masa-aki Irie (1993), "Triaxial Elasto-Plastic
and Continuum Fracture Model for Concrete", Concrete Library of JSCE, Vol. 22, pp.131-161.
Cheong Hee Kiat (chkcheong@ntu.edu.sg),

Tan Teng Hooi (cthtan@ntu.edu.sg)
Paulus Irawan (cirawan@ntu.edu.sg)
January 2000
Hybrid Precast Concrete Beam

Precast concrete technology is widely used in todays construction industry. Its core advantage is that
it is a fast track construction methodology that enables developers and contractors to economise on
construction cost and time. In recent years, there have been rising demands for improved quality of
precast concrete technology by the Singapore construction industry. New types of precast members
which simplify the connection of precast segments are always of interest to the industry. A new type
of hybrid precast concrete beam is currently being studied.
Figure 1. Details of hybrid precast beam

The typical details of a hybrid precast beam are shown in Figure 1. The precast concrete beam is
designed as a reinforced concrete beam with normal high tensile steel bars. Mild steel stirrups are
used for vertical shear link reinforcement. All the beam reinforcements are provided in accordance
with the requirements of BS 8110 without considering the contribution from the structural steel Isection. At each end of the beam, a Grade 43 structural steel I-section is partly embedded inside the
precast concrete beam. The protruding parts of the embedded structural steel I-sections are used to
connect the beam to the supporting columns. There are two layers of 22-mm diameter main
reinforcing bars at the bottom of the specimen. One layer is placed on the top of the bottom flange of
the embedded structural I-steel section, while the other layer is placed beneath. All beams have the
same dimensions of 250 mm width by 450 mm height by 4000 mm span. The length of the protruding
structural steel I-section at each end is 250 mm. The embedded length of the structural steel I-section
is varied from one effective depth, d, of the concrete segment to 2.5d, in increments of 0.5d. The
beams are divided into two groups. The first group of 4 beams are reinforced with stirrups comprising
8 mm mild steel stirrups spaced at 350 mm, whilst the second group of 4 beams are reinforced with
stirrups spaced at 200 mm. Grade 40 concrete is used. The design compressive cube strength of the
concrete is 40 MPa. However, the achieved 28-day compressive cube strength was 50.6 MPa and the
28-day cylinder strength was 40.0 Mpa. The dimensions of the Grade 43 structural steel I section are
317 mm 165 mm.
Test results of the beam specimens are summarised in Table 1. V is the ultimate failure load
recorded from each actuator.
January 2000
Table 1. Test results of beam specimens

Beam
Mark
D
(mm)
d
(mm)
a
(mm)
a
d
le
(mm)
he
(mm)
As
(mm2 )
B-350-1.0
B-350-1.5
B-350-2.0
B-350-2.5
B-200-1.0
B-200-1.5
B-200-2.0
B-200-2.5
450
450
450
450
450
450
450
450
425
425
425
425
425
425
425
425
1500
1500
1500
1500
1500
1500
1500
1500
3.53
3.53
3.53
3.53
3.53
3.53
3.53
3.53
425
638
850
1063
425
638
850
1063
317
317
317
317
317
317
317
317
1900
1900
1900
1900
1900
1900
1900
1900
(%)
1.68
1.68
1.68
1.68
1.68
1.68
1.68
1.68
V
(kN)
160
173
178
176
196
206
217
206
The effects of stirrup spacing and different embedded lengths of the steel I-section on the failure load
of the hybrid beams are shown in Figure 2. For each value of embedded length of the steel I-section,
the specimen with nominal spacing of 350 mm consistently failed at a lower failure load than that
reinforced at spacing of 200 mm.
Ve/(bd') (MPa)
2.5
2
R8@350
R8@200
1.5
1
0.5
0
0
500
1000
1500
Embedment length (mm)

Figure 2. Shear force versus embedment length
The embedded length is a governing factor in the specimen's ultimate load capacity. For beams having
stirrup spacing of 350 mm, the failure load increased marginally with the increase in the embedded
length. For each embedded length, the failure load of beams with stirrup spacing of 200 mm is higher.
The increase in failure load is higher with the increase in the embedded length. However, the apparent
optimum failure load is observed for an embedded length of 2d.
The typical failure pattern of all beams was a diagonal shear crack that developed within the
reinforced concrete portion of the hybrid beam. For each of the beams having stirrup spacing of 200
mm, the diagonal crack eventually extended approximately along the soffit of the embedded steel Isections. The horizontal crack predominantly governs the beams ultimate failure. Very few inclined
January 2000
shear cracks were observed in the composite steel/concrete segments at both ends of the hybrid beam
at ultimate failure.
From the typical crack development patterns, two types of failure modes are noted. The diagonal
shear failure is a basic failure mechanism. This basic failure mechanism is characteristic of the beam
series with nominal stirrup spacing of 350 mm. The major diagonal shear crack near to the end
support region of the reinforced concrete portion of the hybrid beam marks the full shear capacity of
an individual beam in this series. In the beam series with designed shear stirrup spacing of 200 mm, in
addition to the basic failure mechanism, an individual beam finally fails when the horizontal crack
develops and fractures along the soffit of the steel I-section. The propagation of this horizontal crack
marks a bond failure of the lower layer of the tensile reinforcement.
Yip Woon Kwong (cwkyip@ntu.edu.sg)

Susanto Teng (csteng@ntu.edu.sg)
January 2000
Removal of Colour and TOC Using a TiO 2/Fe2O3 Suspended Bubble Photo
Catalytic Oxidation Reactor
Introduction
Traditional methods for recycling and reuse of biologically treated wastewater into high quality industrial
water or potable water consist of various combinations of physical and chemical processes. These processes
mainly transfer the contaminated substances from biologically treated wastewater to solid waste, which
needs further treatment for safe disposal. Photo catalytic oxidation (PCO) is a clean reaction process. It just
requires oxygen, photo catalyst and UV light. The development of novel PCO technology for destroying or
degrading bacteria, both organic and inorganic species, could be applied to considerable advantage.
However, the quite low mineralisation rates in a PCO system provide plenty of scope for improvement,
especially in the catalyst and the reactor. This study investigated the possibility of improving the PCO
efficiency by coating titanium dioxide (TiO 2 ) onto haematite particles for wastewater purification.
Experiment and methodology
The PCO reactor: The annular PCO reactor shown
in Figure 1 consisted of an outer cylindrical Pyrex
casing (i.d. of 10 cm and height of 35 cm) fitted
with an air diffuser and an UV lamp (NEC). The
reactor volume was 2.8 l. A low pressure mercury
lamp (18 W) with major emission at 253.7 nm
was suspended vertically in the middle of the
reactor as an UV source. A masterflex
microcessor pump was used for recirculation at a
controlled flow rate. The solution containing
photocatalyst particles was placed between the
annulus of the UV lamp and the Pyrex cylinder.
Air was bubbled upwards through the air diffuser.
Figure 1.
Diagram of bubble PCO reactor.
Preparation of new photo catalyst: There are many

different ways of producing photocatalytic
particles. This study focused primarily on the
production and use of TiO 2 catalyst coated onto
haematite particles. The resulting new photo
catalyst contained 12% TiO 2 and had a BET
surface area of 168 m2 /g, an average size of 10
m and mainly anatase in crystal form. All the
other
chemicals
were
reagent
grade.
Results and discussion

Figures 2 and 3 show the results of the removal of humic acid (colour substances) for total organic carbon
(TOC) and color 400 respectively. It was clear that increasing the illumination time resulted in higher TOC and
color400 removal. It was found that color 400 removal was up to 81 % at 180 minutes UV illumination time.
However, the TOC removal was only 54% at the same UV illumination time.
Results in Figures 2 and 3 also revealed that the use of TiO 2 as catalyst to remove TOC and color 400 in a
bubble photo catalytic reactor had a lower efficiency than the use of TiO 2 /Fe2 O3 as catalyst. Comparing the
results obtained for photo catalytic oxidation with TiO 2 , the TOC and color 400 , the removal rates were
enhanced by approximately 1.8 times and 1.3 times respectively at 180 minutes illumination using
1
January 2000
TiO2 /Fe 2 O3 as catalyst. It is clear that the TOC and color 400 removal rates were substantially increased due to
the Fe 2 O3 support.
Many investigators have reported the mechanism of photo catalytic oxidation using TiO 2 catalyst for water
purification. It is clear that photo generated holes (h+) and electrons (e-) may migrate to the irradiated TiO 2
surface to act as adsorption sites or receptors for the organic compound and molecular oxygen in an air
bubble reactor. More adsorption sites (receptors) may enrich the molecular oxygen and the humic acid on
the TiO 2 surface. Hydroxy or peroxy radicals formed from the protonation of the superoxide (O2 -) anion
(arising from adsorption of molecular oxygen on electron-rich sites) are highly reactive and may readily
attack the chemisorbed humic acid ion to release aqueous organic anions, a surface carboxylate radical and
CO2 .
Total organic carbon removal (%)
60
0.04 g/L TiO2

0.04 g/L TiO2 on Fe2O3
0.2 g/L TiO2 of Fe2O3
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
50
100
150
200
Illumination time (min)
Figure 2.
Influence of catalyst on total organic carbon removal in PCO reactor. UV wavelength was
253.7 nm at 18 watts. The initial concentration of humic acid was 32.13 mg/L TOC. The pH
was 7.0. Reaction temperature was 26o C.
90
0.04 g/L TiO2
80
Colour removal (%)
70

60

50
40
30
20
10
0
0
50
100
Illumination time (min)
150
200
Figure 3.
Influence of catalyst on color 400 removal in PCO reactor. UV wavelength was 253.7 nm at 18
watts. The initial concentration of humic acid was 32.13 mg/L TOC. The pH was 7.0.
Reaction
temperature was 26o C.
Figure 4 shows the SEM surface morphology of TiO 2 /Fe 2 O3 catalysts prepared in this study. It can be seen
that the TiO 2 layer was uniformly coated on the surface of Fe2 O3 to form a new porous catalyst. This porous
TiO2 /Fe 2 O3 catalyst had a BET surface area of 168 m2 /g, which is three times higher than that of TiO 2 (50
m2 /g). In contrast to the results in Figures 2 and 3, clearly, the large surface areas of Fe2 O3 enriched the
molecular oxygen and humic acids on the TiO 2 surface and enhanced the electron migration to TiO 2 surface,
which acts as an adsorption site. At the same time, Fe 2 O3 as porous material might be acting as a sink for
2
January 2000
electrons released when a photon with sufficient energy strikes the TiO 2 catalyst, then reducing the
electron/hole recombination. Thus, depending on the adsorption/desorption equilibrium of humic acid, the
PCO of an adsorbed humic acid using TiO 2 /Fe 2 O3 catalyst might be of some importance for the overall
efficiency of its oxidative degradation (reaction 1). In addition, the TiO 2 layer on the surface of Fe2 O3 may
prevent the dissolution of iron during the usage in aqueous suspensions (bubble photo reactor). However,
more testing on the prevention of dissolution of iron needs to be carried out to verify this.
TiO 2 (h + ) + ( RX ) ads . TiO 2 + ( XR + ) ads.
(1)
The percentage removal rates of TOC and color 400 were also affected by the catalyst loading. Figure 5 shows
the TiO 2 /Fe 2 O3 catalyst loading as a function of percentage removal rates in the bubble photo reactor. It can
be seen that increasing the catalyst loading from 0.04 g/l to 0.2 g/l did not significantly affect the percentage
colour removal. However, as the percentage catalyst loading was increased, the percentage TOC removal
initially rose and then fell. It would appear that when catalyst loading is greater than 0.08 g/l, there is UV
light scattering and shielding as the number of particles in the solution increased. Furthermore, the
percentage TOC removal rate may drop as a result of loss in surface area available for UV light-harvesting
occasioned by agglomeration (particle-particle interaction) at high solid concentration.
Figure 4.
SEM micrograph surface of photo TiO 2 /Fe 2 O3 catalyst.
90
80
Removal (%)
70
60
50
40
30
TOC
Color
20
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
TiO2/Fe2O3 catalyst loading (g/L)
Figure 5.
Influence of catalyst loading on color 400 and TOC removal. UV wavelength was 253.7 nm at
18 watts. The initial concentration of humic acid was 32.13 mg/L TOC. The pH was 7.0.
Reaction temperature was 26o C.
January 2000
Conclusions
An UV bubble photo reactor for advanced PCO process using a new TiO 2 coated haematite catalyst has been
developed in this work. SEM results revealed that TiO 2 was uniformly coated on the surface of Fe2 O3 as a
catalytic layer to form a bulk photo catalyst TiO 2 /Fe 2 O3 . The porous TiO 2 /Fe 2 O3 catalyst had a BET surface
area of 168 m2 /g, which is three times higher than that of commercial TiO 2 . The experimental results
indicated that the suspended TiO 2 /Fe 2 O3 catalysts in a bubble photo reactor was effective in removing TOC
at 54% and color 400 at 81% at 180 minutes illumination time. Comparing the results obtained for photo
catalytic oxidation in a bubble photo reactor with TiO 2 as catalyst, TOC and color 400 removal rates were
enhanced by approximately 1.8 times and 1.3 times respectively with TiO 2 /Fe 2 O3 as catalyst. It is believed
that increasing the BET surface area of new TiO 2 /Fe2 O3 catalyst (1) enriched the molecular oxygen and
humic acids on TiO 2 /Fe 2 O3 surface area, (2) enhanced the electron migration to TiO 2 surface to act as
activated sites and (3) provided a better electron transfer by reducing electron/hole recombination.
Darren Delai Sun (ddsun@ntu.edu.sg)
J Li
J H Tay
January 2000
Optimising the Preparation of Activated Carbon from Digested Sewage Sludge

and Coconut Husk
Introduction
Due to the ever increasing amount of sewage sludge and the more stringent environmental quality standards,
the treatment and disposal of sewage sludge has become an expensive and environmentally sensitive
problem worldwide. Furthermore, with some traditional disposal routes coming under pressure and others
being phased out, it is necessary to seek a cost-effective and innovative solution to the problem caused by
sewage sludge disposal. Sewage sludge is rich in carbonaceous organic material, therefore, it has the
potential to be converted into activated carbons if pyrolysed under controlled conditions or with some
chemical treatment. This sludge conversion will offer the combined benefits of reducing the volume of
sludge to be disposed of and producing a valuable adsorbent with a lower cost than commercial activated
carbons. In this study, the effect of preparation condition parameters such as the concentration of activating
agent (ZnCl2 ), heating temperature and the mixing ratio of additive coconut husk to sewage sludge were
examined.
Experimental and methodology
The anaerobically digested and dewatered sewage sludge was collected from the Kranji Sewage Treatment
Works, Singapore. The sludge was pre-dried at 103 C, crushed and sieved into a uniform size of 0.5-2.0mm
before it was mixed with the dried and crushed coconut husk. Ten gm of the mixture was then impregnated
into 25ml of ZnCl2 solution for 24 hours at room temperature. After removing the supernatant liquid, the
mixture was dried at 103C for 24 hours and subsequently pyrolysed in a stationary vertical furnace (Lenton,
Eurotherm 91e) with purified nitrogen as purge gas. The heating rate, dwell time and nitrogen gas flow were
maintained at 15C/min, 2h and 400 cm3 /min, respectively. Following pyrolysis, the product was washed
with 3M HCl solution, rinsed with deionised water and then dried at 103 C for 24 hours. Subsequently the
product was subjected to a surface area and porosity analysis and phenol adsorption test for characterisation.
Effect of heating temperature and concentration of activating agent
In this test, the mixing ratio of coconut husk to sludge was maintained at 1:2. The heating temperature and
the ZnCl2 concentration were varied from 400 to 700C and 3M to 5M respectively. Figure 1 shows the
effects of heating temperature on the BET surface area of the final products with the activation of various
concentrations of ZnCl2 solution. It was found that low heating temperature could not sufficiently produce
carbons with well developed porosity. The elevated heating temperature improved the development of
porosity of the products. However, when the temperature exceeded 600C, the porosity decreased
significantly. This probably resulted from a sintering effect, which destroyed the pore walls between adjacent
pores and widened the micropores to meso or macropores. The activation of 3M ZnCl2 solution appeared to
perform not as well as 5M and 7M ZnCl2 solutions in terms of total BET surface area, possibly due to an
insufficient activation. However, it is favoured to produce a highly microporous activated carbon (Figure 3).
Figure 2 indicates the variation of phenol removal efficiency of the products with the heating temperature. It
was found that the heating temperature of 600C could yield activated carbons with the highest phenol
removal efficiency, which did not agree with the variation with BET surface area and heating temperature.
Effect of mixing ratio of coconut husk to sewage sludge
Sewage sludge has a relatively low carbon content and high ash content compared to other commercial
precursors for activated carbon production. The purpose of addition of coconut husk is to improve the
January 2000
properties of the precursors, especially to increase the carbon content and decrease the ash content. However,
in order to make adequate use of sewage sludge, a reasonable mixing ratio of coconut husk to sludge is
necessary to make sewage sludge the predominant precursor in the mixture. In this section, the mixing ratio
was varied from 1:4 to 1:1, while the heating temperature and ZnCl2 concentration were maintained at 500C
and 5M respectively, where the products with best BET surface area were prepared. Two samples made from
pure coconut husk and pure sewage sludge respectively were adopted as a comparison.
The results indicated that the mixing ratio did not make a significant difference on the BET surface area of
the products, whereas it affected the microporosity considerably (Figure 4). Nevertheless, as most of the
produced carbons were in fact the microporous materials, the BET surface area could not depict their actual
total surface area. For comprehensive consideration of the surface area of the products and maximisation of
sludge utilisation, the mixing ratio of 1:4 appeared to be a favourable cost-effective ratio. As dewatered
sewage sludge prior to drying normally has around 80% of water content, this ratio was actually 1:20 in
terms of undried sludge, which is reasonably low for practical use.
5M ZnCl2
7M ZnCl2
750
700
650
600
550
500
450
400
400
500
600
700
3M ZnCl2
5M ZnCl2
7M ZnCl2
70
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
400
500
Temperature (C)
600
Figure 2. Variation of phenol removal efficiency

of the products with heating temperature
3M ZnCl2
5M ZnCl2
7M ZnCl2
100
80
60
40
20
0
400
700
Temperature (C)
Figure 1. Variation of BET surface area

of the
products with heating temperature
Percentage of micropores
surface area (%)
BET surface area (m /g)
800
Phenol removal efficiency (%)
3M ZnCl2
500
600
650
700
Heating temperature (C)
Figure 3. Variation of percentage of micropores area of the products with heating temperature
January 2000
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
Percentage of
micropores area
Sludge
1:4
1:3
1:2
1:1.5
1:1
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
m 2/g
BET surface area
Coconut
Husk
Mixing ratio of coconut husk to sludge based on dried weight
Figure 4. Variation of BET surface area and percentage of micropores area

with mixing ratio of coconut husk to sludge
Conclusion
Activated carbons were produced from digested sewage sludge with additive coconut husk. It was found that
5M ZnCl2 activation and 500C of heating temperature could produce activated carbon with the highest BET
surface area. The mixing ratio of coconut husk to the sludge did not have a significant effect on the BET
surface area of the products whereas it affected the microporosity considerably.
S. Jeyaseelan (csjeya@ntu.edu.sg)
X.G. Chen (p142841549@ntu.edu.sg)
January 2000
Reuse of Treated Municipal Wastewater in Urban Agriculture: A Hydroponic

Study
Introduction
The rapid development in Singapore has caused a big increase in demand for potable water. With limited
natural water resources, developing non-traditional water resources is essential. Seawater desalination
provides an alternate reliable water resource. It is however expensive when compared to other conventional
water resources. Reuse of treated municipal wastewater offers another promising source of water supply and
needs to be systematically studied. Currently, some 3% of secondary effluent is reclaimed for industrial use
in general washing, cooling and cleaning. The use of treated municipal wastewater for industrial purposes is
encouraged and expected to increase in the years to come. Reusing municipal wastewater in urban
agriculture is another attempt to create non-traditional water resources. The purpose of this study is to
examine the feasibility of growing hydroponic vegetables using municipal wastewater effluents and to
identify the potential factors that may affect the plant growth and development.
Materials and methods
A 32-day experimental trial was conducted at the Ngee Ann Polytechnics rooftop greenhouse. Butterhead
lettuce (Lactuca sativa L. cv. Baby butter) and chinese cabbage (Brasicca chinensis) were grown with
primary and secondary effluents in two independent deep flow hydroponic systems (DFT). A control
treatment containing a balanced nutrient solution (Cooper solution) was operated in parallel with the two
types of effluents. Twenty four plants, twelve each of lettuce and cabbage, were transplanted to each DFT
per treatment. Six plants from each of the three treatments were harvested 16 and 32 days after transplanting
(DAT). Effluent quality including pH, EC, COD, suspended solids (SS), N (free ammonia, TKN, nitrite and
nitrate), total P, Cl, Na, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn, Cd and Pb were determined. The fresh weight and
height of the plant shoots/roots of each harvest were measured to compare their growth and development.
Finally, plant tissues were oven-dried, burned and digested for elemental analyses.
Control butterhead lettuce and chinese cabbage plants grew well though minor chlorosis on the chinese
cabbage was observed. The chlorosis may be due to lack of nitrogen as only half of the normal nutrient
strength was utilized for the control solution. Compared to the control plants, butterhead lettuce grown on
wastewater effluents grew surprisingly well. The secondary butterhead lettuce were larger than those grown
on primary effluent though the primary plants appeared to be greener. Chinese cabbage might be sensitive to
the wastewater effluents as only four stunted chinese cabbage plants survived in the primary effluent
treatment.
Effluent quality analysis
Table 1 shows the quality results of the wastewater effluents and control solution. The pH and electric
conductivity (EC) were maintained at 6.0 and 1.0 respectively throughout the experimental trial. The results
indicate that after 32 days of planting, 87% and 68% of COD were removed from the primary effluent and
secondary effluent respectively. The continuous solution recirculation throughout the experiment facilitated
the oxidation of organic matters. Similarly, 98% and 96% of SS were removed from the primary effluent
and secondary effluent respectively. The results suggest that the hydroponic systems purified the
wastewater effluents.
No clear trend was observed for nutrient removal. Although the constant solution recirculation provided an
aerobic environment to enhance nitrate production, no clear trend of nitrogen removal was observed. This
can be explained by the fact that, within the hydroponic system, the organic matter and biofilms create
1
January 2000
complex partitioned micro-environments that promote nitrogen cycling. The nature of the effluent depends
on the balance between the rates of the nitrification and denitrification activities on the surface of the
rhizomes. The complicated nitrogen transformation will be left for future study. The increase of total P
might have been affected by the addition of phosphoric acid when adjusting the pH.
Table 1 also demonstrates that plants have taken up necessary macro- and trace-elements from the
wastewater effluents though the trend of metal ion removal is not clear. The fluctuations of metal ion
concentrations might have been caused by volume changes due to active evaporation. In fact, nutrient
uptake is highly dependent on the plant species and the growing stage.
Table 1. Effluent quality results
Parameter
Before Transplanting
1st Harvest (16 DAT)
2nd Harvest (32 DAT)
(mg/L)
P
S
C
P
S
C
P
S
C
pH
7.78
7.77
7.88
6.03
6.28
6.32
6.22
6.02
6.40
EC (mS/cm)
1.0
0.9
1.0
1.0
0.9
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
Total P
4.18
2.82
6.93
6.36
6.31
6.44
6.56
6.86
6.76
Free Ammonia
21.24
9.15
2.41
10.43
0.61
1.12
15.97
1.11
2.19
TKN
55.60
20.38
28.15
25.31
11.28
6.87
42.76
48.14
49.50
Nitrite
0.04
0.13
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
Nitrate
1.70
16.00
124.55
27.83
12.93
115.70
30.7
13.05
103.87
COD
438.00
36.33
29.33
54.67
28.67
23.00
58.25
12.00
30.67
SS
146.00
16.27
NA
7.92
0.66
NA
2.52
0.65
NA
Chloride
234.10
333.23
19.95
234.67 221.70
8.47
238.50 330.90
14.23
Na
126.24
120.26
14.08
118.00 123.86
14.32
159.18 136.53
14.02
K
12.85
11.71
95.21
16.91
19.51
113.29
10.91
10.15
50.33
Ca
66.75
67.45
114.49
29.18
33.43
92.13
86.17
72.98
203.34
Mg
8.78
8.56
33.50
9.48
10.43
26.84
11.61
10.18
25.84
Fe
0.24
0.11
7.15
0.16
0.20
5.68
0.18
0.25
5.85
Cu
0.13
0.12
0.22
0.10
0.12
0.67
0.24
0.11
0.69
Mn
0.16
0.12
0.12
0.26
0.06
0.34
0.17
0.07
0.15
Zn
0.18
0.11
0.03
0.10
0.11
0.19
0.24
0.15
0.24
Cd
0.05
0.07
0.03
0.03
0.02
0.02
0.03
0.02
0.02
Pb
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND
ND - Non Detectable; NA - Not Available; P Primary; S Secondary; C - Control.
Plant growth and development
Table 2 shows the root and shoot growth characteristics of butterhead lettuce. The results indicate that the
secondary lettuce had a better root development than the primary lettuce. Until the first harvest, the
secondary lettuce developed 17% of its total root mass, which is comparable to the control lettuce
development, while the primary lettuce developed less than 8% of the total root mass. The root mass of the
secondary lettuce was about 95% of the control mass, which is much higher than that of the primary lettuce
(70%). The slower and smaller root development might have been caused by the competition for root
surface of the biofilms that are used to remove the high COD and SS in the primary effluent. This can be
explained by our observations that all the primary plants had dark coloured roots. It is believed that
significant microbial activities had taken place around the root zone for COD and SS removal.
For the shoot growth, the results show that butterhead lettuce of the primary and secondary treatments were
59% and 72% the weight of the control lettuce respectively. Several factors may contribute to the shoot
development retardation. For instance, nutrient deficiency, especially nitrate and the macro elements (e.g.,
2
January 2000
K, Ca and Mg), could hinder the shoot development. However, there were no deficiency symptoms recorded
on the butterhead lettuce plants on all treatments. Root surface competition may also contribute to the
retardation. Nutrient transport could become inefficient if nutrient needs to penetrate biofilms to reach the
root surface for use. In addition, high ionic concentration might affect the function of root membranes.
Further study is needed to understand the exact impacting factors.
Table 2. Root and shoot growth characteristic of butterhead lettuce grown on different wastewater effluents
and control (non-effluent) treatments
Effluent \
Primary
Secondary
Control
Plant
Weight (g)
Length (cm) Weight (g)
Length (cm) Weight (g)
Length (cm)
Root @ H #1 0.30 0.37
6.03
13.50
22.20
0.88 0.59
0.96 0.42
Root @ H #2 3.92 1.23
13.96
28.12
47.68
5.19 1.66
5.49 1.55
Shoot @ H #1 5.96 3.55
10.73 1.74 7.36 3.20
11.67 0.88 12.52 0.69
12.73 0.47
Shoot @ H #2 47.23 6.02 14.26 1.62 57.79 17.67 14.38 0.82 80.15 31.40 15.00 0.50
Six plants each were measured; H stands for harvest.
Elemental analysis
Elemental analysis results reveal that plant grown on the wastewater treatments accumulated higher levels of
K, Ca, Mg and Fe in the shoots than in the roots. This implies that plants can get essential nutrients from
wastewater effluents. The uptake pattern was somewhat different for the trace elements. It appears that the
roots contained higher concentrations of Cu, Mn and Zn than did the shoots. This suggests that the roots
could accumulate higher levels of trace elements than could the shoots. Therefore, by careful selection,
plants could take up necessary nutrients from wastewater effluents for shoot development, while
accumulating heavy metals in the roots to purify wastewater effluents.
Overall, butterhead lettuce grown on primary and secondary effluents appeared to be healthy, while chinese
cabbage did not survive as it might be sensitive to wastewater effluents. The results indicate that plants
cultivated in hydroponic systems can absorb nutrients from wastewater effluents for their growth while
accumulating heavy metals in the roots.
Conclusions
The study has demonstrated that it is possible to grow hydroponic butterhead lettuce with treated municipal
wastewater, while efficiently purifying the wastewater effluent for direct discharging or further reuse. The
purified water could be reused for gardening, flowers and other horticultural crops. To grow market-grade
agro-products, additional nutrients may have to be added to the wastewater effluents. Although the
wastewater-grown butterhead lettuce appeared healthy, the plants may have been stunted by potential
growth-affecting factors, e.g., root surface competition, nutrient deficiency and toxicity, pH and temperature.
These factors may adversely affect the plant growth of some species such as chinese cabbage. Further
research is needed to determine the correlation of these potential affecting factors and to conduct a human
health risk analysis for the consumption of the wastewater-grown crops.
J Y Wang (jywang@ntu.edu.sg)
J H Tay
K K Chow
January 2000
Biomass Growth and Retention in Anaerobic Filters

Introduction
It has been established from previous studies that the ability of support media in anaerobic filters (AFs) to
retain high concentrations of biomass is an important factor for satisfactory system performance. This study
was initiated to examine the influence of support media on biomass growth and retention, either as suspended
growth trapped within the interstitial void spaces, or as attached biofilm adhered to the media surfaces in
three laboratory-scale anaerobic filters treating synthetic protein-carbohydrate wastewater. The significance
of the suspended biomass and the attached biofilm on wastewater treatment was evaluated quantitatively.
Methods and materials
Three 15l plexiglas columns packed with Raschig rings were used as the anaerobic filters (AFs). The rings
that packed into the reactor designated AF-1 were of open-pored surface texture glass material (with specific
surface of 187 m2/m3 and porosity of 75%), while the AF-2 and AF-3 reactors were packed with smooth
surface polyvinyl chloride (PVC) Raschig rings (with specific surface/porosity of 132/90 and 187/75,
respectively). A synthetic waste was used to provide a consistent organic substrate. After startup, the
reactors were operated simultaneously at the same hydraulic and organic loading rates. The reactors were
operated until a steady-state performance was reached as indicated by constant gas production and effluent
COD concentration. The steady-state conditions were maintained to enable collection of data for analysis and
performance evaluation. The organic loading to all reactors was then increased simultaneously, and the
reactors were operated until the next steady-state conditions were reached. A testing protocol based on a
simulated methane gas production by the biomass using a batch serum bottle technique was used to estimate
quantitative COD removal by the biomass during steady-state conditions. The method involved measurements
of hourly methane production and corresponding total organic carbon (TOC) concentration from the biomass
sample.
At the end of the experiment, all the reactors were dismantled. The reactor liquid and Rashig rings were
taken out to determine the concentrations and distributions of suspended and attached biomass within the
reactors. The rings in each AF were washed with distilled water to slough off the attached biofilm. While the
outer film could be removed readily from the rings, a considerable amount of inner film was still attached
firmly on the media surfaces. The rings were scrubbed individually with a brush to transfer completely all
biomass to a container for biomass growth determinations.
Analysis of results
The effects of media porosity and surface texture on reactor performance were evaluated. As shown in
Figure 1, the COD removal efficiencies indicated that all reactors seemed to exhibit somewhat equal
performance at the loadings of 2 and 4 g COD/l/d, with overall COD removal efficiency in excess of 90%.
When the loading was increased to 8 g COD/l/d and subsequently to 12 and 16 g COD/l/d, removal at these
stages began to show the relative superiority of reactors AF-1 and AF-2 over AF-3. The COD removal
efficiencies were about 90% in both AF-1 and AF-2 and was 75% in AF-3 at 8 g COD/l/d. At higher
loadings of 12 and 16 g COD/l/d, both AF-1 and AF-2 showed similar COD removal of about 77% and 73%
compared with the markedly reduced removal efficiencies of 67% and 57% in AF-3, respectively. The results
indicated that both media surface texture and porosity have a significant impact on the performance of AFs.
The higher removal efficiencies of AF-1 associated with its open-pored media texture is likely attributed to
higher growth of attached biofilm. As for AF-2, its larger media porosity may promote higher growth of
suspended biomass leading to higher removal efficiencies. The fact that both AF-1 and AF-2 exhibited much
lower concentration of effluent suspended solids, as will be discussed, may also justify their higher retention
characteristics.
January 2000
Results from the serum bottle tests at loading rate of 16 g COD/l/day are tabulated in Table 1. The results
indicated that the suspended biomass extracted from the lower quarter (25 cm) of the reactor height in all
reactors showed the highest methane production at both loading rates. The production of methane at this
reactor zone in general constituted about 30% of the total methane produced by the suspended biomass. This
could be due to higher substrate concentration near the influent inlet area and higher solids accumulation in
the lower zone. Above the lower 25 cm zone, distribution of the methane production is somewhat consistent.
In general, reactor AF-2 exhibited the highest methane production at the respective reactor height, followed
by AF-1 and AF-3. The results indicated that the attached biofilm in AF-1 produced a higher proportion of
methane (56%) than the suspended biomass (44%), while the suspended biomass in AF-2 demonstrated
higher methane production (58%) than the attached biofilm (42%). No clear distinction of the two biomass
was observed in AF-3. The fact that the suspended biomass in AF-2 showed the highest methane production
is likely due to its higher media porosity and pore size. This may reduce the possibility of clogging or `dead
space' formation, which in turn allows more contact between biomass and substrate leading to better organic
removal. Likewise, the higher methane yield exhibited by the attached biofilm in AF-1 could be accounted for
by its open-pored media surface texture. This corresponds well to their superiority in COD removal efficiency
as compared with AF-3, discussed previously.
An examination of effluent suspended solids (SS) may indicate the extent of biomass washout. Effluent SS
measurements during the steady-state period operating at the COD loading of 16 g/l/d indicated that much
higher SS values, in the order of 11,000 to 12,000 mg/l, were observed in AF-3 than in AF-1 and AF-2, the
latter with SS of below 1600 mg/l. The observation of higher effluent SS in AF-3 indicated that significant
biomass washout had taken place leading to a much lower COD removal efficiency in AF-3. This could be
due to the poor biomass retention capability of the smooth surface media being packed in AF-3. The effluent
SS results may justify the hypothesis that AF failure at high loadings is likely due to biomass washout rather
than short circuiting. This suggests that the contribution of short circuiting to AF failure may not be as
significant as normally thought.
Figure 2(a) shows the distributions of suspended solids (SS) in the reactor liquid. The bulk of suspended solids
were in the lower 25 cm of all reactors. The distribution patterns were likely due to the accumulation of solids
at the reactor bottom along with the higher waste concentration at the lower zone. As expected from the
batch serum bottle test results previously mentioned, the SS concentrations in AF-2 were consistently the
highest at all reactor heights, likely due to its larger media porosity. The solids volatility was in the range of
82-90% in all reactors and was consistently maintained at this level along the reactor height.
January 2000
Distributions of the attached biofilm in all reactors are illustrated in Figure 2(b). The results indicated similar
distribution to that shown by the SS; the biofilm concentration was higher at the lower reactor heights than it
was on the upper sections. The concentrations of biofilm in AF-1 associated with its open-pored media
surface texture were significantly higher than the other two units at all reactor heights. This indicated that the
unique feature of the double-pore structure of the media is able to provide better biomass adhesion than the
smooth surface media. Although biomass washout was more in AF-3 than in AF-2, as discussed previously,
the attached biofilm was greater in AF-3 than in AF-2. This is simply attributed to a much higher media
specific surface in AF-3 than in AF-2, which enables greater growth of biofilm.
The amount of biomass retained by each AF was also determined. Table 2 indicates that AF-1 retained the
maximum amount of 340.0 g VSS [column (6)], while AF-2 retained a slightly lower biomass of 336.9 g VSS
and AF-3 the lowest mass of 315.0 g VSS. It is noted that the open-pore media structure of AF-1 resulted in
the maximum retention of 52% biofilm in the reactor. On the other hand, AF-2 showed the maximum
retention of about 72% SS owing to its larger media porosity. It can be seen from Table 5 that the biomass in
each AF is present in two physical forms. The first form is in suspension [column (2)] being held loosely in
the interstitial void spaces within the bed. The other form is the attached biofilm [column (5)] consisting of
outer film [column (3)] which was attached loosely and those on the inner film [column (4)] which were
firmly adhering to the media surfaces. The former could be readily detached by washing with distilled water.
The latter, which formed into a slimy crust, could only be removed by scrubbing. As the biomass growing on
the loosely-held outer layers can be easily sloughed off subject to hydraulic shear or biogas lifting, the biomass
contributed only about 15-17% of the total attached biofilm.
A comparison of the results in Table 2 with Table 1 (discussed previously), indicates that the amount of
methane produced by the respective biomass corresponded well with the biomass distribution at the loading of
16 g COD/l/d. The measured 52% and 45% of total biofilm in AF-1 and AF-3 respectively [Table 2 column
(5)] fit closely with the estimated 56% and 49% [Table 1 column (9)] of methane production by the serum
bottle technique. Reactor AF-2 indicated somewhat different results where the methane production of 42%
January 2000
[Table 1 column (9)] by the attached biofilm seemed to be over-estimated considering the measured lower
28% of biofilm [Table 2 column (5)]. Likewise, the methane production of 58% by the suspended biomass
[Table 1 column (8)] seemed to be under-estimated considering the measured 72% of biomass [Table 2
column (2)]. One possible explanation for this discrepancy is that, of the measured 72% of suspended
biomass, not all of them were active enough to convert the waste into methane.
Conclusions
The results of COD removal efficiency indicated that media surface texture and porosity have a significant
impact on anaerobic filter performance. The fact that the suspended biomass in the reactor produces the
highest proportion of methane is likely due to its largest media pore size and porosity. A higher methane yield
exhibited by the attached biofilm in the other unit could be accounted for by its open-pored media surfaces.
To optimise the retention of biofilm attached on the media surfaces and the suspended biomass trapped within
the interstitial void spaces, support media of open-pored surfaces and high porosity should be used.
J H Tay (cjhtay@ntu.edu.sg)
K Y Show
Table 1. Estimation of CH4 produced by suspended biomass and attached biofilm

Reactor
CH4 Produced through

Reactor Height (L/d)
Total CH4 Produced

by Suspended Biomass
Measured
Total CH4
Production
% CH4 Produced
25 cm
50 cm
75 cm
100 cm
(L/d)
(L/d)
Suspended
biomass
Attached
biofilm
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
AF-1
7.9
8.3
5.4
6.3
27.9
62.8
44
56
AF-2
8.9
6.0
7.7
7.3
29.9
51.4
58
42
AF-3
6.0
5.3
5.4
5.6
22.3
43.6
51
49
Table 2. Distribution of biomass (expressed as g VSS)
Reactor
(1)
Total suspended biomass

(2)
Outer biofilm
(3)
Inner biofilm
(4)
Total biofilm
(3) + (4) = (5)
Total biomass in the reactor

(2) + (5) = (6)
AF-1
162.9 (47.9%)a
30.8 (9.1%)
146.3 (43.0%)
177.1 (52.1%)
340.0 (100%)
AF-2
241.4 (71.7%)
14.7 (4.4%)
80.8 (23.9%)
95.5 (28.3%)
336.9 (100%)
AF-3
174.3 (55.3%)
20.4 (6.5%)
120.3 (38.2%)
140.7 (44.7%)
315.0 (100%)
Values in brackets are expressed as a percent of total biomass in each reactor
January 2000
Long-term Predictions of Phosphorus Dynamics in Kranji Reservoir

Introduction
Kranji reservoir, which is located in the northeast of Singapore, has been subjected to different
trophic states since it was built. The reservoir was rapidly undergoing eutrophication during the
1960's and 1970's due to large volumes of water pollutants emanating from predominantly farming,
industrial, urban and semi-urban areas. Since 1976, industrial and domestic discharges have been
controlled by legislation, a vast network of sewers and wastewater treatment. The water quality was
substantially improved. However, the results are not as expected. The eutrophication is still
sustained and trophic status in Kranji reservoir is between eutrophic and mesotrophic. The reason is
that the phosphorus, which is stored in sediments during the period of heavy pollution, is
continuously released to support the eutrophication process in the reservoir.
It is not clear how long the eutrophication will sustain and how much phosphorus is released from
the sediment to overlying water during that period. Optimal control and management of
eutrophication in the reservoir require more comprehensive studies from an integrated point of view
to provide symbolic logic which is capable of expressing the functions and relationships of
phosphorus dynamics associated with environmental processes and predicting the release flux. The
utilisation of mathematical models is an attempt to realise these purposes as they can quantitative
describe the sediment-water interaction system and predict the impacts of elemental changes on
water ecosystems.
Mathematical models of sediment phosphorus and long-term predictions
A set of mathematical models has been developed to simulate the phosphorus dynamics in aquatic
sediments. The models, consisting of six interacting differential equations, have the following
general matrix form:
[y ] =
i
[ y '( t, y
)]
where i = 1 to 6 corresponding to dynamic variables of dissolved phosphorus (DP), exchangeable

particulate phosphorus (EP) and organic phosphorus (OP) respectively in the aerobic and anaerobic
layers.
The sediment phosphorus models were applied to the Kranji reservoir to understand the dynamic
characteristics of phosphorus in aquatic sediments and to predict internal loadings of phosphorus
over a long-term period up to 30 years. The results will be greatly helpful for the management of
reservoir eutrophication over a long-term period.
Determinations of model parameters
The parameters to be used in the proposed sediment phosphorus models include dynamic variables
and state constants. The former are the external variables including the organic loading and
environmental factors and the latter characterise the properties of sediments and the physical,
chemical and biological mechanisms regulating phosphorus dynamics. The dynamic variables in
Kranji reservoir were obtained by field surveys. The state parameters with respect to the
characteristics of sediments, sorption and biological decomposition were determined by laboratory
January 2000
work. Because no data were available to estimate the transport parameters of diffusion, mixing and
burial processes, they were adopted from the literature. The obtained average parameters and values
of external variables are listed in Tables 1 and 2.
Table 1. State parameters used for the long-term prediction
Parameters
Sorption:
Kinetic rate constant
Langmuir isotherm constant
Sorption minimum
Decomposition:
Rate constant of labile fraction
Labile fraction
Rate constant of refractory fraction
Refractory fraction
Aerobic layer
Anaerobic layer
2.90 (day-1)
5.97 (l/mg)
6.65 (mg/g)
2.63 (day-1)
4.61 (l/mg)
3.72 (mg/g)
0.0378 (day-1)
1.91 (%)
0.0049 (day-1)
7.16 (%)
0.0253 (day-1)
1.59 (%)
0.0037 (day-1)
7.50 (%)
Table 2. Annually averaged values of external variables

External variables
Organic matter
Dissolved oxygen
Dissolved phosphorus
Temperature
Calibrated depositional flux
Values
26.31 (mg/g)
2.7 (mg/l)
3.7 (g/l)
29.49 (C)
0.51 (g/m2 .day)
Because information on the recovery processes of Kranji reservoir is not available, four
hypothetical scenarios are used for predictions: organic loading remaining at the present level, being
decreased by 5%, 10%, 25% and 50% annually. Similarly, during the simulation period, the
dissolved oxygen, phosphorus and temperature are kept constant whereas the organic matter
remains constant in the first five years and then annually decreases by 5%, 10%, 25% and 50%
respectively.
Prediction results and discussion
The predicted results of phosphorus internal loadings for the long period of 30 years are shown in
Figure1. If current conditions of organic loading remain unchanged, the resulting internal loading
of phosphorus released to the overlying water will remain almost without variation and be in a
steady state level. However, if organic loadings reduce yearly, the internal loadings will decline
gradually at a very slow rate. The quickest response is observed when the reductions of organic
loading are larger than 25%.
The periods to reach 50% decrease of internal loading are approximately 25, 15, 8 and 5 years
when organic loadings are reduced by 5%, 10%, 25% and 50% respectively. The response speeds
of predicted internal loading declinations are dependent on the reduction rates of organic loading.
The larger the reductions of organic loadings, the higher are the declinations of the phosphorus
January 2000
internal loading. However, when the reductions of organic loading are larger than 25%, this
function will be weakened. The calculated initial rates of yearly decreases of internal loadings for
three cases are respectively 2.5%, 4.3%, 9.8% and 19.0%(Table 3). These rates decrease gradually
in response to the time and tend to be the same. The internal loadings do not show a significant
declination due to the fact that the stored sediment phosphorus will sustain the release process
when external organic loads are reduced.
P Internal loading (mg/m .day)
8
Constant
10% reduction
25% reduction
50% reduction
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
Time (year)
Figure 1. Long-term predictions of the internal loading of phosphorus

for 30 years in Kranji reservoir
Table 3. The indexes characterizing the recovery of internal loading
Organic
Loading
5% reduction
10% reduction
25% reduction
50% reduction
Annual decl. rate (%)

Initial
Final
2.5%
3.7%
4.3%
4.4%
9.8%
4.6%
19.0%
4.5%
Recovery
(%)
63.4%
78.3%
85.5%
87.0%
During the declination of internal loadings when the organic loading is reduced, the stored
exchangeable particulate phosphorus is correspondingly consumed as shown in Figure 2. Unlike the
decrease of internal loadings, the exchangeable particulate phosphorus decreases at a much slower
rate to compensate for the reductions in the regeneration flux from the decomposition of organic
phosphorus. This mechanism can be clearly seen from the simulated variations of adsorptiondesorption fluxes occurring in the anaerobic layer, as shown in Figure 3. The sediments act as the
source when the organic loading remains at current conditions. However, when the organic loadings
are reduced yearly, the adsorption fluxes of phosphorus in the sediments gradually reduce to zero
and finally desorption takes place. The sediments become the source to sustain the phosphorus
release. The reduction speeds are associated with the reduction rates of organic loadings.
January 2000
Conclusion
The results of long-term predictions of Phosphorus dynamics in Kranji reservoir indicate that
internal loadings of phosphorus will remain approximately constant if the organic loading into
sediments is kept unchanged. However, if this organic loading reduces yearly, the internal loadings
of phosphorus will decline gradually at a very slow rate. The response speeds of this declination are
dependent on reduction rates of organic loadings. The larger the reductions of organic loadings, the
higher the declinations of phosphorus internal loadings.
3.0
EP (mg/g)
2.5
2.0
1.5
Constant
1.0
10% reduction
0.5
25% reduction
50% reduction
0.0
0
10
15
20
25
30
Time (year)
Figure 2. Simulated variations of exchangeable particulate phosphorus

in sediments of Kranji reservoir for 30 years
Adsorption/desorption flux
(mg/m .day)
0.04
Desorption zone
0.02
0.00
Adsorption zone
-0.02
-0.04
-0.06
-0.08
-0.10
Constant
10% reduction
25% reduction
50% reduction
-0.12
-0.14
0
10
15
20
25
30
Time (year)
Figure 3. Simulated adsorption-desorption fluxes in sediments of Kranji reservoir for 30

years
The calculated initial rates of annual decreases of internal loadings are 2.5%, 4.3%, 9.8% and 19.0%
respectively when organic loadings are reduced by 5%, 10%, 25 % and 50%. These rates decrease
gradually in response to time and tend to be equal finally. The internal loadings predicted do not
show a significant and immediate declination as the sediment phosphorus stored in sediments will
sustain the release process when the external organic loading is reduced.
January 2000
The exchangeable particulate phosphorus stored in sediments is predicted to decrease at a much

slower rate. The sediments act as the source when the organic loading remains unchanged. However
when organic loadings are reduced yearly, the adsorption fluxes of phosphorus in sediments
gradually reduce and finally desorption takes place. The sediments in this case will become the
source to sustain the phosphorus release.
A Appan (cappan@ntu.edu.sg)
Wang Hong
January 2000
Behaviour of Cracked Diaphragm Walls

Introduction
To date there have been limited reports in the literature of the need to incorporate
concrete cracking in the analysis and design of diaphragm walls supporting propped
excavations. A back-analysis of a case study using finite element analysis is presented
to highlight the differences in the behaviour of a diaphragm wall when the wall is
assumed to behave linear elastically, and when the effects of wall cracking are
incorporated.
Case study
In this case study, the excavation was carried out using the top-down method of
construction. The excavation was 10 m deep. It was retained by a 1.0 m thick and 35.5
m long diaphragm wall, with three levels of slabs as props. The ground surface level
was at RL 102.5 m. The ground conditions at the site generally consisted of a 5 m thick
layer of loose fill, underlain by a thick layer of marine clay. Beneath the marine clay
was a medium dense to very dense clayey sand layer.
Finite element program
A finite element program EXCAV97 (Wong and Goh 1997) was used in the backanalysis. The program can simulate excavations in clay and sand under plane strain
conditions. Four-node isoparametric elements were used to model the soil. The
program uses the hyperbolic model to simulate the nonlinear, stress dependent, and
inelastic behaviour of the soils. It can also simulate the sequential nature of the
excavation and strut installation
In the analysis, the walls and slabs were modelled as beam elements. The analysis
takes into account the effects of the cracking of the diaphragm wall by using a nonlinear moment-curvature relationship based on Branson's (1977) formula. The momentcurvature relationships calculated based on Bransons formula, and that used in the
finite element analysis are shown in Figure 1. Figure 1 shows that the concrete
cracking reduces the bending moments significantly. This figure also shows that after
cracking is initiated, the continued use of an uncracked section in the analysis would
over-predict the wall-bending moments, especially when the magnitude of the wall
curvature is large. However, the use of a fully cracked section in the analysis would
under-predict the wall-bending moments.
Results
For comparison, finite element analyses were also carried out assuming linear elastic
wall properties. The measured and computed wall lateral displacements for excavation
to RL 92 m are shown in Figure 2. The maximum lateral wall deflection for the analysis
incorporating the effects of cracking was 65 mm, compared with 57 mm for the linear
elastic analysis. The corresponding bending moments deduced from the wall
inclinometer and strain gauge readings together with the computed values are shown
in Figure 3. The computed wall bending moments agreed well with those deduced from
the wall inclinometer and strain gauge readings, in both the shape and magnitude of
the bending moments. The results also indicate that the computed wall bending
moments for the analysis assuming that the wall behaves linear elastically are much
January 2000
larger than that for the analysis that incorporated the effects of concrete cracking. The
computed maximum bending moment for the analysis based on the linear elastic wall
properties is approximately 60% larger than that obtained from the analysis that
incorporated the effects of concrete cracking. The maximum bending moment for the
analysis incorporating the effects of cracking was 1290 kNm/m, compared with 2030
kNm/m for the linear elastic analysis.
Lateral wall deflection (mm)
Soil
Profile
-30
30
60
90
0
Fill
Depth (m)
12
Soft
marine clay
Medium dense
silty sand
Soft organic clay
Soft to medium
stiff silty clay
18
Medium stiff
marine clay
24
Medium dense
to very dense
clayey sand
RL of ground surface: 102.5 m

RL 92 m : Measured
30
RL 92 m: FEM (Cracked)
RL 92 m: FEM (Uncracked)
36
Figure 2.
Effects of cracking on lateral wall deflections.
January 2000
Bending moment (kNm/m)
-1500
0
-1000
-500
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
Depth (m)
12
18
24
Excavation level: RL 92 m
Strain gauges
Wall inclinometer
Cracking moment
FEM: Cracked
FEM: Uncracked
30
36
Figure 3.
Effects of cracking on wall bending moments.
References
[1] Branson, D. E. (1977). Deformation of concrete structures. McGraw-Hill, New York,
N.Y.
[2] Wong, K. S. and Goh, A. T. C. (1997). EXCAV97 - A computer program for analysis
of stresses and movements in excavations. NTU-PWD Geotechnical Research Centre,
Geotechnical Research Report NTU/GT/97-1
Anthony T C Goh (ctcgoh@ntu.edu.sg)

K S Wong (ckswong@ntu.edu.sg)
T Y Poh
I H Wong
January 2000
Dynamic Testing of the Bukit Timah Granite Using the Split Hopkinson Bar
Introduction
The mechanical properties of most materials vary with strain-rate. The split Hopkinson pressure
bar (SHPB) is usually used to measure dynamic properties of material within the strain-rate range
of 102/s to 104/s. It is difficult, however, to get exact testing results for brittle materials because of
the wave dispersion. Much research has been conducted to minimise this problem, and the Fast
Fourier Transform technique (FFT) has been used to process the testing data. But this process is
rather complex. In this article, a new experimental method which is much simpler and more
effective than the FFT technique is introduced. With this method, dynamic tests of the Bukit Timah
granite are performed at a strain-rate ranging from 101/s to 103/s.
Dynamic testing method
The setup of SHPB is shown in Figure 1. Two strain gauges are fastened to the middle of the
incident and transmitter steel bars. The specimen is usually clipped tightly between the two long
bars. When the striker bar strikes the incident bar, a loading wave is generated and propagates
through the bar and the specimen. With the data recorded by the strain gauges, the dynamic
stress-strain curves of the specimen are derived. But the original rectangular loading wave will be
dispersive according to the one dimensional wave theory. As a result, the initial part of the loading
wave is oscillatory. Because the brittle rock material is always damaged when subjected to this
initial part of the loading wave, this wave dispersion will result in a great number of errors in the
results. If a gap is made between the incident bar and the specimen, then the oscillatory part of the
loading wave will be reflected back totally in the incident bar instead of acting on the specimen.
Thus the loading wave is closer to a rectangular shape, as shown in Figure 2. This pre-gapped test
method has been adopted for testing the Bukit Timah granite.
Dynamic testing results
The cylindrical specimen of the granite is 35 mm in diameter and 20 mm in length. Five series of
tests were conducted at the compressive strain-rates of 46/s ,101/s,186/s,335/s and 874/s . From
the dynamic stress-strain data in Figure 3, it was found that the modulus and strength increase
with the increasing strain-rate. But beyond a very high strain-rate, the modulus decreases against
the increasing strain-rate. This phenomenon implies that the strain-rate hardening effect and
damage softening effect should be taken into consideration to examine the dynamic properties of
rock materials.
Parallel
illuminant
Transmitter
bar
Incident
bar
Striker bar
Strain gauge
Figure 1 .
Absorber
bar
Specimen
The set-up of Hopkinson pressure bar
Damper
January 2000
t ( s )
i : The incident wave
r : The reflected wave
t : The transmitted wave
Figure 2 .
The actual pressure waves on specimen
Figure 3 .
The dynamic stress-strain curves
Liu Jianfei ( cjfliu@ntu.edu.sg)

Zhao Jian (cjzhao@ntu.edu.sg)
t ( )
i , r ( )
January 2000
Effect of Soil Movements on Piles

Introduction
Soil movements can induce large bending moments in piles supporting existing superstructures. These movements can be caused by various construction activities such as
basement excavation, tunneling for railway and underground utilities, construction of road
embankments and land reclamation. Failure can occur when the induced moment exceeds
the yield moment of the piles. It is important to recognise this potential problem and be able
to analyse it reliably and accurately.
A computer program (BCPILE) has been developed in NTU to analyse the effect of vertical
and horizontal soil movements on vertical as well as batter piles. It can handle complex
conditions such as layered soil deposit, variable pile stiffness and pile-head fixity. The soil
movement profile is part of the required input. The program computes the pile displacement,
shear and bending moment along the pile and the variations of soil reaction with depth. A
detailed description of the methodology can be found in the papers by Teh and Wong (1995)
and Goh et al. (1997).
Case study 1
In the reclamation of the Jurong Islands, it was necessary to fill over some of the existing
bridges that linked the islands. Pile failure was reported at one of the bridges. One or more
piles supporting the trestle buckled as shown in Figure 1. It was postulated that the failure
was due to the impact of displaced mud created from the reclamation work in the vicinity as
there was no evidence of direct impact from the sand fill.
According to a post-failure site investigation at the location of the failed piles, there was 5 m
of very soft displaced mud overlying the original seabed. The undrained shear strength
varied between 4 to 11 kPa. Analyses were conducted to study the effect of displaced mud
on the stability of the pile. Results showed that the pile was strong enough to resist soil
movements in the transverse direction i.e. perpendicular to the bridge (Figure 2a) but not in
the longitudinal direction i.e. parallel to the bridge (Figure 2b). This was in agreement with
field observation. The pile actually buckled in the longitudinal direction.
Case study 2
This case study reports the movements of two large diameter (1.2 m) bored piles
constructed at a building boundary prior to the basement excavation. Inclinometers were
installed in these piles to monitor the pile movements. When the excavation reached the
formation level of about 10 m depth, the piles deflected about 150 to 170 mm.
The soil profile consisted of 5 m of sand overlying 3 m of upper marine clay, 4 m of
intermediate stiff clay, 19 m of lower marine clay, and underlain by the Old Alluvium. The
total pile length was about 40 m.
An analysis was conducted to estimate the magnitude and profile of the free-field soil
movements due to excavation using the computer program EXCAV97. The computed
displacements were calibrated against the measured displacements from a nearby in-soil
inclinometer. The data were then used as input to the program BCPILE to compute the pile
displacements and bending moments. Results are shown in Figure 3. The soil
displacements are larger than those of the pile which indicate that the soil actually moved
January 2000
past the pile. The computed displacements are in reasonable agreement with the measured
deflections of the two piles.
Conclusions
Soil movements can cause existing piles to deflect and induce large bending moments. The
computer program BCPILE provides a valuable tool to practicing engineers to analyse this
class of problems. The two case studies served as a validation to the program.
Figure 1. Case Study 1 pile failure due to displaced mud during land reclamation.
January 2000
References
[1] Teh, C. I. and Wong, K. S., Analysis of Downdrag of Pile Group, Geotechnique, 45 (2),
1995, 191-207.
[2] Goh, A.T.C., Teh, C. I. and Wong, K.S., Analysis of Piles Subjected to Embankment
Induced Lateral Soil Movements, Journal of Geotechnical and Environmental Engineering,
Vol. 123, No. 9, September 1997, 792-801.
Wong Kai Sin (ckswong@ntu.edu.sg)

Teh Cee Ing (cciteh@ntu.edu.sg)
Anthony T C Goh (ctcgoh@ntu.edu.sg)
January 2000
Interpretation of Initial Horizontal Stresses in Rock From Hydraulic

Fracturing Test Measurements
Introduction
For the design of underground structures in rocks, the initial stresses must be known. One of the
most reliable methods of evaluating the initial state of stress in rock at great depth is the
hydraulic fracturing test. The test is performed by inducing a fracture hydraulically in a sealed
section in the test borehole (Figure 1a). After the test is performed, the inclination and the
direction of the induced hydrofractures at the borehole wall are determined using an impression
packer and a magnetic orienting instrument (Figure 1b).
January 2000
When the fracture induced by the test is vertical, the conventional method of interpretation
produces reliable results (Haimson and Fairhurst 1969). In cases where the fracture induced is
horizontal or mixed-mode (horizontal and vertical), the arbitrary application of the conventional
method, which was originally developed for vertical fractures, will yield wrong results regarding
the magnitude of initial horizontal stresses which may lead to unsafe design. In these cases, the
modified stress path (MSP) method developed by Hefny and Lo (1992) should be used. This
method does not include any injudicious assumptions, and it takes into account the anisotropic
behaviour of rocks where appropriate. The following section briefly illustrates a case of the
importance of interpretation.
Initial stresses at the AECL Underground Research Laboratory
Atomic Energy of Canada Limited (AECL) has been conducting geomechanical research at its
Underground Research Laboratory (URL) in Manitoba to assess the feasibility of nuclear fuel
waste disposal deep in a plutonic rock mass (Martin 1990). The geological structure at the URL
of AECL is shown in Figure 2. Figure 3 shows the maximum initial horizontal stress at the site
as interpreted from various methods of stress measurements. Above fracture zone 2, the induced
fractures by the hydraulic fracturing tests were vertical and the application of the conventional
method gave horizontal stress values that are in agreement with those determined by other
methods. Below fracture zone 2, the induced fractures were horizontal and the initial
interpretation of maximum horizontal stress, as reported by Martin (1990), is given in Figure 3.
As can be seen from the figure, the interpreted stresses from the hydraulic fracturing tests are too
high and do not agree with those calculated by convergence measurements.
If the results are re-interpreted by the MSP method (Hefny and Lo 1992, 1995), the results agree
well not only with results of convergence measurements, but also with performance of the shaft
and performance of experimental tunnels at the same elevations (Figure 4). For details of
comparison with field performance and for results of stresses measured in other boreholes at
greater depths at the site, refer to Hefny and Lo (1995). For the analysis of several other case
histories using the MSP method, refer to Hefny and Lo (1992) and Lo and Hefny (1993).
It is clear, therefore, that the initial horizontal stresses in rocks can be reliably interpreted from
the hydraulic fracturing test measurements for any mode of fracturing and without the use of any
arbitrary assumptions.
2
January 2000
References
Haimson, B.C. and Fairhurst. C. 1969. In-situ stress determination at great depth by means of
hydraulic fracturing. Proceeding, 11th U.S. Symposium on Rock Mechanics, Berkeley, pp. 559584.
Hefny, A.M., and Lo, K.Y. 1992. The interpretation of horizontal and mixed-mode fractures in
hydraulic fracturing tests in rock. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 29, No. 6, pp. 902-917.
Hefny, A.M., and Lo, K.Y. 1995. Interpretation of initial stresses from hydraulic fracturing tests
at AECLs underground research laboratory, Manitoba. Canadian Tunnelling Journal, pp. 123134.
January 2000
Lo, K.Y., and Hefny A.M. 1993. The evaluation of in situ stresses by hydraulic fracturing tests
in Anisotropic rocks with mixed-mode fractures. Canadian Tunnelling Journal, pp. 59-73.
Martin, C.D. 1990. Characterizing in situ stress domains at the AECL Underground Research
Laboratory. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol 27, pp. 631-646.
A M Hefny (ahefny@ntu.edu.sg)
January 2000
A Brief Geotechnical Analysis of an Earthquake:

Cukurova (Turkey)-1998
Introduction
On June 27,1998 a moderate earthquake measuring 5.9 on the Richter scale struck the Cukurova
region of Turkey, causing 145 deaths and injuries to approximately 1000 people, and damage to about
30,000 buildings. The coincidence of the earthquake epicenter and the fault with a very vulnerable
geological surface formation (geologically young, thick alluvial deposits of loose fine silty sands
overlaid by soft silty-clay) led to widespread geological deformations (mainly due to liquefaction).
This provided a unique opportunity to assess the performance of various types of structures under
conditions of loss of bearing capacity and lateral support, and subjected to lateral spreading and
subsidence. The geological deformations included lateral spreading, flow failures, ground fissures
and extensional cracking, sand boils, ground subsidence and slope failures.
This article presents the post-earthquake reconnaissance observations of the author and the
main geotechnical lessons learned or relearned from this earthquake. The two most significant
geotechnical aspects of this earthquake were the widespread soil liquefaction and associated ground
failures and ground motion amplification at soft soil sites. These two geotechnical phenomena
significantly influenced the damage patterns.
Main observations and lessons:
Local site amplifications, or site effects, can result in significant differences in structural damage
within the same general area. At several sites it was observed that whilst one building was
heavily damaged, a building of similar construction a block or two away was completely
unaffected.
Damage patterns at several sites suggested topographic amplifications even on minor hills.
Young sedimentary cohesionless soil deposits with a low water table are exceptionally vulnerable
to liquefaction. When this liquefaction happens in sloping ground (or ground with initial static
shear stress), it is usually accompanied by lateral spreading, which was found to be the most
damaging liquefaction induced phenomena during this earthquake as well as in most of the other
previous big earthquakes (Alaska and Niigata 1964; Northridge 1994; and Kobe 1995).
In areas away from incised river channels (or any other free face) and any slope where the
principal effect of liquefaction was vertical ground settlements, surprisingly little damage to manmade structures was observed. However, in areas not far from river channels or sloping ground,
where liquefaction generated lateral ground displacements, foundation performance was typically
poor. Likewise, ground failure rather than ground shaking appeared to be the dominant cause of
damage to buried utilities such as pipelines and irrigation canals.
Liquefaction of loose sand layers was usually accompanied by the formation of sand boils due to
the low permeability and cohesion of an overlying upper silty-clay layer. In general, the greater
the thickness of the overlying layer, the fewer but larger were the sand boils. Sand boiling by
itself caused minor damage only in a few cases when it led to localized differential settlements in
foundation soils.
Buildings with strong continuous mat foundations or thick strong base slab performed noticeably
better in the areas subjected to minor to moderate effects of liquefaction, such as lateral spreading,
sand boils, and ground subsidence. In these instances, the foundation behaved as a diaphragm,
preventing differential ground displacements from propagating upward into the superstructure.
As in many other seismic disasters such as in Mexico City, the San Francisco Bay area, KobeJapan, and Izmit-Turkey, significant damage in the Cukurova-1998 event was clearly related to
soft ground conditions. Microzonation for ground deformations and for amplifications at such
sites are imperative. Mitigation of ground deformation effects on built environment may involve
ground improvement or improved foundation systems. Most importantly, for amplification
effects, design on soft ground must be based on the suppression of resonance by either ground
improvement or structural improvement by damping.
Acceleration (g)
Acceleration (g)
Acceleration (g)
January 2000
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
+L North
North-South
Max: 0.223g
Max: 0.273g
+T EAST
East-West
+V UP
Max: 0.086g
Vertical
0
10
15
20
25
30
Time (sec)
Figure 1. Ground motion-acceleration time histories recorded at Ceyhan Station.
Figure 2. Ground shaking triggered liquefaction in a subsurface loose silty sand layer, leading to differential
lateral and vertical movement in an overlying unliquefied silty clay layer, which moved towards the incised
Ceyhan River channel. This mode of ground failure, termed lateral spreading was the most striking and
damaging adverse effect of liquefaction caused by the June 27, 1998 Cukurova Earthquake.
Korhan Adalier (ckadalier@ntu.edu.sg)
January 2000
Local EGM96 Geoid Model
Near-Real-Time Measuring of Sea

Level Using GPS
A global geoid model EGM96 (Earth

Gravitational Model 1996) was jointly
developed by NASA Goddard Space Flight
Center (GSFC) and the National Imagery and
Mapping Agency (NIMA) with the assistance of
the Ohio State University (OSU) and the U.S
Naval Surface Center.
Introduction
A prototype vertical GPS array, comprising two
GPS antennas, was successfully tested in
monitoring the changes in the sea level vis-vis the results obtained using a conventional
tide gauge. This finding indicates that it is
feasible to determine the profile of the sea bed
using sea levels derived from GPS and depths
of sea water measured using a conventional
echo sounder in a hydrographic survey without
reference to a tide gauge.
A constant correction of +2.024 m was added

to the geoid heights as derived from the
EGM96 to derive the Local EGM96 model for
Singapore. The correction was found
necessary after examining the geoidal heights
(ellipsoidal minus orthometric heights) of 212
GPS control points well distributed within
Singapore. Figure 2 shows a gradual change in
geoidal heights of about 9 m from the western
to 11 m in the eastern part of Singapore.
Geoidal corrections to GPS heights

The heights as determined using GPS refer to
a mathematical surface - the WGS84 (World
Geodetic System 1984) ellipsoid, whereas
heights of points on the earth's surface refer to
a surface of equal geopotential. A simple
plumbline intersects perpendicularly with this
surface which is known as the Geoid. Due to
the non-homogeneity of the earth mass, this
surface is very irregular. The sea surface is the
best approximation of the geoid. The heights
above the geoid are called the orthometric
heights, or the reduced level, when the mean
sea level is taken as the approximation to the
geoid, which strictly needs to be determined
using a gravimeter.
Figure 2. Local EGM96 Geoid Model

Figure 1 illustrates the relationship between
ellipsoidal height and orthometric height. The
difference between the two heights is known as
the geoidal height or geoid undulation, which is
the correction to be applied to the ellipsoidal
height.
Vertical GPS array

A prototype GPS array, separated vertically by
1.121 m, was devised to provide check
measurements in the observed ellipsoidal
heights. It was mounted on the side of a
sounding boat and was approximately above
the transducer of the echo sounder (Figure 3).
A base-plate for the lower antenna was found
to be essential to minimize the multipath effect.
The height of the lower antenna above the
water line (draught of the boat) was noted to
reduce the ellipsoidal heights of the two
antennas to that of the sea level.
Figure 1. Relationship between the ellipsoidal

and orthometric heights
A site bounded by the port limit at the southwesterly part of Singapore, Tuas and the
1
January 2000
Jurong Islands was chosen to test the

performance of the vertical GPS array. This
test site is denoted as the Tuas Test Area in
this paper.
known mean sea level). The averages of the

sea levels obtained are very noisy, most
probably due to the influence of the sea waves.
A regression line was fitted to the whole data
set to produce a smoothed sea level. Figure 5
shows the differences in the sea level between
the regressed data and the measured data
obtained from the tide gauge. The good
correlation between the smoothed and
measured (tide gauge) sea level demonstrated
that it is feasible to monitor the changes in the
sea level using GPS in a near-real-time mode
using simple regression technique.
14.8
2.7
2.5
Smoothed water level derived from GPS Antennas 1&2
2.3
Smoothed water level derived from Tuas View tide gauge

15:20
15:16
15:13
15:09
15:06
15:02
14:59
14:55
14:52
14:48
14:45
14:41
14:38
14:34
14:31
14:27
14:24
14:20
14:17
14:13
14:10
13:59
2.1
Time
Figure 5. Difference between the regressed

and the measured (tide gauge) sea level
Comparisons of the differences in sea levels at
the nine test points show an increase in the
differences from 0 m to 0.35 m in a southeasterly direction as illustrated in Figure 6.
Date : 30-08-1999 (I)
14.6
14.4
14.2
14.0
Antenna 1
13.8
13.6
13.4
13.2
13.0
Antenna 2
12.8
15:17
15:21
15:14
15:10
15:03
15:07
15:00
14:52
14:56
14:49
14:45
14:38
14:42
14:35
14:28
14:31
14:24
14:20
14:13
14:17
14:10
12.4
14:03
14:06
12.6
13:59
Ellipsoidal heights of Antennas (m)
Figure 4 shows the ellipsoidal heights of both

antennas observed around Point I which is one
of the nine test points (A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H
and I as shown in Figure 6). In all the test
points, the patterns of both heights are almost
identical. This proves empirically that the lower
antenna is not adversely affected by the upper
antenna in signal reception or multipath
interference.
2.9
14:06
Figure 3. Prototype vertical antenna array
Date : 30-08-1999 (I)
3.1
14:03
Sea Level above Chart Datum (m)
3.3
Time
Figure 4. Ellipsoidal heights of vertical GPS

array
Comparison with tide gauge
Figure 6. Differences in GPS-derived and Tide
Gauge sea level at Tuas Test Area
The ellipsoidal heights of the sea level were

deduced from that of the two antennas and the
Local EGM96 model was used to convert them
to the orthometric heights (heights above the
January 2000
Local Tuas View geoid

The increasing differences in the sea levels
further away from the coastline are not
surprising as the Local EGM96 geoid for the
offshore area is extrapolated. A new geoid
called Local Tuas View Geoid was developed
for the Tuas Test Area. This geoid was
developed from five control points in Tuas and
the nine test points. The geoid was evaluated
using seven independent points and a RMS of
0.031m was achieved. An independent
measurement using hydrostatic levelling
between Tuas View and Sultan Shoal
(S.Shoal) also compared favorably with the
results obtained using the Local Tuas View
Geoid. The difference is only 0.015m.
Conclusion
The finding shows that it is feasible to use GPS
installed on a boat (or other floating platform)
and a local geoid model to measure the
changes in sea level with a RMS of 0.031m.
E L Tan (p740818075329@ntu.edu.sg)
Y K Tor (cyktor@ntu.edu.sg)
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to express their
appreciation to the Survey Department of
Jurong Town Corporation (JTC) for their
assistance in this study.
January 2000
Comparison of the HCM and Singapore Models of Arterial Capacity

Arterial roads form the backbone of any urban road system. Information on arterial road capacity and
performance under different traffic conditions is vital for transportation planners and traffic engineers.
The capacity of an arterial depends mainly on its width (number of lanes) and on characteristics of
traffic control at signalised intersections. The US Highway Capacity Manual (HCM) provides a wellknown method of analysing arterial performance. The HCM model assumes that travel time along an
arterial increases with rising traffic volume due to increased delay incurred at intersections. Thus, the
method involves detailed calculations of vehicle delay at each signalised intersection, based on traffic
volume and signal timing parameters.
A study of arterial road capacity in Singapore conducted at the Centre for Transportation Studies (CTS)
used a different approach. A direct relationship was established between travel time and traffic density.
After calibration using data from five arterials, this relationship was transformed into a speed-flow
model. The model derived in this way had only two parameters: intersection spacing and the minimum
intersection delay. The last parameter was defined as the average stopped delay incurred by vehicles at
signalised intersections under very light traffic conditions. The CTS model is useful for planning
applications as it does not require the input of detailed signal timing data. The estimated capacity of
arterials ranged from 840 to 1000 pcu/h/lane. A major finding of the study was that arterial running
speed is strongly dependent on traffic volume a relationship which is ignored in the Highway
Capacity Manual method.
It is interesting to compare the speed-flow relationships obtained from the HCM 97 and CTS models
for typical Singapore arterials. Figure 1 shows the comparison of curves calculated with the following
parameter values: intersection spacing of 400 m; cycle time of 120 s and green split ratio of 0.4. Two
cases are presented: (a) favourable signal progression (signals coordinated for a green wave effect),
which results in a low minimum delay value of 9.5 s, and (b) no progression, resulting in a minimum
delay of 17.1 s. For any level of flow, the HCM model generally predicts lower travel speed.
According to the CTS model, arterial speed is much more sensitive to flow, especially under
uncongested conditions. This is not surprising as in to the HCM method flow only affects the speed
indirectly, through the value of vehicle delay at intersections. In the case of no progression, the
differences between the two models are also large when flow is near capacity. While the HCM model
allows for oversaturation (i.e. flows temporarily greater than capacity), the CTS model predicts reduced
flows associated with very low speeds (severely congested conditions). Interestingly, the CTS model
predicts that good signal progression leads to an increase in overall arterial capacity by about 100
pcu/h/lane. However, the CTS model is not sensitive to signal timing parameters such as the green
split ratio.
A practical problem in using the CTS model is the choice of value for the minimum intersection delay
parameter. Its magnitude depends on signal timing characteristics and the quality of progression. A
recent survey of 5 intersections revealed that the minimum delay varied between 5 and 30 seconds,
depending on the duration of green and red periods as well as the proportion of vehicles arriving during
green. The value of minimum delay can be estimated from the standard delay formula using a low
value of degree of saturation (say, 10%). Figure 2 shows the comparison of predicted and observed
January 2000
minimum delay values. The HCM-97 delay formula gave predictions which were very close to
observations (root-mean-square error of 1.1s or 8%).
Travel speed (km/h)
50
40
30
20
10
HCM-97
CTS
0
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1000
1200
Mid-block flow (pcu/h/lane)
Travel speed (km/h)
50
40
30
20
10
HCM-97
CTS
0
0
200
400
600
800
Mid-block flow (pcu/h/lane)
Figure 1. Speed-flow curves based on the HCM and CTS models

Future research is needed to explore possible ways of improving both models. The main problem with
the HCM method is the lack of linkage between the magnitude of traffic flow and arterial segment
running time. Such a relationship should be calibrated and incorporated into the HCM method. The
CTS model could be improved by inclusion of a parameter reflecting the average green split ratio at
signals along the arterial.
January 2000
35
Predicted delay (sec)
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
Observed delay (sec)
Figure 2. Observed and predicted minimum intersection delay

In order to improve model accuracy, it is necessary to use more precise definitions of arterial flow and
capacity. A practical problem arises in reconciling measurements of flow and number of lanes at an
intersection approach and between intersections. Most arterial intersection approaches are flared, i.e.
additional turning and through lanes are added at signals. Similarly, flow measured between
intersections (mid-block flow) includes turning movements whereas intersection analysis normally
involves the through movement only. It may be useful to introduce a through factor parameter to
relate the mid-block flow to the through flow at an intersection approach.
Piotr Olszewski (colsze@ntu.edu.sg)
January 2000
Driver Stopping Response Latency at Signalised Junctions

Introduction
Signalisation of traffic junctions is widely used as a means of allowing conflicting traffic movements to be
safely discharged through time-separated movements. However, as junctions are accident-prone areas,
understanding driver behavior at junctions is important in the design of the traffic signal operations.
The knowledge of perception-response time (PRT) at traffic junctions is an important parameter for traffic
signal design and is also applicable for legislative purposes whereby a traffic engineer may be called upon to
answer questions on the limits of driver performance. Past research has tended to use values based on
observations taken over a wide range of distances from the stop-line. The authors feel that values so obtained
may be overly conservative, as vehicles that are far away from the junction stop-line have a range of choice
as to where to apply the braking action.
Stopping response latency and the transition zone
This study uses the stopping response latency as a practical measure of PRT. It is the time interval from the
onset of the amber signal indication to the onset of the vehicle brake lights. The "transition" zone is the
region where a vehicle would have a certain probability of stopping (Figure 1). It is derived from the concept
of the dilemma zone but encompasses a greater range.
Stop-Line
Transition
zone
Figure 1. View from the camera with the

superimposed transition zone
Figure 2. Setup as seen on the pedestrian

bridge
Values within the transition zone are used as the practical measure of the limits of driver response. This is
because when a driver operates within the transition zone, he has to make his decision within a very small
time window. This window is the most crucial period for designers, as the decision to run the red or to stop is
made within this period. Beyond the transition zone, the choice is taken away from the driver.
By studying the stopping response latency for the transition zone, a more realistic representation of the actual
stopping latency exhibited by drivers is obtained.
Methodology
The study made use of high definition digital cameras (Panasonic AG-EZ30E) to capture data under daytime
dry-weather conditions. The cameras were mounted on tripods and placed on pedestrian bridges (Figure 2)
along selected sites. Distance on the ground was measured using the road markings as benchmarks. The
January 2000
distances of road markings from the stop line were measured on-site using a road meter. The data collected
on site were extracted using a video editor and a projector. The lower-most portion of the rear wheel was
used to track the position of target vehicles and the data were recorded on a spreadsheet. Only first stopping
and last crossing vehicles were taken as valid data; the movement of the target vehicles must not be
constrained by other vehicles within the traffic stream.
Overall findings
A plot of distance at the instant of amber verses time is shown in Figure 3. This encompasses all the data
points. Two segments are obtained which show stopping vehicles (red area) and crossing vehicles (green
area). The overall plot reveals that vehicles very distant from the stop-line always stop, while vehicles near to
the stop-line always proceed, with the transition zone having both stopping and clearing vehicles. The
overall mean stopping response latency was 1.04s, with a standard deviation of 0.43 and an 85th
percentile value of 1.3s.
Statistical analysis was undertaken using SAS's GLM procedure. The results are shown in Table 1.
The broad results reveal that distance and speed had significant effect, while vehicle type and the presence of
surveillance cameras did not show significant influence on stopping response latency.
Table 1. Results obtained using GLM analysis (For all data points)
Variable
Speed(km/h)
Distance(m)
Vehicle Type
Camera
Classes
<50, 50-60, 60-70,70+
30~95
Motorcycle, car, truck,
Heavy vehicles
Yes, No
P Value
Pr > F
Conclusion
6.66
36.12
0.43
0.0003
0.0001
0.7322
Significant
Significant
Insignificant
2.18
0.1419
Insignificant
The transition zone: Findings

As explained earlier, the values as determined over the total observational distance are not suitable for design
purposes. The PRT values should be analyzed for drivers moving within the transition zone during the onset
of amber. Consequently, the transition zone was determined by considering the observed speed and distance
values. The values thus obtained would give a more suitable PRT to be used for signalised junctions.
What can be concluded from the results is that the transition zone was found further from the stop line as
vehicle speed increased. Stopping vehicles had stopping response latencies clustered around a fairly constant
mean and 85th percentile value, with a mean of 0.8~0.9s and an 85th percentile of 0.94~1.12s for all
approach speeds. The results are summarized in Table 2.
Concluding remarks
Of the variables studied, stopping response latency was significantly influenced by the distance of a vehicle
from the stop-line and its approach speed at the onset of amber, while vehicle type and the presence of redlight surveillance cameras apparently had no significant effect on stopping response latency.
Empirical results showed that within the transition zone, the stopping response latency remained fairly
constant. The mean stopping response latency within the zone is less than PRT times proposed by the
Institute of Transportation Engineers Handbook and some other studies. Additional work is in progress to
further substantiate the effect of junction layout and time of day on driver stopping response latency.
P K Goh (pinkai@cyberway.com.sg)
Y D Wong (cydwong@ntu.edu.sg)
January 2000
Table 2. Results obtained for data points within the transition zone
Speed at amber
(km/h)
5050 to 60
60 to 70
70+
Transition zone
(m)
22.6 to 55.4
37.0 to 65.1
56.6 to 74.9
61.7 to 84.6
Mean
latency (s)
0.85
0.86
0.87
0.82
85 th percentile
value (s)
1.12
1.07
1.05
0.94
Standard
Deviation
0.25
0.27
0.22
0.16
Speed at onset of
amber
Crossing Vehicles
Stop-line
20 to 30km/h
Distance from stop-line at the onset of amber(m)
10
Time to Cross
Stop-line
20
30 to 40km/h
40 to 50km/h
30
50 to 60km/h
60 to 70km/h
40
70 to 80km/h
50
80 to 90km/h
Stopping Vehicles
60
20 to 30km/h
30 to 40km/h
70
40 to 50km/h
80
50 to 60km/h
Stopping
Response
Latency
90
60 to 70km/h
70 to 80km/h
100
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
80 to 90km/h
Time(s)
Figure 3. Corresponding data points to the transition zone for crossing and
stopping vehicles
January 2000
Mobility Model for Urban Public Transportation

Urban public transportation is an important part of the transportation systems in many urban areas
in Asia. This is especially the case for an island state like Singapore. The scarce land supply and
dense population have made public transport the major mode of transport, which accounted for
about two thirds of the total motorised trips made in a day, according to the latest statistics.
Accessibility is a term often used in transport and land-use planning. Although there is not a fixed
definition of accessibility, it is often defined as the opportunity that an individual at a given location
possesses to take part in a particular activity. Mobility is considered as the ability of that individual
to move about, and therefore accessibility can be considered as a proxy of mobility. There have
been numerous studies on accessibility, most of which are concerned with factors such as cost of
travel and opportunities. Measures like geographical contours, defined indices, revealed value and
time-space geography have been proposed by various researchers to represent accessibility.
In this paper, an approach to evaluate the mobility provided by urban public transportation is
presented. Accessibility indices (AI) were developed to represent the relative ease of accessing
various locations by public transportation, using Singapore as an example. As buses and the Mass
Rapid Transit (MRT) constitute the backbone of public transportation in Singapore, these are the
only two transit modes considered in this research.
The accessibility indices developed are the function of a series of factors, which include frequency
of services (ff), hours of operation (fh ), directness of journey (fd ), level of service (fn ), and number
of direct connections available by services (fc). The product of these factors is used to represent
how accessible a particular transit service is at a certain point and is called the Serviceability Index
of that service. If there are n number of transit services at any geographical location, the
Accessibility Index (AI) is the summation of service indices for all services available within a 400
m radius, taking into account any physical and topological barriers on site. The AI is a
dimensionless number and should only be meaningful when its relative magnitude is considered.
n
AI = ( f f f h f d f n f c ) i
i =1
Each of the factors constituting AI is considered as the performance ratio of an existing service to
the ideal service. In this study, the ideal public transportation service is defined as one that offers
services throughout the day, high frequency of services, high speed (80 kph) and one which always
runs on the shortest paths between two points. The performance of this ideal service can be
considered as the benchmark value to gauge the corresponding performance of existing services.
Table 1 shows the values used in this study. To obtain an accessibility index for a region (or a
parcel of land), the summation of individual AI of all the m access points to public transport
services can be obtained.
January 2000
Table 1. Comparison of performance indicators of an ideal service and a bus service j

Factor
Frequency
Hour of operation
Speed
Directness of journey
Number of
connections
For bus service j

Mean hourly volume for service j
Hours of operation for service j
Average speed of service j
Distance taken by road from
points A to B by service j
For an ideal service

360 buses/hr
24 hrs
80 kph
Shortest distance by road
from points A to B by
service j
direct Number of connections offered 250
by service j
Data obtained in the western part of Singapore was used to develop a set of accessibility indices for
examination of the model. The area bounded by the Pan Island Expressway (PIE), Jalan Bahar,
Clementi Road and the coastline was reviewed. Contours of the accessibility index were drawn on
the street network maps as shown in Figures 1 and 2. The range of accessibility values is
represented by a gradation of colours, with red representing the highest value on the accessibility
index and yellow the lowest. The results show that areas near the MRT stations received the
highest value on the accessibility index, while those areas only served by a few bus services had the
lowest value. When comparing the peak and off-peak indices, there is a noticeable decrease in the
indices, especially in the areas surrounding the MRT stations, suggesting that in off-peak hours the
public transport services may not be as good as they are in the peak hours.
In conclusion, the mobility model based on AI has potential to be an effective and objective tool to
evaluate the performance of public transport services in any region. As a result, the accessibility
index can be useful as an objective indicator that guides transit services planning and policy
making.
Lam Soi Hoi (cshlam@ntu.edu.sg)
January 2000
Figure 1. Accessibility Indices at Peak Hours
Figure 2. Accessibility Indices at Off-peak Hours
January 2000
3D Crack Simulation Using Boundary Element Method

Introduction
Tests have shown that a non-load-carrying fillet welded attachment, such as that shown in
Figure 1, has always failed at the weld toe when it is subjected to fatigue loading. The sharp
change in the section geometry causes fatigue cracks to initiate from this severe stress
concentration site containing crack-like surface flaws due to fusion welds.
The 3D fatigue crack development in any welded joints can be monitored by taking Alternating
Current Potential Drop (ACPD) crack depth measurement at fixed points along each expected
crack location, and the experimental stress intensity factor range can be obtained at the fixed
positions.
In order to check the validity of the experimental results, a kind of subdomain boundary element
scheme is adopted to estimate the stress intensity factor of the semi-elliptical crack. The quarterpoint elements and transition elements are used in the neighbourhood of the actual crack front to
calculate the stress intensity factors.
Numerical modelling of the cracked welded joint
Typical BEM mesh is presented in Figure 2. For different crack depths, only the mesh on the
crack face (see Figure 3) is modified in the discretization and the following assumptions and
steps are used:
the shape of the two crack corners are assumed to be two elliptical surfaces as shown in
Figure 3. Each of these is expressed by x 2 a 2 + y 2 b 2 = 1 , where a and b can be
determined with two experimental points adjacent to each corner.
the linear interpolation method is used to obtain the intersecting line L of the crack face and
the free surface, using experimental points on that line.
the intersecting points of the line L and the two elliptical surfaces for estimating the position
of the two crack corner points are calculated.
a reasonable number of nodes are placed on two corner parts.
spline is used to interpolate the middle part of the crack front, and the tangential direction of
the points at the two ends of the spline can be obtained from the elliptical parts.
the crack face with the experimental points and the calculated interpolation points on the
crack front and the line L , are modelled using ordinary 8 nodes serendipity elements (see
Figure 3).
quarter-point elements are generated along the two sides of the crack front (see Figure 3).
The local coordinates of each corner node on the crack front are calculated at the same
time.
transition elements are generated just behind the two rows of quarter-point elements.
the rest of the elements are generated, in the process ensuring that they are not too
distorted.
Some 7 or 5 nodes transitional elements are used at unimportant places to reduce the total
number of nodes. In a typical mesh, there are 2214 and 1974 degrees of freedom for subdomain
I and subdomain II respectively.
January 2000
Effective stress intensity factors

Stress intensity factors are calculated after the displacement field of the specimen is obtained
using the sub-domain BESD3D program. However, the experimental SIFs are extracted from
the generalized Paris equation:
da dN = C ( K eff ) m
(1)
where Keff is the effective stress intensity factor, which is influenced by K I , KII and
K III, i.e. K eff = f (KI , KII , K III) .
As the crack propagates, the percentage of the contribution from Mode II and Mode III to the
crack growth energy decreases compared to that from Mode I; and the total energy needed to
make the crack grow is influenced by the ratio of KI to K II-III . Thus, the following formulation
is used in this study:
K eff = KI ; = 1 + A e Br (r C ) + C
(2)
where r is the energy rate of mode II-III to Mode I,
2
r = KII2 + (K III
(1 )) K I2
(3)
If
A>0,
B <0
and
C = Br0 + 1 B ,
then
r = r0 = ( BC 1) B ,
and
max = 1 + A (1 e Br0 ) B + r0 . Letting max = 1.4 (an empirical value), then the value of
A = 0.4 ((1 e Br0 ) B + r0 ) .
There are eight probes along the weld toe used in the experimental tests (see Figure 1). Typical
effective stress intensity factors at probes 3 and 4 are plotted against the number of cycles as
shown in Figure 4. The numerical results generally agree with the experimental results.
Conclusions
In this study, a comparison between experimental and numerical stress intensity factors of 3D
surface semi-elliptical cracks found at the weld toe of a non-load-carrying cruciform welded
joint, has been carried out successfully. The subdomain boundary element method, incorporating
the transition and quarter-point elements along the actual crack front, is used to estimate the
stress intensity factors. It has been found that the numerical results generally agree with the
experimental results.
January 2000
S T Lie (cstlie@ntu.edu.sg)
S Yan (p143506021@ntu.edu.sg)
January 2000
Shear Strength and Behaviour of RC Beam-Column Joints

Under Cyclic Loading
Introduction
Beam-column joints are important elements of reinforced concrete structures. Welldesigned beam-column joints are essential to guarantee the seismic resistance of RC
structures. Currently, three design methods for beam-column joints, namely, the ACIASCE method (developed in 1976, revised in 1985), the New Zealand method (developed
in 1982, revised in 1995) and the AIJ method (developed in 1988), are among the most well
known in the world. However, those three design methods differ significantly from each
other in two respects.
First, the joint shear strength v u according to the ACI-ASCE method depends on the
strength of the concrete, that is, f c where is a coefficient that depends on the
confinement provided by the framing beams. According to the AIJ method, v u is also
determined by the concrete strength kf c where k=0.3 for interior joints and 0.18 for exterior
joints. In the New Zealand method, the joint shear strength depends on the amount of
transverse reinforcement provided in the joint.
Second, the amount of joint transverse reinforcement required by the New Zealand method
can be 2 or 3 times the amount required by the ACI-ASCE method, while the ACI-ASCE
method in turn requires 3 to 5 times the amount required by the AIJ method. Further, some
aspects of beam-column joint behaviour under cyclic loading, such as the effect of the
eccentricity between the beam axis and the column axis, are not addressed in the three
design methods.
This research project was initiated with two objectives to investigate the shear strength of
eccentric beam-column joints and to narrow the current philosophical differences in the
three design methods for beam-column joints. The first objective can be achieved by testing
eccentric beam-column joint specimens and the second by analysing all available
experimental data of beam-column joints around the world on a unified basis.
Test programme
Six interior beam-column joint specimens have been designed, cast, and tested. They
consist of two types of specimens, designated as Type 1 and Type 2 respectively. Type 1
has a column aspect ratio of , while Type 2 has an aspect ratio of . Each type includes
one concentric specimen, one medium-eccentricity specimen and one maximumeccentricity specimen. The specimens were intended to represent a typical RC frame with
6m beam span and 3.6m story height with a reduced scale of 2/3 (see Figure 1). The
specimens were reinforced according to the ACI-ACSE design method except that the joint
shear stress at both beam yielding was higher than the nominal joint shear strength for each
specimen, so that the joints could fail in shear during loading. Extensive instrumentation
1
January 2000
was arranged for each specimen for recording steel strains, joint shear deformation,
displacements of specimens, imposed beam end loads, and column axial load. The cyclic
loading was imposed by displacing the two beam-ends equally in opposite directions with
two 100T actuators, while keeping the column in vertical position. The loading was
controlled by storey drift ranging from 0.5% to 5%.
Summary of results
The storey drift versus storey force is shown in Figure 2 for the Type-2 maximumeccentricity specimen (designated as S6). Although the eccentricity was originally expected
to dramatically reduce the shear strength of the specimen due to its very narrow column
section, the specimen still yielded during loading and the maximum storey force of 68.0KN
exceeded the theoretical yielding storey force of 59.7KN by about 14 %. This indicated that
the effect of eccentricity on the maximum joint shear stress that could be reached during
loading was not significant. It was the shear stiffness of the joint and, consequently, the
lateral stiffness of the specimen that were affected by the eccentricity more significantly.
As for the behaviour of concentric beam-column joints, a major finding is that the
maximum joint shear stress during loading mainly depends upon the joint shear input
determined by the moment capacity of the beam. However, once the joint shear stress
reaches a certain value, joint shear deformation increases rapidly. Excessive joint shear
deformation is irreversible after unloading and would cause permanent drift of the building
after the earthquake. This should not be allowed for earthquake resistant RC structures. So,
the joint shear strength should not be determined simply by the maximum joint shear stress
which can be resisted by the joint. Instead, it should be determined by limiting the joint
shear deformation to a reasonable level.
Zhou Hua (pp3021120@ntu.edu.sg)
Figure 1. Test set-up
January 2000
Storeyversus
Drift versus
Storey Force for
Figure 2. Storey-drift
storey-force
forS6specimen S6
Sto
100
rey
50
For
ce(
KN
)
-6
-4
-2
-50
-100
Storey Drift(%)
Figure 2. Storey-drift versus storey-force for specimen S6
January 2000
Elastic Moduli of Concrete - A Micromechanics Approach

Introduction
The primary phases in concrete are the aggregate, the cement-sand mortar (matrix), and the interface
between the aggregate and the mortar. The interface between the mortar and the coarse aggregate (Figure 1)
is not necessarily perfect; in fact, it has many defects. Nilsen and Monteiro (1993) have shown that the
matrix in the interface zone, just surrounding the aggregate, has quite a different stiffness property from that
away from the aggregate.
In this study, concrete is considered as a composite material in which the coarse aggregates (also termed
inhomogeneities or inclusions) are embedded in a matrix of mortar. The interfaces between the mortar and
the coarse aggregates are considered to be imperfect. Based on Mori-Tanaka's procedure, the Eshelby's
classical solution for a perfectly bonded inclusion will be combined with Volterra's solution for an equivalent
Somigliana dislocation field - which models the imperfect interface - to obtain a new constitutive model for
concrete. Currently, this work is limited to elastic concrete properties.
Three-phase model with imperfect interface
Consider an infinitely extended mortar medium D containing many spherical inclusions (coarse aggregates)
with an imperfectly bonded interface. The elastic stiffness tensors of the mortar phase (subscript "o ") and the
coarse aggregate phase (subscript "1 ") are respectively L0 and L1 . There is a homogeneous boundary
condition in the external surface S of D:
n (S) = 0 n
(1)
where 0 is a constant stress tensor, and n denotes the exterior normal to the external surface S .
Suppose the homogeneous boundary condition represented by Eq. (1) is applied to the composite. If the
solid composite did not contain any inclusion, the strain field would be:
1
0 = L0 0
(2)
Due to the presence of inclusions, the average stress in the mortar phase of a composite with inclusion
becomes:
( 0 ) = 0 + ~ = L0 ( 0 + ~ )
(3)
According to Eshelby's equivalent principle, the average stress in the aggregate is:
~ + pt
(1 ) = 0 +
= L (0 + ~ + pt )
1
= L0 ( + ~ + pt * )
0
(4)
January 2000
where * represents the eigenstrain and the superscript "pt " represents perturbation components of strain and
stress tensors. For an imperfectly bonded interface, the interfacial traction remains continuous, while both
the normal and the tangential displacements experience a jump across the interface (Zhong and Meguid
1996). Thus, the interface conditions can be written as:
[ ]n
ij
=0
(5)
[ui ](ik ni nk ) = T Tk
[u i ]ni nk
(6)
= N N k
(7)
where T and N denote the compliance in the tangential and the normal directions of the interface
respectively, [.] =(out)-(in), ni is the outward unit normal on the interface, and Ti = kjn j ( ik n i n k ) and
Ni = kj nk n j ni represent the shear and the normal tractions at the interface respectively. T and N should
be positive and they describe the interfacial behavior.
For an inclusion with imperfect interface, following Eshelby's equivalent principle, the relationship between
the eigenstrain and perturbation strain in the inclusion can be written as:
ij
pt
= S ijkl kl
(8)
where:
E
S
S ijkl = S ijkl
+ S ijkl
(9)
Here Sijkl is Eshelby's solution (1957) for a uniform eigenstrain problem of inclusion with a perfectly
S
bonded interface and Sijkl is the contribution of the imperfect interface. To simulate the effect of an
imperfect interface, Somigliana's dislocation theory can be used. If denotes the overall average stress
tensor and ci (i=0, 1) represent the volume fractions of mortar and coarse aggregate, separately, we can write:
= c0 (0 ) + c1 (1)
(10)
The body average of the strain over the body volume V can be defined by an 'outside observer' as:
ij = c0 ij(0) + c1 ij(1) +
1
2V
([u ]n + [u ]n )dS
S
(11)
If we consider that both the mortar and the coarse aggregate are isotropic, the effective bulk and shear
moduli, and , of the concrete can be obtained based on the above equations as:
+ (c1 + c0 )( 1 0 )
= 0
0 0 + (c10 + c0 )( 1 0 )
(12)
+ (c1 + c0 )(1 0 )
= 0
0 0 + (c1 A0 + c0 )(1 0 )
(13)
where:
2

0 =
0k 1
3(1 + 0 k1 )
A0 =
January 2000
0 k 2 + 0 0 k 2 (k 3 + k 4 )
1 + 0 (k 2 + k3 ) + 0 k4 + 0 0 k2 (k3 + k 4 )
B0 =
( 0 0 )k 2
1 + 0 (k 2 + k 3 ) + 0 k 4 + 0 0 k 2 (k 3 + k 4 )
Here 0 is Poisson's ratio of the mortar and

0 =
0 T
a
0 =
, k1 = 4(1 + 0 )
0 N
a
k2 =
3(1 0 )
2(7 5 0 )
,
15(1 0 )
k3 =
4(7 + 19 0 )
105(1 0 )
k4 =
4(35 + 11 0 )
105(1 0 )
with:
= E + S
S =
2(1 2 0 )
0
1 0
= E + S
,
,
S =
(14)
(7 5 0 )(5 A0 + 2 B0 )
75(1 0 )
Thus, the elastic moduli of concrete with different interface conditions can now be computed.
Experimental verification
The elastic moduli of concrete computed from the proposed micromechanical model described above have
been compared with the experimental data for elastic moduli of concrete reported by Hirsch (1962) and
others. Table 1 shows some of the results. It can be seen that the proposed micromechanical model can be
used successfully for modelling the elastic behaviour of concrete. This research is the basis of subsequent
research on concrete behaviour under multi-axial stress states.
References
[1] Hirsch, T.J. (1962) "Modulus Elasticity of Concrete Affected by Elastic Moduli of Cement Paste Matrix
and Aggregate," ACI Journal, V. 59, pp. 427-451.
[2] Nilsen, A.U. and Monteiro, P.J.M. (1993) "Concrete: a Three Phase Material," Concrete and Cement
Research, V. 23, pp. 147-151.
[3] Zhong, Z. and Meguid, S.A. (1996) "On the Eigenstrain Problem of a Spherical Inclusion with an
Imperfectly Bonded Interface," Journal of Applied Mechanics, ASME, V. 63, pp. 877-883.
Li Qingliu (p145496564@ntu.edu.sg)
January 2000
Aggregate
Interface Cracks
Mortar
Figure 1. Microstructural model of concrete

Table 1. Comparison of results
Batch
GR-6
GR-5
GR-4
GR-3
GR-2
LI-6
LI-5
LI-4
LI-3
LI-2
Volume Ratio of E c (GPa)

Coarse Aggregate (Hirsch)
0.57
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.57
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
36.1
32.5
29.7
27.4
23.0
23.4
23.9
22.3
20.6
20.2
E p (GPa)
(E p -E c )/E p
(proposed) error (%)
35.14
-2.7
32.52
0.1
29.17
1.8
26.46
-3.6
23.76
3.3
25.09
6.7
24.27
1.5
23.16
3.7
22.10
6.8
21.08
4.2
January 2000
Shaking Table Tests of RC Model Structures Under Simulated Ground

Shocks
As an integral part of a broad research project on the damage criteria of surface structures
subjected to underground explosion induced ground excitations, shaking table tests of RC model
structures are being conducted to investigate the structural response characteristics and damage
process under high-frequency shock excitations, and to validate the corresponding numerical
predictions.
Existing regulatory guides on blasting vibration limits have developed from empirical
correlations of observed damage and recorded peak particle velocity of the ground motions,
without a clear identification of the structural response and damage mechanisms. This has
limited the applicability of the relevant guides and left ranges of blasting vibration problems
uncovered. Obviously, the most rational way of arriving at reliable shock damage assessment is
through structural dynamic response studies, and in this process, testing of model structures
under controlled vibration conditions is a powerful and yet economical means to provide the
badly needed experimental data in sufficient detail.
Shaking table tests have been extensively used in the past to study the complex behaviour of
structures under earthquake ground motions. However, the use of shaking table testing for shock
response simulation is seldom reported. The main difficulties are associated with the two
inherent features of the shock excitations, namely high frequency and enormous peak
acceleration. Both parameters can be far beyond the reach of the conventional earthquake
simulators. In order to tackle these problems, in this investigation use is made of an
electromagnetic shaker which is capable of producing high frequency and high acceleration
motions. To cope with the relatively small force power of such a shaker, small-scale RC model
structures are adopted. The similitude requirements concerning the model materials and model
fabrication are strictly followed to ensure the reliability of the models. The model structure
configurations (see Figure 1) include a single-storey bare frame; a single-storey frame with
masonry infill walls; a multiple-storey frame (3 storeys and 2 bays); and two 2-storey frames,
one of which is subjected to a vertical vibration test (not shown).
In the test implementation, the established similitude law on artificial mass is extended to the
local elemental level so that the crucial local-mode vibration effects could be reproduced in the
model response (Figures 2 and 3). The test instrumentation covers accelerations, displacements
and reinforcement/concrete strains at various locations. The shaking table is driven via a
vibration control system, while response signals are acquired, pre-processed and stored through
an automated data acquisition system.
The tests are performed typically in three phases covering high, medium and low frequency
ranges of input motions. Such a test scheme allows for an evaluation of the variation of
structural response with the principal frequency of excitations. It also allows for a progressive
damage observation on the model structure during the course of the tests.
The test results reveal distinctive response features under high-frequency shock excitations as
compared to low-frequency seismic type ground motions. In principal, the shock response may
be characterised by significant local-mode vibration induced high shear stress while the overall
response (displacements and drifts) remains low. This observation is significant as it is in
contrast to the features of typical seismic response from which the conventional deformationbased damage criteria have been derived. The limitation of the PPV-based blasting vibration
guides is also clearly demonstrated from the experimental and the associated analytical
observations. As such, the need for more rational shock response criteria is obvious. In view of
1
January 2000
the observed shear-dominated shock response, it is deemed necessary to emphasise the

importance of enhancing the stress and strain capacities of the concrete material in the
corresponding protective design. The test program is still going on, and more comprehensive
results are expected in due course.
Figure 1. Photograph of test model structures
Shear (kN)
2
Column shear-Time history
0
0.6
Time (s)
-2
Amplitude
A cc eler ation ( g)
0.04
10
Column shear-FFT
0.02
0.00
0
0.6
- 10
T im e (s )
100
200
300
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 2. Typical test set-up and input motion
Figure 3. Typical measured response
Lu Yong (cylu@ntu.edu.sg)
Hao Hong (chhao@ntu.edu.sg)
Ma Guowei (cgwma@ntu.edu.sg)
Zhou Yingxin (zyingxin@singnet.com.sg)
400
January 2000
Dynamic Properties and Serviceability of Floor Slabs with

Human-Structure Interaction
Lightweight pre-cast floor systems using post-tensioning to increase strength are increasingly popular and dynamic
serviceability issues become increasingly important. In particular, human sensitivity to response caused by walking or
jumping may be the governing factor for serviceability. Meanwhile, stationary human observers can also participate in
the response and can alter it in helpful ways; a human behaves as a highly effective damper even when seated.
Experiments and simple lumped mass models have been used to study the effect.
Background
While the effect of a moving (walking or jumping) person on a floor or footbridge is well modelled as a moving
dynamic load through Fourier series, the effect of a stationary human body is less well understood. Complex models of
human dynamics exist to study behaviour of limbs and body parts, but it appears that humans participating in vertical
motion of floors behave as heavily damped one-degree of freedom systems and not simple added masses.
Figure 1 shows the complex (ISO) representation of the human body and a simplified system that may be more
representative for study of human-structure dynamics. Since damping is a crucial issue, the study focuses on the energy
transfer and balance on a vibrating floor and how the human acts as a passive or active energy absorber.
Figure 1. ISO and simple 2DOF models
Figure 2. Human structure interaction
Laboratory study and mathematical models

Figure 2 shows a laboratory set up to examine the human-structure dynamics.
A 7m by 1m by 75mm simply supported pre-stressed concrete plank is used, driven to vibrate by a chirp (fast sine
sweep) signal generated by an electro-dynamic shaker. Subjects stand on a metal (force) plate used to measure contact
forces between plank and human. The shaker and force plate signals as well as acceleration signals for the plank are
used to measure the energy flow from shaker to plank, and to the human at the point of contact.
A set of experiments was done using a subject with different postures, also with an equivalent dead mass. Figure 3
shows the frequency response function (FRF) data in these cases overlaid.
January 2000
-1
10
f=3.16Hz,
f=2.95Hz,
f=2.87Hz,
f=2.86Hz,
f=3.10Hz,
f=2.82Hz,
-1
FR
=0.8%
=1.1%
=2.0%
=6.0%
=9.2%
=2.8%
bare plank
80kg weights
standing erect
knees bent
knees v. bent
seated
3.6
3.8
F
(in
ert
-2
10
an
ce)
mo
-3
10
2.4
2.6
2.8
3.2
frequency/Hz
3.4
Figure 3. FRFs for different loads

For most cases the frequency decreased as if effective mass decreased, while the damping ratio increased massively,
depending on posture. The reduction in frequency was greater than when using a dead weight and is consistent with the
description of a human as a single degree of freedom (SDOF) system. For one situation, with knees very bent the
fundamental frequency reverted to the value for the bare plank a few % but with a very high damping ratio. While a
little artificial, the situation is not so easily explained using simple SDOF models with constant parameters. In most
practical situations the frequency reduction effect of humans not acting as load generators will not be so significant as
the dampening effect.
The multi-degree of freedom (MDOF) human body and plank model (Figure 1) and its simplified 2DOF equivalent,
using known plank dynamics i.e.
fplank= 3.16Hz ,
plank =0.8%
was used to predict the natural frequencies and damping ratios for human and human-plank systems. For the human the
model yields a solution:
fhuman= 4.88Hz,
human=37%.
For the 2DOF model, the values are:

fplank= 2.93Hz,
fhuman= 5.32Hz,
plank =2.2%.
human=36%.
where plank and human refer to components where the response is most significant. These values are consistent with
experimental data.
The model was used to study the energy transfer mechanism in the vibrations and checked against experimental data. It
was found that one human standing passively and naturally on a 1 tonne slab can more than double the energy
dissipation capacity, consistent with the above models.
Full-scale studies
The enhanced damping capacity of a floor occupied by humans has been verified by full-scale studies of a long span
floor. In the experiment involving a crowd of over several hundred people, some jumping, some standing and some
sitting, it was found that the expected resonance of the floor due to the jumping was mitigated by the presence of the
stationary occupants. Figure 4 shows floor response to jumping when occupied by only three (jumping) people, (thin
curve) and response to 400 jumping and stationary occupants (thick line). The peaks below 6Hz are not resonances but
are the fundamental and harmonics of jumping frequencies. The curves are normalised to the same response at the
fundamental and there is only very weak response at the floor resonant frequency (between 6Hz and 8Hz) with the
crowd present.
January 2000
Further refinements on the experimental set up, studies on light floors with frequencies above the human body
fundamental, on the nature of the human-structure contact and on crowd dynamics are in progress.
James M W Brownjohn (cjames @ntu.edu.sg)
root(PSD)/mm.sec
-2
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
4
f/Hz
Figure 4. Floor response to jumping:

heavy line
=standing & jumping
thin line
=jumping only
January 2000
Fuzzy Probabilistic Damage Analysis of Rock Mass to Explosive Loads

There exist a lot of uncertainties in the analysis of rock responses to explosive loads. Coping with these
uncertainties is an important task in rock engineering. Uncertainties involved in material strength and
loads have been treated with probability theory; but some uncertainties, such as failure criterion, which
are not random in nature, may play important roles in the safety assessment of a rock mass. When rock
mass is subjected to explosive loads, the failure of an element, according to the theory of fuzzy sets,
can be treated as a fuzzy event. Based on the fuzzy-random probabilistic theory, a unified model for the
failure analysis of rock mass under explosive loads considering the effect of both randomness and
fuzziness is proposed. Several types of membership functions are suggested to represent the fuzziness
of material failure.
Based on the hypothesis of strain equivalence, initial damage is defined as:
D0 = 1
~
E
E0
(1)
~
where E is the elastic modulus of the damaged material and E0 is that of undamaged material.
Measurement of the speed or propagation time of plane waves in boreholes of the rock mass leads to
~
the determination of its elastic modulus E , expressed in terms of the velocities of longitudinal wave
~
v L and transverse wave ~
vT as:
3~ 2 4~ 2
~
E = ~ L2 ~ L2 ~ 2 T
L T
(2)
where is mass density of the rock mass. By using the method of statistical analysis, a probability
distribution law for the initial damage of the rock mass under consideration was found to have the beta
distribution with the probability density function:
f (D 0 ) =
1
D 0a 1 (1 D 0b 1 )
B (a, b)
(3)
where a is the parameter of size; b is the parameter of shape; B( a, b ) is the beta function.
The damage variable of the rock mass per volume V 0 under explosive loads consisting of both
the initial damage and cumulative damage can be written as:
D ( D 0 , cr , , ) = 1 (1 D 0 ) exp[ ( cr ) V 0 ]
(4)
where is the equivalent tensile strain; and cr is critical tensile strain.

Based on continuum damage mechanics, the failure criterion of a rock mass to explosive loads is
defined by a minimum normal criterion D D c , where Dc is the critical damage value. The critical
damage value, which depends on many factors, is essentially a fuzzy set in the domain of discourse of
real number. Thus, the fuzzy failure probability can be defined as:
(5)
P f = P ( D D ) = ( D )f D ( D )dD
~ ~ ~ c
where f D ( D ) is the probability density function of the damage variable D, which is assumed having
~
the beta distribution as discussed above; and ( D ) is membership function.
January 2000
The construction of membership function is a difficult task and a debatable one in fuzzy set theory. In
most engineering applications, it is established on the basis of experts experience due to lack of data.
Normally, a linear ascending type of membership function is used in engineering:
0
D D
L
( D) =
D
D
L
U
D DL
DL < D DU
(6)
D > DU
where DU and DL are an upper limit and a lower limit of the fuzzy region.
The constitutive law and fuzzy-random damage model described in the previous sections have been
implemented to simulate a series of field blasting tests. The tests were carried out at a granite site. It
was found that the best fitted curves for the peak particle accelerations (PPA) and peak particle
velocities (PPV) in free field are respectively:
(7)
PPA = 1928 . 2 ( R / Q 1 / 3 ) 1. 4531 (g)
1 / 3 1. 1455
(m/s)
(8)
PPV = 0 . 396 ( R / Q )
where R is distance in meters measured from the charge centre; Q is the equivalent TNT charge weight
in kilograms.
4000
Numerical
Numerical
Test results
3000
Test results
acceleration g
Peak particle velocity m/s
Figure 1 shows the calculated peak particle velocities (PPV) in the rock mass at different scaled
distances, obtained by using the mean initial damage and the mean critical tensile strain in the
calculation. The corresponding best fitted curves of the field measured data of these waves are also
plotted in the figure. As can be seen, numerical results agree well with the test results.
0.1
0.01
2000
1000
0
0
-1000
0.001
0.002
0.003
0.004
0.005
0.006
t(s)
-2000
-3000
0.1
10
1/3
Scaled Scaled
range m/kg
range m/kg
Scaled range m/kg1/3
Figure 1. Attenuation of PPV
100
-4000
Figure 2. Comparison of horizontal acceleration time

histories obtained at 2.5m from the charge hole (charge
weight 50kg )
Figure 2 shows the recorded and simulated acceleration time histories at 2.5m from the charge hole
with a charge weight of 50kg.
Figure 3 shows the calculated fuzzy failure probability distributions around the charge hole under the
membership function.
January 2000
(D)
0.8m
5m
Figure 3. Fuzzy failure probabilities of the rock mass around the charge hole under membership
function ( D ) (charge weight 50kg)
Hao Hong (chhao@ntu.edu.sg)

Wu Chengqing (p142307182@ntu.edu.sg)
January 2000
Steel Fibre Reinforced Concrete Panels Exposed to Air-Blast Loading

Despite the recent development of advanced building materials and protective methods, conventional concrete
continues to be preferred in the construction of important surface structures, sub-surface and other
infrastructure facilities where the threat of air-blast, shock or ballistic loading is likely to cause substantial
injury to personnel and damage to equipment inside the building. However, the residual strength of concrete
becomes questionable once damage has occurred. This could result from a first wave attack on the facility.
Resistance of the damaged concrete, thereafter, is indeterminate. Therefore, increasing the survivability of
the material is a critical factor to avoid further degradation from potential repeated blast or impact loading.
Improving survivability of conventional concrete by incorporating discrete steel fibres into the mix has been
studied. The investigation demonstrates the effectiveness of steel fibre reinforced concrete (SFRC) as a
potential material for use in infrastructure development and construction. SFRC reduces projectile penetration,
frontal spallation and rear face scabbing. In tests, SFRC was subjected to single and multiple impact from
small and large calibre projectiles.
Recent air-blast tests conducted jointly with LEO(MINDEF) to investigate the survivability of steel fibre
reinforced concrete panel structures and other retrofit protection materials have demonstrated the
performance of SFRC. The SFRC structures were subjected to various magnitudes of air-blast pressures.
Similar panels reinforced with conventional weldmesh reinforcement and epoxy fibremat were also tested to
compare damage and response. A number of panels with different boundary conditions were considered in
the test programme. Results of a test on encastre slabs are shown in Table 1.
Conclusion
The performance and resistance of steel fibre reinforced concrete model panels subjected to air-blast
pressures have been investigated. Further studies are planned to quantify the dynamic material characteristics
and structural resistance/response of the steel fibre reinforced concrete panels subjected to air-blast loading.
Acknowledgement
The work reported here is part of an Explosive Testing of Structural Components programme, and is made
possible with financial support from the Lands and Estates Organisation (MINDEF). The permission of the
Director, LEO (MINDEF), to publish this note is gratefully acknowledged.
T S Lok (ctslok@ntu.edu.sg)
January 2000
Table 1. Response of encastre panels (as an open box) to air-blast pressure at 4.0 metre stand-off distance
Plain
concrete
panel
Weldmesh
reinforced
(6mm@200 crs)
panel
Steel fibre reinforced panels (0.5% fibre volume concentration)

corrugated fibres short enlarged-end
Hooked-end fibres
fibres
L/d = 49.3
L/d = 33.4
Length = 60 mm
Length = 30 mm
Length = 60 mm
Diameter = 0.8 mm Diameter = 0.5 mm Diameter = 0.8 mm
L/d = 75
L/d = 60
L/d = 60
Failure
Pattern:
Front
View
Failure
Pattern:
Back
View
-4
-6
0
-2
-4
-6
B-EA
0
-2
-4
-6
B-DA
0
-2
-4
-6
B-DC
0
Displacement (mm)
-6
-2
B-XA
Displacement (mm)
-4
Displacement (mm)
Panel destroyed
-2
B-SR
Displacement (mm)
Displacement (mm)
Displacement (mm)
Residual
displacement
profile
-2
-4
-6
-8
-8
-8
-8
-8
-8
-10
-10
-10
-10
-10
-10
B-DE
January 2000
Taylor Dispersion by Surface Waves

Introduction
Pollutants, once discharged and beyond the initial active entrainment phase, will be passively advected and dispersed in
the water body. The dispersal mechanisms are mainly through turbulent diffusion and longitudinal dispersion with tidal
and wind-induced shear currents. This study addresses the longitudinal dispersive effect due to mass transport induced
by progressive surface waves.
Ever since the classic work of Taylor (1953), there has been extensive research on the longitudinal dispersion generated
by turbulent and laminar shear flows and the resulting variation in velocity profile, in various chemical and hydraulic
engineering applications. Thus far, nearly all investigations on Taylor dispersion involve cross-sectional velocity
variations induced by turbulent or laminar shear stresses. It is therefore not surprising that this dispersion mode is often
referred to as shear dispersion, as evidenced in the classic text of Fischer et al. (1979). The term implicitly suggests
that the presence of shear is necessary for the mechanism to take place. In reality, other than the background diffusion,
the only requirement is a cross-sectional variation of the flow profile in steady currents. Such variation can also exist in
water motion that is primarily irrotational. A clear example is surface gravity waves that are commonly considered to be
irrotational in the leading order except near boundaries. For surface waves, it is well known that Lagrangian drift exists
with a varying profile along the water depth. The cross-sectional variations of the steady drift velocity should provide
the necessary agents for Taylor dispersion to take place. Therefore the presence of progressive surface waves should
increase the longitudinal mixing of a contaminant cloud.
The following section quantifies the dispersive effect for the cases of a Stoke drift profile, a drift profile with viscous
effect and also a profile under the cover of a contaminated inextensible surface cover. Discussion on the implication of
the results is provided in the last section.
Longitudinal dispersion
In a progressive wave environment, as the pollutant particles move passively in phase and magnitude with the water
particles, they will undergo the second order period-averaged drift displacement. Since the motion of a pollutant particle
is followed, the drift displacement should obey the Lagrangian pattern. Assuming a velocity scale of u d , the
longitudinal dispersion coefficient can be computed as:
2
K u d 2 d 2 1 y
=
0 0 [u (y ) u m ]dy dy
2
D
D
(1)
where D is the laminar or eddy diffusivity that for this analysis is assumed to be isotropic in all directions and constant
throughout the water depth, u d the velocity scale, u m the non-dimensional depth-averaged velocity, u the nondimensional drift, and d the water depth.
In the absence of viscosity, the drift profile will follow the pattern of the second-order Stoke drift. Stoke drift is induced
because in the movement of a particle under the wave motion, the particle stays longer below the crest than the trough,
and the particle velocity is slightly higher in the top part of their orbit than the bottom part. The depth-averaged drift
velocity, u m , and the corresponding non-dimensional drift, u , without a pressure gradient, is known to be:
um =
H2
1
4Td tanh()
cosh 2 ( y) + sinh2 ( y )
u =
sinh() cosh()
(2a)
(2b)
where H is the wave height, = kd and k the wave number. Substituting (2) into (1) yields:
K
4
= f s ()
D
(3a)
January 2000
sinh(4 ) 4
(
cosh(
4
1
)
fs =
16 tanh 2 ( ) + 1 cosh(2 ) + 1
2
sinh (2 ) 3
2
2
(3b)
where = H / DT represents the ratio of the wave height and the diffusive movement within one wave period.
Figure 1 shows the relationship between fs and . It is obvious that fs increases monotonically with suggesting that the
dispersive effect is more prominent in transitional water. In the figure, the range of is limited to be less than which is
the commonly adopted deep water limiting condition. For larger , the surface wave motion will not be able to mobilize
the bottom water such that the bottom layer will behave similarly to the dead zone in the river case.
1
0.12
fs
0.9
0.1
0.8
0.7
0.08
0.6
fv 0.5
0.06
0.4
0.3
0.04
0.2
0.02
0.1
0
0
0
Figure 2. Variation of fv versus .
Figure 1. Variation of fs versus .
The finite viscosity in water introduces vorticity, particularly in the boundary layers at the surface and at the seabed.
The resulting drift profile with the viscous effect for the case of zero-mass flux under a pressure gradient, as obtained by
Longuet-Higgin (1953), is:
3 + 2 cosh ( 2y )
3 sinh (2 )
u =
+ 3 y ( 2 y )

2
4 sinh ( ) 2
+ sinh (2 )y (2 + y )
(4)
where u is non-dimensionalized with a velocity scale of (ka)2C where a is the amplitude and C the phase celerity.
Substituting (4) into (1) yields:
K
4
= f v ( ) (5a)
D
7
5
88 + 64 6
cosh(4 )+ 120 396 sinh(2) + 210 3 sinh(4 )

+ 2100 3 630
2 222 4 315
88 + 224 6 618 4 + 3780 2 + 315
fv =
13440 4 (3 4 cosh(2 ) + cosh(4 ))
(5b)
The relationship between fv and is illustrated in Figure 2. Unlike the monotonic increase with , as in the case of Stoke
drift, the dispersive effect is more substantial in shallow water as well as near the deep-water limit. The minimum fv of
0.0085 occurs at a transitional water depth of = 1.04. With the stronger drift variation induced by the viscous effect, the
magnitude of the dispersion coefficient is generally an order of magnitude larger than the Stoke drift alone.
January 2000
When an inextensible slick such as thick oil or grease contaminates the water surface, the drift velocity increases
significantly. Craik (1982) derived the non-dimensional drift profile under the slick with zero-mass flux due to a pressure
gradient as:
u =
2 g coth () 3
y y 1
3
2
8 2
(6)
where is the wave angular frequency. Again the velocity scale is (ka)2C. Substituting (6) into (1) yields :
K
= 4 f c ( )
D
fc =
(7a)
2 4 g 2 coth 2 ( )
(7b)
53760 3
The relationship between fc and is illustrated in Figure 3 assuming a kinematic viscosity of = 10-6 m2/s and = 0.78 (T
= 8 seconds). The resulting K/D is several order of magnitudes larger than the previous two cases, which is expected
with the much stronger drift current. The monotonic increase with is again observed showing the growing importance
of the dispersive effect in deeper water.
fc
6
(x10 )
0
0
Figure 3. Variation of fc versus .

Discussion
The results from the current study show that with small background turbulent diffusivity and persistent wave height
being much larger than DT , the longitudinal dispersion of a contaminant cloud could be significantly enhanced by the
surface wave motion. The dispersion is much more prominent with the presence of viscosity, and particularly under the
cover of a contaminated water surface. The actual importance of this dispersive effect with the non-broken waves in a
particular environment should be evaluated by comparing with other existing mechanisms such as due to wind or tidalinduced shear flows.
References:
[1] Craik, A.D.D., 1982. The drift velocity of water waves. J. Fluid Mech., Vol.116, pp187-205.
[2] Fischer, H.B., List, E.J., Koh, R.C.Y., Imberger, J., and Brooks, N.H., 1979. Mixing of inland and coastal waters.
Academic Press, 483 pages.
[3] Longuet-Higgins, M.S., 1953. Mass transport in water waves. Phil. Trans. A, No.245, pp.535-581.
[4] Taylor, G.I., 1953. Dispersion of soluble matter in solvent flowing slowly through a tube. Proc. R. Soc. London Ser.
A, 219, pp186-203.
Adrian W K Law (cwklaw@ntu.edu.sg)
January 2000
GIS as a Tool for the Management of Oil-Spill Incidents in the Coastal

Environment
Background
Given Singapores position as one of the worlds largest oil refining centres and leading bunker-service
ports, and as an established tanker repair and dry-dock facility, its ports are popular among maritime
traders (Singapore Maritime Index, 1992). Although the port waters cater to the needs of a wide
spectrum of users, the largest demand arises from the vessel population. In 1988, about 36,000 vessels
passed through Singapore (Lim, 1991) and this figure increased to 104,014 in 1995 (PSA, 1996).
Potential for oil-spill incidents and hazard
As the traffic volumes continue to rise in the busy sea-lanes, the port waters of Singapore and the region
have become more vulnerable to oil-spills. Oil-spills can be caused by vessel collisions and/or sludge
dumping. Examples of recent oil-spill incidents in Singapore are: (a) the Showa Maru oil-spill in the waters
outside Singapores territorial waters in 1975;(b) the oil-spill resulting from a fire on a barge which led to
severe oil pollution on the shore in May 1985; (c) the illegal discharge of slop into the sea by Song San
which caused the beaches at Sentosa Island to be polluted by oil slicks in August 1996, and (d) the
collision of Global Orapin and Evoikas in October 1997.
Oil-spills can have a serious economic impact on coastal activities and users. In most cases, such impact is
temporary and is caused primarily by the physical properties of oil creating nuisance and hazardous
conditions. There will be lost revenue due to interruption of activities. The impact on marine life is
complicated by the diversity and variability of biological systems and their sensitivity to oil pollution. As a
result, modern coastal resource managers have begun to adopt an integrated-management approach
which considers all related activities and resources, and the inter-related complexities of the competing uses
- economic and social issues, and above all, management of oil-spill and other incidents, response
strategies and damage analysis. The tool used to manipulate these cascades of information is the
Geographical Information System (GIS).
Figure 1. The sector of the coastal waters south of Jurong as at 1995.
January 2000
Management of oil-spill - a methodology

Land-based GIS has been applied widely and the results are promising. However, the application of GIS
in marine resources is in its infancy. The drawback of the GIS is the need for the user to thoroughly know
and understand the operation of the system.
The Study Area
The study focuses on the sector of the coastal waters south of Jurong, from Sentosa and the St. John group
of islands in the east, to the Raffles Shoal in the west, and Sinki Fairway in the south, as shown in Figure 1.
This area is dotted with petroleum installations and chemical plants. In addition, the area is heavily used by
freighters and ocean liners, and is therefore very vulnerable to oil-spills.
GIS Database
GIS databases are made up of the (a) physical, (b) geographical and, (c) transient information which is
already in the GIS database. The geographical and physical data are information that do not change rapidly
with time. The transient information includes data on chemical stockpiles, location of rescue vessels and
resources. This last category of information requires frequent updating as the stockpiles may have been
used or the rescue vessels may have been deployed to other locations. The spread of the oil slick, another
type of transient information, can be estimated by either using the GIS tools such as the Disperse function
or through hydrodynamic simulation. These 3 categories of information form the static database upon
which scenario testing and decision support can be made.
The analyses of damages and cost are more involved. The GIS tools of overlay and classification can
be used to establish the affected environment and activities, and the cost in lost-revenue and cleaning-up.
Obviously the decision to contain the oil slicks or to carry out the clean-up operation would need to be
made in conjunction with the cost factors derived from the damage analysis. The decision making is an
iterative process. Figure 2 shows an example output of the area affected by the oil-spill and the
environmental resources involved.
January 2000
dumping
ground
Coral / Nature
conservation
Oil slick
affected area
Figure 2. An example output of the GIS data set showing the oil slick affected area and the
dumping ground, coral areas and nature reserve (as indicated).
References
[1] Lim, K.W., 1991. Management and utilisation of Singapores port waters: new directions, Urban coastal area management: the
experience of Singapore, ICLARM conf. Proc 25. L.S.Chia and L.M.Chou (eds.), 128p.
[2] PSA, 1996. Singapore Port Statistics: Sep, 1996. Strategic Planning Department, Port of Singapore Authority, Singapore.
Singapore Maritime Index 92, 1992. FETP Business Publications Pte. Ltd.
S K Tan (ctansk@ntu.edu.sg)
January 2000
Performance of a Membrane Wave Barrier of Finite Draft

Introduction
Studies have been made on the interaction of water waves with rigid, vertical barriers. These
included barriers which descend from the water surface to some distance below, non-surface
piercing underwater barriers, and barriers with a gap in between. Both single and double
parallel barriers, and slotted barriers have also been studied. Recently, other investigations
considered the use of vertically tensioned membranes which spanned the entire water depth.
These included single and dual membrane arrangements.
As a wave barrier, there are certain inherent advantages of a barrier which descends from the
surface to only a fraction of the water depth, i.e. of finite draft. This is because the wave energy
which is concentrated near the surface is intercepted by the barrier. At the same time, water
circulation is maintained in the gap below, and the flow of sediment and marine life near the
seabed is unimpeded. Here we report the results of the analytical work used to model the
performance of a flexible membrane wave barrier of finite draft.
Eigenfunction solution
The membrane was modelled as a thin, vertically
tensioned flexible sheet fixed at both ends, as
shown in Figure 1. Linear wave theory and
small membrane motion were assumed. No
overtopping was also assumed.
For
monochromatic incident waves, the wave
velocity potentials in the incident and
transmission regions were expanded in terms of
propagating and evanescent wave modes.
Incident wave
z
x
Membrane
z=-h
Figure 1. Definition sketch

x
The membrane vibrates in response to the pressure from the waves. Its displacement is
determined by the membrane equation, and is also expanded using membrane modes satisfying
the fixed boundary conditions. The solution proceeds by recasting the membrane equation as a
dynamic boundary condition on the wave potentials.
1 = 2 +
iT 2 m 2
+

z 2
T
(1)
The usual notations of , , and i being the angular frequency, water density and (-1),
respectively, apply. In addition, m and T are the mass per unit area and tension per unit width
of the membrane. Over the gap, the dynamic condition of the continuity of the velocity
potential applies. Together with the kinematic condition of the velocity being continuous, a
matrix equation for the amplitudes of the wave and membrane modes is obtained and solved
numerically.
The wave energy transmission coefficient Ct of a membrane at varying draft d/h and different
membrane tension T, given by T/(gh2 ), is shown in Figure 2 for two values of kh of 1.06
(intermediate depth) and 4.272 (deep water), and at normal incidence. The rigid barrier results
January 2000
using the BIEM method by Liu et al. (1982), and results obtained through experiments by
Wiegel (1960) are also shown. A good comparison is obtained for the rigid membrane case.
2(a). kh = 1.06
2(b). kh = 4.272
Figure 2. Transmission coefficient versus draft d/h at tension T indicated and normal incidence.
The effect of membrane tension is insignificant at very small d/h. The transmission coefficient
Ct begins to decrease from unity at about kd of 0.4, i.e. when the membrane begins to span a
non-negligible fraction of the wavelength. Thereafter, the effect of tension becomes noticeable,
with Ct showing a local minimum of zero wave transmission at specific values of d/h depending
on kh and membrane tension. This minimum shifts to larger d/h as tension increases and kh
decreases. This minimum arises because of motion from the membrane. There is cancellation
between the propagating wave from the membrane motion and that from diffraction in the gap
below, resulting in a small transmitted wave. This is in contrast to a rigid barrier where the
transmitted wave arises solely from diffraction across the gap.
The trend in wave transmission approaches that of a rigid barrier when the membrane tension
reaches about 0.4. At the larger tensions of 0.2 to 0.4, the membrane offers significant
reductions in wave transmission over specific regions of d/h. This reduction can occur at a
smaller value of d/h as compared to a rigid barrier (Figure 2a).
The trend of Ct with wave frequency kh at normal incidence and different membrane tension is
shown in Figure 3 for the membrane draft of 0.5. The experimental results of Isaacson et al
(1998) for a rigid barrier at
d/h = 0.5 are also shown,
indicating good agreement.
The
wave
transmission
approaches unity at vanishing
kh (i.e. in long wave limit)
for d/h of 0.5, and is in
contrast to the case of d/h = 1
(not shown) where it
approaches zero.
This is
because the wave energy,
while unable to couple to the
membrane
modes
at
Figure 3. Transmission versus kh at T indicated
vanishing kh, is still able to
diffract through the gap
below.
January 2000
The transmission decreases from unity as kh increases from zero and develops a local minimum.
This minimum occurs because of wave cancellation between the waves generated by the
membrane motion and diffraction in the gap. Above kh of 2, there is a series of transmission
peaks for the flexible case when d/h is close to unity. These peaks are shifted to increasing kh
with decreasing d/h and increasing tension. Thus, as shown in Figure 3, having a d/h<1 enables
these transmission peaks to be shifted to larger kh values at the same membrane tension.
Only small effects were seen at oblique incidence. There were minor deviations in Ct from the
values at normal incidence up to about 40o off normal. Thereafter, Ct rose monotonically to
unity at 90o oblique incidence.
Conclusion
The transmission of water waves with a vertically tensioned membrane of varying draft has
been studied. The membrane draft and tension significantly govern the wave transmission, with
the transmitted wave being generated from diffraction across the finite gap and the membrane
motion.
References
[1] Isaacson, M., Premasiri, S., Yang, G., (1998), Wave interactions with vertical slotted
barrier, J. Wtrwy, Port, Coast., and Oc. Eng., ASCE, 124(3), pp118-126.
[2] Liu, P.L.F., and Abbaspour, M., (1982), Wave scattering by a rigid thin barrier, J. Wtrwy.,
Port, Coast., and Oc. Div., ASCE, 108(WW4), pp479-491.
[3] Wiegel, R.L., (1960), Transmission of wave past a rigid vertical thin barrier, J. of Wtrwy
and Harbors Div., ASCE, 86(WW1), pp1-12.
Edmond Y M Lo (cymlo@ntu.edu.sg)
January 2000
Riprap Failure Around Bridge Piers Under Live-Bed Conditions

Using riprap stones to deal with pier scour problems is very common in civil engineering
practice. However, riprap layers often fail to protect bridges against excessive scour during
severe flood conditions. One of the main causes of such failures is the general movement of
sediments during severe flood conditions. During floods, a live-bed condition with the presence
of bed features, e.g. ripples and dunes, is very likely to occur, especially in rivers consisting of
fine bed sediments. The movement of bed sediments along the channel and the propagation of
bed features cause the immobile riprap stones to lose their stability, eventually embedding into
the bed. This phenomenon enhances failure of the riprap layer.
Failure behavior of riprap layer around bridge piers
Experimental observations have revealed that a riprap layer can undergo two distinct modes of
failure depending on the flow condition, the characteristics of the riprap stones, and the bed
sediments. These failure modes are (1) total disintegration failure; and (2) embedment failure.
Figures 1 and 2 show two photographs illustrating these two modes of failure. The former refers
to the break-up of the entire riprap layer, where most, if not all the riprap stones have been
washed away by the flow field generated around the pier. Total disintegration failure is more
likely to form under a clear-water condition and when the size of the riprap stones dR50 is similar
to the size of the bed sediment d50 . Because of these requirements, riprap failure observed in
most published laboratory studies conducted under clear-water conditions and with a relatively
small dR50/d50 ratio will tend to fall under this type of failure.
The present study examines riprap failure around a bridge pier under live-bed conditions and a
relatively large dR50/d50 . Here the dominant failure behavior is very different from total
disintegration failure. The riprap stones tend to embed beneath the sediment bed rather than be
washed away by the flow (see Figure 2). The reason for the embedment is that with a large
dR50/d50 , the riprap stones are inherently more stable than their smaller counterparts. Under a
given flow condition, the riprap layer will remain intact even when the bed sediments have
started to move. This induces a differential mobility between the riprap stones and the bed
sediment. When the fine sediment particles upon which the riprap stones rest begin to move, the
latter will lose their footing and stability, eventually sinking into the bed by virtue of their
weight. This phenomenon is similar to the embedment of a large exposed grain resting on a bed
consisting of fine sediment particles. The embedment process is further enhanced when
bedforms such as dunes, propagate past the riprap layer. When the trough of a dune arrives at the
bridge site, the riprap layer will inevitably sink to the trough level, to be buried by the incoming
sediment when the dune crest arrives. The two phenomena described above combine to cause
embedment of the riprap stones, and eventually failure of the riprap layer.
January 2000
Although embedment failure is the dominant failure mode for a riprap layer at bridge piers under
live-bed conditions, little is known about its causes and characteristics. The main reason is that
the influence of bed features on riprap stability is not investigated even though it is the main
cause of embedment failure. Another reason is that most studies were conducted with a
relatively small dR50/d50 ratio. Interactions between the riprap layer and migrating bed features
and how they cause degradation of the riprap layer are highlighted in the article.
Bed-feature destabilization
Bed-feature destabilization is prompted by the fluctuation of the bed level due to the propagation
of bed features (ripples and dunes) past the pier. When the dune trough arrives at the riprap
layer, a high level of turbulence is generated at the reattached zone of the flow over the dune
crest. This combines with the flow field that formed at the pier to pluck and erode additional
riprap stones from the degraded riprap layer. Once these stones are eroded, the degraded layer
becomes thinner and is further loosened, which gives an impetus for winnowing, resulting in the
embedment of the riprap layer.
A unique feature of bed-feature destabilization is the periodic fluctuations of scour depth caused
by the propagation of the crest and trough of bed features past the pier. Figures 3(a) and 3(b)
show the temporal variations of the pier scour depth for two different tests. Both the tests were
conducted with the same riprap layer dimension: diameter, D = 70 mm; d50 = 0.26 mm; dR50 =
9.12 mm; riprap thickness, t = 36 mm (= 4dR50); and riprap cover, c = 280 mm (= 4D). The flow
condition used for testing was also identical: undisturbed approach flow depth, yo = 210 mm and
velocity ratio, U/Uc(d50) = 4.5 where U = mean velocity and Uc(d50) = mean velocity for bed
sediment entrainment. In both cases the bed features that formed on the approaching bed were
transition flat bed. The only difference was that in the former, the flow velocity was increased as
quickly as practicable so that transition flat bed was formed immediately after the onset of the
test. This was to avoid the formation of ripples and dunes on the approaching bed. Because of
this, bed feature destabilization cannot effectively influence the failure modes of the riprap layer.
In the latter, the velocity was increased incrementally to allow ripples and dunes to form prior to
the final test with U/Uc = 4.5.
Superimposed in both Figures 3(a) and 3(b) is a horizontal line that depicts the maximum depth
of riprap degradation, drp, which is measured from the undisturbed mean bed level. Under the
given flow condition, drp = 133 mm and 176 mm for tests conducted in Figures 3(a) and 3(b),
respectively. The data in both figures show the expected scour depth fluctuations related to pier
scouring with transition flat bed. Figure 3(a) shows that the maximum depth of scour coincides
with drp. This implies that the riprap layer has sunk to the lowest level under the given condition
and further degradation of the scour hole is not present. On the other hand, Figure 3(b) shows a
deeper drp, which is well below the fluctuations of the scour hole. The deeper drp associated with
this test run is due to the formation of dunes and ripples before the final test conducted with U/Uc
= 4.5. In those tests, ripples (U/Uc = 1.91), and different size dunes (U/Uc = 2.40 and 3.19) were
observed on the approaching bed. A sufficient duration, which ranged from 19 to 32 hours, was
allowed for all these tests so that equilibrium scour hole was reached for every instance. Figure 4
shows the temporal variations of the scour depth for U/Uc = 3.19 in which dunes were formed on
the approaching bed. The migrating dunes effected bed feature destabilization, causing the riprap
layer to degrade to 176 mm. With the commencement of the test with U/Uc = 4.5, which is
associated with the formation of transition flat bed, no dunes were present on the approaching
bed to expose the embedded riprap layer. Since the degraded riprap layer remains buried beneath
the scour hole, drp remains the same for both the tests conducted in Figures. 3(b) and 4.
The difference of drp between the two tests (Figures 3a and 3b) denotes an additional degradation
depth that can only be attributed to the action of bed feature destabilization. The results show
that riprap layer degradation will increase not only with flow velocity but also with the height of
approaching bed features.
January 2000
Figure 3. Temporal variations of scour depth in transition flat bed regime with different
antecedent bed features: (a) immobile flat bed (b) immobile flat bed, ripples, and dunes.
Figure 4. Temporal variations of scour depth in upper end of dune regime
January 2000
Summary
The study shows that bed feature destabilization presents an additional dimension to riprap
failure. The stability of the riprap layer is highly sensitive to the bed features propagating past
the bridge site.
Y. M. Chiew (cymchiew@ntu.edu.sg)

RB 13

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CSE Research Bulletin

Official Launch of the Environmental

CSE Research Bulletin

For more information about the latest developments

upstream research and development in

Professor Chen Charng Ning, Deputy President, NTU

Information and Resource Centre, to monitor

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CSE Research Bulletin No. 13. January 2000: In Focus

Official Launch of the Environmental

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CSE Research Bulletin No. 13. January 2000: In Focus

schools in Asia in the not too distant future, with

Institute of Environmental Technology (RIET), ST

The new Centre is a multi-disciplinary research

Information and Resource Centre, to monitor

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CSE Research Bulletin No. 13. January 2000: In Focus

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CSE Research Bulletin No. 13. January 2000: Research Projects

Recycling Marine Clay

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CSE Research Bulletin No. 13. January 2000: Research Projects

Re-Utilisation of By-products From Steel-Making Into value-added

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CSE Research Bulletin No. 13. January 2000: Research Projects

The flat-plate structural

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CSE Research Bulletin No. 13. January 2000: Research Projects

Three Dimensional Finite Element Modelling of Reinforced Concrete

A/P Fan S C (cfansc@ntu.edu.

Strength Improvement of Peaty Soils.

Development of a Freight Research Strategy.

Photo-degradation of Organic Pollutants by UV/Oxidation Process.

Utilisation of Marine Clay for Innovative Building and Construction

Instability and Liquefaction of Reclaimed Land under General Stress

Ast/P P Irawan (cirawan@ntu.

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Asst Prof J H Cahyadi

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CSE Research Bulletin No. 13. January 2000: Research Projects

Steel Fibre Reinforced (SFR) Concrete Material and Fibremat

Elastic Constants of Aluminium Truss-Core Sandwich Panel.

A/P Lok T S (ctslok@ntu.edu.

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CSE Research Bulletin No. 13. January 2000: Research Activities

Analysis of Premature Failures in CFRPStrengthened RC Beams

Removal of Color and TOC Using a TiO /

Fe O Suspended Bubble Photo Catalytic

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CSE Research Bulletin No. 13. January 2000: Research Activities

Behaviour of Cracked Diaphragm Walls

Near-Real-Time Measuring of Sea Level

Comparison of the HCM and Singapore

3D Crack Simulation Using Boundary Element

Taylor Dispersion by Surface Waves

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CSE Research Bulletin No. 13. January 2000: Research Activities

The Second GRC (Geotechnical Research Centre) Lecture on

The GRC organised a 3-day Seminar on Characterisation Of Soil For

In April 1999, CTS staff

CTS conducted a short