Dams

Definition: A dam is an obstruction or barrier built across a stream of river. Water gets collected at
the back of this barrier on the upstream side.
Types of dams:
Three older types of dams:
a) Earth Dams: these are made up of soil pounded down solidly. These are much lighter than
the concrete dams and therefore used where the foundation is not strong enough. Eg:
Maithon dam in India (partly earthen and partly Rock Fill): Barakar river: DVC: Dhanbad
District Jharkhand.
b) Roock fill dams: These are formed of loose rocks and boulders piled in the river bed. A slab
of reinforced concrete on the u/s face is often laid in order to make it water tight. EG: Salt
springs dam in California, USA
c) Solid Masonry gravity dams: They are much stronger than earth or rock dams, but are
heavier so require stronger foundation. Eg: Bhakra dam: Satluj River, Bilaspur Himachal
Pradesh.
Four other types of dams:
a) Hollow Masonry gravity dams: These are very much like the solid masonry dams but are 35%
to 40% less concrete or masonry. Require very highly skilled labour.
b) Timber dams: Their life span is around 30 to 40 years and rquires good maintenance during
this period. The timber starts to rot after this period and is generally used for small purposes
like farmers using timber dams to make drinking water available.
c) Steel dams: Used as temporary coffer dams<link> and generally not used for permanent
dams
d) Arch dams: Complex and complicated. They make use of horizontal arch action in place of
weight to hold back the water. Best suited at sites where the dam is extremely high and
narrow. Idduki dam: Kerala: Periyar
Gravity Dams
Gravity dams: Designed in such a way that its own weight resists the external forces. This is a
durable and solid structure and requires little maintenance.
Requirements: A foundation which can bear the enormous weight of the dam.
Forces acting on Gravity Dams:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)

Water Pressure
Uplift Pressure
Pressure due to earthquake forces
Silt Pressure
Wave Pressure
Ice Pressure
Stabilising force is the weight of the dam itself.

Water Pressure:
It is the most major external force. The water preesure acting is generally resolved into Horizontal
component Ph and vertical component Pv. The vertical component in the pic below is the weight of
the water stored in the coloumn ABCA.

Tail water is also resolved into Horizontal component Ph and vertical component Pv.
Uplift Pressure: This is cause dby water seeping through pores, cracks and fissures of the foundation
material and water seeping through the dam body.

Earthquake forces: This force is constructed if the dam is to be constructed in an area which is
susceptible to earthquake forces.
The earthquake forces impart acceleration to the dam foundation. The acceleration is expressed as
percentage of the acceleration due to gravity. Like: = 0.1 or = 0.2;
These accelerations are resolved into horizontal and vertical components for design.
Vertical Acceleration: If the vertical acceleration acts downward, the foundation moves away from
the dam while the dam remains in the same position due to inertia, and this reduces the effective

weight of the dam. This downward force is therefore the worst cases as this reduces the weight of
the dam, and for a gravity dam the weight is the main resisting force.
Inertia force =

W is the total weight of the dam; =

Thus net effective weight of the dam=

=[1 ]
Horizontal Acceleration:
The two forces being caused by the horizontal forces:
(i)
(ii)

Hydrodynamic pressure; and

Horizontal inertia force

Hydrodynamic Pressure: The horizontal acceleration causes a momentary increase in the water
pressure, as the foundation and dam accelerate towards the reservoir and the water resists the
movement owing to its inertia.
Von-Karmans equation for hydrodynamic force = 0.555 2. it acts at a height of

4
3

above

the base.
4

Moment of the force about base = = ( 3 )=0.424PeH.

Zangers formula for hydrodynamic force. This is another formula for evaluating hydrodynamic
pressure. The results are quite close to each other.
= 0.726 ; whre =
Thus = 0.726 2

= Maximum value of pressure co-efficient for a given constant slope= 0.735 (90 )
=fraction of gravity adopted for horizontal acceleration =
The moment of this force about base is given by = 0.412
3

90o

Silt pressure (minor forces): If h is the height of the silt deposited, then the force exerted by this ilt;
1

= 2 2 and it acts at a height of 3 from base.

=

1sin
;
1+

=submerged unit weight of silt material.

= height of silt deposited

According to USBR recommendations, deposited silt may be taken equivalent to a fluid exerting a
force with a unit weight equal to 3.6kN/m3, in the horizontal directionand a vertical force with a unit
weight equal to 9.2kN/m3
Horizontal force = 1.8h2 kN/m;
Vertical force= 4.6h2kN/M.
The silt load is generally neglected for the following reasons:
a) The silt load is not substantially present initially and when it is present it gets consolidated.
Thus acts less like a fluid.

Wave Pressure (minor forces):

Waves are generated due to wind, which causes a pressure towards the downstream side.
3

Wave height from crest to trough: = 0.032. + 0.763 0.271 4 for < 32
= 0.032. for > 32; in metres V in km/hr and F=fetch or straight length of water
expanse in km.
The max pressure intensity due to wave action may be given by:
= 2.4 and acts at

metres above still water surface.

The pressure distribution is assumed triangular, of height

1

5
3
3

2
Total force due to wave action = 2 (2.4 ) 3 = 19.62
. The force acts at a distance 8

above the reservoir surface.

Ice pressure (minor): The expansion of the ice on the water surface of the reservoir.
Weight of the Dam: The weight of the dam and its foundation is the main resisting force.
Modes of failure and structural stability for gravity dams:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

By overturning or rotation about the toe.

By crushing.
By development of tension, causing ultimate failure by crushing.
By shear failure called sliding.

In order for the dam to be safe the stability of the dam needs to be checked for each of the above
four criteria:
Overturning: the ratio (factor of safety) of righting moments to overturning moments need to be
calculated. This ratio should be in the range of 2 to3.

Compression/Crushing:
Tension: Masonry and concrete gravity dams are designed such that no tension develops anywhere.
But certain tension may be allowed in high gravity dams under severest loading combination as such
conditions occur momentarily , only for a short duration. Max permissible tensile stress = 500kN/m2
(5kg/cm2).
When such a tension crack develops, say at the heel, crack width (or strictly speaking crack area)
looses contact and thus the effective width B decreases, increasing pmax at he toe. This leads to an
increase in maximum compressive stresss untile the toe crushes.
Thus a tension crack does not cause failure in itself, but the excessive compressive stress, produced
as a result of this crack leads to the failure.

In order to ensure that no tension is developed anywhere, pmin must at the most be equal to zero.
=

If = 0; =

6
[1 ]

Eccentricity is always calculated with respect to centre line i.e b/2. Principal and Shear stresses: The
vertical stress intensity, is not the maximum direct stress produced. The maximum
normal stress is the major principal stress that will be developed.
In reservoir full condition the maximum stress is developed at the toe: A small element at the toe is
enlarged and shown:

p' is the Intensity of water pressure due to tail water. If we consider p as the only stress acting then
AB will be a principal stress and the plane at right angle is the other principal plane. Thus is the
other principal stress.
pv is the intensity of pressure due to uplift.

As sec2 is more than 1, will be more than pv. this value of normal stress is the maximum
allowable stress that can be produced.
If an earthquake is produced then the worst case that can be produced is:
= 2 ( )2 ; is the angle which the d/s face makes with the vertical
is the hydrodynamic force that is produced due to the earthquake and thus tail water will have
to be present for this force to develop.
Similarly The equation at the heel is given by:
= 2 ( + )2 ; is the angle which the u/s face makes with the vertical.

Sliding: Sliding occurs when the net horizontal force above the dam exceeds the frictional reistance
developed at the level.

Factor of safety against sliding= ; gives the total vertical downward force and gives the
total horizontal force.
In high dams other than friction the shear resistance of joint is also considered
SFF=

+.
;

B= width of the dam at the joint; q= average shear strength of the joint which varies

from 14kg/cm2 to 40kg/cm2.

In low dams the shear resistance of the joint is not considered as there is lower quality control.

Elementary profile of gravity dam

uplift
When the reservoir is full the base width is governed by:
1) Resultant of all forces, i.e. P, W and U passes through the outermost middle third point.
2) The dam is safe in sliding.

10

The uplift at the heel is C , where C is a constant which according to U.S.B.R

recommendation is taken equal to 1in calc and is zero when uplift is zero.

If B is equal to or greater than

, no tension will be developed

11

B)

12

This is by substituting =

High and low -gravity dam. Max allowable compressive stress of the dam material:
= ( + 1)
For min value of H, C=0;

13

( + 1)

If the height of gravity dam is more than then its a high gravity dam, else it is a low gravity
dam.
is the macimum compressive stress that the dam material can be subjected to: E,g: =3000kN/m2;
Sc=2.4; = 9.81; then = 90.

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