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INTRODUCTION
A growing literature has linked patientphysician
communication to a host of valued patient outcomes, including improvements in markers of
disease control such as haemoglobin A1C and
blood pressure, reports of enhanced physical and
emotional health status, and better performance in
activities of daily living.1 As a result, physicians
communication skills have attracted increasing
attention as a source of variation in the quality of
care.2 The linking of communication skill and
quality of care has not gone unnoticed by medical
educators, credential bodies, and managed care
organizations. The past decade has seen two international consensus statements by expert groups of
medical educators recommending the development
and implementation of communication skills
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teaching
METHODS
The study design is a pre post evaluation of a
communication skills teaching intervention. Participants were 28 paediatric residents in their first year
of postgraduate medical training in a large urban
medical centre. The average age of study participants was 27 and the majority (n 19; 68%) were
female.
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4 building an active partnership for problem solving related to the therapeutic regimen.
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teaching
RIAS system with 25 years experience training coders and a contributor to the development of the new
software (author S.L.). No significant problems were
found in the coding.
A second video-based study using the digital software
platform was completed shortly after the current
study and reliability was assessed on a 10% random
sample of double-coded interviews. The levels of
intercoder reliability for this study averaged 0.90 for
physician categories and 0.89 for patient categories
(unpublished data). These levels are slightly higher
than those reported in earlier RIAS studies, in which
reliability has ranged across categories from roughly
0.70 to 0.90.13,14
Table 1 provides examples of RIAS coded categories
and specific skills.
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Patient education
and counselling
Responding to
emotions
Activation and
partnership
building
Example
Biomedical information-giving
The medication may make you
(medical condition; therapeutic regimen) drowsy. You need it for 10 days.
Psychosocial and lifestyle information
(feelings and emotions, lifestyle
and self-care information)
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teaching
Figure 1 Feedback on the use of specific RIAS categories is structured through the menu on the left hand side of
the screen. The summaries for Doctor and Patient represent the total number of utterances coded, by speaker,
for each RIAS category for that interview. To review examples of specific RIAS categories of talk, the tally box for
either the Doctor or Patient next to the category (e.g. the 5 under the Reassures Shows Optimism) is selected.
When selected, the category appears under the video box. If Start First is clicked, the first example will be
retrieved. If Start Next is clicked, the second coded reassurance statement is retrieved, and so on. With retrieval
of an RIAS category, the target statements are highlighted as hatch marks in the area across the top of the screen
to provide a context for the exchange relative to its position in the visit. In addition, the first statement in a
category is transcribed to assist the learner in identifying the target statement. This verbatim text appears at the
bottom of the screen. Each retrieved statement is presented within its verbal context by automatic playback of
several statements prior to and after the targetted statement. This context window can be adjusted based on time
(usually all talk + 5 seconds) or by number of statements (usually + )3 statements). When the video is activated,
a tracking ball follows along with the sequential record of coded statements. A time stamp indicates elapsed time
into the interview at which the statement occurs.
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Analytic strategy
RESULTS
Acceptability of the feedback innovation
Residents found the feedback session to be helpful;
86% of the residents reported that the feedback
session was productive in improving their clinical
skills. The faculty using the CD-ROM to guide their
feedback to residents preferred it to more traditional approaches of using feedback as a teaching
vehicle.
Length of simulation
Physician talk
Patient talk
Ratio of talk,
physician : patient
2
Pre-training
Mean (SD)
Post-training
Mean (SD)
Paired
t-statistic
Negative Positive
change
change
No
change
Wilcoxon
Z
13.4 (3.2)
220.5 (65.3)
105.3 (46.7)
2.2 (.5)
15.8 (2.1)
228.0 (50.1)
136.3 (36.0)
1.7 (.4)
3.5**
0.6
2.6*
3.7**
4
14
6
6
0
0
0
0
3.1**
0.6
3.0**
3.3**
24
14
22
22
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teaching
Table 2a Gender effects associated with communication changes pre and post educational programme
Male residents (n 9)
Female residents (n 19)
Negative Positive No
Wilcoxon Negative Positive No
Wilcoxon
change
change change Z
change
change change Z
Length of simulation
Physician talk
Patient talk
Ratio of talk,
physician : patient
2
5
1
6
7
4
8
3
0
0
0
0
1.6 +
0.8
1.8 +
1.7 +
2
9
5
16
17
10
14
3
0
0
0
0
2.8**
0.1
2.4*
2.8**
Table 3 Frequency of targetted communication categories pre and post educational programme
Pre-training Post-training Paired Negative Positive No
Wilcoxon
Mean (SD) Mean (SD) t-statistic change change change Z
Data gathering
Open-ended questions (all) 6.6 (4.5)
Lifestyle psychosocial
3.0 (2.6)
Therapeutic regimen
2.3 (2.4)
Medical symptoms history 1.2 (1.1)
Closed-ended questions (all) 16.5 (7.8)
Lifestyle psychosocial
6.5 (5.9)
Therapeutic regimen
6.4 (3.7)
Medical symptoms history 3.6 (2.7)
Building a relationship
Reassurance
18.7 (13.8)
Concern
13.5 (9.8)
Empathy
1.9 (1.8)
Legitimation
0.7 (1.1)
Activating and partnering
Re-statement
8.7 (6.0)
Asks patient opinion
4.1 (3.1)
Asks understanding
10.8 (8.3)
Back channels
4.1 (4.8)
Problem-solving and negotiation skills
Problem-solving probes
0.6 (0.7)
Problem-solving assistance 0.4 (0.8)
Partnership and support 0.4 (0.8)
10.6 (4.2)
5.0 (2.7)
4.0 (2.4)
1.6 (1.5)
21.6 (9.1)
9.4 (5.4)
8.6 (5.1)
3.6 (2.9)
3.9**
3.2**
2.7*
0.9
2.4*
1.9 +
1.9 +
0.0
4
8
6
9
9
10
7
12
19
18
21
12
17
16
17
13
5
2
1
7
2
2
4
3
3.2**
2.8**
2.6**
0.8
2.2*
1.7 +
1.9 +
0.1
12.2 (7.9)
13.1 (5.3)
2.8 (1.9)
1.5 (1.5)
2.1*
0.2
2.3*
0.6
18
13
6
7
10
15
16
8
0
0
6
13
1.7 +
0.4
2.1*
0.5
10.1 (5.9)
7.3 (3.9)
7.6 (6.3)
6.6 (6.2)
1.2
3.4**
2.4*
2.1*
9
6
18
6
19
21
9
16
0
1
1
6
1.5
2.8**
2.4*
2.7**
2.0 (1.7)
1.2 (1.4)
1.2 (1.4)
3.9*
2.6*
2.6*
2
4
4
17
12
12
9
12
12
3.5**
2.3*
2.2*
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Table 3a Frequency of targetted communication categories pre and post educational programme
Male residents (n 9)
Female residents (n 19)
Negative Positive No
Wilcoxon Negative Positive No
Wilcoxon
change change change Z
change change change Z
Data gathering
Open-ended questions (all)
Lifestyle psychosocial
Therapeutic regimen
Medical symptoms history
Closed-ended questions (all)
Lifestyle psychosocial
Therapeutic regimen
Medical symptoms history
Building a relationship
Reassurance
Concern
Empathy
Legitimation
Activating and partnering
Re-statement
Asks patient opinion
Asks understanding
Back channels
Problem-solving skills
Problem-solving probes
Problem-solving assistance
Partnership and support
2
2
2
4
2
3
1
5
5
6
6
2
7
4
7
4
2
1
1
3
0
2
1
0
1.4
1.8 +
1.5
1.0
2.2*
0.8
2.1*
0.9
2
6
4
5
7
7
6
7
14
12
15
10
10
12
10
9
3
1
0
4
2
0
3
3
2.8**
2.1*
2.2*
1.8 +
1.2
1.4
0.9
0.9
5
3
2
3
4
6
6
3
0
0
1
3
0.5
1.0
1.1
0.1
13
10
4
4
6
9
10
5
0
0
5
10
1.8 +
0.1
1.9 +
0.66
2
3
4
3
7
6
4
3
0
0
1
3
2.0*
1.4
0.4
0.3
7
3
14
3
12
15
5
13
0
1
0
3
0.7
2.5**
2.4*
2.5**
1
0
3
5
4
4
3
5
2
1.8 +
1.8 +
1.4
1
4
1
12
8
8
6
7
10
3.0**
1.5
2.0*
Residents also increased the number of closedended questions they asked overall; however, changes in specific categories are not as strong as those
for open-ended questions and only tend toward
statistical significance for lifestyle and psychosocial
issues and therapeutic regimen. The stratified
analysis shows a statistically significant shift in the
use of closed-ended therapeutic regimen questions
only for male residents (Table 3a).
Responding to the patients emotions Table 3 shows a
significant increase in the expression of empathy in
post-training simulations. Legitimation statements
were also reviewed in training but use of this category
of communication did not change in any consistent
way. Use of reassurance and concern statements was
not stressed in the training, but they were reviewed
during the feedback session to facilitate resident
reflection on the range of their emotional repertoire,
particularly in response to expressed patient concerns (which were also reviewed). Reassurance state-
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teaching
standing, using back channels, and re-stating patient
disclosures through interpretation or paraphrase.
Table 3 shows statistically significant changes in three
of these areas ) increases were evident for the
categories of asking for patient opinion and the use
of back channels, whereas a decrease was evident in
asking if the patient understood the physicians
communication. Re-statements of patient disclosures
were unchanged. The stratified gender analysis in
Table 3a shows that the upward shift in asking for
opinion and back channels and the downward shift in
asking for understanding, were reflected in significant changes in the communication of female
residents. A significant increase in re-statements of
patient disclosures was evident only in male residents
communication.
Table 3 also shows significant increases in all three
of the problem-solving skills emphasized in the
training ) problem-solving probes, problem-solving
assistance, and partnership and support statements.
Of the 28 residents in the programme, 24 showed a
positive shift in their use of at least one of these
skills.
The stratified analysis (Table 3a) indicates positive
shifts for both male and female residents in problemsolving probes; however, only males appeared to
increase problem-solving assistance, while females
articulated partnership and support for patients.
A positive shift in the use of at least one of these skills
was evident for eight of the nine male residents and
16 of the 19 female residents.
DISCUSSION
Our findings add to a growing consensus among
medical educators regarding the power of experiential methods of communication skill instruction to
effectively contribute to the teaching and learning of
communication skills.6 Our training intervention was
effective in producing significant changes in residents communication skills in each of four targeted
areas: listening more talking less, more open-ended
data gathering techniques, more sensitive response to
patients emotions, and building an active patient
partnership related to problem solving. We have also
contributed to the small body of work examining the
effects of physician gender on medical communication and the learning of communication skills.6,10 In
this regard we confirm earlier findings that female
learners score better than their male counterparts
after a communication course.
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teaching
examples of targetted skills drawn from simulated
(or actual) patient interviews, and an extensive
annotated bibliography outlining the evidence
base for communication skills.
CONCLUSION
The process of video review is a powerful and effective
teaching tool providing guidance for experiential
learning and reflective self-assessment. As traditionally
implemented, however, there are significant logistical
and methodological issues limiting the use and
effectiveness of video feedback, some of which are
addressed in the described feedback approach.
An additional advantage derived from structuring
feedback through a quantitative coding system is that
the criteria for performance evaluation becomes
transparent. Students can see exactly what elements
of communication are being assessed and how these
relate to their performance. This transparency can
provide communication skills assessment with an
important element of credibility and be used to chart
achievement of educational objectives, monitoring of
the progress of participants (individually or as a
group), and a normative basis of comparison by
which individual performance can be compared to
that of the larger group. Practising physicians appear
to appreciate such feedback. In a large communitybased study, the promise of individualized feedback
on communication performance relative to a normative peer group was cited as the primary incentive
for participation in an observational study of routine
medical practice.16
Considering that most communication skills training
programmes are substantially longer than the very
modest time commitment of the current study ) two
instructional hours and two additional hours devoted
to videotaping with simulated patients ) the behaviour change findings are especially noteworthy and
should be encouraging to programme directors
struggling to accommodate communication skills
training into a busy student schedule.
CONTRIBUTORS
Study concept and design: Roter, Shinitzky, Chernoff
and Larson. Acquisition of data: Shinitzky, Chernoff,
Serwint and Adamo. Analysis and interpretation of
data: Roter, Larson and Wissow. Drafting of the
manuscript: Roter. Critical revision of the
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FUNDING
This work was supported by an unrestricted
educational grant from Pfizer Inc. to Dr Shinitzky.
10
11
12
Roter DL, Larson S. The relationship between residents and attending physicians communication during primary care visits: An illustrative use of the Roter
Interaction Analysis System (RIAS). J Health Commun.
2001;13:3348.
13
14
15
16
Levinson W, Dull VT, Roter DL, Chaumeton N, Frankel RM. Recruiting physicians for office-based research.
Med Care 1998;36:9347.
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Aspegren K. BME Guide, 2: Teaching and learning
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Edwards A, Tzelepis A, Klingbeil C, Melgar T,
Speece M, Schubiner H, Burack R. Fifteen years of a