Algorithms in Indian Astronomy

K.Ramasubramanian
Cell for Indian Science and Technology in Sanskrit
Department of HSS, IIT Bombay
Powai, Mumbai 400 076, India
kramas@iitb.ac.in

Abstract
Indian Astronomy is rich in algorithms. The algorithms presented in the Indian astronomical texts have varying degrees of
complexities starting from the simple trair
asika rule, to the treatment of parallax in a solar eclipse or the computation of the elevation of lunar cusps. In the present article we will discuss a few
algorithms that are representative of the ingenuity and continuity
of the Indian astronomical tradition. We start with the interpolation formula presented by Brahmagupta (c.665 AD) and then
proceed to describe a select few algorithms from Tantrasangraha

of Nilakan.t.ha composed in 1500 AD. Here we present the algorithm for the calculation of time from shadow measurements and
the exact algorithm for the computation of lagna and the time
for the duration of an eclipse. We also comment on the iterative
process known as avises.akarma which aims at circumventing the
problem of interdependencies among several variables.

Introduction

It is not uncommon to find words which originate with a different connotation and in due course pick up a completely different connotation. The
word algorithm forms a good example of this. Its origin can be traced
back to the Persian mathematician, al-Khwarazmi (800-847 AD). It is
quite interesting to note the observations made by D.E. Knuth in this
context [1]:
183

184

K.Ramasubramanian

In the middle ages, abacists computed on the abacus and

algorists computed by algorism. Following the middle ages,
the origin of this word was in doubt, and early linguists attempted to guess at its derivation by making combinations
like algiros [painful] + arithmos [number]; others said no, the
word comes from King Algor of Castile. Finally, historians
of mathematics found the true origin of the word algorism: it
comes from the name of a famous Persian textbook author,
Abu Jafar Mohammed ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi ( 825 AD)
- literally, Father of Jafar, Mohammed, son of Moses, native of Khwarizm. Khwarizm is today the small Soviet city
of Khiva. al-Khwarizmi wrote the celebrated book Kitab al
jabr wal-muqabala (Rules of restoration and reduction);
another word, algebra, stems from the title of his book,
although the book wasnt really very algebraic.
Gradually the form and meaning of algorism got distorted; The change
from algorism to algorithm is any bodys guess. The remarks by
the well-known historian C.B.Boyer in this context are also noteworthy
[2].
. . . . . . when subsequently Latin translations of his (al
Khwarizmis) work appeared in Europe, careless readers began to attribute not only the book but also the numeration
to the author. The new notation came to be known as that of
al-Khwarizmi, or more carelessly, algorismi; ultimately the
scheme of numeration making use of Hindu numerals came
to be called simply algorism or algorithm.
The terms process, method, technique, procedure, routine, and so on
all essentially refer to a sequence of operations to be carried out to accomplish a given task. The word algorithm though similar, connotes
something more. For a procedure to be termed algorithm it must terminate after n steps and upon termination it must yield a sensible result.
However, this is not true of all procedures. In this sense, all algorithms
are procedures; but all procedures are not algorithms.
Indian astronomy is essentially algorithmic in nature. The algorithms
presented are precise and fairly sophisticated [3]. Some of them are

Algorithms in Indian Astronomy

185

amazingly accurate [4]. We shall illustrate these points by considering

a few examples.

Brahmaguptas interpolation formula

Interpolation is the art of reading between the lines in a table. The

rule of trair
asika [5,6] employed in Indian astronomy is close to what is
known as the first-order interpolation in modern parlance. This technique has been extensively applied to solve a variety of mathematical
and astronomical problems, beginning from the evaluation of sine func
tion to the calculation of eclipses, at least from the time of Aryabhat
.ya
(c.499 AD).
It is quite interesting to note that Brahmagupta introduced the second
order interpolation formula to determine more precise value of the sine
function, called jy
a , for an arbitrary angle, from the set of tabulated
values of sine given at fixed intervals. The following verse from his
famous work Khan.d.akh
adyaka (c.665 AD) explains the algorithm [7]:

 
 



 
  
 
    
 
    !

 
 "
 # 
 %$
 
 &
 
 
 '(
 )

+*
(
 ,.
-  0
 
  213
 

 
1





 45 )

 0
67
 819:


)
 ;<
=* *
/
/

Multiply the residual arc left after division by 900 0 by half

the difference of the tabular difference passed over and that
to be passed over and divide by 9000 ; by the result increase
or decrease, as the case may be, half the sum of the same two
tabular differences; the result which, whether less or greater
than the tabular difference to be passed, is the true tabular
difference to be passed over.
Generally in Indian astronomical texts, the interval chosen for tabulating
values of sines is 2250 . However, Brahmagupta has chosen the interval to
be 15 = 9000 for the sake of simplicity, as Khan. d.akh
adyaka is a karan.a
text.1 This explains the number 900 figuring in the above verse.
1
Of the three kinds of texts, Siddh
anta, Tantra and Karan. a, the last is meant to
serve as a simple manual used for quick computations.

186

K.Ramasubramanian

Before we represent the content of the above verse in a mathematical

form, it would be useful to introduce the terminologies and the notation
employed. Let the equal intervals chosen be represented by . That is,
xn xn1 = xn+1 xn = = 900,

(1)

where the variable x denotes the angle and x 0i s are multiples of 9000 .
The term Bhogya refers to the present interval between x n and xn+1 .
The term khand.aka refers to the I order tabular differences in the sine
values and we denote it by n .
n = f (xn ) f (xn1 ).

(2)

Let us suppose that the value of the function at three points

f (xn1 ), f (xn ), and f (xn+1 ) are known, and it is required to find out
f (xn + ). Now, the formula given by Brahmagupta may be written
as



(n n+1 )
(n + n+1 )

,
f (xn + ) = f (xn ) +

2
2

(3)

where 0 < < 1. With a little algebraic manipulation, and suitably

rearranging the terms, the above equation may be rewritten as



(n n+1 )
f (xn + ) = f (xn ) +
n+1 +
1
. (4)

2
Clearly, the formula given by Brahmagupta is identical with the standard quadratic interpolation formula [8].

Algorithm for finding the time from shadow

The technique of making a fairly good estimate of the time from the
shadow of an object cast by the Sun has been in vogue from time immemorial. Different cultures and traditions across the world have devised simple instruments for this purpose. In the Indian astronomical
tradition the instrument used is called sanku
.

187

Algorithms in Indian Astronomy

Circle drawn around

the Sanku

rays from
the sun

E
X
Sanku

z
O

Figure 1: Zenith distance and the length of the shadow.

The sanku
essentially consists of a rod of suitable thickness and height.
Generally the height is taken to be 12 angulas

. For performing experiments with sanku

, it must be placed at the centre of a circle as shown
in Fig.1. Here, OX represents the sanku

and OY is its shadow cast by

the sun. If the longitude of the sun, is known at a given instant, then
its declination, at that instant can be calculated using the relation (see
Fig.2)
sin = sin  sin ,
(5)
where  is the obliquity of the ecliptic. The procedure for obtaining
accurate values of the observers latitude, , are discussed in detail in
several Indian astronomical texts [9].
S

Celestial

Ecliptic

Equator

(Vernal equinox)

Figure 2: Declination of the Sun.

188

K.Ramasubramanian

The formula given by Nilakan.t.ha in his celebrated work Tantrasangraha

(c.1500 AD) for determining the time from shadow measurement turns
out to be essentially a function of , and z, where z is the zenith
distance of the sun. Since and are already found through shadow
measurements, only z needs to be known. For this, consider the triangle
OXY in Fig.1. It can be easily seen that
OY
XY 

OY
or
z = sin1
,
(6)
XY

where XY is the hypotenuse given by 122 + OY 2 . Thus, the zenith

distance of the sun can also be obtained at any time by measuring the
shadow cast by the sanku
.
sin z =

The algorithm for finding the time from shadow measurements is presented by Nilakan.t.ha as follows [10]:

. )

 :

 6$
)
  * 
 (<

 (
 
"
 )

-  
  
 
 '1
 


 

 
 

* *

 


 

,%-
  

 
 
 :
 

 <

   )

  
 ($
 ;
 

*
/ 




  )

  


  

  (
  


  
 
  1

 

 .
 * *
 1
  
 
$ 


 


  )

  
  4
 
$ 
 
    

  

 *

The sanku

is multiplied by radius (trijy

a ) and divided by
lambaka . This is further multiplied by trijy
a and divided
by dyujy
a . To this quantity the carajy
a is applied positively or negatively depending upon whether the Sun is in
the southern or the northern hemisphere.
To the arc of the result, the car
asavah. (ascensional difference) has to be applied in the reverse order. This gives the
time that has elapsed or yet to elapse in the eastern and the
western half of the hemisphere.
Before we express the above verse in mathematical notation we introduce
a few technical terms appearing in the above verse. The term trijy
a
refers to R,2 lambaka is R cos and dyujy
a is R cos . The word sanku

It is usually taken to be the measure of one radian in minutes. That is R 34380 .

Algorithms in Indian Astronomy

189

in the first line of the quotation is used to denote R cos z. 3 Carajy

a is
R sin . With this, the the first two lines of the verse translate to the
relation


R cos z
R sin =
R sin
(7)
cos cos
In the latter half of the quotation given above it is mentioned that to
the arc of the above (), the ascensional difference, which is the angular
separation between the vernal equinox and the celestial object measured
along the celestial equator (see Fig.3), has to be applied in the reverse
order to obtain the required time t. That is,
t = .

(8)

Substituting for we have

t = (R sin)


R cos z
R sin .
cos cos

(9)

The above result can be easily understood using the tools of spherical
trigonometry.4 For this, consider Fig.3 where S is the Sun on its diurnal
path whose zenith distance is z, corresponding to the arc ZS. The
point where the sun sets in the western part of the horizon is denoted
by St . The segment P W is a part of the 6 00 clock circle, and the angle
Z P W = 90o . Applying four-part formula to the triangle P W S t , it can
be shown that, the ascensional difference is given by the relation
(well known in Indian Astronomy)
sin = tan tan .

(10)

Further, it may be noted that S P St = + is the angle to be covered

by the Sun from the given instant up to the sunset. This angle divided
by 6 and 15 give the time that is to elapse before sunset in hours and
n
ad.ik
as (time unit of approximately 24 minutes) respectively.
3

Generally R cos z, which is the perpedicular distance of the sun from the horizon,
is called mah
asanku
in order to distinguish it from the gnomon (dv
adasa
ngula

sanku)

used for shadow measurement. But sometimes mah

asanku

would be simply referred

as sanku
, as in the above verse, and what it refers to would be clear from the context.
4
Detailed demonstrations of the algorithms enunciated in Indian astronomical
and mathematical texts are given in the famous Malayalam work Gan.ita-Yuktibh
as. a

(c.1530 AD) of Jyes.t.hadeva [Ref.6, Vol.I & II].

190

K.Ramasubramanian
90

Z
dirunal path
of the sun

90

90

Horizo

r )
to
ua vrtta
q
E ika
t
ha
(G

St
6
O
(T clo
iry ck
ak cir
vr cle
tta
)

B
D

Figure 3: Determination of time from shadow measurements.

Applying the cosine formula to the spherical triangle PZS, we have
cos z = sin sin + cos cos sin ,
or,
sin =
=

cos z
tan tan
cos cos
cos z
sin .
cos cos

Hence, the time, t that is yet to elapse before sunset in angular measure
is


cosz
1
sin + ,
(11)
t = + = sin
cos cos
which is the same as Eq.(9) given by Nilakan.t.ha .

191

Algorithms in Indian Astronomy

The method to determine the time elapsed after sunrise is exactly similar. It is worth mentioning in this context that, in finding z, the correction due to the finite size of the Sun and its parallax have also been
taken into account by Nilakan.t.ha [11]. If z 0 were the apparent zenith
distance, then the true zenith distance z is given by
z = z 0 +

= ds p,

with

where ds is the angular semi-diameter of the Sun and p its parallax. As

is small,
R cos z = R cos(z 0 + )


R sin z 0
0
R cos z
.
R

(12)

This is precisely what is stated to be the mah

asanku,

R cos z, in an earlier
verse [12], which is to be used in the expression (Eq.9) for determining
the time from the shadow.

Algorithm for finding lagna

Lagna refers to the orient ecliptic point, that is, the point of the ecliptic which intersects with the eastern horizon at any desired instant.
Nilakan.t.ha while discussing the procedure for finding lagna, in his
Tantrasangraha

first presents the conventional method, which could be

found in many of the earlier texts on Indian astronomy. Later, pointing
out that this procedure would give only approximate results, he proceeds
to give an exact algorithm for finding the lagna .

4.1

Conventional method

The following verses of Tantrasangraha

describe the standard procedure

used for the computation of lagna at any desired instant [13].
 1
     

 )
 
 :

  4
 

 
 
 "


 )
 . )
 
  0
 '
 

(
  
 
 "
  

  )
 

 
  

 
 
 "
   
  

 *


**


 

 
 
 "
 " 
 .
  


 (


 : )
   
  




 )
<
/

**

192

K.Ramasubramanian

:
  

:
  
 " 

 )
1
 

 

 " 

 67 )

 
" 
 
 (
 *
  4
  
 
 

  .#

 
 
 "1
 &
 
  
 
 " 
1
 
(

 
 (
 * *
 
 
 "
   
 )

 .
 
1
 

 

 " 
 



     1
 "
  -  

 
<  
 
 *

,
/  
/
/
(
 4 67 $
 
 
 "
 ;:

 )

 '

 <
:




 <
 &
 :
 '.

  #



5

=* *
 .
 
  
  * 


 
 
 " 
 

 <
(
    

 )

 '
   
  
 
*

/
  81
 


   
 ;:

  

1
9  
     1

 .
 )   - 
 < * *


 /
/
. )
  
 
 )

 
 
1

 
; 
 

 
  
 
 &

    
*

 

From the longitude of the Sun corrected for ayana, the number of minutes to be elapsed in that r
asi (are calculated).
This is multiplied by the duration of rising of that r
asi and
is divided by the number of minutes in a r
asi . This gives
that pr
an. as for the remaining r
asi to rise and that has to be
subtracted from the duration elapsed (since the sunrise).
From the remainder (h0 ), the durations of rising of the r
asis
that follow have to be subtracted. Having added the degrees
remaining in that r
asi to the Sun, the other r
asis (degrees
corresponding to r
asis ), as many number of them, whose
rising times were subtracted are also added. The remaining
pr
an.as (r) are multiplied by 30 and divided by the duration
of rising of that r
asi . The result obtained is once again
added to the Sun.
The remainder when multiplied by 60 gives the result in minutes. Thus, pr
aglagna , the orient ecliptic point should be
obtained. The astalagna , setting ecliptic point is obtained
by adding six signs to that.
To know the longitude of the ecliptic points from the mes. adi,
the ayana correction has to be applied reversely.

The procedure described here may be understood with the help of Fig.4.
Here S represents the Sun in the eastern part of the hemisphere, the
vernal equinox. R1 , R2 etc., are the ending points of the first r
asi (sign),
second r
asi and so on. h refers to the time elapsed after the sunrise and
H the hour angle of the the Sun.

193

Algorithms in Indian Astronomy

Diurnal circle

Z (zenith)

P (pole)

tR

h
S

R1

u
Eq

Horizo

R2

r
ato

N
Ecl

ipti

Figure 4: Determination of pr
aglagna (orient ecliptic point) by the
conventional method
Let s be the s
ayana longitude5 of the Sun. Suppose the Sun is in the i th
r
asi (in the Fig.4, it is shown to be in the first r
asi ), whose rising time
at the observers location is given by T i . If Ri be the angle remaining to
be covered by the Sun in that r
asi (in minutes), then the time required
for that segment of the r
asi to come above the horizon is given by
Ri T i
,
(13)
30 60
where Ti is in ghat.ikas . A factor of 60 in the denominator indicates
that the result tRi is expressed in pr
an. as.6 Subtracting this time tRi
from the time elapsed since sunrise h, we have
t Ri =

h 0 = h t Ri .
From h0 the time required for the subsequent r
asis to rise, T i+1 , Ti+2 ,
etc., are subtracted till the remainder r remains positive. That is,
r = h0 Ti+1 Ti+2 . . . Ti+j1

(r + ve)

5
This refers to the longitude measured from the vernal equinox. Here, it may be
noted that in Indian astronomy, nirayan.a longitudes are more commonly used. They
refer to the longitude measured from a fixed point, which is generally taken to be the
beginning point of star called Asvini. It is also referred to as mes. a
di as in the last
line of the Sanskrit quotation given above.
6
Ghat.ik
a is a measure which is close to 24 minutes and pr
an. a 4 seconds.

194

K.Ramasubramanian

Suppose we are in the i + j th r

asi whose rising time is Ti+j . Then,
the portion of Ri+j , which would have come above the horizon in the
remaining time r is given by
Ei+j =

r 30
Ti+j

(in deg.).

(14)

Now, the longitude of the pr

aglagna (L) is given by
L = s + Ri + 30 + 30 + . . . + Ei+j .

(15)

If so, then the astalagna is given by

astalagna = pr
aglagna + 180 ,

(16)

because the horizon divides the ecliptic exactly into two parts. The
lagnas obtained by the above procedure are s
ayana lagnas. To obtain
the nirayan. a ones, one needs to subtract the ayan
am
. sa.
After describing the above method, Nilakan.t.ha remarks that it is only
approximate [14]:
   

     ;

 
 
 
 " #


    ;:

 <

  
 
 

 &
 :
 ,. -
 
=* *

/


 
  

  1 
 
  
 
 *
/ /

  
 ;

  

 
   
  )
 
4
  # 
 .

 4
 :;:
 

* *
 
 )
 # 
 
 
 "
 81

The (rising) time gradually differs even in the same r

asi .
Hence, applying rule of three here, is not appropriate. Therefore the lagna obtained by the above procedure will only be
approximate and not exact.

4.2

Exact algorithm

Subsequently, Nilakan.t.ha gives an exact algorithm for finding lagna.

This is presented in several steps. First he finds the k
alalagna (defined
in the following verse [15]), which is nothing but the time difference
between the desired instant and the time of rising of the vernal equinox
.

195

Algorithms in Indian Astronomy

 :

 
 )
  $7  
 

 

 

  



 (<
  
  
  1
     


/
((,%
- 

 (
 

 
 1

   
 
  
  *
/
/

The right ascension of the s

ayana Sun corrected by the ascensional difference . . . this added to the pr
an. as elapsed gives
the k
alalagna .
The time difference between the sunrise and the rising of the vernal
equinox is (see Fig.5), where is the right ascension of the
Sun and the ascensional difference. When this is added to the time
elapsed after sunrise, we obtain the k
alalagna at the desired instant,
0
which we denote by L .
k
alalagna = L0 = Time elapsed after sun rise + ( ).

(17)

P
al
urn
Di le
c
cir

Ec

lip

tic

Horizo

,
Eq

ua

tor

Figure 5: Determination of k
alalagna .
Now, vitribhalagna is the point on the ecliptic which is 90 away from
the lagna. Consider Fig.6, where S is the Sun, is the vernal equinox
and L is the orient ecliptic point, whose longitude is the lagna. V is
the vitribhalagna and K is the pole of the ecliptic. Dr. ks.epa is sine of

196

K.Ramasubramanian

the zenith distance of the vitribhalagna (R sin ZV ). When is on the

horizon, K is on the meridian. It can be easily seen that the k
alalagna
is the hour angle of K, or L0 = Z P K. Now,
ZK = KV ZV = 90 ZV,
as K is the pole of the ecliptic. Also, KP =  and ZP = 90 . Then,
using the cosine formula we obtain the following expression for dr. ks.epa
R sin ZV = R cos ZK = R cos  sin + R cos sin  cos L 0 .
Z

(18)

(zenith)

K
H

P (pole)

V
S

Ecl

ipti

tor

Horizo

ua

Eq

Figure 6: Determination of pr
aglagna (orient ecliptic point) - exact
method.
This is essentially what is stated in the following verse [16].
 )( )
 ,%
-   

  

 

 ,%
-  
<  

  

 ' 1
 )
  
 
  
/

      

 

  
 0
 
  *   


$ 
 6)
  #
  $  
 *


/
 7  
 .
  
 
   -  #   
 1


    
  $7  ;



 
   
**


**

The aks.a multiplied by antyadyujy

a and divided by trijy
a,
and, lambaka multiplied by the kot.i of the k
alalagna and divided by 8452 (are kept separately). The dr. ks.epa is the difference or sum of the two depending upon whether k
alalagna

197

Algorithms in Indian Astronomy

is within the 6 signs beginning from karkat. aka or mr.ga Capricorn.

Here Nilakan.t.ha defines two intermediate quantities x and y whose sum

or difference gives the expression for the sine of the zenith distance of
the the vitribhalagna . They are given by
x=

antyadyujy
a aks.a
R cos  R sin
=
,
trijy
a
R

and,
y=

R cos R cos L0 sin 

lambaka kot.i of k
alalagna
=
.
8452
R

sin 24

It may be noted in the above equation that sin
R = 3438 is taken to be
1
. ks.epa (= R sin ZV , refer Fig.6) is given to be
8452 . Now, dr

dr.ks.epa

= xy

Substituting for x and y we have,

R sin ZV = R cos  sin R cos cos L0 sin ,

(19)

which is same as Eq.(18). From this, cos ZV is to be calculated. With

this, the lagna is to be found as follows [17]:
;
 67 

  
 
2
)
 
 

 

  
 )
 " 




 
! 

 


 .
 *

  
 
  
  

 
 )
 

 

 )


  

 8

)
 

 )
 
  * *

 

  
 

   )

 )



 
   

  
 
 .
 
 %$
 )

 <
=*
.,.
-   )

 .
   2

 

  * 
 

  )

 '


 
 )
  $  

* *

/
/
 
 

 7  
 
  

 

 

 67
  

 81
  #

 &
 :
  
 <
*
(
 )      1
 

 )
 -*    .

     

 <
 
 
 
 "
 
 <

 
 
 
 &
 $
 
 ;<
+* *



The nata (hour angle) or unnata may be obtained depending upon whether the computation is done at midday or
midnight. If nata is obtained, then the b
an. a (versed sine,
utkramajy
a) of it is to be subtracted from trijy
a , and the result is added to the carajy
a. If unnata, (is obtained) then the

198

K.Ramasubramanian

result deficient from carajy

a is found. [This is the procedure
for the northern hemisphere]. For the southern hemisphere
the operation is reversed.
Here it is essentially stated that
R sin(l s ) =
=

R(cos cos [cos H + sin ])

cos ZV
R(cos cos cos H + sin sin )
,
cos ZV

where l and s are the lagna and the Suns longitude respectively. From
the above equation, taking the inverse sine we get l s . To this, if we
add the longitude of the Sun we get the desired longitude that is lagna
(l ). The rationale behind the above equation can be easily understood
with the help of Fig.6.
Applying the cosine formula to the spherical triangle PZS we have,
cos ZS = sin sin + cos cos cos H.
Similarly from the triangle ZVS we get,
cos V S =

cos ZS
.
cos ZV

Now, V S + SL = V S + l s = 90. Therefore, cos V S = sin(l s ),

which results in the above expression for sin( l s ).

Instantaneous velocity of the true planet

Both in the modern as well as ancient Indian astronomy, the true position of the planet7 is obtained from the mean position by applying
a correction to it. The correction term is known as mandaphala , in
Indian astronomy, while it is known as equation of centre in modern
astronomy.
In Fig.7, A represents the direction of the mandocca (apside) and its
= $. P0 is the mean planet whose longitude called
longitude OA
7
Though the treatment is general, in this section planet refers to either the Sun
or the Moon.

199

Algorithms in Indian Astronomy

A (direction of mandocca)

P (planet)
Q
0

P0
0

MS

Figure 7: The manda-samsk

ara or the equation of centre correction.
0 . The circle of
madhyamagraha (mean longitude) is given by 0 = OP
0
radius r with P0 as centre, is the epicycle on which the mandasphut. a
(true planet) is located. By construction, P P 0 is parallel to OA. The
. It can be easily
longitude of the mandasphut. a is given by M S = OP
seen that
PQ
r 0 sin(0 $)
sin(0 M S ) =
=
,
OP
K
where
1
K = [(R + r 0 cos(0 $))2 + r 02 sin2 (0 $)] 2 ,
is the mandakarn. a. As per the formulation in Tantrasangraha

, r 0 also
varies such that
r
r0
= ,
K
R
is a constant. Here r is a given parameter. Then,
sin(M S 0 ) =

r
sin(0 $).
R

(20)

The difference between the true (mandasphut. a ) and the mean position,
is called mandaphala, whereas the difference between the mandocca and

200

K.Ramasubramanian

mean position is called mandakendra. Denoting them by and M

respectively, the mandaphala is given by

r
= sin1
sin M .
(21)
R
Thus the mandasphut. a (true longitude) of the planet is given by
M S = 0 + .

(22)

It may be noted that the calculation of true position of the planet involves sine inverse function ( Eq.(22)). Hence, if one needs to find the
instantaneous velocity of the planet called t
atk
alikagati, one would have
to find the time derivative of this function. It is indeed remarkable that
an exact formula for the derivative of sine inverse function is given in
Tantrasangraha

as follows [18]:

 ) 

     
 $
 " 

 0
67
 
 

  )
 
    0
 
 
    )
 1
      (<
+*
/
(
 
 
 0
    
  0
 '
 
  
1
     )  
 0
  
 = 


 : 
 
* *
/
(
 
 
 "

 67 
;



 
    

 
  &
 :
 . )
 

 &
 ;:
 =
   $7  
 
    
*
/



(
    -  
       
 


 0
 (
 
  $
 6)
 
 9  )

  :
 ;:
 
 

  
  
 
=* *

/





**
**

Let the product of the kot. iphala (in minutes)[r cos M ] and
the daily motion of the manda-kendra ( dM
dt ) be divided by the
square root of thesquare of the doh. phala subtracted from the
square of trijy
a ( R2 r 2 sin M ). The result thus obtained
has to be subtracted form the daily motion of the Moon if
the manda-kendra lies within six signs beginning from mr. ga
and added if it lies within six signs beginning from karkat. aka.
The result gives more accurate value of the Moons angular
velocity. In fact, the procedure for finding the instantaneous
velocity of the Sun is same as this.
If M be the manda-kendra , then the content of the above verse can be
expressed in mathematical form as
dM
r cos M
d
1 r
dt
(sin ( sin M )) = p
.
2
2
dt
R
R r sin2 M

(23)

Algorithms in Indian Astronomy

201

This verse appears in the context of finding the true rate of motion of
the Moon (instantaneous velocity) from its average rate of motion (mean
velocity). The term gati refers to the rate of change of the longitude of
the planet.
Recalling the expression for the true longitude of the planet, Eq.(22),
the rate of change of it is
d
d
d
M S = 0 .
dt
dt
dt

(24)

Here, the first term in the RHS represents the mean velocity of the planet
and the second term the change in the mandaphala given by Eq.(23).
In the following section dealing with the computation of the duration of
an eclipse, the daily motion of the Moon denoted by d m is nothing but
the derivative of mandasphut. a given by Eq.(23),(24).

Algorithm for finding eclipse duration

In Indian astronomy, the total duration of an eclipse is found by determining the first and the second half durations separately. More often
than not, there will be significant difference between the two durations.
For obtaining accurate values, they are calculated using an iterative procedure, called avises. akarma, as will be explained in this section. The
sum of the two durations gives the total duration of the eclipse. For instance, if T1 and T2 be the first and second half durations of the eclipse,
then the total duration of the eclipse is given by
T = T 1 + T2 ,
where both T1 and T2 are found iteratively.

6.1

Half duration of the eclipse

The time interval between the Moon entering the umbral portion of the
shadow and the instant of opposition is the first half duration, T 1 , and
that between the instant of opposition and the exit of Moon out of the
umbral region is the second half duration T 2 . Naively, one may think

202

K.Ramasubramanian

that these two durations would be equal. However, this is not true
because of the continuous change in the velocities of both the Sun and
the Moon.
In Fig.6(a), AX = and OX = S represent the latitude of the Moon and
the sum of the semi-diameters of the shadow and the Moon respectively.
If dm ds refers to the difference in the instantaneous daily motion of
the Sun and the Moon, then the first half duration (T 1 ) is given by
OA
T1 =
=
Dif f. in daily motion

p
OX 2 AX 2
S2 2
=
dm d s
dm d s
ns
Moo

(a)

.
.

(25)

orbi

Ecliptic

rbit

s o

n
Moo

(b)
O

.
.
B
Y

Ecliptic

Figure 8: (a) The Earths shadow and the Moon just before the beginning of the eclipse and just after the release. (b) The Earths shadow
and the Moon just after the beginning of total eclipse and just before
its release.

6.2

The need for iteration

In Eq.(25), is the Moons latitude at the beginning of the eclipse. The

denominator represents the difference in the daily motion of the Sun and

Algorithms in Indian Astronomy

203

the Moon. If m and s are the longitudes of the Sun and the Moon,
this difference in their daily motion called gatyantara or bhuktyantara is
given by
d
gatyantara = D(t) = (m s).
dt
Initially, and D(t) are calculated at the instant of opposition. If
Moons latitude and the rate of motion of the Sun and the Moon were
to be constant, then Eq.(25) would at once give the correct half duration of the eclipse and there would be no need for an iterative procedure.
However, they are continuously varying quantities. Hence, determining
T1 , using the latitude and gatyantara computed at the instant of opposition is only approximate and to get more accurate values avises. akarma,
a special kind of iterative procedure, is prescribed.

6.3

Concept of Avises.akarma

Avises.akarma refers to an iterative process that is to be carried out

whenever there is an interdependency (anyony
asraya) between the quantity to be calculated and the parameters which are involved in the calculation. For instance, in eclipse calculation, without knowing the latitude at the end of the eclipse, we will not be able to give the exact half
duration, and without knowing the half-duration it is not possible to
find the exact latitude of the Moon. To get over this tricky situation,
avises.akarma is recommended. The need for it is succinctly explained
nkara
Sa

Variyar in his Yuktidpik

a as follows [19]:
 
 
  
 
  
 0
  

1

 (<


 )

   1
 
 0
 (
 :
 
 ;:<
*
 
 

 &
 
 

:
  
 <
    
 " $
 ;:
 67 )
 ;

  

" 

 


 
 * *
/


   

  )
 6 
 
 
2 
 1
 &
 :
 71
 
  
 &
 :
 
:
  
 <

 
 *
(
 


 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 0
67
 )



   
5
 
 6$
 
2 )
 ;

 )
 
 <
=* *

The declination circle (of the Moon) keeps changing every

second (continuously). [Hence], the latitudinal deflection of
the Moon is different at the beginning, middle and the end
of the eclipse.
Thus the two half durations (first and the second half) differ
because of the variation in the latitudinal deflection. There-

204

K.Ramasubramanian

fore, the half-duration may be determined through the avises. a

process.
The word vises.a means distinction; therefore avises. a is without distinction. Though the meanings of the words vises. a and avises.a are
opposed to each other, the latter should not be taken to refer to tulya
or completely identical. In the context of mathematical calculations,
it only means without distinction to a desired degree of accuracy. In
other words, in avises. akarma, the iterative process needs to be carried
out only up to a point wherein the two successive values of the results
are without distinction for a desired degree of accuracy. Once this
accuracy is reached the process should be terminated.

6.4

The iterative process for half duration

Now, we illustrate the avises. a process by considering the example of

finding the half duration of an eclipse. Let t m be the time of opposition
or madhyak
ala of a lunar eclipse, and t 0 be the zeroth order approximation of the half duration of eclipse determined with the parameter
values obtained at tm . That is,
p
S 2 (tm ) 2 (tm )
t0 =
D(tm )
To get the first approximation, the sum of the semi diameters S, the
latitude of the Moon and the difference in daily motion D are then
determined at tm t0 . With them the first approximation to the half
duration is obtained. It is given by
p
S 2 (tm t0 ) 2 (tm t0 )
t1 =
D(tm t0 )
To get the second approximation, S, and D are determined at t m t1 .
With these values the second approximation to the half duration is

t2 =

S 2 (tm t1 ) 2 (tm t1 )
D(tm t1 )

Algorithms in Indian Astronomy

205

Similarly, determining S, and D at t m t2 , the third approximation

is found.
p
S 2 (tm t2 ) 2 (tm t2 )
t3 =
D(tm t2 )
This process will be continued until,
tn tn1 < ,

(26)

where  is the desired degree of accuracy. At this stage, since t has

converged to the desired accuracy, the iteration is terminated. In terms
of the notation used earlier, the first half duration T 1 = tn . Therefore,
the instant of the commencement of the eclipse, known as sparsak
ala, is
given by
tb = tm tn .
(27)
A similar procedure is to be adopted for the determination of moks. ak
ala
(te ), with the only difference that, instead of subtracting, the half duration t0 from tm , we need to add to it. If t0i be the second half
duration of the eclipse obtained after the i th iteration, then it is given
by

t0i

S 2 (tm + ti1 ) 2 (tm + ti1 )

D(tm + ti1 )

As in the case of sparsa, here again the process of iteration has to be

continued till t0i converges. That is,
t0r t0r1 < .

(28)

At this stage, the second half duration of the eclipse and the moks. ak
ala
are given by
T2 = t0r
te = tm + t0r
Now, the total duration of the eclipse is t e tb = T1 + T2 .

(29)

206

K.Ramasubramanian

Concluding Remarks

Many of the algorithms presented in the paper, barring some refine

ments, can be found even in the celebrated text Aryabhat
.ya , composed

by Aryabhat.a as early as 499 AD. The Kerala school of astronomy and

mathematics which is well known for its pioneering work in mathematical analysis and many innovations in the Indian astronomical tradition
has tried to perfect these algorithms, the culmination of which can be
seen in the works of Nilakan.t.ha Somayaji. Particularly, the exact algorithm for the computation of lagna and the formula for the instantaneous velocity of the planet presented by Nilakan.t.ha , are indicative
of how in the Indian astronomical tradition there has been a continuous endeavour to improvise and achieve better and better accuracy in
all computations. As regards the avises. akarma, it will be interesting to
study the convergence properties of this iterative process as employed
in different contexts in Indian Astronomy.
Acknowledgement
The author would like to express gratitude to Prof. M.D.Srinivas of
Centre for Policy Studies and Prof. M.S.Sriram of University of Madras
for many useful suggestions and discussions on this topic.
References:
1. Donald E.Knuth, The Art of Computer Programming, Vol. 1,
Addison Wesley, 1973, p 1-2.
2. C.B.Boyer, A History of Mathematics, John Wiley and Sons, 1989,
p 256.
3. See for instance, 500 years of Tantrasangraha

: A Landmark in the
History of Astronomy, Ed. by M.S.Sriram, K.Ramasubramanian
and M.D.Srinivas, Indian Institute of Advanced Study, Shimla,
2002.
nkara
4. (i) The verses attributed to Madhava (c.14th century) by Sa

Variyar in his commentary to Tantrasangraha

(Chap 2, verses 437,

 
 
  2


 )<


 
  
  
 
     

 
 
 "
 )
 (
and
, for
438) beginning with
/
/

Algorithms in Indian Astronomy

207

obtaining the sine and cosine values for any desired angle, yield
results correct up to 7 decimal places. This is indeed a remarkable
result which may be considered far ahead of his times. (ii) For
more details and mathematical exposition of the above the reader
may refer to the article by M.S. Sriram published in the present
volume.
nkara
5. Ll
avat of Bhaskaracarya with the commentary of Sa

and
Narayan.a, Ed. by K.V.Sarma, VVRI, Hoshiarpur, 1975, ver.73, p
178.
6. Gan.ita-yuktibh
as.a
, Ed. with English Translation by K.V.Sarma,
with Explanatory Notes by K.Ramasubramanian, M.D.Srinivas
and M.S.Sriram (in press), Vol. I, Chap 4.
7. Khan.d.akh
adyaka of Brahmagupta, Ed. and Tr. by Bina Chatterjee, Motilal Banarsidass, 1970, Vol. 2, Uttarakhan. d.akh
adyaka,
Chap 1, ver.4.
8. Erwin Kreyszig, Advanced Engineering Mathematics, John Wiley
& Sons, 1983, p 774.
9. See for instance, Siddhantasiroman. i , Chap 3, verses 12-14.
10. For a detailed exposition on this, see K.Ramasubramanian
and M.S.Sriram, Corrections to the terrestrial latitude in
Tantrasangraha

, Indian Journal of History of Science, 38.2, 2003,

p 129-144.
11. Tantrasangraha

of Nilakan.t.ha with the prose commentary

Laghuvivr.tti of Sankara

Variyar, Ed. by Surnad Kunjan Pillai,

Trivandrum Sanskrit Series no. 188, Trivandrum 1958, Chapter 3,
verses 23-25.
12. ibid., verses 19-21.
13. ibid., verses 95-100.
14. ibid., verses 100-101.
15. ibid., verse 102.
16. ibid., verses 104-105.

208

K.Ramasubramanian

17. ibid., verses 107-109.

18. ibid., Chapter 2, verses 53-54.
19. Tantrasangraha

of Nilakan.t.ha with Yuktidpik

a , commentary in
nkara
the form of verses by Sa

Variyar, Ed. by K.V.Sarma, VVBIS,

Punjab University, 1977, Chap 4, verses 79 and 87, p 261-62.