Technical Notes 1

REVISED

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
March
1992

ALL-WEATHER CONSTRUCTION
Abstract: This Technical Notes describes how extremes of cold and hot weather can influence brick masonry con-
struction. Information on weather prediction necessary for construction planning is provided. Cold and hot weather are
defined, and the reaction of clay brick masonry materials to these extreme conditions is described. Recommendations
are provided for continuing construction in these severe exposure conditions.
Key Words: absorption, brick, climatology, cold weather, evaporation, freezing, grout, hot weather,
meteorology, mortar.

INTRODUCTION
Periods of cold and hot weather have a tremendous
impact on the construction industry and the national econ-
omy. This is reflected in several ways. Cold weather can
cause temporary delays and work stoppages on construc-
tion sites. Productivity and the quality of construction on
job sites may be reduced if workers become too attentive
to personal comfort during extremes in temperature.
Proper material protection and handling can increase con-
struction costs, although contractors and owners alike
may benefit in the long run. Completed work not properly
constructed during, or protected from, cold and some-
times hot weather may have to be removed and rebuilt.
Investigations to evaluate the performance of suspect
construction are an added expense which may be neces-
sary. Owners and businessmen can suffer from lost
rentals and business revenue when buildings are not
completed on time. Furthermore, the seasonal influence
on construction results in idle production facilities, large
material inventories and high rates of unemployment dur-
ing the winter months. Stopping work on a project due to
extremes in weather conditions is not economically desir-
able.
The purpose of this Technical Notes is to describe
how masonry materials react to cold and hot weather con-
ditions. It also describes provisions which should be made
to ensure that construction does not decrease in quality
and can continue without interruption. Although "normal", Examples of Climatic Data Available
"cold", and "hot" are relative terms, normal, used in this FIG. 1
Technical Notes, will be considered to be any temperature
between 40 ˚F and 90 ˚F (4˚C and 32 ˚C). Cold will be well as knowledge of historic climatological information for
considered to be any temperature below 40˚F (4˚C), and a given area. Meteorology may be defined as current
hot any temperature above 90˚F (32˚C). state atmospheric conditions, while climatology may be
defined as the historic record of the averages and
WEATHER PREDICTION extremes of weather representative of an area. When in
To successfully build during periods of abnormal the planning stages for a project, designers are usually
weather conditions, designers and contractors must have concerned with climatological data such as the average
advance knowledge of local meteorological conditions as and extreme daytime and nighttime temperatures or aver-
age wind velocity for use in designing mechanical or
structural systems. Contractors, however, are more con-
cerned with meteorological conditions during construction,
such as hourly temperatures and mean daily temperature,
as well as the predicted temperatures and wind velocities
for the next few days. Mean daily temperature is deter-
mined by adding together the maximum temperature for
each day (24 hours, midnight to midnight) and the mini-
mum temperature for the same day and dividing by two.
Ambient temperature as used in this Technical Notes is
the outdoor temperature at the time considered.
Meteorological information can be obtained from the
National Weather Service, a branch of the National
Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).
The National Weather Service has information centers
located at major airports in cities throughout the country.
These centers provide current weather information and
regularly scheduled weather forecasts for the region
under consideration. Climatological information can be
obtained from the National Climatic Data Center, also a
branch of NOAA. The National Climatic Data Center usu-
ally provides climatic information in the form of maps as
shown in Figure 1. These maps contain daily, monthly and
annual data for a region and may be obtained for a nomi-
nal fee by contacting the Center [5].
EFFECTS OF COLD WEATHER
Cold weather during masonry construction affects the
materials and labor used. Successful construction will
consider both in the planning, scheduling and set up of
the masonry work. In addition to anticipating the specific
weather conditions, the contractor must determine what
the probable effects of the weather will be on the materi-
als and the workers, how to protect materials and work-
ers, how to store the materials, and what procedures
should be used to meet the requirements specified in the
construction documents.
In the United States, all model building codes have
requirements relating to the construction of masonry dur-
ing cold weather. While not identical, each of the building
codes have similar general requirements regarding mater-
ial protection, heating of materials, use of frozen materials
and protection of completed work.
Masonry Units
Masonry units are the material in masonry construc-
tion least affected by below-normal temperatures. The
physical properties of masonry units are essentially the
same in cold weather except that a cold unit will have a
slightly smaller volume than one at normal temperatures.
However, the absorption characteristics of the masonry
unit and its temperature contribute to the rate of freezing
of masonry during cold weather. Under normal conditions
of construction, using masonry units with initial rates of
2
absorption (IRA) less than or equal to 30 g/min/30 in. (30
2 strength gain. Admixtures, although not recommended,
g/min/194 cm ) at the time of laying improves the bond
between the brick and mortar which leads to increased
moisture resistance of the wall assembly. In cold weather,
brick having an initial rate of absorption of 25 g to 30
2 2
g/min/30 in. (25 g to 30 g/min/194 cm ) may be desirable.
2
Using brick with a higher IRA reduces the risk of
freezing by more rapidly absorbing water from the mortar
or grout. If a brick with a low IRA is used, then the water
content of the mortar should be the minimum necessary
for workability. If suction or other measures reduce the
water content to less than 6 percent of the total mortar
volume prior to freezing, the mortar will not experience
disruptive expansive forces upon freezing. Further, signifi -
cant reductions in transverse or compressive strength of
the masonry assemblage will not occur.
The temperature of the masonry unit also contributes
to the rate of freezing of masonry. A cold unit will more
rapidly withdraw the heat of hydration from the mortar and
thus increase the rate of freezing. Masonry units preheat-
ed prior to laying minimize cold weather effects on the
hydration process of the mortar by maintaining the heat
within the mortar. Masonry units should be heated to a
temperature of approximately 40˚F (4˚C) prior to laying
when ambient temperatures are below 20˚F ( -7˚C).
Heating units to temperatures above 40˚F (4˚C) is seldom
necessary. It may be advantageous to heat units even
when ambient temperatures are above 20˚F ( -7˚C).
Preheated units will exhibit the same absorption charac-
teristics as units laid during normal weather conditions.
Units which are frozen should be thawed and dried
completely before use. Frozen masonry should not be
built upon. Completed masonry which is frozen may be
moistened after thawing to reactivate the hydration
process and continue to develop strength [7,10].
Mortar
Mortar mixed with cold materials have properties quite
different from those at normal temperatures. Cold weather
retards the hydration of the cement in the mortar mix.
Mortar mixed during cold weather often has lower water
content, increased air content, and reduced early strength
compared with those mixed during normal temperatures.
For these reasons, mortar is often mixed with heated
materials to produce performance characteristics associ-
ated with mortar mixed at normal temperatures, or with
admixtures which may improve the early strength and
plasticity of the mix. Water, sand, or both may be heated
for use in mortar. Heating prepackaged materials such as
portland cement and hydrated lime can be difficult.
Specific recommendations are a function of temperature
and are found in later sections of this Technical Notes.
Mortar materials and the proportion of ingredients,
within the permissible ranges, can also be modified for
cold weather conditions. A higher sand content provides a
stiffer mortar which will better support the weight of sub-
sequently laid masonry. A lower lime content will allow the
water content of the mortar to decrease more rapidly, just
as a brick with a higher IRA. High-early-strength (Type III)
portland cement may be used to increase the rate of early
may be used to accelerate the rate of set.
Freezing of the mortar should be avoided in all cases.
Mortar which freezes is not as weather-resistant or as
watertight as mortar that has not been frozen [6].
Furthermore, significant reductions in compressive and
bond strength may occur. Mortar having a water content TABLE 1
over 6 to 8 percent of the total volume will experience dis- Requirements for Brick Masonry
ruptive expansive forces if frozen due to the increase in Construction in Cold Weather
volume of water when it is converted to ice. Thus, the
Temperature Construction Protection
bond between the unit and the mortar may be damaged
(see note) Requirements Requirements
or destroyed. Mortar in newly completed masonry should
be protected from freezing. Specific requirements are
found in Table 1. 100˚F-40˚F Normal procedures. Cover walls with plastic
(38˚C-4˚C) or canvas at end of work
Grout
day to prevent water
Grout, although made from similar materials, should from entering masonry.
not be confused with concrete. Typically smaller aggre-
gate is used in grout for easier placement and consolida-
Heat mixing water or Completely cover newly
tion. Concrete uses a minimum amount of water, whereas 40˚F-32˚F sand to produce mor- constructed masonry
the water-cement ratio for grout is high, because grout is (4˚C-0˚C) tar between 40˚F- with a weather resistant
placed in absorptive molds of brick. Furthermore, high 120˚F (4˚C-49˚C). membrane for 48 hr after
water content is necessary in grout for ease of flow, but it construction.
greatly increases the amount of volumetric expansion
Heat mixing water Completely cover newly
which can occur upon freezing. Thus grout, like mortar, 32˚F-25˚F and sand to produce constructed masonry
should be mixed with heated materials to prevent the (0˚C- -4˚C) mortar between 40˚F- with a weather resistant
damaging effects of freezing. High-early-strength (Type III) 120˚F (4˚F-49˚C). membrane for 48 hr after
Heat grout construction.
portland cement may be used to increase the rate of early
materials so grout is
strength gain of the grout. Admixtures may also be used, placed at a
but protection of the grouted masonry is still required. temperature between
40˚F-120˚F (4˚C-
49˚C).
MATERIALS IN
Maintain mortar and
COLD WEATHER CONSTRUCTION grout above freezing
Protection until used in masonry.
Although the temperature of the materials used in Heat mixing water Completely cover newly
masonry construction is one of the factors which should 25˚F-20˚F and sand to produce constructed masonry
be adjusted for cold weather construction, adjustments in (-4˚C- -7˚C) mortar between 40˚F- with insulating blankets
construction practices may also be necessary. ACI 530.1/ 120˚F (4˚C-49˚C). or equal protection for 48
Heat grout materials hr. to prevent freezing.
ASCE 6/TMS 602 , Specifications for Masonry Structures, so grout is placed Install wind breaks when
addresses material heating as well as requirements for between 40˚F-120˚F wind velocity exceeds 15
protection of masonry constructed in cold weather [3]. (4˚C-49˚C). Maintain mph (6.7 m/s).
Protection is one of the most necessary adjustments to mortar and grout
above freezing. Heat
make in construction practices. Construction materials masonry units to 40˚F
should be carefully covered to remain dry. ACI (4˚C) if grouting. Use
530.1/ASCE 6/TMS 602 requires protection such as the heat sources on both
use of insulating blankets and forced air heaters. sides of walls under
construction.
However, protection may also include special light-weight,
warm work clothes worn by laborers or standard construc-
tion equipment adapted to unique cold weather protection 20˚F and Below Heat mixing water Provide enclosure and
uses. This approach is common in northern Europe where (-7˚C and Below) and sand to produce heat to maintain temper -
mortar between atures above 32˚F (0˚C)
cold weather may last up to six months. 40˚F-120˚F (4˚C- within the enclosure for
All masonry materials should be kept dry and free 49˚C). Heat grout 48 hr after construction.
from ice and snow by covering with tarpaulins or clear materials so grout is Heat may be provided by
polyethylene sheets. Sand and masonry units should be placed between 40˚F- electric heating blankets,
120˚F (4˚C-49˚C). infrared heat lamps or
covered and stored on raised platforms to avoid contact Heat masonry units to other approved methods.
with the ground. Careless material storage increases the 40˚F (4˚C). Use heat
cost of laying masonry because removal of ice and snow sources on both sides
and thawing of masonry units are necessary before con- of walls under con-
struction. Provide
struction may begin. Partially completed or exposed walls enclosure and heat to
should be covered at the end of each day's work with a maintain tempera-
weighted tarpaulin which extends a minimum of 2 ft (1 m) tures above 32˚F
down each side of the wall to prevent contamination by (0˚C) within the
enclosure.
water, ice, or snow (Fig. 2).

Note: Construction requirements, while work is in progress, are based on ambient

temperatures. Protection requirements, after masonry is placed, are based on
mean daily temperatures.

3
 Brick Noise Barrier Wall with Cold Weather Protection Enclosures in Place
FIG. 2 FIG. 3

Workers should also be protected from the cold

weather to maintain their productivity. Recommended pro-
tection will vary with weather conditions from warmer
clothes to complete enclosure of the work site. Masons
may work in the open with forced air heaters as a heat
source at mean daily temperatures no less than 20 ˚F ( -7
˚C). Heated enclosures should be provided at tempera-
tures below 20˚F ( -7˚C). By providing wind breaks or tem-
porary shelters, workers can remain productive at outside
temperatures well below freezing. If a shelter or enclosure
is used both the workers and the materials benefit from a
warmer environment. The masons' comfort and productivi-
ty are improved, and the materials need less preparation
prior to laying (i.e. heating).
There are many types of equipment which are avail-
able as sources of heat for cold weather construction. The
type selected will depend upon availability of equipment,
fuel source and economics, size of project and severity of
exposure. Salamanders are widely used as a source of
heat on scaffolds. Commercial electric blankets may be
used to cover walls during the curing period. When com-
plete enclosure of the work area is provided, space
heaters are recommended. The enclosure should allow
circulation of warm air on both sides of the masonry wall.
Contractors have used several different methods for
complete and partial enclosures of buildings. Large tents,
temporary wood structures covered with clear plastic, and
shelters built of prefabricated panels covered with clear
plastic sheets are examples of complete enclosures (Figs.
3 and 4). Partial enclosures often consist of enclosed
Interior of Enclosure
swinging scaffolds which may be moved from floor to floor FIG. 4
when necessary (Figs. 5 and 6).
Mortar and Grout Admixtures corrosion of metal accessories used in construction of the
Accelerators. Accelerators are admixtures used to masonry. Indiscriminate use of accelerators can adverse-
speed the setting time of mortar and grout. By increasing ly affect the in-place performance of the completed
the rate of hydration of the cement, accelerators increase masonry. Accelerators alone are not suggested treatment
the rate of early strength gain. The most common acceler- for cold weather construction problems. Mortar and grout
ators are inorganic salts such as calcium chloride, calcium containing accelerators must still be protected from freez-
nitrate, soluble carbonates and some organic compounds. ing.
Any accelerator should be evaluated for deleterious Calcium chloride, while highly effective as an acceler-
effects on masonry strength and materials. Admixtures ator and widely used in the past, causes corrosion of met-
must not contribute to staining or efflorescence or cause als used in masonry due to the chloride content. For this
4

Scaffold Enclosure
FIG. 5
Tubular Scaffold Enclosure
FIG. 6
reason, chlorides should not be used in mortar or grout in
contact with metals (i.e. ties, anchors and reinforcement).
Also, the incidence of efflorescence may be increased
when excessive salts are present. If a chloride accelerator
is used, it is recommended that it be limited to amounts
not to exceed two percent of the weight of Portland used
in the mortar mix or one percent of the weight of masonry
cement.
Calcium nitrite and calcium nitrate are inorganic
nonchloride compounds also used as accelerators. These
compounds require higher dosage by weight and are
more costly than calcium chloride, but will not corrode
metals or contribute to efflorescence.
5
Antifreeze. An antifreeze lowers the freezing point of
the substance to which it is added. Most commercial mor-
tar "antifreeze" admixtures do not do this, but are instead
accelerators. However, some true antifreeze admixtures
are available. These admixtures are alcohols or combina-
tions of salts. If used in the quantities required to be effec-
tive, significant reductions in mortar compressive and
bond strengths usually result. For this reason, use of
antifreeze compounds is not recommended.
Heating
In freezing weather, ice may be present in mixing
water and moisture in the sand may turn to ice. Ice in the
mixing water must be melted before it can be added to
the mixer. Sand which contains frozen particles or frost
cannot be used. It must first be thawed by heating in an
appropriate manner. Further heating may also be beneficial.
As stated earlier, both water and sand used in the
mortar and grout may be heated to provide proper tem-
peratures for construction. Water is the easiest method to
heat. It is also the best material to heat because of its
high specific heat. Sand may also be heated. This may be
done by placing an electric heating pad on top of the
sandpile and covering with a weather-resistant tarpaulin
(Fig. 7). The electric pad can safely heat the sand
overnight without exceeding a temperature of 100˚F (38
˚C). A more labor intensive method of heating the sand is
to place the sand over a heated pipe or to pile the sand
around a horizontal metal culvert or smoke stack section,
in which a slow fire is built (Fig. 8). Other methods for
heating sand involve the use of a steam lance or other
steam heaters. Careful attention to the fire or other heat
source and the sand is required. Sand should be heated
slowly to avoid scorching.
In an alternate approach, an electric rod can be used
to heat mixing water and sand simultaneously. The elec-
tric heating rod is placed in a drum of water in the center
of a sandpile. The rod heats the water over several hours.
The sand surrounding the drum slowly absorbs heat from
the drum and insulates the drum from further heat losses.
Materials heated for use in mortar should have a mini-
mum temperature of 70˚F (21˚C) and a maximum temper-
ature of 160˚F (71˚C) to avoid flash set. Scorched sand
(with a reddish cast) must not be used in mortar.
In cold weather, mortar should be mixed in smaller
amounts so it can be used before it cools. In any case,
mortar must be used within 2 1/2 hours from the time of
initial mixing. After combining all ingredients, the tempera-
ture of the mortar should be between 40˚F and 120˚F (4
˚C to 49˚C). Mortar temperatures over 120˚F (49˚C) may
lead to flash set, resulting in lower compressive strength
and reduced bond strength. Once a mortar temperature is
selected, steps should be taken to mix successive batch-
es to the same temperature. Mortar may be placed on
electrically heated mortar boards to help maintain proper
temperature. However, use caution to avoid excessive
drying of the mortar with the heater.
Grout should be placed at a minimum temperature of
40˚F (4˚C) and a maximum temperature of 120˚F (49˚C)

Heating of a Sandpile with an Electric Blanket
FIG. 7
within 1 1/2 hours of mixing. As with mortar, water or
Heating of a Sandpile with a Metal Pipe
FIG. 8
aggregate may be heated to produce a heated mixture.
Water temperature should not exceed 160˚F (71˚C). The
sand may be heated following recommendations for heat-
ing sand used in mortar. Masonry receiving grout should
have a minimum temperature of 40˚F (4˚C).
COLD WEATHER CONSTRUCTION
RECOMMENDATIONS
Special Precautions
There are two reasons why masonry should never be
placed on a snow or ice-covered base or bed. There is
danger of movement when the base thaws, and bond
cannot be developed between the mortar bed and frozen
supporting surfaces.
If the walls are properly covered when work is halted,
ice or snow removal from walls should not be necessary.
However, in the event that the covering is displaced, the
top course may be thawed with steam or a portable blow-
torch, carefully applied. The heat should be sustained
long enough to thoroughly dry out the masonry. If portions
of the masonry are frozen or damaged, defective parts
should be replaced before progressing with new work.
General Requirements--Cold Weather
The following items are suggested in addition to the
construction and protection requirements for cold weather
masonry construction found in Table 1. These items can
6
be incorporated in the specifications of the project where
applicable.
1. Protect masonry units, cementitious materials and
sand so that they are not contaminated by rain, snow
or ground water.
2. Cover tops of masonry at all times when work is
not in progress. Cover shall extend a minimum of 2 ft
(1 m) down the masonry, and shall be securely held in
place.
3. Units with higher initial rates of absorption (up to 40
2 2
g/min/30 in. (40 g/min/194 cm )) may be used to
resist mortar freezing. However, units with suctions in
2 2
excess of 30 g/min/30 in. (30 g/min/194 cm ) shall be
sprinkled, but not saturated, with heated water just
prior to laying. Water temperature shall be above 70˚F
(21˚C) when units are above 32˚F (0 ˚C). If units are
32˚F (0˚C) or below, water temperature shall be
above 120˚F (49˚C).
4. Use a mortar with a higher sand content and a
lower water retention, especially with brick units hav-
ing a low IRA. If Type III portland cement is used, the
protection period listed in Table 1 may be reduced
from 48 to 24 hours.
5. Heat sand and water used in mortar and grout mix-
tures to a minimum temperature of 70˚F (21˚C) and a
maximum temperature of 160˚F (71˚C). Keep mortar
temperature less than 120˚F (49˚C) to avoid flash set.
6. Maintain temperature of masonry units above 20˚F
(-7˚C) when laid.
7. Place grout at a minimum temperature of 40˚F
(4˚C) and a maximum temperature of 120˚F (49˚C).
Maintain masonry receiving grout above 40˚F (4˚C).
Maintain grouted masonry above 32˚F (0˚C) for 48
hours following placement of grout.
EFFECTS OF HOT WEATHER
Periods of hot weather may also adversely affect the
construction of masonry. The contractor must take mea-
sures to ensure that the quality of masonry construction
does not suffer from high temperatures. While hot weather
has been defined to be temperatures above 90˚F (32˚C),
temperature, wind speed, relative humidity and solar radi-
ation all influence the absorption of masonry units, the
rate of set, and the drying rate of mortar. The primary con-
cern in controlling these properties in hot weather is evap-
oration of water from the mortar. If sufficient water is not
present, bond between the brick and mortar will be sacri-
ficed.
The effects of high temperature and high humidity are
not as damaging to the performance of the masonry as
are low temperatures and low humidity. The increased
rate of hydration of the cement and favorable curing con-
ditions in hot, humid weather will help develop masonry
strength if sufficient water is present at the time of con-
struction.
Temperature of the materials may be the easiest fac-
tor to adjust to produce performance characteristics asso-
ciated with construction at normal temperatures.
Adjustments in construction practices further aid the con-
struction of quality masonry in hot weather conditions. ACI
530.1/ASCE 6/TMS 602 specifies construction methods to
produce quality masonry in hot weather conditions.
Masonry Units
Masonry units are the material in masonry construc-
tion least affected by hot weather. However, the interac-
tion between the masonry units and the mortar or grout is
critical. Warmer units will absorb more water from the
mortar. In hot weather conditions this is usually not a
problem unless high suction brick are used (IRA over 30
2 2
g/min/30 in. (30 g/min/194 cm )). If high suction brick are
used, they should be properly wetted prior to laying.
Wetting may take place immediately before laying the
units, but the preferred method is to wet the whole pallet 3
to 24 hours before use. The brick must be surface dry at
the time of laying and should have an IRA less than 30
2 2
g/min/30 in. (30 g/min/194 cm ). Lower bond strength
results if not enough water is present in the mortar when
the units are laid. Thus, lower absorption units may be
desirable because they allow more complete hydration of
the mortar.
Mortar
Mortar in hot weather will tend to lose its plasticity
rapidly due to evaporation of the water from the mix and
the increased rate of hydration of the cement. The use of
admixtures to increase plasticity is not recommended
unless their full effect on the mortar is known. Mortar with
a high lime content and high water retention should be
used. Retempering of the mortar should be permitted.
Mortar mixed at high temperatures often has higher water
content, lower air content, and a shorter board life than
those mixed at normal temperatures. Temperature of the
mortar should be maintained between 70 ˚F and 120˚F
(21˚C and 49˚C). Temperatures above 120˚F (49˚C) may
cause flash set of the cement. Cold water may be used to
help control the temperature of the mortar. Ice is highly
effective in reducing the temperature of the mix water.
When used, ice should be completely melted before com-
bining the water with any other ingredients. In any case,
mortar should be used within two hours of initial mixing.
Grout
Grout reacts to hot weather in a manner similar to
mortar. Water more easily evaporates and thereby
reduces the water-cement ratio. Grout requires a high
slump, at least 8 in. (203 mm), for placement into the
absorptive brick molds. Therefore, a high water-cement
ratio should be maintained by reducing evaporation and
initially mixing grout with adequate water. Furthermore,
ACI 530.1/ASCE 6/TMS 602 specifies grout shall be used
within 1 1/2 hours of mixing. As with mortar, ice may be
used to lower the mix water temperature.
HOT WEATHER CONSTRUCTION
RECOMMENDATIONS
Special Precautions
During periods of hot weather the temperature of the
materials should be controlled for best results. Storing
brick and sand under cover of shade will help control heat
7
gain of the materials. Sand should be stored on a raised
platform and not in contact with a cover during the hot
part of the day. This prevents ground moisture from rising,
then condensing on the cover after temperatures cool
down, thus contaminating the materials. When possible,
shade should also be provided for laborers, whose pro-
ductivity decreases with increasing temperature and
humidity. Starting work earlier in the day and scheduling
masonry construction to avoid the hot, mid-day periods
can reduce the effects of high temperatures on laborers
and materials.
Adjusting masonry construction practices may effec-
tively control hot weather problems. ACI 530.1/ASCE
6/TMS 602 limits the length that mortar may be spread to
4 ft (1.2 m) and requires masonry units to be placed with-
in one minute of spreading the mortar. Wind breaks may
prevent rapid drying of mortar during and after placement,
and covering walls with a weather resistant membrane at
the end of the work day will prevent rapid loss of moisture
from the masonry assemblage. Wet curing or fog spraying
may further improve masonry strength development dur-
ing periods of high temperatures and low relative humidity.
General Requirements--Hot Weather
The following items are suggested in addition to the
construction and protection requirements for hot weather
masonry construction found in Table 2. These items can
be incorporated in the specifications of the project where
applicable.
1. Maintain temperature of mortar and grout between
70˚F and 120˚F (21˚C and 49˚C).
2. Cold water may be used when mixing mortar and
grout. Ice used to lower the mix water temperature
must be completely melted before adding the water to
the other ingredients.
3. Masonry units with high suctions (IRA over 30
2 2
g/min/30 in. (30 g/min/194 cm )) should be properly
wetted prior to use. Units with lower rates of absorp-
tion may be desirable.
4. Mortar with a high water retention is desirable.
5. Limit the spread of mortar beds to 4 ft (1.2 m) when
temperatures are 100˚F (38˚C) or above, or 90˚F
(32˚C) with a 8 mph (3.6 m/s) wind.
6. Place masonry units within one minute of spreading
mortar.
7. Partially completed walls may be fog sprayed at the
end of the work day to control moisture evaporation.
SUMMARY
This Technical Notes describes how masonry materials
react to extremes in weather conditions. Construction
requirements and protection requirements are recommend-
ed for construction in both cold and hot weather to ensure
that construction can continue without a decrease in quality.
Performance characteristics associated with materials mixed
and constructed during normal temperatures can be
achieved by following the appropriate construction and pro-
tection recommendations addressed in this Technical Notes.
Tables 1 and 2 summarize these recommendations for cold
Note: Construction requirements, while work is in progress, are based on ambient
temperatures. Protection requirements, after masonry is placed, are based on
 TABLE 2 1970.
Requirements for Brick Masonry 8. Standard Specification for Cold Weather
Construction in Hot Weather Concreting (ACI 306.1), American Concrete Institute,
Temperature Construction Protection 1990.
(see note) Requirements Requirements 9. Suprenant, B.A., "Laying Masonry in Cold
Weather", The Magazine of Masonry Construction,
Above 100˚F or Maintain mortar Partially or newly Vol. 1, No. 9, December 1988.
90˚F with 8 mph and grout at a tem- completed walls 10. Van der Klugt, L.J.A.R., "Frost Damage to the
wind (above 38˚C perature between may be fog Pointing and Laying Mortar of Clay Brick Masonry",
or 32˚C with 3.6 70˚F and 120˚F sprayed and/or TNO Building Construction and Research, Rijswijk,
m/s wind) (21˚C-49˚C). Limit covered with plas-
The Netherlands, 9th International Brick/Block
spread of mortar tic or canvas to
bed to 4 ft. Place control moisture
Masonry Conference, October 1991.
units within 1 evaporation.
minute of spread-
ing mortar.

100˚F-40˚F Normal Cover walls with

(38˚C-4˚C) procedures. plastic or canvas at
end of work day to
prevent water from
entering masonry.
mean daily temperatures.

and hot weather construction.

The information and suggestions contained in this
Technical Notes are based on the available data and the
experience of the engineering staff of the Brick Institute of
America. The information contained herein must be used
in conjunction with good technical judgment and a basic
understanding of the properties of brick masonry. Final
decisions on the use of the information contained in this
Technical Notes are not within the purview of the Brick
Institute of America and must rest with the project archi-
tect, engineer and owner.

REFERENCES
1. All-Weather Masonry Construction State of the Art
Report, Technical Task Committee, International
Masonry All-Weather Council, December 1968.
2. Brown, M.L., "Speeding Mortar Setting in Cold
Weather", The Magazine of Masonry Construction,
Vol. 2, No. 10 October 1989.
3. Building Code Requirements for Masonry
Structures (ACI 530/ASCE 5/TMS 402) and
Specifications for Masonry Structures (ACI
530.1/ASCE 6/TMS 602), American Concrete
Institute, American Society of Civil Engineers, and
The Masonry Society, 1992.
4. Cold Weather Concreting (ACI 306R), American
Concrete Institute, 1988.
5. National Climatic Data Center, Federal Building,
Asheville, NC 28801-2696, phone (704) 259-0682.
6. Randall, Jr., F.A., and Panarese, W.C., Concrete
Masonry Handbook, Portland Cement Association,
1991.
7. Recommended Practices & Guide Specifications
for Cold Weather Masonry Construction, International
Masonry Industry All-Weather Council, December

8

Technical Notes
on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
RELATING TO BRICK MASONRY
ABSORPTION: The weight of water a brick
unit absorbs, when immersed in either cold
or boiling water for a stated length of time.
Expressed as a percentage of the weight of
the dry unit. See ASTM Specification C 67.
ADMIXTURES: Materials added to mortar
to impart special properties to the mortar.
ANCHOR: A piece or assemblage, usually
metal, used to attach building parts (e.g.,
plates, joists, trusses, etc.) to masonry or
masonry materials.
ANSI: American National Standards
Institute.
ARCH: A curved compressive structural
member, spanning openings or recesses;
also built flat.
Back Arch: A concealed arch carrying
the backing of a wall where the exterior fac-
ing is carried by a lintel.
Jack Arch: One having horizontal or
nearly horizontal upper and lower surfaces.
Also called flat or straight arch.
Major Arch: Arch with spans greater
than 6 ft and equivalent to uniform loads
greater than 1000 lb. per ft. Typically
known as Tudor arch, semicircular arch,
Gothic arch or parabolic arch. Has rise to
span ratio greater than 0.15.
Minor Arch: Arch with maximum span
of 6 ft and loads not exceeding 1000 lb. per
ft. Typically known as jack arch, segmental
arch or multicentered arch. Has rise to
span ratio less than or equal to 0.15.
Relieving Arch: One built over a lintel,
flat arch, or smaller arch to divert loads,
thus relieving the lower member from exces-
sive loading. Also known as discharging or
safety arch.
Trimmer Arch: An arch, usually a low
rise arch of brick, used for supporting a fire-
place hearth.
ASHLAR MASONRY: Masonry composed
of rectangular units of burned clay or shale,
or stone, generally larger in size than brick
and properly bonded, having sawed,
dressed or squared beds, and joints laid in
mortar. Often the unit size varies to provide
a random pattern, random ashlar.
*Originally published in Jan/Feb 1975, this Technical Notes has been reviewed and reissued.
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
ASHRAE: American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning
Engineers, Inc.
ASTM: American Society for Testing and
Materials.
BACK FILLING: 1. Rough masonry built
behind a facing or between two faces. 2.
Filling over the extrados of an arch. 3.
Brickwork in spaces between structural tim-
bers, sometimes called brick nogging.
BACKUP: That part of a masonry wall
behind the exterior facing.
BAT: A piece of brick.
BATTER: Recessing or sloping masonry
back in successive courses; the opposite of
corbel.
BED JOINT: The horizontal layer of mortar
on which a masonry unit is laid.
BELT COURSE: A narrow horizontal
course of masonry, sometimes slightly pro-
jected such as window sills which are made
continuous. Sometimes called string course
or sill course.
BLOCKING: A method of bonding two
adjoining or intersecting walls, not built at
the same time, by means of offsets whose
vertical dimensions are not less than 8 in.
BOND: 1. Tying various parts of a masonry
wall by lapping units one over another or by
connecting with metal ties. 2. Patterns
formed by exposed faces of units. 3.
Adhesion between mortar or grout and
masonry units or reinforcement.
BOND BEAM: Course or courses of a
masonry wall grouted and usually reinforced
in the horizontal direction. Serves as hori-
zontal tie of wall, bearing course for structur-
al members or as a flexural member itself.
BOND COURSE: The course consisting of
units which overlap more than one wythe of
masonry.
BONDER: A bonding unit. See Header.
2
REVISED
Reissued*
September
1988
BREAKING JOINTS: Any arrangement of
masonry units which prevents continuous
vertical joints from occurring in adjacent
courses.
BRICK: A solid masonry unit of clay or
shale, formed into a rectangular prism while
plastic and burned or fired in a kiln.
Acid-Resistant Brick: Brick suitable
for use in contact with chemicals, usually in
conjunction with acid-resistant mortars.
Adobe Brick: Large roughly-molded,
sun-dried clay brick of varying size.
Angle Brick: Any brick shaped to an
oblique angle to fit a salient corner.
Arch Brick: 1. Wedge-shaped brick for
special use in an arch. 2. Extremely hard-
burned brick from an arch of a scove kiln.
Building Brick: Brick for building pur-
poses not especially treated for texture or
color. Formerly called common brick. See
ASTM Specification C 62.
Clinker Brick: A very hard-burned
brick whose shape is distorted or bloated
due to nearly complete vitrification.
Common Brick: See Building Brick.
Dry-Press Brick: Brick formed in
molds under high pressures from relatively
dry clay (5 to 7 percent moisture content).
Economy Brick: Brick whose nominal
dimensions are 4 by 4 by 8 in.
Engineered Brick: Brick whose nomi-
nal dimensions are 4 by 3.2 by 8 in.
Facing Brick: Brick made especially
for facing purposes, often treated to produce
surface texture. They are made of selected
clays, or treated, to produce desired color.
See ASTM Specification C 216.
Fire Brick: Brick made of refractory
ceramic material which will resist high tem-
peratures.
Floor Brick: Smooth dense brick,
highly resistant to abrasion, used as finished
floor surfaces. See ASTM Specification C
410.
Gauged Brick: 1. Brick which have
been ground or otherwise produced to accu-
rate dimensions. 2. A tapered arch brick.
Hollow Brick: A masonry unit of clay
or shale whose net cross-sectional area in
any plane parallel to the bearing surface is
not less than 60 percent of its gross cross-
sectional area measured in the same plane.
See ASTM Specification C 652.
 Jumbo Brick: A generic term indicat-
ing a brick larger in size than the standard.
Some producers use this term to describe
oversize brick of specific dimensions manu-
factured by them.
Norman Brick: A brick whose nominal
dimensions are 4 by 2 2/3 by 12 in.
Paving Brick: Vitrified brick especially
suitable for use in pavements where resis-
tance to abrasion is important. See ASTM
Specification C 7.
Roman Brick: Brick whose nominal
dimensions are 4 by 2 by 12 in.
Salmon Brick: Generic term for
under-burned brick which are more porous,
slightly larger, and lighter colored than hard-
burned brick. Usually pinkish-orange color.
"SCR Brick” (Reg U.S. Pat Off., SCPI
(BIA)): See SCR (Reg U.S. Pat. Off., SCPI
(BIA)).
Sewer Brick: Low absorption, abra-
sive-resistant brick intended for use in
drainage structures. See ASTM
Specification C 32.
Soft-Mud Brick: Brick produced by
molding relatively wet clay (20 to 30 percent
moisture). Often a hand process. When
insides of molds are sanded to prevent
sticking of clay, the product is sand-struck
brick. When molds are wetted to prevent
sticking, the product is water-struck brick.
Stiff-Mud Brick: Brick produced by
extruding a stiff but plastic clay (12 to 15
percent moisture) through a die.
BRICK AND BRICK: A method of laying
brick so that units touch each other with
only enough mortar to fill surface irregulari-
ties.
BRICK GRADE: Designation for durability
of the unit expressed as SW for severe
weathering, MW for moderate weathering,
or NW for negligible weathering. See ASTM
Specifications C 216, C 62 and C 652.
BRICK TYPE: Designation for facing brick
which controls tolerance, chippage and dis-
tortion. Expressed as FBS, FBX and FBA
for solid brick, and HBS, HBX, HBA and
HBB for hollow brick. See ASTM
Specifications C 216 and C 652.
BUTTERING: Placing mortar on a masonry
unit with a trowel.
CAPACITY INSULATION: The ability of
masonry to store heat as a result of its
mass, density and specific heat.
C/B RATIO: The ratio of the weight of
water absorbed by a masonry unit during
immersion in cold water to weight absorbed
during immersion in boiling water. An indi-
cation of the probable resistance of brick to
freezing and thawing. Also called saturation
coefficient. See ASTM Specification C 67.
CENTERING: Temporary formwork for the
support of masonry arches or lintels during
construction. Also called center(s).
CERAMIC COLOR GLAZE: An opaque
colored glaze of satin or gloss finish
obtained by spraying the clay body with a
compound of metallic oxides, chemicals and
clays. It is burned at high temperatures,
fusing glaze to body making them insepara-
ble. See ASTM Specification C 126.
CHASE: A continuous recess built into a
wall to receive pipes, ducts, etc.
CLAY: A natural, mineral aggregate consist -
ing essentially of hydrous aluminum silicate;
it is plastic when sufficiently wetted, rigid
when dried and vitrified when fired to a suffi-
ciently high temperature.
CLAY MORTAR-MIX: Finely ground clay
used as a plasticizer for masonry mortars.
CLEAR CERAMIC GLAZE: Same as
Ceramic Color Glaze except that it is
translucent or slightly tinted, with a gloss fin-
ish.
CLIP: A portion of a brick cut to length.
CLOSER: The last masonry unit laid in a
course. It may be whole or a portion of a
unit.
CLOSURE: Supplementary or short length
units used at corners or jambs to maintain
bond patterns.
COLLAR JOINT: The vertical, longitudinal
joint between wythes of masonry.
COLUMN: A vertical member whose hori-
zontal dimension measured at right angles
to the thickness does not exceed three
times its thickness.
COPING: The material or masonry units
forming a cap or finish on top of a wall, pier,
pilaster, chimney, etc. It protects masonry
below from penetration of water from above.
CORBEL: A shelf or ledge formed by pro-
jecting successive courses of masonry out
from the face of the wall.
COURSE: One of the continuous horizontal
layers of units, bonded with mortar in
masonry.
CULLS: Masonry units which do not meet
the standards or specifications and have
been rejected.
DAMP COURSE: A course or layer of
impervious material which prevents capillary
entrance of moisture from the ground or a
lower course. Often called damp check.
2
DAMPPROOFING: Prevention of moisture
penetration by capillary action.
DOG'S TOOTH: Brick laid with their cor -
ners projecting from the wall face.
DRIP: A projecting piece of material,
shaped to throw off water and prevent its
running down the face of wall or other sur-
face.
EBM: See Engineered Brick Masonry.
ECCENTRICITY: The normal distance
between the centroidal axis of a member
and the parallel resultant load.
e1/e2: Ratio of virtual eccentricities occur-
ring at the ends of a column or wall under
design. The absolute value is always less
than or equal to 1.0.
EFFECTIVE HEIGHT: The height of a
member to be assumed for calculating the
slenderness ratio.
EFFECTIVE THICKNESS: The thickness
of a member to be assumed for calculating
the slenderness ratio.
EFFLORESCENCE: A powder or stain
sometimes found on the surface of mason-
ry, resulting from deposition of water-soluble
salts.
ENGINEERED BRICK MASONRY:
Masonry in which design is based on a
rational structural analysis.
FACE: 1. The exposed surface of a wall or
masonry unit. 2. The surface of a unit
designed to be exposed in the finished
masonry.
FACING: Any material, forming a part of a
wall, used as a finished surface.
FIELD: The expanse of wall between open-
ings, corners, etc., principally composed of
stretchers.
FILTER BLOCK: A hollow, vitrified clay
masonry unit, sometimes salt-glazed,
designed for trickling filter floors in sewage
disposal plants. See ASTM Specification C
159.
FIRE CLAY: A clay which is highly resis-
tant to heat without deforming and used for
making brick.
FIRE RESISTIVE MATERIAL: See Non-
combustible Material.
FIREPROOFING: Any material or combina-
tion protecting structural members to
increase their fire resistance.
FLASHING: 1. A thin impervious material
placed in mortar joints and through air
spaces in masonry to prevent water pene-
tration and/or provide water drainage. 2.
Manufacturing method to produce specific
color tones.
FROG: A depression in the bed surface of
a brick. Sometimes called a panel.
FURRING: A method of finishing the interi-
or face of a masonry wall to provide space
for insulation, prevent moisture transmit -
tance, or to provide a level surface for fin-
ishing.
GROUNDS: Nailing strips placed in mason-
ry walls as a means of attaching trim or fur-
ring.
GROUT: Mixture of cementitious material
and aggregate to which sufficient water is
added to produce pouring consistency with-
out segregation of the constituents.
High-Lift Grouting: The technique of
grouting masonry in lifts up to 12 ft.
Low-Lift Grouting: The technique of
grouting as the wall is constructed.
HACKING: 1. The procedure of stacking
brick in a kiln or on a kiln car. 2. Laying
brick with the bottom edge set in from the
plane surface of the wall.
HARD-BURNED: Nearly vitrified clay prod-
ucts which have been fired at high tempera-
tures. They have relatively low absorptions
and high compressive strengths.
HEAD JOINT: The vertical mortar joint
between ends of masonry units. Often
called cross joint.
HEADER: A masonry unit which overlaps
two or more adjacent wythes of masonry to
tie them together. Often called bonder.
Blind Header: A concealed brick
header in the interior of a wall, not showing
on the faces.
Clipped Header: A bat placed to look
like a header for purposes of establishing a
pattern. Also called a false header.
Flare Header: A header of darker
color than the field of the wall.
HEADING COURSE: A continuous bonding
course of header brick. Also called header
course.
INITIAL RATE OF ABSORPTlON: The
weight of water absorbed expressed in
grams per 30 sq. in. of contact surface
when a brick is partially immersed for one
minute. Also called suction. See ASTM
Specification C 67.
IRA: See Initial Rate of Absorption.
KILN: A furnace oven or heated enclosure
used for burning or firing brick or other clay
material.
Kiln Run: Brick from one kiln which
have not been sorted or graded for size or
color variation.
KING CLOSER: A brick cut diagonally to
have one 2 in. end and one full width end.
LATERAL SUPPORT: Means whereby
walls are braced either vertically or horizon-
tally by columns, pilasters, cross walls,
beams, floors, roofs, etc.
LEAD: The section of a wall built up and
racked back on successive courses. A line
is attached to leads as a guide for con-
structing a wall between them.
LIME, HYDRATED: Quicklime to which
sufficient water has been added to convert
the oxides to hydroxides.
LIME PUTTY: Hydrated lime in plastic form
ready for addition to mortar.
LINTEL: A beam placed over an opening in
a wall.
MASONRY: Brick, stone, concrete, etc., or
masonry combinations thereof, bonded with
mortar.
MASONRY CEMENT: A mill-mixed cemen-
titious material to which sand and water
must be added. See ASTM C 91.
MASONRY UNIT: Natural or manufactured
building units of burned clay, concrete,
stone, glass, gypsum, etc.
Hollow Masonry Unit: One whose net
cross-sectional area in any plane parallel to
the bearing surface is less than 75 percent
of the gross.
Modular Masonry Unit: One whose
nominal dimensions are based on the 4 in.
module.
Solid Masonry Unit: One whose net
cross-sectional area in every plane parallel
to the bearing surface is 75 percent or more
of the gross.
MORTAR: A plastic mixture of cementitious
materials, fine aggregate and water. See
ASTM Specifications C 270, C 476 or BIA
M1-72.
Fat Mortar: Mortar containing a high
percentage of cementitious components. It
is a sticky mortar which adheres to a trowel.
High-Bond Mortar: Mortar which
develops higher bond strengths with mason-
ry units than normally developed with con-
ventional mortar.
Lean Mortar: Mortar which is deficient
in cementitious components, it is usually
harsh and difficult to spread.
3
NOMINAL DIMENSION: A dimension
greater than a specified masonry dimension
by the thickness of a mortar joint, but not
more than 1/2 in.
NON-COMBUSTIBLE MATERIAL: Any
material which will neither ignite nor actively
support combustion in air at a temperature
of 1200 F when exposed to fire.
OVERHAND WORK: Laying brick from
inside a wall by men standing on a floor or
on a scaffold.
PARGETING: The process of applying a
coat of cement mortar to masonry. Often
spelled and/or pronounced parging.
PARTITION: An interior wall, one story or
less in height.
PICK AND DIP: A method of laying brick
whereby the bricklayer simultaneously picks
up a brick with one hand and, with the other
hand, enough mortar on a trowel to lay the
brick. Sometimes called the Eastern or
New England method.
PIER: An isolated column of masonry.
PILASTER: A wall portion projecting from
either or both wall faces and serving as a
vertical column and/or beam.
PLUMB RULE: This is a combination
plumb rule and level. It is used in a horizon-
tal position as a level and in a vertical posi-
tion as a plumb rule. They are made in
lengths of 42 and 48 in., and short lengths
from 12 to 24 in.
POINTING: Troweling mortar into a joint
after masonry units are laid.
PREFABRICATED BRICK MASONRY:
Masonry construction fabricated in a loca-
tion other than its final inservice location in
the structure. Also known as preassem-
bled, panelized and sectionalized brick
masonry.
PRISM: A small masonry assemblage
made with masonry units and mortar.
Primarily used to predict the strength of full
scale masonry members.
QUEEN CLOSER: A cut brick having a
nominal 2 in. horizontal face dimension.
QUOIN: A projecting right angle masonry
corner.
RACKING: A method entailing stepping
back successive courses of masonry.
RAGGLE: A groove in a joint or special
unit to receive roofing or flashing.
RBM: Reinforced brick masonry
REINFORCED MASONRY: Masonry units,
reinforcing steel, grout and/or mortar com-
bined to act together in resisting forces.
RETURN: Any surface turned back from
the face of a principal surface.
REVEAL: That portion of a jamb or recess
which is visible from the face of a wall.
ROWLOCK: A brick laid on its face edge
so that the normal bedding area is visible in
the wall face. Frequently spelled rolok.
SALT GLAZE: A gloss finish obtained by
thermochemical reaction between silicates
of clay and vapors of salt or chemicals.
SATURATION COEFFICIENT: See C/B
Ratio.
SCR (Reg U.S. Pat Off., SCPI (BIA)):
Structural Clay Research (trademark Of the
Structural Clay Products Institute, BIA).
"SCR acoustile" (Reg U.S. Pat Off.,
SCPI (BIA) Pat. No 3,001,6O2): A side-
construction two-celled facing tile, having a
perforated face backed with glass wool for
acoustical purposes.
"SCR brick" (Reg U.S. Pat Off., SCPI
(BIA)): Brick whose nominal dimensions are
6 by 2 2/3 by 12 in. (Reg U.S. Pat Off.,
SCPI (BIA)):
"SCR building panel" (Reg U S. Pat
Off., SCPI (BIA) Pat. No. 3,248,836):
Prefabricated, structural ceramic panels,
approximately 2 1/2 in. thick.
"SCR insulated cavity wall" (Reg U.S.
Pat Off., SCPI (BIA)): Any cavity wall con-
taining insulation which meets rigid criteria
established by the Structural Clay Products
Institute (BIA).
"SCR masonry process" (Reg. U.S.
Pat Off., SCPI (BIA)): A construction aid
providing greater efficiency, better workman -
ship and increased production in masonry
construction. It utilizes story poles, marked
lines and adjustable scaffolding.
SHALE: Clay which has been subjected to
high pressures until it has hardened.
SHOVED JOINTS: Vertical joints filled by
shoving a brick against the next brick when
it is being laid in a bed of mortar.
SLENDERNESS RATIO: Ratio of the effec-
tive height of a member to its effective thick-
ness.
SLUSHED JOINTS: Vertical joints filled, after
units are laid, by ìthrowing" mortar in with the
edge of a trowel. (Generally, not recommend-
ed.)
SOAP: A masonry unit of normal face
dimensions, having a nominal 2 in. thick-
ness.
SOFFIT: The underside of a beam, lintel or
arch.
SOFT-BURNED: Clay products which have
been fired at low temperature ranges, pro-
ducing relatively high absorptions and low
compressive strengths.
SOLAR SCREEN: A perforated wall used
as a sunshade.
SOLDIER: A stretcher set on end with face
showing on the wall surface.
SPALL: A small fragment removed from
the face of a masonry unit by a blow or by
action of the elements.
STACK: Any structure or part thereof which
contains a flue or flues for the discharge of
gases.
STORY POLE: A marked pole for measur -
ing masonry coursing during construction.
STRETCHER: A masonry unit laid with its
greatest dimension horizontal and its face
parallel to the wall face.
STRINGING MORTAR: The procedure of
spreading enough mortar on a bed to lay
several masonry units.
STRUCK JOINT: Any mortar joint which
has been finished with a trowel.
SUCTION: See Initial Rate of Absorption.
TEMPER: To moisten and mix clay, plaster
or mortar to a proper consistency.
TIE: Any unit of material which connects
masonry to masonry or other materials.
See Wall Tie.
TOOLING: Compressing and shaping the
face of a mortar joint with a special tool
other than a trowel.
TOOTHING: Constructing the temporary
end of a wall with the end stretcher of every
alternate course projecting. Projecting units
are toothers.
TRADITIONAL MASONRY: Masonry in
which design is based on empirical rules
which control minimum thickness, lateral
support requirements and height without a
structural analysis.
TUCK POINTING: The filling in with fresh
mortar of cut-out or defective mortar joints in
masonry.
VENEER: A single wythe of masonry for
facing purposes, not structurally bonded.
4
VIRTUAL ECCENTRICITY: The eccentrici-
ty of a resultant axial load required to pro-
duce axial and bending stresses equivalent
to those produced by applied axial loads
and moments. It is normally found by divid-
ing the moment at a section by the summa-
tion of axial loads occurring at that section.
VITRIFICATION: The condition resulting
when kiln temperatures are sufficient to fuse
grains and close pores of a clay product,
making the mass impervious.
WALL: A vertical member of a structure
whose horizontal dimension measured at
right angles to the thickness exceeds three
times its thickness.
Apron Wall: That part of a panel wall
between window sill and wall support.
Area Wall: 1. The masonry surround-
ing or partly surrounding an area. 2. The
retaining wall around basement windows
below grade.
Bearing Wall: One which supports a
vertical load in addition to its own weight.
Cavity Wall: A wall built of masonry
units so arranged as to provide a continu-
ous air space within the wall (with or without
insulating material), and in which the inner
and outer wythes of the wall are tied togeth-
er with metal ties.
Composite Wall: A multiple-wythe
wall in which at least one of the wythes is
dissimilar to the other wythe or wythes with
respect to type or grade of masonry unit or
mortar
Curtain Wall: An exterior non-load-
bearing wall not wholly supported at each
story. Such walls may be anchored to
columns, spandrel beams, floors or bearing
walls, but not necessarily built between
structural elements.
Dwarf Wall: A wall or partition which
does not extend to the ceiling.
Enclosure Wall: An exterior non-bear-
ing wall in skeleton frame construction. It is
anchored to columns, piers or floors, but not
necessarily built between columns or piers
nor wholly supported at each story.
Exterior Wall: Any outside wall or ver-
tical enclosure of a building other than a
party wall.
Faced Wall: A composite wall in which
the masonry facing and backings are so
bonded as to exert a common reaction
under load.
Fire Division Wall: Any wall which
subdivides a building so as to resist the
spread of fire. It is not necessarily continu-
ous through all stories to and above the
roof.
Fire Wall: Any wall which subdivides a
building to resist the spread of fire and
which extends continuously from the foun-
dation through the roof.
Foundation Wall: That portion of a load-
bearing wall below the level of the adjacent
grade, or below first floor beams or joists.
 Hollow Wall: A wall built of masonry WATER TABLE: A projection of lower
units arranged to provide an air space within masonry on the outside of the wall slightly
the wall. The separated facing and backing above the ground. Often a damp course is
are bonded together with masonry units. placed at the level of the water table to pre-
Insulated Cavity Wall: See “SCR vent upward penetration of ground water.
insulated cavity wall.”
Loadbearing Wall: A wall which sup- WATERPROOFING: Prevention of moisture
ports any vertical load in addition to its own flow through masonry due to water pressure.
weight.
Non-Loadbearing Wall: A wall which WEEP HOLES: Openings placed in mortar
supports no vertical load other than its own joints of facing material at the level of flash-
weight. ing, to permit the escape of moisture.
Panel Wall: An exterior, non-loadbear-
ing wall wholly supported at each story. WITH INSPECTION: Masonry designed with
Parapet Wall: That part of any wall the higher stresses allowed under EBM.
entirely above the roof line. Requires the establishing of procedures on
Party Wall: A wall used for joint ser- the job to control mortar mix, workmanship
vice by adjoining buildings. and protection of masonry materials.
Perforated Wall: One which contains
a considerable number of relatively small WITHOUT INSPECTION: Masonry designed
openings. Often called pierced wall or with the reduced stresses allowed under
screen wall. EBM.
Shear Wall: A wall which resists hori -
zontal forces applied in the plane of the WYTHE: 1. Each continuous vertical section
wall. of masonry one unit in thickness. 2. The
Single Wythe Wall: A wall containing thickness of masonry separating flues in a
only one masonry unit in wall thickness. chimney. Also called withe or tier.
Solid Masonry Wall: A wall built of
solid masonry units, laid contiguously, with
joints between units completely filled with
mortar or grout.
Spandrel Wall: That part of a curtain
wall above the top of a window in one story
and below the sill of the window in the story
above.
Veneered Wall: A wall having a facing
of masonry units or other weather-resisting
non-combustible materials securely
attached to the backing, but not so bonded
as to intentionally exert common action
under load.

WALL PLATE: A horizontal member

anchored to a masonry wall to which other
structural elements may be attached. Also
called head plate.

WALL TIE: A bonder or metal piece which

connects wythes of masonry to each other
or in other materials.

WALL TIE, CAVITY: A rigid, corrosion-

resistant metal tie which bonds two wythes
of a cavity wall. It is usually steel, 3/16 in. in
diameter and formed in a "Z" shape or a
rectangle.

WALL TIE, VENEER: A strip or piece of

metal used to tie a facing veneer to the
backing.

WATER RETENTIVITY: That property of a

mortar which prevents the rapid loss of water
to masonry units of high suction. It prevents
bleeding or water gain when mortar is in con-
tact with relatively impervious units.

5
 Technical Notes 3A

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
December
1992

BRICK MASONRY MATERIAL PROPERTIES

Abstract: Brick masonry has a long history of reliable structural performance. Stan-
dards for the structural design of masonry which are periodically updated such as the Build -
ing Code Requirements for Masonry Structures (ACI 530/ASCE 5/TMS 402) and the Specifi -
cations for Masonry Structures (ACI 530.1/ASCE 6/TMS 602) advance the efficiency of ma-
sonry elements with rational design criteria. However, design of masonry structural members
begins with a thorough understanding of material properties. This Technical Notes is an aid
for the design of brick and structural clay tile masonry structural members. Clay and shale
units, mortar, grout, steel reinforcement and assemblage material properties are presented to
simplify the design process.

Key Words: brick, grout, material properties, mortar, reinforcement, structural clay tile.

INTRODUCTION Therefore, it is important to first consider the properties

The Masonry Standards Joint Committee (MSJC)
has developed the Building Code Requirements for Ma -
sonry Structures (ACI 530/ASCE 5/TMS 402) and the
Specifications for Masonry Structures (ACI 530.1/AS-
CE 6/TMS 602). In this Technical Notes, these docu-
ments will be referred to as the MSJC Code and the
MSJC Specifications, respectively. Their contents are
reviewed in Technical Notes 3. The MSJC Code and
Specifications are periodically revised by the MSJC
and together provide design and construction require-
ments for masonry. The MSJC Code and Specifica-
tions apply to structural masonry assemblages of clay,
concrete or stone units.
This Technical Notes is a design aid for the MSJC
Code and Specifications. It contains information on
clay and shale units, mortar, grout, steel reinforcement
and assemblage material properties. These are used in
the initial stages of a structural design or analysis to de-
termine applied stresses and allowable stresses. Mate-
rial properties are explained to aid the designer in selec-
tion of materials and to provide a better understanding
of the structural properties of the masonry assemblage
based on the materials selected.
CONSTITUENT MATERIAL PROPERTIES
Because brick masonry is bonded into an integral
mass by mortar and grout, it is considered to be a ho-
mogeneous construction. It is the behavior of the com-
bination of materials that determines the performance
of the masonry as a structural element. However, the
performance of a structural masonry element is depen-
dent upon the properties of the constituent materials
and the interaction of the materials as an assemblage.
of the constituent materials: clay and shale units, mor-
tar, grout and steel reinforcement. This will be fol-
lowed by a discussion of the behavior of their combina-
tion as an assemblage.
Clay and Shale Masonry Units
There are many variables in the manufacturing of
clay and shale masonry units. Primary raw materials
include surface clays, fire clays, shales or combinations
of these. Units are formed by extrusion, molding or
dry-pressing and are fired in a kiln at temperatures be-
tween 1800 oF and 2100oF (980 oC and 1150oC). These
variables in manufacturing produce units with a wide
range of colors, textures, sizes and physical properties.
Clay and shale masonry units are most frequently se-
lected as a construction material for their aesthetics and
long-term performance. Consequently, material stan-
dards for clay and shale masonry units contain require-
ments to ensure that units meet a level of durability and
visual and dimensional consistency. Clay and shale
masonry units used in structural elements of building
constructions are brick and structural clay tile. Materi-
al standards for brick and structural clay tile include:
ASTM C 216 (facing brick), ASTM C 62 (building
brick), ASTM C 652 (hollow brick), ASTM C 212
(structural clay facing tile) and ASTM C 34 (structural
clay load-bearing tile).
While brick and structural clay tile are both vi-
sually appealing and durable, they are also well-suited
for many structural applications. This is primarily due
to their variety of sizes and very high compressive
strength. The material properties of brick and struc-
tural clay tile which have the most significant effect up-
on structural performance of the masonry are compres-
sive strength and those properties affecting bond be- Cores or frogs provide a means of mechanical inter-
tween the unit and mortar, such as rate of water absorp- lock. The bond strength of sanded surfaces is depen-
tion and surface texture. dent upon the amount of sand on the surface, the sand’s
Unit Compressive Stre n g t h . The compressive adherence to the unit and the absorption rate of the unit
strength of brick or structural clay tile is an important at the time of laying.
material property for structural applications. In gener- In practically all cases, mortar bonds best to a unit
al, increasing the compressive strength of the unit will whose suction at the time of laying is less than 30
increase the masonry assemblage compressive strength g/min/30 in. 2 (1.55 kg/min/m 2). Generally, molded
and elastic modulus. However, brick and structural units will exhibit a higher initial rate of absorption than
clay tile are frequently specified by material standard extruded or dry-pressed units. Unit absorption at the
rather than by a particular minimum unit compressive time of laying is an alterable property of brick and
strength. ASTM material standards for brick and struc- structural clay tile. In accordance with the MSJC
tural clay tile require minimum compressive strengths Specifications, units with initial rate of absorption in
to ensure durability, which may be as little as one-fifth excess of 30 g/min/30 in.2 (1.55 kg/min/m2) should be
the actual unit compressive strength. A recent Brick wetted to reduce the rate of water absorption of the unit
Institute of America survey of United States brick man- prior to laying. In addition, suction of very absorptive
ufacturers resulted in a data base of unit properties [6]. units may be accommodated by using highly water-re-
A subsequent survey of structural clay tile manufactur- tentive mortars.
ers was conducted. The compressive strengths of brick Mortar
and structural clay tile evaluated in these surveys are
The material properties of mortar which influence
presented in Table 1. As is apparent, all types of brick
the structural performance of masonry are compressive
and structural clay tile typically exhibit compressive
strength, bond strength and elasticity. Because the
strengths considerably greater than the ASTM mini-
compressive strength of masonry mortar is less impor-
mum requirements. Compressive strength of brick and
tant than bond strength, workability and water retentiv-
structural clay tile is determined in accordance with
ity, the latter properties should be given principal con-
ASTM C 67 Method of Sampling and Testing Brick sideration in mortar selection. Mortar materials, prop-
and Structural Clay Tile. erties and selection of masonry mortars are discussed
in Technical Notes 8 Series. Mortar should be selected
TABLE 1
based on the design requirements and with due consid-
Brick and Structural Clay Tile eration of the MSJC Code and Specifications provi-
Unit Compressive Strengths sions affected by the mortar selected.
Standard
Laboratory testing indicates that masonry construct-
Mean Unit ed with portland cement-lime mortar exhibit greater
Deviation of
Unit Compressive
Type Strength,
Compressive flexural bond strength than masonry constructed with
Strength,
psi (MPa)
psi (MPa)
masonry cement mortar or air-entrained portland ce-
ment-lime mortar of the same Type. This behavior is
Extruded 11305 (77.9) 4464 (30.8) reflected in the MSJC Code allowable flexural tensile
Forming
method stresses for unreinforced masonry, which are based on
Molded 5293 (36.5) 1822 (12.6)
Solid the mortar Type and mortar materials selected. In addi-
Fire clay 15346(105.8) 5065 (34.9)
brick tion, masonry cement mortars may not be used in Seis-
Raw mic Zones 3 and 4.
material1 Shale 11258 (77.6) 3487 (24.0)
Other MSJC Code and Specifications provisions are
Other2 9169 (63.2) 3988 (27.5)
the same for portland cement-lime mortars, masonry
Hollow brick3 6736 (46.4) 2447 (16.9) cement mortars and air-entrained portland cement-lime
mortars of the same Type. These include the modulus
Vertical coring 10057 (69.3) 5578 (38.5)
Structural clay of elasticity of the masonry, allowable compressive
tile3 stresses for empirical design and the Unit Strength
Horizontal coring 5119 (35.3) 2067 (14.3)

1 Extruded only.
2 Made from other materials or a combination of materials.
3 Based on gross area.
Unit Texture and Absorption. Unit texture and ab-
sorption are properties which affect the bond strength
of the masonry assemblage. In general, mortar bonds
better to roughened surfaces, such as wire cut surfaces,
than to smooth surfaces, such as die skin surfaces.
2
Method of verifying that the specified compressive
strength of masonry is supplied. Following is a general
description of the structural properties of each Type of
mortar permitted by the MSJC Code and Specifica-
tions.
Type N Mortar. Type N mortar is specifically rec-
ommended for chimneys, parapet walls and exterior
walls subject to severe exposure. It is a medium bond
and compressive strength mortar suitable for general
use in exposed masonry above grade. Type N mortar
may not be used in Seismic Zones 3 and 4. amount of water absorbed from grout by hollow clay
Type S Mortar. Type S mortar is recommended for units appears to be more dependent on the initial water
use in reinforced masonry and unreinforced masonry content of the grout than the absorption properties of
where maximum flexural strength is required. It has a the unit [3]. Grouts with high initial water content ex-
high compressive strength and has a high tensile bond hibit more shrinkage than grouts with low initial water
strength with most brick units. contents. Consequently, use of a non-shrink grout ad-
Type M Mortar. Type M mortar is specifically rec- mixture is recommended to minimize the number of
ommended for masonry below grade and in contact flaws and shrinkage cracks in the grout while still pro-
with earth, such as foundation walls, retaining walls, ducing a grout slump of 8 to 11 in. (200 to 280 mm),
sewers and manholes. It has high compressive strength unless otherwise specified.
and better durability in these environments than Type The MSJC Specifications require grout compressive
N or S mortars. strength to be at least equal to the specified compres-
For compliance with the MSJC Specifications, mor- sive strength of masonry, f′m, but not less than 2,000 psi
tars should conform to the requirements of ASTM C (13.8 MPa) as determined by ASTM C 1019 Method of
270 Specification for Mortar for Unit Masonry. Field Sampling and Testing Grout. Test procedures for grout
sampling of mortar for quality control should follow are explained in more detail in Technical Notes 39 Se-
the procedures given in ASTM C 780 Test Method for ries. In general, the compressive strength of ASTM C
Preconstruction and Construction Evaluation of Mor- 476 grout by proportions will be greater than 2,000 psi
tars for Plain and Reinforced Unit Masonry. Test pro- (13.8 MPa). Prediction of the compressive strength of
cedures for masonry mortars are covered in Technical grout which is proportioned in accordance with ASTM
Notes 39 Series. C 476 is difficult because of the many possible combi-
nations of materials, types of materials and construc-
Grout tion conditions. However, ASTM C 476 grout propor-
Grout is used in brick masonry to fill cells of hollow tions produce a rich mix which is recommended to
units or spaces between wythes of solid unit masonry. complement the high compressive strength of brick and
Grout increases the compressive, shear and flexural structural clay tile.
strength of the masonry element and bonds steel rein-
TABLE 3
forcement and masonry together. For compliance with
the MSJC Specifications, grout which is used in brick Steel Reinforcement Material Properties1
or structural clay tile masonry should conform to the
requirements of ASTM C 476 Specification for Grout Minimum Minimum
for Masonry. Grout proportions of portland cement or Type
ASTM Grade Yield Tensile
Specification or Type Strength, Strength,
blended cement, hydrated lime or lime putty, and ksi (MPa) ksi (MPa)
coarse or fine aggregate are given in Table 2.
40 40 (276) 70 (483)
TABLE 2 A 615
60 60 (414) 90 (620)
ASTM C 476 Grout Proportions by Volume
50 50 (345) 80 (552)
A 616
Portland
Hydrated Bars 60 60 (414) 90 (620)
Cement
Grout Lime or Fine Coarse
or
Type Lime Aggregate1 Aggregate1 40 40 (276) 70 (483)
Blended
Putty A 617
Cement
60 60 (414) 90 (620)
2 1/4 to 3 times
the sum of the A 706 60 60 (414) 80 (552)
Fine 1 0 to 1/10 volumes of the None
cementitious A 82 Smooth 70 (483) 80 (552)
materials Wires
A 496 Deformed 75 (517) 85 (586)
2 1/4 to 3 times 1 to 2 times the
1From reference [5].
the sum of the sum of the
Coarse 1 0 to 1/10 volumes of the volumes of the
cementitious cementitious
materials materials
Steel Reinforcement
1Aggregate measured by volume in a damp, loose condition.
Steel reinforcement for masonry construction con-
sists of bars and wires. Reinforcing bars are used in
The amount of mixing water and its migration from masonry elements such as walls, columns, pilasters and
the grout to the brick or structural clay tile will deter- beams. Wires are used in masonry bed joints to rein-
mine the compressive strength of the grout and the force individual masonry wythes or to tie multiple
amount of grout shrinkage. Tests indicate that the total wythes together. Bars and wires have approximately
3
the same modulus of elasticity, which is stated in the
MSJC Code as 29,000 ksi (200,000 MPa). In general,
wires tend to achieve greater ultimate strength and be-
have in a more brittle manner than reinforcing bars.
Common bar and wire sizes and their material proper-
ties are given in Table 3. As stated in the MSJC Speci-
fications, steel reinforcement for masonry structural
members should comply with one of the material stan-
dards given in Table 4.
TABLE 4
ASTM Material Standards for Steel Reinforcement
Steel Reinforcement
ASTM Specification
Type
Deformed bars A 615, A 616, A 617 or A 706
Joint reinforcement A 82
Deformed wire A 496
Wire fabric A 185 or A 497
Anchors, ties and accessories A 36, A 366, A 185 or A 82
Stainless steel A 167-Type 304
ASSEMBLAGE MATERIAL PROPERTIES
The properties of the constituent materials discussed
previously combine to produce the brick or structural
clay tile masonry assemblage properties. Following is
a discussion of the material properties of the masonry
assemblage.
Compressive Strength
Perhaps the single most important material property
in the structural design of masonry is the compressive
strength of the masonry assemblage. The specified
compressive strength of the masonry assemblage, f′m, is
used to determine the allowable axial and flexural com-
pressive stresses, shear stresses and anchor bolt loads
given in the MSJC Code.
The compressive strength of the masonry assem-
blage can be evaluated by the properties of each con-
stituent material, termed in the MSJC Specifications
the “Unit Strength Method,” or by testing the proper-
ties of the entire masonry assemblage, termed the
“Prism Testing Method.” These methods are not to be
used to establish design values; rather, they are used by
the contractor to verify that the masonry achieves the
specified compressive strength, f′m.
Unit Strength Method. A benefit of verifying com-
pliance of the compressive strength of masonry by unit,
mortar and grout properties is the elimination of prism
testing. Each of the materials in the masonry assem-
blage must conform to ASTM material standards men-
tioned in previous sections of this Technical Notes. For
4
compliance with these material standards, the compres-
sive strength of the unit and the proportions or proper-
ties of the mortar and grout must be evaluated. Not
surprisingly, there have been attempts by numerous re-
searchers to accurately correlate the assemblage com-
pressive strength with unit, mortar and grout compres-
sive strengths. Testing an assemblage of three materi-
als produces a large scatter of compressive strengths
covering all possible combinations of materials.
Therefore, estimates of the masonry assemblage com-
pressive strength based on unit, mortar and grout prop-
erties are necessarily conservative. The correlations
provided in the MSJC Specifications, shown in Table
5, between unit compressive strength, mortar type and
the masonry assemblage compressive strength repre-
sent a lower-bound to experimental data. In addition,
the MSJC Specifications Unit Strength Method does
not directly address variable grout strength, multi-
wythe construction or the influence of joint reinforce-
ment on the compressive strength of the masonry as-
semblage. Consequently, compliance with the speci-
fied compressive strength of masonry by prism testing
will always produce a more accurate and optimum use
of brick or structural clay tile masonry’s compressive
strength than the Unit Strength Method.
The conservative nature of Table 5 should not be
overlooked by the designer. A comparison of the pre-
dicted assemblage compressive strength by the Unit
Strength Method in the MSJC Specifications and a data
base of actual brick masonry prism test results [1] re-
veals this conservatism. The average compressive
strength of prisms of solid brick units was found to be
about 1.7 times the masonry compressive strength pre-
dicted by Table 5. The average compressive strength
of prisms of hollow units ungrouted and grouted was
found to be 1.9 and 1.4 times the compressive strengths
predicted by Table 5, respectively.
TABLE 5
Unit Strength Method of f′m Compliance
in the MSJC Specifications1
Net Area Unit Compressive
Strength, psi (MPa) Net Area Assemblage
Compressive Strength,
Type M or S Type N psi (MPa)
mortar mortar
2400(16.6) 3000 (20.7) 1000 (6.9)
4400(30.3) 5500 (37.9) 1500 (10.3)
6400(44.1) 8000 (55.2) 2000 (13.8)
8400(57.9) 10500 (72.4) 2500 (17.2)
10400(71.7) 13000 (89.7) 3000 (20.7)
12400(85.5) ——— 3500 (24.1)
14400(99.3) ——— 4000 (27.6)
1 Linear interpolation is permitted.
 Prism Test Method. Prism testing of brick or struc-
tural clay tile masonry provides a number of advan-
tages over constituent material testing alone. The pri-
mary benefit of prism testing is a more accurate estima-
tion of the compressive strength of the masonry assem-
blage. Another benefit of prism testing is that it pro-
vides a method of measuring the quality of workman-
ship throughout the course of a project. Low prism
strengths may indicate mortar mixing error or poor
quality grout.
The MSJC Specifications permit testing of masonry
prisms to show conformance with the specified com-
pressive strength of masonry, f′m. In addition, the mate-
rial components must meet the appropriate standards of
quality. Masonry prisms are tested in accordance with
ASTM E 447 Test Methods for Compressive Strength
of Masonry Prisms, Method B as modified by the
MSJC Specifications. At least three prisms are re-
quired by the MSJC Specifications for each combina-
tion of materials. The average of the three tests must
exceed f′m. Further explanation of prism testing proce-
dures is provided in Technical Notes 39B.
Shear Strength
The shear strength of a masonry assemblage may be
separated into four parts: 1) the shear strength of the
unit, mortar and grout assemblage, 2) the effect of the
shear span-to-depth ratio, M/Vd, 3) the enhancement of
shear strength due to compressive stress, and 4) the
contribution of shear reinforcement in the masonry as-
semblage. All four phenomenon are represented in the
allowable shear stresses provided in the MSJC Code.
However, only the first and fourth items are controlled
by material properties. Items two and three vary with
member size and applied loads.
The shear strength of the masonry assemblage is di-
rectly related to the properties of the unit, mortar and
grout. Shear failure of a unit-mortar assemblage is by
splitting of units, step-cracking in mortar joints, or a
combination of the two. Unit splitting strength is in-
creased by increasing the compressive strength of the
unit. In general, unit splitting is not a common shear
failure mode of brick or structural clay tile masonry.
Unit splitting occurs in masonry assemblages of weak
units and strong mortar and may also occur in shear
walls which are heavily axially loaded. Cracking in
mortar joints is the more common shear failure mode
for brick and structural clay tile masonry assemblages.
Mortar joint failure occurs by sliding along bed joints
and separation of head joints. Mortar joint shear fail-
ure is affected by bond strength and the frictional char-
acteristics between the mortar and the unit. In general,
a unit-mortar combination which provides greater bond
strength will also provide greater shear strength.
Grouting the masonry assemblage will also increase
shear strength by providing a shear key between cours-
es. The shear strength of a masonry assemblage may
be evaluated in accordance with ASTM E 519 Test
5
Method for Diagonal Tension (Shear) in Masonry As-
semblages. The contribution of unit, mortar and grout
to the allowable shear stresses stated in the MSJC Code
are based on ASTM E 519 tests of masonry assem-
blages.
Steel reinforcement may be added to the masonry as-
semblage to increase shear strength. Shear reinforce-
ment should be provided parallel to the direction of ap-
plied shear force. The MSJC Code also requires a min-
imum amount of reinforcement perpendicular to the
shear reinforcement of one-third the area of shear rein-
forcement. When shear reinforcement is provided in
accordance with the MSJC Code, allowable shear
stresses given in the MSJC Code for reinforced mason-
ry are increased three times for flexural members and
one and one-half times for shear walls.
Flexural Tensile Strength
Reinforced brick and structural clay tile masonry is
considered cracked under service loads and the flexural
tensile strength of the masonry is neglected in design.
However, cracking of an unreinforced brick or struc-
tural clay tile masonry member constitutes failure and
must be avoided. Thus, flexural tensile strength is an
important design consideration for unreinforced ma-
sonry. Flexural tensile strength is the bond strength of
masonry in flexure. It is a function of the type of unit,
type of mortar, mortar materials, percentage of grout-
ing of hollow units and the direction of loading. Work-
manship is also very important for flexural tensile
strength, as unfilled mortar joints or dislodged units
have no mortar-to-unit bond strength.
Allowable flexural tensile stresses stipulated in the
MSJC Code for unreinforced masonry are given in
Table 6. The allowable flexural tensile stresses for
portland cement-lime mortars are based on full-size
wall tests in accordance with ASTM E 72 Method of
Conducting Strength Tests of Panels for Building Con-
struction. Values for masonry cement and air-entrained
portland cement-lime mortars are based on reductions
obtained with comparative testing. Flexural tensile
strength may be evaluated by testing small-scale prisms
in accordance with ASTM E 518 Test Method for Flex-
ural Bond Strength of Masonry or ASTM C 1072 Test
Method for Measurement of Masonry Flexural Bond
Strength, but these results may not directly correlate to
the allowable flexural tensile stresses in the MSJC
Code.
Elastic Modulus
The elastic modulus of the masonry assemblage, in
combination with the moment of inertia of the section,
determines the stiffness of a brick or structural clay tile
masonry structural element. Elastic modulus is the ra-
tio of applied load (stress) to corresponding deforma-
tion (strain). The elastic modulus is roughly propor-
tional to the compressive strength of the masonry as-
semblage. Testing of brick masonry prisms indicates
that the elastic modulus of brick masonry falls between
 TABLE 6
MSJC Code Allowable Flexural Tensile Stress
for Unreinforced Masonry, psi (MPa)

Mortar Type

Masonry cement and

Portland cement-lime air-entrained portland
cement-lime

Direction of Stress Masonry Type M or S N M or S N

Solid units 40 (0.28) 30 (0.21) 24 (0.17) 15 (0.10)

Normal to bed joints Hollow units ungrouted 25 (0.17) 19 (0.13) 15 (0.10) 9 (0.06)
1
Hollow units fully grouted 68 (0.47) 58 (0.40) 41 (0.28) 26 (0.18)

Solid units 80 (0.55) 60 (0.41) 48 (0.33) 30 (0.21)

Hollow units ungrouted and
Parallel to bed joints partially grouted 50 (0.34) 38 (0.26) 30 (0.21) 19 (0.13)

Hollow units fully grouted 80 (0.55) 60 (0.41) 48 (0.33) 30 (0.21)

1For partially grouted masonry allowable stresses shall be determined on the basis of linear interpolation between hollow units which are fully grouted or ungrout-
ed and hollow units based on amount of grouting.

700 and 1200 times the masonry prism compressive ments and an upper-bound value for creep. Moisture
strength [4]. If the Unit Strength Method is used to expansion and thermal expansion and contraction are
show compliance with the specified compressive independent and may be added directly. The magni-
strength of masonry, f′m, an accurate estimation of the tude of creep of clay or shale unit masonry will depend
actual compressive strength of the masonry assemblage upon the amount of load applied to the masonry ele-
may not be known. Consequently, the elastic modulus ment.
of the masonry assemblage is determined by the mortar
Type and the unit compressive strength. See Table 7. TABLE 7
The data in Table 1 can be used to estimate the modu- Elastic Moduli
lus of elasticity of the masonry assemblage for the type of Clay and Shale Masonry Assemblages1
of unit selected.
The elastic modulus of grout is computed as 500 Assemblage Elastic Modulus,
Net Area psi (kPa) x 106
times the compressive strength of the grout in accor- Compressive
dance with the MSJC Code. In general, the elastic Strength of Units,
Type M Type S Type N
psi (MPa)
modulus of grout and the elastic moduli of brick or mortar mortar mortar
structural clay tile and mortar masonry assemblages are
comparable and are often considered equal for design 12000 (82.7) and > 3.0(20.7) 3.0(20.7) 2.8(19.3)
calculations. However, the MSJC Code recommends
10000 (68.9) 3.0(20.7) 2.9(20.0) 2.4(16.5)
that the method of transformation of areas based on rel-
ative elastic moduli be used for computation of stresses 8000 (55.2) 2.8(19.3) 2.4 (16.5) 2.0(13.8)
in grouted masonry elements. 6000 (41.4) 2.2(15.2) 1.9(13.1) 1.6(11.0)
Dimensional Stability
4000 (27.6) 1.6(11.0) 1.4 (9.7) 1.2 (8.3)
Dimensional stability is also an important property
2000 (13.8) 1.0 (6.9) 0.9 (6.2) 0.8 (5.5)
of the masonry assemblage. Expansion and contraction
of the brick or structural clay tile masonry may exert 1MSJC Code Table 5.5.1.2.
restraining stresses on the masonry and surrounding el-
ements. Material properties which affect dimensional
stability of clay and shale unit masonry are moisture
expansion, creep and thermal movements. Effects of
these phenomenon may be evaluated by the coeffi-
cients provided in the MSJC Code, which are listed in
Table 8. The coefficients in Table 8 represent average
quantities for moisture expansion and thermal move-
6
 TABLE 8
MSJC Code Dimensional Stability Coefficients
for Clay and Shale Unit Masonry
Material Property Coefficient
3x10-4 in./in.
Irreversible moisture expansion
(3x10-4 mm/mm)
Creep
0.7x10-7 in./in./psi
(1x10-5 mm/mm/MPa)
4x10 -6 in./in./oF
Thermal expansion and contraction
(1x10 -5 mm/mm/oC) 1
1
Conversion based on equivalent deformation at 100oF (38 oC).
SUMMARY
This Technical Notes contains information
about the material properties of brick and structural
clay tile masonry. This information may be used in
conjunction with the MSJC Code and Specifications to
design and analyze structural masonry elements. Typi-
cal material properties of clay and shale masonry units,
mortar, grout, reinforcing steel and combinations of
these are presented.
The information and suggestions contained in
this Technical Notes are based on the available data and
the experience of the engineering staff of the Brick In-
stitute of America. The information contained herein
must be used in conjunction with good technical judg-
ment and a basic understanding of the properties of
brick masonry. Final decisions on the use of the infor-
mation contained in this Technical Notes are not within
the purview of the Brick Institute of America and must
rest with the project architect, engineer and owner.
7
REFERENCES
1. Atkinson, R.H., “Evaluation of Strength and
Modulus Tables for Grouted and Ungrouted
Hollow Unit Masonry,” Atkinson-Noland and
Associates, Inc., Boulder, CO, November 1990,
47 pp.
2. Building Code Requirements for Masonry Struc -
tures and Commentary (ACI 530/ASCE 5/TMS
402-92) and Specifications for Masonry Struc -
t u re s and C o m m e n t a ry (ACI 530.1/ASCE
6/TMS 602-92), American Concrete Institute,
Detroit, MI, 1992.
3. Kingsley, G.R., et al., “The Influence of Water
Content and Unit Absorption Properties on
Grout Compressive Strength and Bond Strength
in Hollow Clay Unit Masonry,” Proceedings 3rd
North American Masonry Conference, The Ma-
sonry Society, Boulder, CO, June 1985, pp. 7:1-
12.
4. P l u m m e r, H.C., Brick and Tile Engineering,
Brick Institute of America, Reston, VA, 1977,
466 pp.
5. “Steel Reinforcement Properties and Availabili-
ty,” Report of ACI Committee 439, Journal of
the American Concrete Institute, Vol. 74, De-
troit, MI, 1977, p. 481.
6. Subasic, C.A., Borchelt, J.G., “Clay and Shale
Brick Material Properties - A Statistical Re-
port,” submitted for inclusion, Proceedings 6th
North American Masonry Conference, The Ma-
sonry Society, Boulder, CO, June 1993, 12 pp.
 4
Technical Notes REVISED

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
Reissued*
September
1997

HEAT TRANSMISSION COEFFICIENTS

OF BRICK MASONRY WALLS

Abstract: A procedure to analyze the heat flow through the opaque walls of a building envelope is
provided. The design coefficients of heat transmission are provided for commonly used construction
materials. Methods of calculating heat transmission coefficients and examples of heat loss calculations
under steady-state conditions are provided for opaque wall assemblies.

Key Words: brick, conductance, conductivity, energy, heat loss, rate of heat flow, resistance, resistivity,
steady-state conditions, series and parallel path, thermal transmission.

neering application of these concepts is not complicated and

INTRODUCTION
Because of the finite supply of fossil fuels and the high
cost of energy, the need to design energy-efficient buildings
that are also economical becomes important. Various
industry groups are continually updating and refining energy
conservation standards and guidelines for use in the design
of new buildings. These standards and guidelines may be
used to assist the building designers. The designer is con-
fronted with the fact that no two buildings are exactly identi-
cal, nor are the methods or modes of operation similar.
Thus, the energy performance of each building, as a whole,
must be evaluated relative to the real performance of its
materials, systems and equipment.
This Technical Notes provides information and methods
of calculating transmission coefficients and heat transfer val-
ues of brick masonry walls under static conditions. These
may be used in energy conservation studies and compar-
isons for predicting thermal performance of building compo-
nents. However, ASHRAE (American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers) cautions the
designer that heat flow through a building envelope is actu-
ally not static, and although steady-state calculations pro-
vide an estimate of energy consumption, they do not take
into account dynamic conditions such as the thermal stor-
age capacity of materials, direct solar radiation, wind and
other variables. The term "steady-state" means that all
ambient conditions are assumed to be constant, which in
the real world is virtually never the case.
BUILDING THERMAL DESIGN
The ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals states the
following concerning heat transfer calculations:
"Current methods for estimating the heat transferred
through floors, walls and roofs of buildings are largely based
on a steady-state or steady-periodic heat flow concept
(Equivalent Temperature Difference Concept). The engi-
*Originally published in January 1982, this Technical Notes has been reviewed and reissued with editorial changes.
has served well for many years in the process of design and
selection of heating and cooling equipment for buildings.
However, competitive practices of the building industry
sometimes require more than the selection or design of a
single heating or cooling system. Consultants are request-
ed to present a detailed comparison of alternative heating
and cooling systems for a given building, including initial
costs as well as short- and long-term operating and mainte-
nance costs. The degree of sophistication required for costs
may make it necessary to calculate the heating and cooling
load for estimating energy requirements in hourly incre-
ments for a year's time for given buildings at known geo-
graphic locations. Because of the number of calculations
involved, computer processing becomes necessary. The
hour-by-hour heating and cooling load calculations, when
based upon a steady heat flow or steady-periodic heat flow
concept, do not account for the heat storage effects of the
building structure, especially with regard to net heat gain to
the air-conditioned spaces."
The Handbook of Fundamentals also suggests that the
designer consider the following factors when performing
heating load calculations: 1) building construction-heavy,
medium or light; 2) presence of insulation; 3) infiltration and
ventilation loads; 4) glass area-normal or greater than nor-
mal; 5) occupancy nature and schedule; 6) presence of aux-
iliary heating devices; and 7) expected cost of energy.
Actual heat flow through a wall under normal weather
conditions will involve daily cycles of solar radiation and air
temperature, changing wind speeds and directions, and
radiation to the night sky. In studies (“Effective U-Values,”
New Mexico Energy Institute, 1978) of dynamic heat trans-
mission through a building envelope, it was found that con-
sideration of solar heat gain and material thermal storage
effects provided results significantly different from steady-
state heat flow calculations. These studies also showed
that the optimum economic insulation level varies with wall
orientations, and that changing the color of East, West
and South walls was more cost-effective in some
instances than insulating. For a detailed description of
the thermal storage effects of brick masonry walls, see
Technical Notes 43 and 43D.
The actual rate of heat flow through typical masonry
building walls may be up to 20% less than the calculated rate
based on published U-values. This is indicated by past
research (Structural Clay Products Research Foundation,
Studies of Heat Transfer), which points out that the rate of
heat transfer can be 20% to 60% greater than the calculated
rate for wood frame walls and metal panel walls, respectively.
Masonry walls have a more favorable rate of heat trans-
fer because of their greater heat storage capacity, which is
sometimes referred to as thermal mass, or capacity insula -
tion. The heat flows calculated by steady-state methods are
29% to 60% greater than those measured under dynamic
conditions for masonry walls (Dynamic Thermal
Performance of an Experimental Masonry Building, Building
Science Series 45, National Bureau of Standards.) This
means that massive masonry walls may be up to 60% bet-
ter at retarding heat flow than steady-state U-values indi-
cate. A method to modify the steady-state calculations, in
order to account for the effect of mass, is provided in
Technical Notes 4B.
The overall coefficient of heat transmission (U-value) of
various walls discussed in this Technical Notes is used in
steady-state heat transfer and steady-periodic heat gain cal-
culations. SeeTechnical Notes 4A Revised for a method to
calculate steady-periodic heat gain through opaque walls.
Computer programs, such as those used by the
National Bureau of Standards, (National Bureau of
Standards Loads Determination (NBSLD) Computer
Program, T. Kasuda, "NBSLD-National Bureau of Standards
Heating and Cooling Load Determination Program", Journal,
Automated Procedures for Engineering Consultants
(APEC), Winter 1973-1974) give values much closer to the
actual performance of walls than is possible under the
steady-state concept of heat transfer. Government agen-
cies and industry groups are continuing to examine simpli-
fied methods to calculate dynamic heat flow without the use
of computers.
TERMINOLOGY
Commonly used terms relative to heat transmission are
defined below in accordance with ASHRAE Standard 12-75,
Refrigeration Terms and Definitions. All of these terms
describe the same phenomenon, however, some are
described as determined by material dimensions and
boundaries.
U = Overall Coefficient of Heat Transmission.
The rate of heat flow through a unit area of building
envelope material or assembly, including its boundary
films, per unit of temperature difference between the
inside and outside air. The term is commonly called the
"U-value". The Overall Coefficient of Heat Transmission
2
is expressed in Btu/(hr•˚F• ft ). Note that in computing
U-values, the component heat transmissions are not
2
additive, but the overall U-value is actually less (i.e., bet-
ter) than any of its component layers. Normally, the U-
value is calculated by determining the resistance (R,
defined below) of each component, and then taking the
reciprocal of the total resistance.
k = Thermal Conductivity.
The rate of heat flow through a homogeneous material,
1-in. thick, per unit of temperature difference between its
two surfaces. Amaterial is considered homogeneous
when the value of its thermal conductivity does not
depend on its dimensions (within the range normally
used in construction). Thermal Conductivity is
2
expressed in (Btu• in)/(hr•˚F• ft )
C = Thermal Conductance.
The rate of heat flow through a unit area of material per
unit of temperature difference between its two surfaces
for the thickness of construction given, not per in. of
thickness. Note that the conductance of an air space is
dependent on height, depth, position, character and
temperature of the boundary surfaces. Therefore, the
air space must be fully described if the values are to be
meaningful. For a description of other than vertical air
spaces, see the 1981 ASHRAE Handbook of
Fundamentals, Chapter 23. Thermal Conductance is
2
expressed in Btu/(hr •˚F• ft )
h = Film or Surface Conductance.
The rate of heat exchange between a unit or surface
area and the air it is in contact with. Subscripts i and o
are used to denote inside and outside conductances,
respectively. Film or surface conductance is expressed
2
in Btu/(hr•˚F• ft ).
R = Thermal Resistance.
The reciprocal of a heat transfer coefficient, as
2
expressed by U, C, or h. R is in (hr •˚F •ft )/Btu. For
example, a wall with a U-value of 0.25 would have a
resistance value of R = 1/U = 1/0.25=4.0. The value of
R is also used to represent Thermal Resistivity, the reci-
procal of the thermal conductivity. Thermal Resistivity is
2
expressed in (hr•˚F• ft )/(Btu• in)
Btu = British Thermal Unit.
It is the approximate heat required to raise 1 lb. of water
1 deg Fahrenheit, from 59˚F to 60˚F.
The difference of thermally homogeneous materials and
thermally heterogeneous materials is shown in Figure 1.
There is a directly proportional relationship between the R
and C of the thermally homogeneous material, at twice the
thickness the R is twice as great and the C is halved. For
the thermally heterogeneous material, there is no directly
proportional relationship to the R or C and the material thick-
ness. Fig. 1 also shows the horizontal path of heat flow
2
through a 1 ft surface area of the wall component.
 Thermal Transmittance Through Materialsa
FIG. 1
a
It is important to note that not all materials are isotropic with respect to heat transmission. In such thermally heterogeneous materials, the
specific thermal property under consideration could vary with temperature and material orientation. For this reason, care must be taken that
the direction of heat flow through a material is suitable for the material's intended use. Materials in which heat flow is identical in all direc-
tions are considered thermally homogeneous.

CALCULATION OF OVERALL COEFFICIENTS Calculation Methods

General
Conductance and resistance coefficients of various wall
elements are listed in Table 1. These coefficients were taken
from the 1981 ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals,
Chapter 23, which states:
"The most exact method of determining heat transmis-
sion coefficients for a given combination of building
materials assembled as a building section is to test a
representative section in a guarded hot box. However,
it is not practicable to test all the combinations of inter-
est. Experience has indicated that U-values for many
constructions, when calculated by the methods given in
this chapter using accurate values for component mate-
rials, and with corrections with framing member heat
loss, are in good agreement with the values determined
by guarded hot box measurements, when there are no
free air cavities within the construction. Remember, the
values shown for materials in calculating overall heat
transmission are representative of laboratory specimens
tested under idealized conditions. In actual practice, if
insulation is improperly installed (for example), shrink-
age, settling, insulation compression, and similar factors
may have a significant effect on the overall U-value
numbers. Materials that are field fabricated and conse-
quently especially sensitive to the skills of the mechanic,
are especially prone to variations resulting in perfor-
mance less than the idealized number."
Conductances and resistances of homogeneous materi-
al of any thickness can be obtained from the following for-
mula:
Cx =k/x, and Rx=x/k
where:
x=thickness of material in in.
This calculation for a homogeneous material is shown in
Fig. 1. The calculation only considers the brick component
of the wall assembly. Whenever an opaque wall is to be
analyzed, the wall assembly should include both the outside
and inside air surfaces. The inclusion of these air surfaces
makes all opaque wall assemblies layered construction.
In computing the heat transmission coefficients of lay-
ered construction, the paths of heat flow should first be
determined. If these are in series, the resistances are addi-
tive, but if the paths of heat flow are in parallel, then the
thermal transmittances are averaged. The word "series"
implies that in cross-section, each layer of building material
is one continuous material. However, that is not always the
case. For instance, in a longitudinal wall section, one layer
could be composed of more than one material, such as
wood studs and insulation, hence having parallel paths of
heat flow within that layer. In this case, a weighted average
of the thermal transmittances should be taken.

3
 For layered construction, with paths of heat flow in
series, the total thermal resistance of the wall is obtained by:
Rt = R1 + R2 + ....
and the overall coefficient of heat transmission is:
U = 1/Rt
Asolid 8-in. face brick wall would be a layered construc-
tion assembly in regard to thermal analysis:
R is still used in many energy calculation guidelines proce-
( )
2
hr • ˚F • ft
Btu
Outside Air Surface 0.17
8-in. Face Brick 0.88
Inside Air Surface 0.68
Rt = 1.73
2 Most masonry walls have parallel paths of heat flow
U = 1/Rt =0.578 Btu / (hr • ˚F • ft )
Average transmittances for parallel paths of heat flow
may be obtained from the formula:
U avg = [AA (UA) + AB (UB) + ...] / At
or
Uavg = [1/ (RA/AA) + 1/ (RB/AB) + ...] /At
where:
AA, AB, etc. = area of heat flow path, in ft ,
2 approximately an 18 percent differential between the series
UA, UB, etc. = transmission coefficients of the
respective paths,
RA, RB, etc. = thermal resistance of the
respective paths,
At = total area being considered
2 Method. Under this method a slightly larger area is
(AA +AB +...), in ft .
Such an analysis is important for wall construction with
parallel paths of heat flow when one path has a high heat
transfer and the other a low heat transfer, or the paths
involve large percentages of the total wall with small varia-
tions in the transfer coefficients for the paths.
Thermal bridges built into a wall may increase heat
transfer substantially above the calculated amount if the
bridge is ignored. Thermal bridges occur in several types of
walls. Three examples of these are shown. Different meth-
ods are used in calculating the Uavg for metallic and non-
metallic bridges. Examples of both are shown.
The brick veneer-frame wall shown in Fig. 2 has thermal
bridges which occur at the wood studs. The parallel path
method allows the average U-value of the wall to be calcu-
4
lated by first calculating the U-values in series of the two
paths involved. Using the heat transmission coefficients for
the various materials found in Table 1, the calculation is
shown in Fig. 2. The path at the wood stud is Path A and
the path at the insulation is Path B.
This calculation reveals that, if the thermal bridge formed
by the stud is considered, the Uavg exceeds the U of the wall
having the insulation (Path B) by approximately 6 per cent. It
is common practice to calculate the U-values for the insula-
tion path by the series method and then multiply this value
by 1.08 to obtain the Uavg for the wood frame walls.
This method of correcting for wood framing in the walls
dures, although it is no longer provided in the ASHRAE
Handbook of Fundamentals. It should be noted that the cor-
rection factor should be higher because this value properly
predicts the Uavg for the studs, but does not appropriately
adjust the U-value for jambs, heads, sills, and top and toe
plates. Also, if 2 in. x 6 in. wood studs are used, the correc-
tion factor may no longer be appropriate.
which result from bonding the separate wythes together.
This may be by masonry bonders or metal ties. However,
for conventional constructions, the effect of the bonders is
not significant, because of the relatively small area of the
metal ties per sq ft of wall, and the slight differences in con-
ductivity or conductance of masonry units.
However, if masonry bonded cavity walls with insulation
in the cavity of walls with a large amount of headers are
being considered, the parallel path method of calculation
should be used. This is illustrated by the calculated U-val-
ues of the brick cavity wall, shown in Fig. 3.
If the thermal bridge at the bonder were ignored, the U-
value would be the same as UB, which is 0.088. This is
and parallel path calculated transmission coefficients.
The metal-tied cavity wall shown in Fig. 4 requires the
parallel path method of calculation. However, a slightly
modified parallel path method should be used because the
ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals requires that calcula-
tions for metallic thermal bridges be done by the Zone
assumed to be affected by the metallic bridge than just the
area of the metal. The wall is divided into two zones, Zone
A, containing the metal; and Zone B, the remaining portion
of the wall.
The Handbook of Fundamentals also prescribes a
method for determining the size and shape of Zone A. The
surface shape of Zone A in the case of a metal beam would
be a strip of width, W, centered on the beam. In the wall
shown in Fig. 4, the shape of Zone A, due to the circular tie,
would be a circle of diameter W. W is calculated from the
following formula:
W = m + 2d
where:
W = width or diameter of the zone, in in.,
m = width or diameter of the metal heat path, in in.,
 Stud spacing = 16.00 in. o.c., or 1.33 ft. o.c.
Height of the section = 12.00 in. or 1.00 ft.
2
Total Area, At = 1.33 x 1.00 = 1.33 ft.
Width of Path A = 1.50 in. or 0.125 ft.
2
Area of Path A, AA = 0.125 x 1.00 = 0.125 ft
Width of Path B = 16.00 - 1.50 = 14.50 in. or 1.208 ft.
2
Area of Path B, AB = 1.208 x 1.000 = 1.208 ft.

PATH A PATH B
Section C k x Cx 1/Cx 2 1/Cx 2
Btu 2 Btu•in. 2 in. Btu 2 hr•˚F •ft hr•˚F •ft
hr•˚F •ft hr•˚F •ft hr•˚F •ft Btu Btu
Outside Air 6.000 6.000 0.17 0.17
Surface
4-in. Nominal 9.000 3.75 2.400 0.42 0.42
Face Brick
1-in. 1.030 1.030 0.97 0.97
Airspace
Exterior Fiberboard 0.760 0.760 1.32 1.32
Sheathing

2-in. x 4-in. 0.800 3.50 0.229 4.37

Wood Stud
31/2-in. 11.00
Batt Insulation
1/2-in. Gypsum 2.250 2.250 0.45 0.45
Wallboard
Inside Air
Surface 1.470 1.470 0.68 0.68
RA = 8.38 RB = 15.01
UB = 0.067

RA / AA = 67.04 RB / AB = 12.43
1 / (R A / AA) = 0.015 1 / (RB / AB) = 0.080 2
Uavg = (1 / (R A / AA) + 1 / (R B / AB)) / (A A +AB) = (0.015 + 0.080) / (0.125 + 1.208) = 0.071 Btu / (hr • ˚F • ft )
Uavg - UB X 100% = 0.071 - 0.067 X 100% = 6.0%
UB 0.067

Fig. 2
Brick Veneer / Wood Stud

5
 2 2
Area of Path A, AA = 3.75 x 3.75 = 14.0625 in. or 0.0977 ft.
2
Total Area of Wall per Tie, At = 28.375 x 12.00 = 340.50 in. or 2.3646 ft.
2
Area of Path B, AB = 2.3646 - 0.0977 = 2.2669 ft.

PATH A PATH B
Section C k x Cx 1/Cx 2 1/Cx 2
Btu Btu • in. in. Btu hr • ˚F • ft hr • ˚F • ft
2 2 2
hr • ˚F • ft hr • ˚F • ft hr • ˚F • ft Btu Btu
Outside Air 6.000 6.000 0.17 0.17
Surface
4-in. Nominal 9.000 3.75 2.400 0.42
Face Brick
12-in. Nominal 9.000 11.75 0.766 1.31
Masonry Bonder
Vermiculite 0.440 4.25 0.104 9.62
Insulation
4-in. Nominal 9.000 3.75 2.400 0.42
Face Brick
Inside Air 1.470 1.470 0.68 0.68
Surface
RA = 2.16 RB = 11.31
UB = 0.088
2
(RA/AA) = 22.11 (RB/AB) = 4.99 Uavg = (1/(RA/AA) + 1/(R B/AB))/ At = (0.045 + 0.200) / 2.3646 = 0.104 Btu/(hr•˚F •ft )
1/(RA/AA) = 0.045 1/(RB/AB) = 0.200 Uavg - UB x100% = 0.104 - 0.088 x100% = 18.2%
UB 0.088

Fig. 3
Brick Masonry Cavity Wall
(Masonry Bonded)
d = distance from the panel surface to the metal, in in. 1-in. air space may be determined:
The value of d should not be taken as less than 0.5 in. RA/AA = 55.17 - 25.64 = 29.53
1 / (RA/AA) = 0.034
Calculations for W should be run for both surfaces and the
RB/AB = 2.40 -1.81 = 0.59
larger of the two values used.
For the insulated cavity wall with one metal tie provided 1 / (RB/AB) = 1.695
for each 41/2 sq ft of wall surface, the calculations in Fig. 4 Uavg = (0.034 + 1.695)/4.50 = 0.384
2
show that there is about 3.2 percent increase in the heat Btu / (hr• ˚F • ft )
loss through the wall when the ties are considered as com- UB = 1.695/4.42584 = 0.383
pared to the heat loss through the wall without consideration 2

of the ties. Btu / (hr • ˚F • ft )

For a cavity wall which does not contain any insulation, (Uavg - UB) x 100% = 0.384 - 0.383 x 100% = 0.26%
the effect of the metal ties is much less. By subtracting out UB 0.383
the effects of the insulation and the metal ties through the
insulation shown in Fig. 4, the effect of the wall tie through a
6
 m = 0.1875 in.
d = 1.75 in.
W = 0.1875 + 2(1.75) = 3.6875 in.
2 2 2
Area of Zone A, AA = (3.6875/2) π = 10.6796 in. or 0.07416 ft.
2 2 2
Area of Steel in Zone A = (0.1875/2) π = 0.0276 in. or 0.00019 ft
2
Non-Steel Area in Zone A = 0.07416 - 0.00019 = 0.7397 ft.
2
Area of Zone B, A B = 4.50 - 0.07416 = 4.42584 ft.

Zone A Zone B
1 = R/A 1 = R/A
Section C k x Cx A Cx•A Cx•A A Cx•A Cx•A
2 2
Btu 2 Btu•in.2 in. Btu 2 ft Btu hr•˚F ft Btu hr•˚F
hr•˚F•ft hr•˚F•ft hr•˚F•ft hr•˚F Btu hr•˚F Btu

Outside Air 6.000 6.000 0.07416 0.445 2.25 4.42584 26.555 0.04
Surface
4-in. Nominal 9.000 3.75 2.400 4.42584 10.622 0.09
Face Brick
Brick 9.000 1.75 5.143 0.07416 0.381 2.62
Brick 9.000 2.00 4.500 0.07397 0.333
Steel 314.000 2.00 157.000 0.00019 0.030
Sub-Total 0.363 2.75
1-in. Airspace 1.030 1.030 0.07397 0.076 4.42584 4.559 0.22
Steel 314.000 1.00 314.000 0.00019 0.060
Sub-Total 0.136 7.35
2-in. Polystyrene 0.250 2.00 0.125 0.07397 0.009 4.42584 0.553 1.81
Rigid Board
Insulation 314.000 2.00 157.000 0.00019 0.030
Sub-Total 0.039 25.64
Brick 9.000 2.00 4.500 0.07397 0.333
Steel 314.000 2.00 157.000 0.00019 0.030
Sub-Total 0.363 2.75
Brick 9.000 1.75 5.143 0.07416 0.381 2.62
4-in. Nominal 9.000 3.75 2.400 4.42584 10.622 0.09
Face Brick
Inside Air 1.470 1.470 0.07416 0.109 9.17 4.42584 6.506 0.15
Surface
RA /AA =55.15 RB/AB=2.40
1/(R A/A A)=0.018 1/(RB/AB)=0.417
2
Uavg=(1/(R A/A A)+1/(RB /AB ))/(AA+AB)=(0.018+0.417)/(0.07416+4.42584)=0.097
2
Btu/(hr•˚F•ft )
UB=(1/(RB/AB ))/AB=0.417/4.42584=0.094 Btu/(hr•˚F•ft ) Uavg - UB x 100% =0.097-0.094 x 100% ≈ 3.2%
UB 0.094

Fig. 4
Brick Masonry Insulated Cavity Wall

7
 m = 0.1875 in.
d = 1.75 in.
W = 0.1875 + 2(1.75) = 3.6875 in.
2 2 2
Area of Zone A, AA = (3.6875/2) π = 10.6796 in. or 0.07416 ft
2 2 2
Area of Steel in Zone A = (0.1875/2) π = 0.0276 in. or 0.00019 ft
2
Non-Steel Area in Zone A = 0.07416 - 0.00019 = 0.07397 ft
2
Area of Zone, AB = 4.50 - 0.07416 = 4.42584 ft

Zone A Zone B

Section C k x Cx A Cx•A 1 = R A Cx•A 1 = R

Btu Btu Btu Cx•A A Cx•A A
2
hr• ˚F•ft
2
hr•˚F•ft
2
in. 2 ft Btu hr•˚F
2
ft Btu hr•˚F
hr•˚F•ft
hr•˚F Btu hr•˚F Btu

Outside Air 6.000 6.000 0.07416 0.445 2.25 4.42584 26.555 0.04
Surface

4-in. Nominal 3.75 2.400 4.42584 10.622 0.09

9.000
Face Brick
0.07416 0.381 2.62
Brick 9.000 1.75 5.143

9.000 0.07397 0.333

Brick 2.00 4.500
0.00019 0.030
Steel 314.000 2.00 157.000 Sub-Total 0.363 2.75

1.030 0.07397 0.076 4.42584 4.559 0.22

2-in. Airspace 1.030

Steel 2.00 0.00019 0.030

314.000 157.000 Sub-Total 0.106 9.43
Brick 9.000 2.00 4.500 0.07397
0.333
Steel 2.00 0.00019 0.030
314.000 157.000
Sub-Total 0.363 2.75
1.75 0.07416 0.381 2.62
Brick 9.000 5.143

4-in. Nominal 9.000 3.75 2.400 4.42584 10.622 0.09

Face Brick
0.07416 0.109 9.17 4.42584 6.506 0.15
1.470
inside Air 1.470
Surface

RA/A A = 31.59 R B/AB = 0.59

1/(RA /AA ) = 0.032 1/(RB/AB) = 1.695

Uavg = (1/(RA/AA) + 1/(R B/AB))/(AA + AB ) = (0.032 + 1.695)/(0.07416 + 4.42584) = 0.384 Btu / (hr•˚F•ft2)
UB = (1/RB/AB))/AB = 1.695/4.42584 = 0.383 Btu/(hr•˚F•ft2) Uavg - UB x 100% = 0.384 - 0.383 x 100% = 0.3%
UB 0.383

Fig. 5
Brick Masonry Cavity Wall

8
 This calculation procedure shows that the effect of a
metal tie across a 1-in. air space is negligible. Fig. 5 shows
the calculations for an uninsulated cavity wall and again the
effect is negligible. These calculations demonstrate that the
effect of a metal tie would be negligible in the 1-in. air space
in brick veneer construction and also in uninsulated cavity
walls. There will be minor variations, depending on the
type, size and spacing of metal ties, but the effect may usu-
ally be ignored. However, as demonstrated in the calcula-
tions in Fig. 4, if the metal tie passes through insulation, the
effect of the metal tie on the thermal performance of the wall
may become more significant. It should be noted that as
the R-value of the material the metal tie penetrates increas-
es, the percent of heat loss due to the metal tie also
increases.
Another factor which affects the thermal performance of
walls containing metal is the location of the metal in the wall.
The farther the metal is located from the face of the wall, the
larger the area of the zone affected by the metal tie. This
may be demonstrated with brick veneer/steel stud systems.
Consider the brick veneer/steel stud system shown in Fig. 6.
The steel stud backup system consists of 6-in., 20 gage
steel studs at 24 in. o.c., with 6-in. batt insulation between
the steel studs. The width of Zone Ais determined from the

m = 0.0359 in.
d = 3.75 + 1.00 + 0.50 = 5.25
W = 0.0359 +2(5.25) =10.536 in.
2 2
Area of Zone A, A A = 10.536 x 12.00 = 126.43 in. or 0.878 ft
2 2
Area of Steel in Zone A = 0.0359 x 12.00 = 0.4308 in. or 0.003 ft
2
Non-Steel Area of Zone A = 0.878 - 0.003 = 0.875 ft
2
Area of Zone B, AB = 2.000 - 0.878 = 1.122 ft

ZONE A ZONE B
1 = R/A 1 = R/A
Cx•A Cx•A
Section C k x Cx A2 Cx•A A2 Cx•A
Btu 2 Btu•in.2 in. Btu 2 ft Btu hr•˚F ft Btu hr•˚F
hr•˚F•ft hr•˚F•ft hr•˚F•ft hr•˚F Btu hr•˚F Btu

Outside Air 6.000 6.000 0.878 5.268 0.19 1.122 6.732 0.15
Surface
4-in. Nominal 9.000 3.75 2.400 0.878 2.107 0.47 1.122 2.693 0.37
Face Brick
1-in. Airspace 1.030 1.030 0.878 0.904 1.11 1.122 1.156 0.87
1/2-in. Exterior 2.250 2.250 0.878 1.975 0.51 1.122 2.525 0.40
Gypsum Sheathing

6-in. Batt 0.053 0.053 0.875 0.046 1.122 0.059 16.95

Insulation
Steel 314.000 6.00 52.333 0.003 0.157
Sub-Total 0.203 4.93
1/2-in. 2.250 2.250 0.878 1.976 0.51 1.122 2.525 0.40
Gypsum Wallboard

Inside Air 1.470 1.470 0.878 1.291 0.77 1.122 1.649 0.61
Surface
RA/A A = 8.49 RB /AB = 19.75
1/(RA/AA) = 0.118 1/(RB/AB) = 0.051
2
U avg=(1/(R A/A A)+1/(RB /AB ))/(AA+AB )=(0.118+0.051)/(0.878+1.122) = 0.085 Btu/(hr•˚F•ft )
2
U B=(1/(RB/AB ))/AB=0.051/1.122=0.045 Btu/(hr•˚F•ft ) Uavg-UB x 100% = 0.085-0.045 x 100% ≈ 88.9%
UB 0.045

Fig.6
Brick Veneer / Steel Stud

9
 a
TABLE 1
Heat Transmission Coefficients of Building Materials

Conductivity Resistance (R)

or
Conductance
Density Per Inch For
Materials Description lb3 Thickness Thickness Listed
ft (k) (C) (l/k) (l/C)

Masonry Units
b
Face brick 130 9.00 0.11
b
Common brick 120 5.00 0.20
c
Hollow brick
4 in. (62.9% solid) 81 1.36 0.74
6 in. (67.3% solid) 86 1.07 0.93
8 in. (61.2% solid) 78 0.94 1.06
10 in. (60.9% solid) 78 0.83 1.20
c
Hollow brick, vermiculite fill
4 in. (62.9% solid) 83 0.91 1.10
6 in. (67.3% solid) 88 0.66 1.52
8 in. (61.2% solid) 80 0.52 1.92
10 in. (60.9% solid) 80 0.42 2.38
d
Lightweight concrete block
--100-lb. density concrete
4 in. 78 0.71 1.40
6 in. 66 0.65 1.53
8 in. 60 0.57 1.75
10 in. 58 0.51 1.97
12 in. 55 0.47 2.14
Lightweight concrete block, vermiculite
d
fill--100-lb. density concrete
4 in. 79 0.43 2.33
6 in. 68 0.27 3.72
8 in. 62 0.21 4.85
10 in. 61 0.17 5.92
12 in. 58 0.15 6.80
Building Board
3/8-in. Drywall (gypsum) 50 3.10 0.32
1/2-in. Drywall (gypsum) 50 2.25 0.45
Plywood 34 0.80 1.25
1/2-in. Fiberboard sheathing 18 0.76 1.32
Siding
7/16-in. Hardboard 40 1.49 0.67
1/2-in. by 8-in. Wood bevel 32 1.23 0.81
c
Aluminum or steel over sheathing - 1.61 0.61
Insulating Materials
f
Batt or blanket
2 to 23/4 in. 7.00
3 to 31/2 in. 1.2 11.00
51/2 to 61/2 in. 1.2 19.00

exterior flange of the steel stud to the exterior face of the
brick veneer, as shown in Fig. 6. The zone, including the
metal, is quite wide for this type of construction. In accor-
dance with steady-state analysis, assuming that the 1-in. air
space is a material of the system, the width of the zone
becomes 10.5359 in. The 1 5/8-in. wide flange of the
metal studs, being relatively thin as compared to the wall sec-
tion, is not considered in the analysis because it will not signif-
icantly affect the average thermal performance of the system.
Without consideration of sills, jambs, heads, and toe
and top channels, the performance of the brick veneer/ steel
stud system analyzed is almost 50 per cent less than the

10
value calculated through the insulation. This performance is
calculated using the procedures in the 1981 ASHRAE
Handbook and Product Directory. However, actual tests of
the heat transmission and more precise calculation
procedures will probably demonstrate that the calculated
heat loss is considerably higher than the actual heat loss.
The intent of this example is simply to show that the
thermal performance of brick veneer/metal stud systems
is not the same as brick veneer over wood frame. The
designer should be aware of this discrepancy and the
accuracy, or inaccuracy of the approximation of thermal per-
formance by simplified calculation procedures. The thermal
performance of the brick veneer/metal stud system would
require a correction factor for the framing which greatly
exceeds the 8 percent or the 1.08 U adjustment factor
allowable for wood frame given in the previous brick veneer
example. Even for the wood frame, because of the pres-
a
Table 1 -Continued
Heat Transmission Coefficients of Building Materials
ence of fire stops, heads, jambs, sills and top and toe
plates, it is recommended that the 1.08 factor for wood
frame be increased to about 1.20, and that an even larger
factor be used for metal studs.
HEAT LOSS AND HEAT GAIN
Building envelope heat losses and heat gains are calcu-
lated using the overall heat transmission coefficients and
other known data. The heat gain is calculated using the
steady-periodic method as outlined in Technical Notes 4A
Revised, and will not be discussed further here.
Even though heat losses and heat gains are calculated
using U-values in the steady-state and steady-periodic for-
mulae in lieu of the more accurate methods available, other
factors greatly affect the performance of the building enve-
lope in conserving energy. It should be remembered that the
values obtained from the steady-state and steady-periodic

Conductivity Resistance (R)

or
Conductance
Density Per Inch For
Materials Description lb3 Thickness Thickness Listed
ft (k) (C) (l/k) (l/C)

Insulating Materials (Continued)

Boards g
Expanded polystyrene
Cut Cell Surface 1.8 0.25 4.00
Smooth Skin Surface g 1.8 0.20 5.00
Expanded polyurenthane
h
1.5 0.16 6.25
Polyisocyanurate 2 0.14 7.14
Loose Fill
Vermiculite 4-6 0.44 2.27
Perlite 5-8 0.37 2.70
Woods
Hard woods 45 1.10 0.91
Soft woods 32 0.80 1.25
Metals
Steel -- 312.0 0.003
Aluminum -- 1416.0 0.0007
Copper -- 2640.0 0.0004
Air Space
3/4 in. to 4 in., winter 1.03 0.97
3/4 in. to 4 in., summer 1.16 0.86
(h) (1/h)
Air Surfaces
Inside--still air 1.47 0.68
Outside--15 mph wind, winter 6.00 0.17
7.5 mph wind, summer 4.00 0.25
aFrom ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals, except as noted.
bFace brick and common brick do not always have these specific densities. When the density is different from that shown, there will be a change in the thermal conductivity.
cCalculated data based upon hollow brick (25% to 40% cored) of one manufacturer. Based upon coring and density given. R figures based upon coring and density of supplier
using parallel path method. Vermiculite fill in cores.
d From NCMATEK 38
eValues for metal siding applied over flat surfaces vary widely depending upon the amount of ventilation of air space beneath the siding, whether the air space is reflective or non-
reflective, and on the thickness, type. and application of insulating backing-board used. Values given are averages intended for use as design guide values and were obtained
from several guarded hot-box tests (ASTM C 236) on hollow-backed types and on types made using backer-board of wood-fiber, foamed plastic, and glass fiber. Departures of +/-
50%. or more, from the values given may occur.
fThicknesses can vary. R values must be stamped on batt.
gBased upon values as commercially produced. For calculations use specific manufacturer's specified values.
hTime-aged values for board stock with gas-barrier quality (0.001 in thickness or greater) aluminum foil facers on two major surfaces.

11
calculations are merely an estimate of the thermal perfor- ti = indoor design temperature, in ˚F,
mance of the envelope. to = outdoor design temperature, in ˚F.
The designer should be aware that several factors,
other than U-values, determine the actual performance of
CONCLUSION
the envelope in conserving energy. Some of these factors
Present-day technology for heat transmission (steady-
are: 1) building orientation and aspect ratio (The aspect ratio
state and steady-periodic) does not permit the designer to
is the proportion of length to width. As the ratio approaches
take full advantage of the thermal mass of the element.
1, the surface area to volume ratio decreases, and generally
While these design methods are relatively easy to under-
there will be less loss of thermal energy from interior spaces
stand and calculate, they are not a true measure of the
through the building envelope); 2) exterior surface color of
performance of massive elements. These methods do
envelope materials; 3) color of inside walls and ceilings; 4)
give the designer an approximate solution which is on the
mass and specific heat of envelope materials; 5) wind veloc-
conservative side in relation to the actual performance of
ities; 6) infiltration through the envelope; and 7) orientation,
massive walls.
area and external shading of glazing.
The designer should take into account the higher per-
These factors are not considered in the steady-state
formance of massive construction which in many cases,
calculations. However, if their effects on heat transmission
may provide savings in operational costs, efficiency of
are kept foremost in the designer's mind, he can utilize the
operation and energy. To provide a more accurate predic-
energy-conserving characteristics of each of these factors.
tion of these savings, a detailed computer study of the
The resulting structure will be more thermally efficient than
thermal performance of the structure is usually warranted.
is shown by the steady-state calculations. Note that some of
Other Technical Notes in this series discuss heat gain
these factors are accounted for by the CLTD values in heat
through opaque walls, thermal transmission corrections
gain calculations. See Technical Notes 4A Revised.
for dynamic conditions, balance point temperatures and
The steady-state method of calculation for heat loss is
energy conservation including worksheets, examples and
straightforward and simple to perform. The outdoor design
data tables.
temperatures required can be found in the 1981 ASHRAE
Handbook of Fundamentals. The inside design temperature
should be 72˚F, or as prescribed by governing codes. The
METRIC CONVERSION
formula for calculating heat loss is as follows:
Because of the possible confusion inherent in showing
H = AU (ti - to)
dual unit systems in calculations, the metric (Sl) units are
where: not given in the data, equations or examples. Table 2 pro-
H = heat loss transmitted through the walls or other ele- vides metric (Sl) conversion for the more commonly used
ments of the building envelope, in Btu/hr, heat transmission units. This table is provided so that the
2
A= area of the walls or other elements, in ft , user may use the data and procedures with Sl units.
U = overall coefficient of heat transmission of the walls
2
or other elements, in Btu/(hr • ˚F• ft ),

TABLE 2
Conversion Factors
Dimension Customary Metric (SI)
Length 1 in. = 25.4000 mm
1 ft. = 0.304800 m
2 2
Area 1 in. = 645.1600 mm
2 2
1 ft. = 0.092903 m
2 3
Volume 1 ft = 0.028317 m
Volume (liquid) 1 gal = 3.78541 L
Mass (weight) 1 lb = 0.4535924 kg
2 2
Mass per Unit Area 1 lb/ft = 4.882428 kg/m
3 2
Density 1 lb/ft = 16.01846 kg/m
Temperature Interval 1˚F = 0.555556 K
Equivalent Temperature (t˚F+459.67)/1.8 = tK
2 2
Conductance 1 Btu/(hr•˚F•ft ) = 5.678264 W/(m •K)
2
Conductivity 1(Btu•in.)/(hr•˚F•ft ) = 0.1442279 W/(m•K)
2 2
Resistance 1(hr•˚F•ft )/Btu = 0.1761102 (m •K)/W
2
Resistivity 1(hr•˚F•ft )/(Btu•in.) = 6.933471 (m•K)/W
2 2
Heat Flow 1 Btu/(hr•ft ) = 3.154591 W/m
Rate of Heat Flow 1 Btu/hr = 0.2930722 W
Tons of Refrigeration 1 Ton (12,000 Btu/hr) = 3.516853 kW

12
REFERENCES
1. 1977 ASHRAE Handbook and Product Directory,
Fundamentals Volume.
2. 1981 ASHRAE Handbook and Product Directory,
Fundamentals Volume.

13
 4B
Technical Notes REVISED

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
December
1992

ENERGY CODE COMPLIANCE

OF BRICK MASONRY WALLS
Abstract: All buildings designed today must comply with energy code requirements. Building energy perfor-
mance requirements may be embodied in a model building code or in a separate energy standard. These docu-
ments typically contain requirements for the building envelope, including walls, windows, doors, roofs and floors.
Brick masonry, as a high mass building material, has the inherent energy saving feature of thermal storage
capacity (thermal mass). This Technical Notes describes how to quantify thermal mass and calculate the heat
capacity of several brick masonry walls. The procedure for addressing thermal mass in residential and commer-
cial construction when determining building envelope compliance with widely used energy standards and codes is
also described.
Key Words: brick, building codes, building envelope, energy, heat capacity, standards, thermal mass.

of a wall to an equivalent U- or R-value accounting for

INTRODUCTION
All buildings designed today must comply with energy
code requirements. Energy performance requirements may
be found in such documents as the 1992 Model Energy
Code (MEC) [8], the ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1-1989:
Energy Efficient Design of New Buildings Except New Low-
Rise Residential Buildings [4], and the 1990 edition of the
BOCA National Building Code [9]. These standards and
codes specify energy efficient design through overall build-
ing performance criteria or by a component prescriptive
approach. The element in overall building performance dis-
cussed in this Technical Notes is the building envelope.
Brick masonry walls provide a uniquely energy efficient
envelope due to their high thermal mass. Thermal mass is
the characteristic of heat capacity and surface area capable
of affecting building thermal loads by storing heat and
releasing it at a later time. Materials with high thermal mass
react more slowly to temperature fluctuations and thereby
reduce peak energy loads. Economic, energy efficient
designs may be achieved by recognizing this inherent
aspect of brick masonry and incorporating it in the building
envelope design.
The benefits of thermal mass have been known for a
long time. However, their inclusion in energy codes and
standards is a relatively recent development. Research in
1975-76 during the energy crisis, sponsored by the
Masonry Industry Committee, led to the development of a
simplified method for quantifying thermal mass benefits
[10]. This method, called the M Factor, was developed for
use by designers to compare wall systems with respect to
energy performance during the heating cycle. The M
Factor was not intended for sizing of mechanical equip-
ment, but rather as a comparative analysis tool. By know-
ing the weight of a wall and the annual heating degree
days (HDD), a designer could determine the correction
factor (M Factor) to convert the calculated U- or R-value
thermal mass and its effect of slowing heat transmittance.
The U- and R-values are measures of steady-state heat
transmittance. The corrected U- or R-value was then
used to comply with prescribed energy requirements. At
that time codes and standards did not incorporate thermal
storage concepts when prescribing limits on heat transfer.
Today, most energy codes and standards specify a maxi-
mum permissible value for the coefficient of thermal trans-
mittance (U-value) for the building envelope as a function
of wall weight. Some codes additionally specify a maxi-
mum overall thermal transfer value for walls (OTTVw) of
mechanically cooled spaces. The OTTV w is also a mea-
sure of heat transmittance and is a function of the wall
temperature difference (TD EQ) which is also related to wall
weight.
This Technical Notes instructs the user on the meth-
ods for determining compliance of various brick masonry
walls with the building envelope requirements of several
energy standards and codes. Those included are the
1989 ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1, the 1992 Model
Energy Code, the 1990 National Building Code, the 1991
Standard Building Code [11], end the 1991 Uniform
Building Code [12]. The methods by which these energy
standards and codes criteria reflect thermal mass proper-
ties of brick masonry are explained.
The user of this Technical Notes is assumed to have
a working knowledge of heat transmittance and familiarity
with the energy codes and standards listed. Procedures
for calculating the actual U-values for walls can be found
in Technical Notes 4 Revised, Section 8.4 of ASHRAE/IES
Standard 90.1, and in the ASHRAE Handbook of
Fundamentals [5].
Because of the possible confusion inherent in show-
ing dual unit systems in calculations, metric (SI) units are
not given in the data, equations, or examples in this
Technical Notes. Table 1 provides metric (SI) conversion Uo average thermal transmittance of the gross wall
factors for the more commonly used energy units. 2
area, Btu/(hr-ft -˚F)
Table 1 Uow overall thermal transmittance of the wall
Conversion Factors 2
assembly, Btu/(hr-ft -˚F)
Dimension Customary Metric (SI) Uw thermal transmittance of the opaque wall area,
2
Length 1 in. = 25.4 mm Btu/(hr-ft -˚F)
1 ft = 0.305 m 2

Area 1 in.
2
= 645.2 mm
2 w weight, lb/ft
2 2
1 ft = 0.0929 m
Volume 1 ft
3
= 0.0283 m
3
HEAT CAPACITY
Volume (liquid) 1 gal = 3.79 L In most energy codes, the thermal characteristics of
Mass (weight) 1 lb = 0.454 kg high mass walls are quantified by measuring the heat
2 2
Mass per Unit Area 1 lb/ft
3
= 4.88 kg/m
3
capacity of the wall. Heat capacity represents the amount
Density 1 lb/ft = 16.0 kg/m of thermal energy which may be stored by a material. For
Temperature walls constructed of multiple materials, total heat capacity
Interval 1 ˚F = 0.556 K is calculated as the sum of the heat capacities of the indi-
Equivalent vidual components. In most energy codes and standards
Temperature (t˚F+ 459.67)/1.8 =tK
2 2 in the United States, heat capacity (HC) of a wall is calcu-
Conductance 1 Btu/(hr-ft -˚F) =5.68 W/(m -K)
Conductivity
2
1(Btu-in.)/(hr-ft -˚F) = 0.144 W/(m-K)
lated as the product of weight per unit area and specific
Resistance
2
1(hr-ft -˚F)/Btu
2
=0.176 (m -K)/W heat (HC = w x c). Since the specific heats of most build-
Resistivity
2
1(hr-ft -˚F)/(Btu-in.) =6.93 (m-K)/W ing materials are roughly equal, the heat capacity of a
2 2
Heat Flow 1 Btu/(hr-ft ) = 3.15 W/m wall is directly proportional to its weight. Those materials
Rate of Heat Flow 1 Btu/hr = 0.293 W which are relatively lightweight, such as insulation, do not
Tons of have a significant effect on heat capacity and are often
Refrigeration 1 Ton(12,000 Btu/hr) = 3.52 kW ignored when determining heat capacity. Sample calcula-
tions of heat capacity for several brick walls are provided
in Figure 1.
NOTATION ENERGY CODE COMPLIANCE
Ad door area, ft
2
Each energy code and standard is slightly different in
2
scope and criteria for compliance. The ASHRAE/IES
Af fenestration area, ft Standard 90.1 is only applicable to non-residential build-
2 ings. Both residential and non-residential criteria may be
Ag glazing area, ft
found in the model building codes or the CABO Model
2
Ao gross wall area above grade, ft Energy Code. Each code and standard is discussed indi-
2 vidually below.
Aw opaque wall area, ft
ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1
c specific heat, Btu/(lb -˚F) The ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1 covers the energy
dt temperature difference between exterior and inte performance design of new buildings except residential
rior design conditions, ˚F buildings of three stories or less. Compliance with this
2
HC heat capacity, Btu/(ft -˚F) standard may follow one of two paths: the Building Energy
HDD annual heating degree days Cost Budget Method or the System/Component Method.
HDD65 annual Fahrenheit heating degree days, The Building Energy Cost Budget Method (BECBM) is
65˚F base to be used with innovative design concepts which cannot
OTTVw overall thermal transfer value - walls, be accommodated by the System/Component Method or
2 when a design fails the System/Component approach.
Btu/(hr-ft ) The BECBM requires a detailed energy analysis to deter-
SC shading coefficient of the fenestration, mine the estimated design energy cost. The BECBM per-
dimensionless mits any design whose design energy cost does not
2
SF solar factor value, Btu/(hr-ft ) exceed the specified energy cost budget and meets the
TDEQ temperature difference value, ˚F other requirements of the method. A complete description
Ud thermal transmittance of the door area, of this method can be found in Section 13 of the
2 ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1.
Btu/(hr-ft -˚F) The System/Component Method can be divided into
Uf thermal transmittance of the fenestration area, two compliance paths for the building envelope:
2
Btu/(hr-ft -˚F) Prescriptive Criteria found in Section 8.5 and System
Ug thermal transmittance of the glazing area, Performance Criteria found in Section 8.6. These meth-
2
ods give minimum requirements to satisfy both heating
Btu/(hr-ft -˚F) and cooling cycle conditions. As the use of the
ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1 may be somewhat confusing,
2
 3
4 IN. BRICK w = (130 lb/ft ) x [(0.75)(3.63 in.)] / (12in./ft)
2
= 29.5 lb/ft
(>75% SOLID)
c = 0.20 Btu/ (lb-˚F)
2
HC = 29.5 x 0.20 = 5.9 Btu/(ft -˚F)
3 2 2
4 IN. STUD w = 45 lb/ft x [(3.5 in. x 1.5 in.) / (144 in. /ft )]
2
x (12 in./ft / 16 in.) = 1.23 lb/ft
c = 0.30 Btu/ (lb-˚F)
2
HC = 1.23 x 0.30 = 0.4 Btu/(ft -˚F)
3 2
(2) 1/2 IN. w = 50 lb/ft x [(2)(0.5 in.) / 12 in./ft] = 4.2 lb/ft
GYPSUM BOARD
c = 0.26 Btu/(lb-˚F)
2
HC = 4.2 x 0.26 = 1.1 Btu/(ft -˚F)
INSULATION NEGLIGIBLE
2
TOTAL HC = 5.9 + 0.4 + 1.1 = 7.4 Btu/(ft -˚F)
(a) 4 IN. BRICK AND WOOD STUD WALL

2
4 IN. BRICK HC = 5.9 Btu/(ft -˚F) (from Fig. 1a)
8 IN. LIGHTWEIGHT CMU (52% SOLID)
3 2
w = 90 lb/ft x [(0.52)(7.63 in.) / 12in./ft] = 29.7 lb/ft

c = 0.21 Btu/(lb-˚F)
2
HC = 29.7 x 0.21 = 6.2 Btu/(ft -˚F)
INSULATION NEGLIGIBLE
2
TOTAL HC = 5.9 + 6.2 = 12.1 Btu/(ft -˚F)

(b) 4 IN. BRICK AND 8 IN. LIGHTWEIGHT CMU WALL

2
4 IN. BRICK HC = 5.9 Btu/(ft -˚F) (from Fig. 1a)
6 IN. LIGHTWEIGHT CMU (55% SOLID)
3 2
w = 90 lb/ft x [(0.55)(5.63 in.) / 12 in./ft] = 23.2 lb/ft
c = 0.21 Btu/(lb-˚F)
2
HC = 23.2 x 0.21 = 4.9 Btu/(ft -˚F)
INSULATION NEGLIGIBLE
2
TOTAL HC = 5.9 + 4.9 = 10.8 Btu/(ft -˚F)

(c) 4 IN. BRICK AND 6 IN. LIGHTWEIGHT CMU WALL

6 IN. BRICK (60% SOLID)

3 2
w = 130 Ib/ft x [(0.60)(5.63 in.) / 12 in./ft] = 36.6 Ib/ft

c = 0.20 Btu/ (Ib-˚F)

2
TOTAL HC = 36.6 x 0.20 = 7.3 Btu/(ft -˚F)
IF GROUTED, HC WOULD BE EVEN GREATER

(d) 6 IN. HOLLOW BRICK WALL

FIG. 1
Heat Capacities of Several Brick Walls

3
the National Codes and Standards Council of the
Concrete and Masonry Industries is in the process of
developing a handbook which discusses the benefits of
thermal mass [2]. This energy handbook is slated for
publication in early 1993. In addition to the examples
given in this Technical Notes, the reader is also urged to
refer to this handbook.
Prescriptive Criteria. Section 8.5 of the
ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1 provides precalculated
Alternate Component Package (ACP) tables based on the
System Performance Criteria in Section 8.6 for a set of
climate ranges. These ACP tables list the maximum per-
missible percentage of fenestration in a wall area, maxi-
mum thermal transmittance U-values, and minimum ther-
mal resistance R-values as a function of the buildingís
internal energy load, type and characteristics of fenestra-
tion and wall construction. The many climatic variables
which influence the building envelope are grouped togeth-
er in each ACP table for a range of climates. Thus, the
criteria found in the ACP tables address a worst case con-
dition and may be more stringent than the System
Performance Criteria in Section 8.6.
The maximum permissible overall thermal transmittance
value of an opaque wall (Uow) using the prescriptive enve-
lope criteria and the appropriate ACP table. The following
example illustrates the benefits of using a thermal mass wall
by comparing the maximum permissible Uow-value of a light-
weight and a high mass wall. The UOW-value is a function of
the wall weight (represented by HC); the buildingís internal
cooling loads due to heat generated by lights, equipment,
and people (ILD); the placement of the insulation either
internal to or integral with the wall mass (INT INS) or outside
the wall mass (EXT INS); and the percentage of total wall
area consisting of doors, windows and other glazing (PCT
FEN). Refer to Fig. 2 of this Technical Notes and Section
8.6 of the ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1 for the tables and
terms used in this example.
EXAMPLE 1: ASHRAE/IES Standard90.1--
Prescriptive Criteria
Office Building
Determine the maximum permissible overall wall ther-
2
mal transmittance value (U ow) of a 12,000 ft office building
located near Albuquerque, NM. The building is construct-
ed of 4 in. nominal brick veneer with 8 in. nominal con-
crete masonry loadbearing walls with insulation as shown
in Fig. 1b. The buildingís fenestration is 30 percent of the
total wall area. To determine the maximum permissible
Uow-value, use the following steps.
Step 1: To use the Prescriptive Envelope Criteria, first deter-
mine the appropriate ACP table from the locations listed in
Table 8A-0 in Attachment 8A of the Standard. Find
Albuquerque, NM in Table 2 of this Technical Notes. From
Table 2, determine that the appropriate ACP table is Table
8A-23 of the Standard. The ACP table for Albuquerque, NM
(8A-23) is shown in Fig. 2 of this Technical Notes.
Step 2: Calculate the heat capacity (HC) of the wall in
4
question. The HC of the brick and concrete masonry wall
shown in Fig. 1b has already been calculated to be 12.1
2
Btu/(ft -˚F) .
Step 3: Calculate internal load density (ILD) of the build-
ing. Section 8.5.5.2 of the Standard defines ILD as the
sum of Lighting Power Density (LPD), Equipment Power
Density (EPD) and Occupant Load Adjustment (OLA).
Values for LPD are found in Table 6-5 of the Standard.
(Note that Unit Lighting Power Allowance (ULPA) equals
LPD.) For this office building example, LPD equals 1.81
2
W/ft . The EPD can be selected from Table 8-4 of the
2
Standard. For an office, EPD equals 0.75 W/ft . OLA is a
measure of the heat generated by living objects and is
discussed in Section 8.5.5.2 of the Standard. For this
2
example, assume OLA equals 0.0 W/ft . Therefore,
ILD = LPD + EPD + 0LA = 1.81 + 0.75 + 0.0
2
= 2.56 W/ft .
Using the ACP table for Albuquerque, NM shown in Fig. 2,
enter the appropriate row based on the ILD of the build-
2
ing. Since ILD for this example is 2.56 W/ft , enter the
row for ILD 1.51 - 3.00.
Step 4: The ACP tables contain criteria for both fenestra-
tion and opaque portions of the building envelope. This
example addresses only the opaque wall requirements.
Therefore, to determine the maximum permissible UOW-
value for the wall assembly in this example, move to the
far right to the box under the heading OPAQUE WALL.
2
Since HC of the wall in question is greater than 5 Btu/(ft -
˚F), go to the subheading MASS WALL and find the box
corresponding to the ILD row found in Step 3.
Step 5: The maximum U OW-value is also a function of the
location of insulation in the wall assembly. The insulation
in this example is placed between or integral with the wall
mass. Therefore, select the column for interior or integral
insulation, INT INS. See Section 8.5.5.3 of the Standard
for a complete discussion of insulation location.
Step 6: Find the appropriate rows under MASS WALL
corresponding to the HC of the wall in question. In this
2
example, HC equals 12.1 Btu/(ft -˚F), so use the rows HC
greater than or equal to 10. Follow these rows to where
they intersect the INT INS column. There are two possi-
ble values of U ow based on the percentage of fenestration
(PCT FEN) in the envelope.
Step 7: Follow the rows for HC greater than or equal to
10 to PCT FEN equal to 11 and PCT FEN equal to 57.
Recall that the buildingís fenestration (PCT FEN) equals
30 percent of the wall area in this example. The U OW-
value corresponding to 11 percent equals 0.15 Btu/(hr-ft -
2
˚F), and U ow-value corresponding to 57 percent equals
2
0.14 Btu/(hr-ft -˚F). Linearly interpolate for PCT FEN
equal to 30 or use the lower of the two values. Using the
lower value as the maximum permissible value, Uow must
2
be less than or equal to 0.14 Btu/(hr-ft -˚F).
 TABLE 2
1
Climate Data Grouped by ACP Tables
ACP
Table HDD50 CDD65 VSEW CDH80 HDD65 Example Cities
Number Range Range Range Range Range

8A-1 0 3001-4500 >800 Barbers Point, Hilo, Honolulu, Lihue

8A-2 0 >4500 >845 Guantanamo Bay, Kwajalein, San Juan,
Wake Island
8A-3 1-1000 0-1150 560-845 Arcata, North Bend
8A-4 1-1000 0-300 >845 1-3000 Oakland, Point Mugu, Sunnyvale
8A-5 1-1000 0-300 >845 >3000 San Francisco, Santa Maria
8A-6 1-1000 301-1150 >845 El Toro, Long Beach, Los Angeles, San
Diego
8A-7 1-1000 1151-2000 560-845 1-3000 Augusta, Birmingham, Cape Hatteras,
Cherry Point
8A-8 1-1000 1151-2000 560-845 >3000 Atlanta, Greenville
8A-9 1-1000 1151-2000 >845 Fresno, Red Bluff, Sacramento

8A-10 1-1000 2001-3250 560-845 1-3000 Charleston, Houston, Jackson, New

Orleans
8A-11 1-1000 2001-3250 560-845 >3000 Little Rock
8A-12 1-1000 2001-3250 >845 0-18000 1-3000 Austin, Bakersfield, El Paso, Fort Worth
Tampa
8A-13 1-1000 2001-3250 >845 0-18000 >3000 Wiichita Falls
8A-14 1-1000 2001-3250 >845 >18000 China Lake, Las Vegas, Tucson
8A-15 1-1000 3701-4500 >845 0-18000 Miami, West Palm Beach
8A-16 1-1000 3251-3700 >845 0-18000 Brownsville, Corpus Christi, Orlando,
Kingsville
8A-17 1-1000 3701-4500 >845 >18000 Laredo, Yuma
8A-18 1-1000 3251-3700 >845 >18000 Phoenix

8A-19 1001-1750 0-500 560-845 Olympia, Portland OR, Salem,

Seattle/Tacoma
8A-20 1001-1750 501-1150 560-845 Asheville, Medford
8A-21 1001-1750 1-1150 >845 Prescott, Winslow, Y ucca Flats
8A-22 1001-1750 1151-2000 560-845 Charlotte, Chattanooga, Knoxville,
Raleigh, Richmond
8A-23 1001-1750 1151-2000 >845 Albuquerque, Lubbock, Oklahoma City,
Roswell
8A-24 1001-1750 2001-3250 560-845 Fort Smith, Memphis, Tulsa

8A-25 1751-2600 501-1150 560-845 Baltimore, Boston, Columbus, New York,

Washington
8A-26 2601-3200 501-1150 560-845 Akron, Chicago, Detroit, Hartford,
Pittsburgh
8A-27 1751-3200 1-500 560-845 Redmond, Yakima, Spokane
8A-28 1751-3200 0-1150 >845 Boise, Denver, Reno, Salt Lake City
8A-29 1751-3200 1151-2000 560-845 Lexington, Louisville, Saint Louis,
Springfield
8A-30 1751-3200 1151-2000 >845 Dodge City, Grand Junction

8A-31 3201-4000 501-1150 560-845 Albany, Buffalo, Rapid City, Des Moines,
Milwaukee
8A-32 3201-4000 0-500 560-845 Great Falls, Helena, Missoula,
Portland ME, Sheridan
8A-33 4001-5000 0-1150 560-845 Bangor, Huron, Minneapolis, Rochester,
Sioux Falls
8A-34 3201-4000 0-1150 >845 Casper, Cheyenne, Ely, North Platte
8A-35 4001-5000 0-1150 >845 Bryce Canyon, Eagle, Rock Springs
8A-36 5001-6500 0-1150 560-845 Bismarck, Duluth, Fargo, International
Falls
8A-37 2501-6500 <100 <560 Adak, Anchorage, Juneau, Kodiak, Yakutat
8A-38 >6500 <100 <560 Bethel, Fairbanks, King Salmon, Nome,
Summit

1 Table 8A-0, reprinted with permission from ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1-1989 published by ASHRAE

Step 8: To comply with the Standard, the calculated U OW- Using the steps found in Technical Notes 4 Revised or the
value of the wall in question may not exceed the maxi- ASHRAE Hand/book of Fundamentals, the thermal trans-
mum permissible value as determined from the ACP table. mittance of the wall in Fig. 1b is calculated to be 0.10

5
FIG. 2

6

2
Btu/(hr-ft -˚F). Since the calculated U OW-value is less than
2
the maximum permissible value of 0.14 Btu/(hr-ft -˚F), the
wall construction complies with the Building Envelope
Requirements of ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1.
Compare the maximum permissible Uow-value of the
thermal mass wall in this example with the maximum per-
missible U ow-value for a lightweight wall with HC less than
2 Model Energy Code
5 Btu/(ft -˚F). The box under the heading OPAQUE WALL
2
shows that the maximum Uow-value is only 0.10 Btu/(hr-ft -
˚F) for a lightweight wall. In terms of R-values, this ther-
mal mass wall must have a minimum R-value of 7.1 (hr-
2 thermal transmission (U-value) of the building envelope.
ft -˚F)/Btu, whereas a lightweight wall must have an R-
2 Designers may comply with this code by adhering to one
value of at least 10.0 (hr-ft -˚F)/Btu.
System Performance Criteria. A system approach
for compliance with envelope requirements is provided in
Section 8.6 of the ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1. This
method is more flexible than the Prescriptive Criteria
when considering thermal mass for several reasons. The
external wall criteria are based on annual energy calcula-
tions for a specific location, rather than for a group of cli-
mates. Calculations allow for variations in internal loads
and wall heat capacity by separating the building into
zones. Furthermore, wall assemblies with HC greater
2
than or equal to 7 Btu/(ft -˚F) do not have limits on the
permissible Uow-value as they do in the ACP tables.
Compliance with the System Performance Criteria is
achieved if the calculated energy loads do not exceed the
criteria specified in Section 8.6. The System Performance
Criteria approach requires numerous mathematical calcu-
lations by hand or a computer program. Information on an
acceptable computer program, ENVSTD, is part of
Appendix D of the ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1. The pro-
gram models the building envelope's performance and
fully accounts for the effects of thermal mass. For this
reason, ENVSTD is recommended for use with the
System Performance Criteria when determining energy
compliance of brick masonry walls, particularly when pas-
sive solar technologies are employed in the design.
The 1992 Model Energy Code (MEC) prepared by the
Council of American Building Officials is applicable to resi-
dential dwellings as well as commercial, institutional and
other buildings. This code sets limits on the permissible
of three chapters in the MEC: Chapter 4 - Building Design
by Systems Analysis and Design of Buildings Utilizing
Nondepletable Energy Sources; Chapter 5 - Building
Design by Component Performance Approach; or Chapter
6 - Building Design by Acceptable Practice.
Systems Analysis and Nondepletable Source
Analysis. Chapter 4, as its title implies, is separated into
two sections: Systems Analysis and Nondepletable
Source Analysis. Both sections require an analysis of the
annual energy usage of the proposed system.
Requirements and procedures for analysis are specified.
Compliance is achieved if annual energy consumption is
not greater than that of a similar building designed
according to MEC Chapter 5. This chapter applies to all
building types covered by the MEC.
Component Performance Approach. The compo-
nent performance approach presented in Chapter 5 of the

1
Uo Walls--Group R Buildings--Heating
FIG. 3

7
MEC has requirements for both residential (Section 502.2)
and non-residential (Section 502.3) construction.
Residential Construction --Section 502.2 covers two
types of residential construction, A1 and A2. Type A1 is
detached one- and two-family dwellings. Type A2 is all
other residential construction, not greater than three sto-
ries in height. Section 502.2 specifies the maximum ther-
mal transmission U-value for each building component
(walls, roof, slab on grade, etc.). In residential construc-
tion, the maximum permissible UW-value for walls is a
function of the heat capacity of the wall in question. The
example which follows illustrates how the maximum per-
missible U w-value may be increased if the HC of the wall
2 Fig. 1a is placed interior of the wall mass. Therefore,
in question is greater than or equal to 6 Btu/(ft -˚F). All 4
2
in. brick veneer walls have a HC of at least 6 Btu/(ft -˚F).
EXAMPLE 2: Model Energy Code--
Component Performance Criteria
Single Family Home
Determine the maximum permissible thermal transmit-
2
tance of the opaque wall area (UW-value) of a 2,000 ft
two-story single family home located in a suburb of
Washington, D.C. The house is brick veneer over wood
frame constructed as shown in Fig. 1a. The home's fen-
estration is 20% of the total wall area: 15% glazing, 5%
doors. Thermal transmittance values for the fenestration
are: Ug = 0.48 and U d = 0.48. The following steps are
suggested to determine the maximum permissible UW-
value.
Step 1: Determine the annual Fahrenheit heating degree
days (HDD, 65 ˚F base) for the location given. For
Washington, D.C., HDD equals 4224. HDD for most U.S.
cities can be found in Table B7.1 of Building Control
Systems [1] or in the 1981 ASHRAE Handbook of
Fundamentals [5]. A single family home is classified by
MEC Section 502.2 as building Type A1. Using this infor-
mation, determine the maximum UO-value for the gross
wall area from Fig. 3 of this Technical Notes to be 0.15
2
Btu/(hr-ft -˚F).
Step 2: Calculate Uw using Eq. 1 and knowing the U-val-
ues of the glazing and door areas and the gross wall area
(Uo). Equation 1 in this Technical Notes is Eq. 1 found at
the end of Section 502 of the MEC, solved for U w.
U w = U o Ao - U g Ag - U d Ad Eq.1
Aw
Uw = UoAo - U g (0.15Ao) - U d (0.05Ao)
0.80Ao
Uw = [(0.15) - (0.48)(0.15) - (0.48)(0.05)]Ao
0.80Ao
2 2
Uw = 0.067 Btu/(hr-ft -˚F) or R ≥14.8 (hr-ft -˚F)/Btu.
This Uw-value is the maximum permissible value for wall 2
constructions having a heat capacity less than 6 Btu / (ft -
˚F).
Step 3: Determine the HC of the wall in question. The
8
HC of the brick veneer and wood stud wall has already
2
been calculated to be 7.4 Btu/(ft -˚F), see Fig. 1a. The
maximum permissible U w-value for a wall having a HC of
2
6 Btu/(ft -˚F) or greater may be increased to account for
the effects of thermal mass using Tables 3a-3c in this
Technical Notes. The values in these tables, taken from
the MEC, are a function of climate (represented by
HDD65); wall construction (HC greater than or equal to 6
2
Btu/(ft -˚F)); and the placement of insulation outside the
thermal wall mass (Table 3a), on the interior of the wall
mass (Table 3b) or integral with the wall mass (Table 3c).
In this example, the insulation in the wall shown in
Table 3b should be used. Enter the row in Table 3b for
HDD65 equal to 4000-5500 and the column for Uw equal
2
to 0.067 Btu/(hr-ft -˚F). U w equal to 0.067 is between the
columns in the table labeled 0.06 and 0.08. Linearly inter-
polate the table to determine the maximum permissible
2
thermal transmittance, U w, to be 0.077 Btu/(hr-ft -˚F). This
U-value corresponds to an R-value greater than or equal
2
to 13 (hr-ft -˚F)/Btu.
Step 4: To determine if the wall in question complies with
Section 5 of the MEC, compare the maximum permissible
thermal transmittance, U w-value, determined in Step 3
with the calculated U w-value. The calculated U w-value,
determined using the procedures contained in Technical
Notes 4 Revised or the ASHRAE Handbook of
2
Fundamentals, is 0.071 Btu/(hr-ft -˚F). Since the calculat-
ed U w-value is less than the maximum Uw-value (0.077
2
Btu/(hr-ft -˚F)), this wall construction meets the require-
ments of the MEC Section 5.
For comparison, in this example the maximum per-
2
missible Uw-value for a lightweight wall is 0.067 Btu/(hr-ft -
˚F), but for a thermal mass wall, the maximum Uw-value is
2
0.077 Btu/(hr-ft -˚F). The allowable U w-value for the ther-
mal mass wall is 15 percent greater.
Non-residential Construction --The requirements of
Section 502.3 for non-residential construction are separat-
ed into heating criteria and cooling criteria.
The heating criteria for walls specify the maximum
permissible UO-value. The procedure parallels that out-
lined above for residential buildings; however, the maxi-
mum UW-value is not a function of HC and may not be
adjusted for thermal mass walls. When permitted by the
governing code, the ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1 should
be used in lieu of the MEC if the designer wishes to
account for thermal mass effects in heating calculations.
This change would permit an analysis which is closer to
actual building performance.
Non-residential buildings which are mechanically
cooled must not exceed the maximum permissible overall
thermal transfer value for walls (OTTVw) given in Section
502.3.2 of the MEC. The OTTVw is a function of the wall
 TABLE 3a weight. The procedure for determining the actual OTTVw
1
Required Uw for Wall with a Heat Capacity is a straightforward calculation using Eq. 2. Equation 2 of
Equal to or Exceeding 6 Btu/(ft -˚F)
2
this Technical Notes corresponds to MEC Eq. 3.
With Insulation Placed on the Exterior of the Wall Mass
OTTVw = (UwAwTDEQ)+(AfSFSC)+(UfAfdt) Eq.2
Heating Uw Required for Walls with a Heat Capacity
Ao
Degree 2 The OTTV w is a function of the amount and character-
Days Less Than 6 Btu/ft -˚F as Determined by
65˚F Using Equation 1 istics of the fenestration and opaque wall areas, and the
Base design temperatures. Consult the glazing
0.20 0.18 0.16 0.14 0.12 0.10 0.08 0.06 0.04
manufacturers for the shading coefficient, SC, of the glaz-
0-2000 0.28 0.26 0.23 0.21 0.18 0.16 0.13 0.11 0.08 ing used. The solar factor value, SF, is a function of loca-
2000-4000 0.27 0.25 0.22 0.20 0.17 0.15 0.13 0.10 0.08 tion and is found in Chapter 7 of the MEC. The Uw-value
4000-5500 0.25 0.23 0.21 0.18 0.16 0.14 0.11 0.09 0.07 of the opaque wall should be calculated using the proce-
5500-6500 0.23 0.21 0.19 0.17 0.15 0.12 0.10 0.08 0.06 dures found in Technical Notes 4. The capacity insulation
effect of thermal mass walls is reflected in the tempera-
6500-8000 0.22 0.19 0.17 0.15 0.13 0.11 0.09 0.07 0.05
ture difference value (TD EQ). TDEQ is a measure of heat
>8000 0.20 0.18 0.16 0.14 0.12 0.10 0.08 0.06 0.04
capacity and is inversely proportional to the wall weight,
1
see Fig. 4. A high thermal mass wall has a lower TDEQ
From MEC Table No. 502.1.2a
and, consequently, a lower calculated OTTV w.
TABLE3b
1 Design by Acceptable Practice. The requirements
Required Uw for Wall with Heat Capacity
2 for design by acceptable practice are given in Chapter 6
Equal to or Exceeding 6 Btu/(ft -˚F)
With Insulation Placed on the Interior of the Wall Mass
of the MEC. The consideration of thermal mass for ener-
gy conservation is allowed with the approval of the build-
ing official; however, Chapter 6 does not specify how to
Heating Uw Required for Walls with a Heat Capacity account for thermal mass. The Appendix section refer-
Degree 2
Less Than 6 Btu/ft -˚F as Determined by enced in Chapter 6 gives examples of permitted construc-
Days
65˚F Using Equation 1 tion details and corresponding Uw-values; however, no
Base 0.20 0.18 0.16 0.14 0.12 0.10 0.08 0.06 0.04 adjustments to the maximum permissible Uw-value are
0-2000 0.25 0.22 0.20 0.17 0.15 0.12 0.09 0.07 0.04 made in Chapter 6. The designer must use another
2000-4000 0.24 0.21 0.19 0.16 0.14 0.12 0.09 0.07 0.04 method to consider the energy performance effects of
thermal mass. The ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1, where
4000-5500 0.23 0.21 0.19 0.16 0.14 0.11 0.09 0.07 0.04
permitted, or Chapter 5 of the MEC are the recommended
5500-6500 0.22 0.20 0.17 0.15 0.13 0.11 0.09 0.06 0.04
alternatives.
6500-8000 0.21 0.19 0.17 0.14 0.12 0.10 0.08 0.06 0.04
BOCA National Building Code
>8000 0.20 0.18 0.16 0.14 0.12 0.10 0.08 0.06 0.04
Article 31 of the 1990 National Building Code
addresses energy conservation. This section gives
1
From MEC Table No.502.1.2b
requirements for maximum thermal transmission (U-val-
ues) for the various components of the building envelope.
TABLE 3c
1 It also permits the use of the 1989 CABO Model Energy
Required Uw for Wall with a Heat Capacity Equal to or
2
Code or the ASHRAE Standard 90A - 1980: Energy
Exceeding 6 Btu/(ft -˚F) with Integral Insulation Conservation in New Building Design [3] in lieu of the
(Insulation and Mass Mixed, Such as a Log Wall)
requirements in Article 31. Designers wishing to utilize
Heating Uw Required for Walls with a Heat Capacity the benefits of thermal storage should comply with the
Degree 2 1989 MEC as no adjustments are made for thermal mass
Less Than 6 Btu/ft -˚F as Determined by
Days Using Equation 1 in Article 31. Future editions of the National Building
65˚F Code may permit use of ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1.
Base 0.20 0.18 0.16 0.14 0.12 0.10 0.08 0.06 0.04
Standard Building Code
0-2000 0.28 0.25 0.23 0.20 0.17 0.15 0.12 0.09 0.07 Appendix E - Energy Conservation of the 1991
2000-4000 0.27 0.24 0.22 0.19 0.17 0.14 0.11 0.09 0.06 Standard Building Code gives the requirements for build-
4000-5500 0.26 0.23 0.21 0.18 0.16 0.13 0.11 0.08 0.06
ing envelope energy compliance. This Appendix does not
specify actual criteria but identifies which energy codes or
5500-6500 0.24 0.21 0.19 0.17 0.14 0.12 0.10 0.08 0.05
standards may be used. Specifically, the Standard
6500-8000 0.22 0.20 0.18 0.15 0.13 0.11 0.09 0.07 0.05 Building Code (SBC) allows use of the MEC,
>8000 0.20 0.18 0.16 0.14 0.12 0.10 0.08 0.06 0.04 ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1 for non-residential buildings,
or ASHRAE Standard 90A for residences not exceeding 3
1
From MEC Table No. 502.1.2c
stories. The SBC explicitly allows the use of thermal
mass (capacity insulation) when determining compliance
9
 3. Energy Conservation in New Building Design
(ASHRAE Standard 90A), American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc., Atlanta,
GA, 1980.
4. Energy Efficient Design of New Buildings Except
New Low-Rise Residential Buildings (ASHRAE/IES
Standard 90.1-1989 and Addendum-1992), American
Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning
Engineers, Inc. and Illuminating Engineering Society of
North America, Atlanta, GA.
5. Handbook of Fundamentals, American Society of
Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers,
Inc., Atlanta, GA, 1981 edition and 1989 edition.
6. “Heat Gain Through Opaque Walls,” Technical
Notes on Brick Construction 4A Revised, Brick Institute of
America, Reston, VA, February 1982.
7. “Heat Transmission Coefficients of Brick Masonry
Walls,” Technical Notes on Brick Construction 4 Revised,
Brick Institute of America, Reston, VA, January 1982.
8. Model Energy Code, Council of American Building
Facials (CABO), Falls Church, VA, 1992.
9. National Building Code, Building Code Officials
and Code Administrators International, Inc. (BOCA),
Temperature Difference (TD EQ) of Walls
1
Country Club Hills, IL, 1990.
FIG. 4 10. "Report on the Effect of Wall Mass on the Storage
with the permissible energy codes. Other energy conser- of Thermal Energy," Hankins and Anderson, Inc.,
vation standards may be used in lieu of Appendix E when Richmond, VA and Boston, MA, 1976.
specifically adopted by the local jurisdiction. 11. Standard Building Code, Southern Building Code
Congress International, Inc. (SBCCI), Birmingham, AL,
Uniform Building Code 1991.
Appendix Chapter 53 of the 1991 Uniform Building Code 12. Uniform Building Code, International Conference
requires users to comply with the energy requirements found of Building Officials (ICBO), Whittier, CA, 1991.
in the 1989 MEC. No other standard or code may be used,
unless specifically adopted by the local jurisdiction.
SUMMARY
This Technical Notes continues the discussion of the
energy efficiency of thermal mass brick masonry walls.
Direction is provided on how to treat thermal mass when
considering the envelope requirements of several energy
codes or standards. Methods for complying with these
requirements are described in detail. Sample calculations
quantifying thermal mass as heat capacity (HC) are given.
The information and suggestions contained in this
Technical Notes are based on the available data and the
experience of the engineering staff of the Brick Institute of
America. The information contained herein must be used
in conjunction with good technical judgment and a basic
understanding of the properties of brick masonry. Final
decisions on the use of the information contained in this
Technical Notes are not within the purview of the Brick
Institute of America and must rest with the project archi-
tect, engineer and owner.
REFERENCES
1. Bradshaw, V., Building Control Systems, John
Wiley & Sons, New York, NY, 1985.
2. Concrete and Masonry Handbook to the
ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1, National Codes and
Standards Council the Concrete and Masonry Industries,
Herndon, VA, 1993.
10
 Technical Notes 5A

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
Reissued*
September
1988

SOUND INSULATION-CLAY MASONRY WALLS

INTRODUCTION
dB SOURCE COMMENT
The sound insulation or sound transmission loss of a
wall is that property which enables it to resist the passage 150 Short exposure can
of noise or sound from one side to the other. This should cause hearing loss
not be confused with sound absorption which is that prop- 140 Jet plane takeoff
erty of a material which permits sound waves to be 130 Artillery fire
absorbed, thus reducing the noise level within a given Machine gun
space and eliminating echoes or reverberations. Only Riveting
sound insulation will be discussed in this Technical Notes. 120 Siren at 100 ft Threshold of pain
Jet plane (passenger ramp)
MEASUREMENT OF SOUND Thunder - Sonic boom
The sound insulation of a building assembly is 110 Woodworking shop Threshold of
expressed as a reduction factor in decibels (dB). The discomfort
decibel is approximately the smallest change in energy Accelerating motorcycle
the human ear can detect, and the decibel scale is used Hard rock band
for measuring ratios of sound intensities. The reference 100 Subway (steel wheels)
sound intensity used to measure absolute noise levels is Loud street noise
that corresponding to the faintest sound a human ear can Power lawnmower
Outboard motor
hear (0 dB). However, a difference of 3 or less dB is not
90 Truck unmuffled
especially significant, because the human ear cannot
Train whistle
detect a change in sounds of less than 3 dB.
Kitchen blender
Figure 1 shows the intensity level of common sounds Pneumatic jackhammer
on the decibel scale. These data are reproduced from 80 Printing press Intolerable for
"How Loud is Loud? Noise, Acoustics and Health", by Lee phone use
E. Farr, M.D., published in the February 1970 issue of Subway (rubber wheels)
Architectural & Engineering News. Noisy office
Average factory
SOUND TRANSMISSION LOSS 70 Average street noise
It is desirable to have a single number rating as a Quiet typewriter
means for describing the performance of building elements Freight train at 100 ft.
when exposed to an "average" noise. In the past it was cus- Average radio
tomary to use the numerical average of the transmission 60 Noisy home
loss values at nine frequencies. This rating, termed the nine- Average office
frequency average transmission loss, is often quite inaccu- Normal conversation
rate in comparing an assembly of materials having widely 50 General office
differing TL-frequency characteristics. One single number Quiet radio
rating method which has been recently proposed is the Average home
Quiet street
sound transmission class (STC). This rating is based on the
40 Private office
requirements that the value of transmission loss at any of
Quiet home
the eleven measuring frequencies does not fall below a
30 Quiet conversation
specified TL-frequency contour. The shape of this contour is Broadcast studio
drawn to represent the more common types of noise, and 20 Empty auditorium
generally covers the requirements for speech privacy. Whisper
The following are conclusions in a report entitled, 10 Rustling leaves
"Measurements of Sound Transmission Loss in Masonry", by Sound proof room
William Siekman of Riverbank Acoustical Laboratories, June Human breathing
1969. 0 Threshold of
"In conclusion, changes in results of transmission loss audibility
measurements have been studied. They indicate that defi- FIG. 1.
*Originally published in June 1970, this Technical Notes has been reviewed and reissued.
ciencies in earlier test methods and environments have STC 49. 6-in. "SCR brick" (Reg. U.S. Pat. Off.,
apparently been corrected. Although data reported today are SCPI) Wall, with 3/8-in. gypsum board
lower than ever before, they agree very well with data taken over 1-in. styrofoam insulation one face
in field situations, and consequently provide assurance that Brick dimensions: 2-1/4 by 5-1/2 by 11-1/2.
laboratory tests can be relied upon to achieve the desired Wall thickness: 6-7/8 in
noise reductions. The performance of walls near the coinci- Average weight: 57.7 psf
dence frequency cannot be predicted yet on a theoretical Test: TL 70-39
basis, nor can the performance of walls having a compound
structure, but test specimen sizes are now large enough to be NOTE: The styrofoam was placed with adhesive, spot applied 12 in. o.c.
representative of typical walls and to provide data over the both vertically and horizontally, to the brick wall on one side. A single
layer of 3/8 in. gypsum board was applied vertically over the foam with
present frequency range of interest. adhesive, spot applied 12 in. o.c. vertically and horizontally in the field
"Since the principal deviation due to specimen size is apt and 6 in. o.c. at the joints. The external joints were finished with a typical
to occur at the lower frequencies, users of transmission loss drywall joint system.
data are urged to avoid dependence upon single figure rat-
ings, even such a relatively good one as is recommended by
the Proposed Classification for Determination of Sound STC 50. 8-in. Face Brick and Structural Clay
Transmission Class, ASTM RM 14-2 (1966). The decision to Tile Composite Wall
use a particular construction should always be based upon Brick dimensions: 2-1/4 by 3-3/4 by 8-1/4 in.
the total curve and the requirements at individual frequen- Tile dimensions: 4 in. nominal thickness
cies.” Wall thickness: 8 in.
Average weight: 63.8 psf
DESCRIPTION OF SPECIMENS Test: TL 67-65
The specimens discussed in this issue of Technical Notes
were constructed at the Riverbank Acoustical Laboratories in
a testing frame having inside dimensions of 14 ft 4 in. wide by STC 50. 10-in. Face Brick Cavity Wall, with 2-in.
9 ft 4 in. high. The joints were of typical thickness and were air space
staggered. Mortar was mixed in a ratio by volume of 1 part Brick dimensions: 2-1/4 by 3-3/4 by 8-1/4 in.
cement, 2 parts lime and 9 parts sand. All specimens were Wall thickness: 10 in.
constructed by a professional mason. The curing time was 28 Average weight: 81.0 psf
days or more. The transmission area, S. used in the compu- Test: TL 68-31
tations was generally 126 sq ft.
Following are the descriptions of tests, performed at the NOTE: The 2 wythes of masonry were tied together with metal wall ties.
Riverbank Acoustical Laboratories starting with the lowest
Sound Transmission Class (STC):
STC 50. 4-in. Brick Wall, with 1/2-in. sanded
STC 39. 4-in. Structural Clay Tile Wall plaster, two-coat one face
Tile dimensions: 3-9/16 by 4-7/8 by 11-3/4 in Brick dimensions: 2-1/4 by 3-3/4 by 7-5/8 in.
Wall thickness: 3-9/16 in. Wall thickness: 4-1/8 in.
Average weight: 22.3 psf Average weight: 42.4 psf
Test: TL 67-59 Test: TL 69-283

STC 41. 4 in. Structural Clay Tile Wall, with STC 51. 6-in. "SCR brick" (Reg. U.S. Pat. Off.,
5/8-in. plaster one face SCPI) Wall
Tile dimensions: 3-9/16 by 4-7/8 by 11-3/4 in. Brick dimensions: 2-1/4 by 5-1/2 by 11-1/2 in.
Wall thickness: 4-3/16 in. Wall thickness: 5-1/2 in.
Average weight: 25.3 psf Average weight: 55.8 psf
Test: TL 67-82 Test: TL 69-286

STC 45. 8-in. Structural Clay Tile Wall STC 52. 8-in. Solid Face Brick Wall
Tile dimensions: 7-5/8 by 4-7/8 by 11-3/4 in. Brick dimensions: 2-1/4 by 3-5/8 by 8-1/4 in.
Wall thickness: 7-5/8 in. Wall thickness: 8 in.
Average weight: 40.6 psf Average weight: 83.3 psf
Test: TL 67-69 Test: TL 67-68

STC 45. 4-in. Face Brick Wall STC 53. 8-in. Solid Brick Wall, with 1/2-in.
Brick dimensions: 2-1/4 by 3-3/4 by 8-1/4 in. gypsum board on furring strips one face
Wall thickness: 3-3/4 in. Brick dimensions: 2-1/4 by 3-5/8 by 7-5/8 in.
Average weight: 38.7 psf Wall thickness: 9-1/4 in.
Test: TL 67-70 Average weight: 86.7 psf
Test: TL 69-287
2
NOTE: The 3/4-in. collar joint was filled with mortar. Metal Z ties were deficiency of any single test point shall not exceed 8 db.
used between wythes spaced at 24 in. o.c. both vertically and horizontal- The sound transmission class for the specimen is the TL
ly. The 1 by 3 wood vertical furring strips were spaced at 16 in. o.c. and
nailed at the mortar joints approximately 12 in. o.c. The gypsum board (transmission loss) value corresponding to the intersection
was applied vertically and attached with nails spaced 12 in. o.c. in the of the sound transmission class contour and the 500-Hz
field and 8 in. o.c. along the edges. The joints and nail heads were fin- ordinate.
ished with standard drywall system. Table 1 shows the decibel losses for 18 frequencies
of test specimens listed above. Deficiencies or deviations
from the contour (see graph) are tabulated to correspond
STC 53. 6-in. “SCR brick" (Reg. U.S. Pat. Off., with the proper frequencies.
SCPI) Wall, with 1/2-in. plaster one face These measurements were made using a one-third
Brick dimensions: 2-1/4 by 5-1/2 by 11-1/2 in. octave bank of pink noise, swept in 13 min from 100 to
Wall thickness: 6 in. 5000 Hz. Runs were made before and after a system
Average weight: 60.8 psf interchange, during which the ratio of sound pressure lev-
Test: TL 70-70 els in the two rooms was directly recorded graphically.
The final results were obtained by averaging the runs,
STC 55. 12-in. Face Brick and Structural Clay with a resultant precision within a 90 per cent confidence
Tile Composite Wall limit of ±1 dBb
Brick dimensions: 2-1/4 by 3-3/4 by 8-1/4 in. The sound transmission class is computed in accor-
Tile dimensions: 7-5/8 by 4-7/8 by 11-3/4 in. dance with the Tentative Recommended Practice for
Wall thickness: 12 in. Laboratory Measurement of Airborne Sound Transmission
Average weight: 84.1 psf Loss of Building Partitions, ASTM E 90-66T, and ASTM RM
Test: TL 67-62 14-2. The STC number is intended to be used as a prelimi-
nary estimate of the acoustical properties of the specimen.
STC 59. 12-in. Solid Brick Wall Final decisions for design use should be based upon the
Brick dimensions: entire TL curve for the values at all the test frequencies.
Face: 2-1/4 by 3-3/4 by 8-1/4 in.
Building: 2-1/4 by 3-5/8 by 8 in.
Wall thickness: 12 in.
Average weight: 116.7 psf
Test: TL 67-32

NOTE: The outside wythes were of face brick. The interior wythe was of
common brick.

STC 59. 10-in. Reinforced Brick Masonry Wall

(RBM)
Brick dimensions: 2-1/4 by 3-5/8 by 7-5/8 in
Wall thickness: 9-1/2 in.
Average weight: 94.2 psf
Test: TL 70-6

NOTE: The 2-1/4-in. grouted cavity contained No. 6 bars at 48 in. o.c.
vertically and No. 5 bars at 30 in. o.c. horizontally.

SOUND TRANSMISSION CLASS

Sound transmission class contours (see Fig. 2) may
be constructed in accordance with ASTM RM 14-2 on
conventional semi-logarithmic paper as follows: a horizon-
tal line segment from 1250 to 4000 Hz (cycles per sec-
ond); a middle line segment decreasing 5 dB in the inter-
val 1250 to 400 Hz; and a low frequency segment The sound transmission loss of the tested specimen is shown by the
decreasing 15 dB in the interval 400 to 125 Hz. curved line in the above graph. The broken line is the limiting sound trans-
The STC contour is shifted vertically relative to the mission class contour.
test curve until some of the measured TL values for the The theoretical transmission loss of that limp mass having the same weight
per square foot as the specimen can be located by drawing a straight line
test specimen fall below those of the STC contour and the between the two slash marks on the edges of the grid. This was derived
following conditions are fulfilled: The sum of the deficien- from the equation: TL = 20 log W + 20 log F-33, where W is weight in
cies (that is; the deficiencies of test points below the con- pounds per square foot, and F is frequency in Hertz (cycles per second).
tour) shall not be greater than 32 dB, and the maximum
FIG.2
3
 TABLE 1
Test Measurements for 13 Minutes from 100 to 5000 Hertz

Frequency, Hertz (cps)

STC Test No.
Rating

39 TL 67-59 TL, db(1) 28 27 28 30 31 31 31 34 36 38 39 40 43 48 51 53 52 50

Def. db (2) 1 4 7 5 4 3 3 3
41 TL 67-82 TL, db 30 31 30 32 32 33 34 36 38 41 42 43 45 49 52 54 53 51
Def 2 4 6 5 4 2 2 2
45 TL 67-69 TL, db 33 33 32 33 37 36 38 39 43 44 45 47 49 52 55 53 50 55
Def 2 1 5 6 6 3 3 3 2
45 TL 67-70 TL, db 32 32 31 32 34 35 37 40 43 45 47 49 53 55 57 59 61 63
Def 1 3 4 6 7 5 3 2 1
49 TL 70-39 TL, db 39 37 37 36 35 37 43 49 55 60 62 63 65 67 68 70 72 73
Def 3 7 8 5
50 TL 67-65 TL, db 38 38 37 38 40 42 44 45 47 50 50 52 54 56 59 61 63 65
Def 2 3 4 5 5 4 2 3 2
50 TL 68-31 TL, db 40 37 34 34 37 40 44 47 49 52 55 58 60 62 63 65 66 64
Def 3 6 6 6 5 3 2
50 TL 69-283 TL, db 33 37 39 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 51 54 55 56 57 59 60 62
Def 2 3 4 5 4 3 2 2
51 TL 69-286 TL, db 35 38 38 39 40 43 45 47 49 50 52 54 55 58 59 61 63 65
Def 2 4 4 5 4 3 3 2 1
52 TL 67-68 TL, db 37 37 38 37 42 45 46 47 51 52 52 54 58 61 61 63 65 69
Def 1 5 3 3 5 5 2 2 3 2
53 TL 69-287 TL, db 41 37 35 35 41 49 54 56 59 61 63 64 66 70 71 69 70 73
Def 5 8 5
53 TL 70-70 TL, db 39 39 40 40 41 45 47 47 50 52 54 56 57 59 60 61 63 65
Def 3 5 4 5 5 4 3 2 1
55 TL 67-62 TL, db 41 39 41 41 45 48 49 51 52 56 58 60 62 62 63 63 64 68
Def 1 4 3 3 5 4 4 1
59 TL 67-32 TL, db 44 44 44 46 47 52 52 55 57 59 61 63 65 66 66 67 69 71
Def 2 3 5 3 6 4 3 2 1
59 TL 70-6 TL, db 43 42 43 46 47 51 54 56 59 60 63 63 64 67 68 69 71 72
Def 1 3 3 5 4 4 3 1 1

(1)
Transmission Loss, decibels
(2)
Deficiencies, decibels

4
 Effect of Masking Noise on “Listening” Side of Wall
FIG. 3

MASKING EFFECT
The sound insulation required in a structure to give
satisfactory results depends not only upon the noise level
outside of the building or in adjoining rooms, but also
upon the noise level within the room under consideration.
If it is to be assumed that there is no noise within the
room to be insulated against sound transmission and the
noise level in the adjoining room is 60 dB, it will require a
partition having a reduction factor of 60 dB to render the
noise in the adjoining room inaudible. However, if the
noise level in the room under consideration is 30 dB, a
partition having a sound reduction factor of approximately
40 dB (see Fig. 3) will make the sound in the adjoining
room inaudible. Experiments have shown that for one
sound to mask another, there must be at least 10 dB dif-
ference between the two sounds. This effect of the sound
within the room under consideration is known as the
"masking effect". Figure 3 illustrates this "masking effect"
principle.

CONCLUSION
This issue of Technical Notes has discussed recent
test data for, and sound insulation performance of, brick
and tile walls and partitions. Future issues of Technical
Notes will contain some suggestions and recommenda-
tions for the control of sound transmission through brick
and tile walls and partitions.

5

Technical Notes
on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
PAINTING BRICK MASONRY
INTRODUCTION
Although some masonry walls require protective coat-
ings to impart color and help in resisting rain penetration,
clay masonry requires no painting or surface treatment.
Brick are generally selected because, among other charac-
teristics, they have integral and durable color and, when
properly constructed, are resistant to rain penetration.
Clay masonry walls may be painted to increase light
reflection or for decorative purposes. Most paint authori-
ties agree that, once painted, exterior masonry will require
repainting every three to five years.
This issue of Technical Notes discusses general appli-
cations of paint to interior and exterior brick walls, and a
brief discussion on specific paints suitable for brick
masonry.
GENERAL
It is often erroneously assumed that brick masonry
walls that are to be painted can be built with less durable
materials and, in some instances, with less than extreme
care in workmanship than would normally be used for
unpainted brick walls. This is not the case. When a brick
wall is to be painted, the selection of materials, both brick
units and mortar, and the workmanship used in construct-
ing the wall should all be of the highest quality; at least as
good in quality as when the walls are to be left exposed.
Every care should be taken to see that joints are properly
filled with mortar to avoid the entrance of moisture into the
wall, since it may become trapped behind the paint and
cause problems. Every care should be taken to see that
there are no efflorescing materials in the wall, either in the
mortar, brick units or in the backup, since efflorescence
beneath the paint film can also cause problems. See
Technical Notes 23 Series.
Brick. Brick units to be used for walls that are to be
painted should conform to the applicable requirements of
the ASTM Specifications for Building Brick or Facing
Brick, C 62 or C 216, respectively. The grade of units
(which designates their durability) should not be lower
than would be used if the wall were not to be painted.
Grade SW is recommended. It may be acceptable to use
brick units which are durable but differ in color in a wall to
be painted. However, care should be taken that the units
have similar absorption and suction characteristics so that
the paint applied will adhere to all of the surfaces and
have a uniform acceptable appearance.
Mortar. Mortar for brick masonry walls to be painted
should conform to the Specifications for Mortar for Unit
Masonry, ASTM C 270, Proportion Specifications. It is
*Originally published in May 1972, this Technical Notes has been revised and reissued.
6
REVISED
Reissued*
December
1985
suggested that the mortar consist of portland cement and
lime, and that the mortar type be selected on the basis of
the structural requirements of the wall. See Technical
Notes 8.
Paint. Paint for application to brick masonry walls
should be durable, easy to apply and have good adhesive
characteristics. It should be porous if applied on exterior
masonry, thereby permitting the wall to breathe and pre-
venting the trapping of free moisture behind the paint film.
CONSIDERATIONS FOR PAINTING CLAY MASONRY
In selecting a paint system for a brick masonry wall,
the primary concern should be the characteristics of the
surface and the exposure conditions of the wall. A primer
coat may be of particular importance, especially where
unusual or severe conditions exist.
Alkalinity. The chemical property of masonry which
may have a significant effect on paint durability and per-
formance is the alkalinity of the wall. Brick are normally
neutral, but are set in mortars which are chemically basic.
Paint products, which are based on drying oils, may be
attacked by free alkali and the oils can become saponi-
fied. To prevent this occurrence, an alkaline-resistant
primer is recommended.
Efflorescence. The deposit of water-soluble salts on
the surface of masonry, efflorescence, is another factor
that can hamper the performance of painted masonry.
Efflorescence, which is present on the surface, should be
removed and, once removed, the surface should be
observed for reoccurrence prior to being painted.
Methods of preventing and removing efflorescence are
discussed in Technical Notes 23 Series, "Efflorescence-
Causes, Prevention and Control".
Water and Moisture. Water or moisture in a mason-
ry system will generally hamper the satisfactory perfor-
mance of the painted surface. Moisture may enter
masonry walls in any of several ways; through the pores
of the material, through incompletely bonded or only par-
tially filled mortar joints, copings, sills and projections,
through incomplete caulked joints and improperly installed
flashing or where flashing is omitted. In general, brick wall
surfaces should be dry for painting. Acceptable moisture
conditions for masonry walls to receive paint are listed in
Table 1. The use of an electrical moisture meter may be
used to measure the moisture content of a wall
SURFACE PREPARATION
General. Proper surface preparation is as important
as paint selection. Because each coat is the foundation
for all future coats, success or failure depends largely
upon surface preparation. Thoroughly examine all sur-
faces to determine the required preparation. Previously
painted surfaces often require the greatest effort. Before
painting, remove all loose matter. Take special care when
cleaning surfaces for emulsion paints and primers. They
are nonpenetrating and require cleaner surfaces than sol-
vent-based paints. Some paints can or should be applied
to damp surfaces. Others must not. Be sure to follow
directions accompanying proprietary brands.
New Masonry. As a general rule, new clay masonry
is seldom painted. It is difficult to justify the extra expendi-
ture for initial and future painting. However, if for any rea-
son painting new masonry is desired, there are a few pre-
cautions necessary for reasonable success.
Do not wash new clay masonry walls with acid clean-
ing solutions. Acid reactions can result in paint failures.
Use alkali-resistant paints. If low-alkali portland cement is
not used in the mortar, it may be necessary to neutralize
the wall to reduce the possibility of alkali-caused failures.
Zinc chloride or zinc sulfate solution, 2 to 3 1/2 lb per gal
of water, is often used for this purpose.
Existing Masonry. Examine older unpainted mason-
ry for evidence of efflorescence, mildew, mold and moss.
While these conditions are not common, they all indicate
the presence of moisture. Examine all possible entry
points for water. Where necessary, repair flashing and
caulking; tuckpoint defective mortar joints.
Remove all efflorescence by scrubbing with clear
water and a stiff brush. A wall which has effloresced for a
long time may present difficulties. The presence of mois-
ture, the deposition of salts and the probable presence of
alkalies are all factors which may contribute to the deterio-
ration of paints.
If moss has accumulated on damp, shaded masonry,
apply an ordinary weed killer. Wet the wall with clear
water before applying weed killers to prevent them from
being drawn into the wall. Chemical weed killers may
contain solubles which can contribute to efflorescence or
react unfavorably with paint, and should be removed after
being used by scrubbing the wall with a stiff brush while
rinsing with clear water.

TABLE 1
Dampness of Walls and Choice of Paint

Relative
Humidity in Electrical
Equilibrium or Hygrometric
With Surface, Wall Meter Indicator
Per Cent Condition (not microwave meter) Recommendation

100 Wet (with obvious Red Zone Chances of failure high. Postpone
moisture at wall surface) painting if possible. If postponement
is not feasible, wipe dry and use
special types of paint 1 suitable under
adverse conditions

100 Wet (no obvious water at Usually Red Zone Painting is best postponed. If
wall surface) essential, use:
(1) White cement paint
(2) Special types of paint1

90-75 Drying Usually Amber Zone As above. Othe porous paints give
reasonable chances of success. As
surface becomes drier, range may be
progressively increased to include:
(1) Most emulsion paints
(2) Special types of permeable flat oil
paints

Less than Dry Usually Green Zone No restrictions

75

1
Some manufacturers offer special porous, highly pigmented emulsion paints which may give somewhat better results in very adverse
conditions where delay is not acceptable.

2
 Mildew seldom occurs on unpainted masonry. TABLE 2
However, where present, treat it the same as on painted Types of Paint Failures
surfaces, discussed in the following paragraphs. Be sure
to wet the wall before applying any cleaning solution. Defect Description
Clean small areas and rinse thoroughly. For further dis-
cussion on cleaning brick see Technical Notes 20 Alligatoring Wrinkling of the paint surface,
Revised, "Cleaning Clay Products Masonry". caused by paint coats of different
Painted Surfaces. Previously painted surfaces nor- hardnesses
mally require extensive preparation prior to repainting
(refer to Table 2 for typical paint failures). Under humid Bleeding The working up of a stain into
conditions, mildew may have developed. Mildew may succeeding coats, imparting a
feed on a paint film or on particles trapped by the painted discoloration to the newly applied
surface. If present, remove it completely before applying coat
paint. Otherwise, growth will continue, damaging new
paint. Mildew has been successfully removed by steam Blistering Bubbles resulting from moisture
cleaning and sand blasting. The following is also effective: trapped behind an impermeable
3 oz trisodium phosphate (Soilax, Spic and paint film
Span, etc.), plus
1 oz detergent (Tide, All, etc.), plus Chalking Powdering at or just beneath a
1 qt 5 per cent sodium hyperchlorite (Chlorox, paint surface. Slight chalking may
Purex, etc.), plus be normal due to weathering
3 qt warm water, or enough to make 1 gal of
solution. Checking A defect in organic paints,
Use this solution to remove mildew and dirt. Scrub with manifested by slight breaks in the
a medium soft brush until the surface is clean; then rinse film surface
thoroughly with fresh water. For small areas, use an ordi-
nary household cleanser. Scrub with a medium soft brush Erosion Wearing away by weathering
and then rinse thoroughly. Use masonry paints containing a
mildewcide to help prevent molds from recurring. Excessive Paint Result of applying too much paint
Remove all peeled, cracked, flaked or blistered paint Buildup or coats which are too thick
by scraping, wire brushing or sand blasting. In some
instances, old paint may be burned off, but this should be Flaking Detachment of small pieces
done only by skilled operators. Like efflorescence, paint
blistering is caused by water within the masonry. Search Map Cracking Breaks in a paint surface extending
for the water's source and take the necessary corrective entirely through the paint or
measures to keep water out of the wall. particles adhering to the surface in
If alligatoring exists, remove the entire finish. There is damp places, generally black or
no other means of correction. gray in color
If slight chalking has occurred, brush the surface thor-
oughly. However, if chalking is deep, remove by scrub- Mildew Fungus growth sometimes found
bing with a stiff fiber brush and a solution of trisodium feeding on paint or particles
phosphate and water. Rinse the surface thoroughly after- adhering to the surface in damp
wards. Use a penetrating primer to improve adhesion of places, generally black or gray in
the final coat. color
Excessive paint buildup results from too many coats
or excessively thick coats. Where it occurs, remove all Peeling A partial detachment of paint
paint and treat as a new surface.
Completely remove cement-based paints before Scaling An advanced form of flaking
repainting with other types. An exception to this rule is
the use of cement-based paints as primers which will be
covered by another paint within a relatively short time. If
the wall will be repainted with another cement-based before making recommendations. However, the following
paint, wire brushing and scrubbing will suffice, providing will generally indicate the proper use of masonry paints.
treatments for mildew, efflorescence, etc. are not required.
CEMENT-BASED PAINTS
MASONRY PAINTS For many years, cement-based paints have been sat-
Because all paints have distinct properties and isfactory coatings for masonry surfaces. They achieved
because surfaces vary considerably, even the most expe- popularity because they have relatively good adherence
rienced painting contractors carefully examine a surface and tendency to make a wall less permeable to free
water. Cement-based paints are permeable, permitting
3
the wall to breathe. Their main components are portland Butadiene-Styrene Paints. These relatively low-cost,
cement, lime and pigments. Additives, binders and sands rubber-based latex paints develop water resistance more
may be added. slowly than vinyl or acrylic emulsions. They are most satis-
Although cement-based paints are more difficult to factory in light tints as chalking rate may be excessive in
apply than other types, good surface protection results deep colors.
when properly applied. While they are not complete Vinyl Paints. Polyvinyl acetate emulsion paints dry
waterproofers, cement-based paints help to seal and fill faster, have improved color retention and a more uniform,
porous areas, excluding large amounts of free water. lower sheen than rubber-based latex paints.
White and light colors tend to be the most satisfactory. It Acrylic Emulsion Paints. Acrylic emulsions have
is difficult to obtain a uniform coating with darker shades. excellent color retention, permit recoating in 30 min or less,
Lighter colors tend to become translucent when wet, and and have good alkali resistance. Acrylics have high resis-
dark colors become darker. Color returns to normal as tance to water spotting and may be scrubbed easily.
the wall surface dries. Cement-based paints can provide Alkyd Emulsion Paints. Alkyd emulsions are related
a good base for other paints applied within a relatively to solvent-thinned alkyd types, but have all the general char-
short time. acteristics of latex paints. They do have more penetration
The following procedure for applying paint on a prop- than most water-thinned emulsions, achieving better adhe-
erly prepared surface generally applies: sion on chalky surfaces. Compared to other emulsion
paints, these are rather slow to dry, have more odor, are not
1. Cure new masonry walls for approximately one
as resistant to alkalies, and have poorer color retention.
month before applying cement-based paints.
Under normal exposure conditions, alkyd emulsions can
2. Dampen wall surfaces thoroughly by spraying with
serve as a finished coat over a suitable primer.
water.
Multicolored Lacquers. Aspecialized paint group,
3. Cement-based paints are packaged in powdered
multicolored lacquers are applied only by spray gun. The
form. Because their cementitious components
finished film appears as a base color with separate dots or
begin to hydrate upon contact with water, mix
particles of contrasting colors. These paints will cover many
immediately prior to application for optimum
surface defects and irregularities. However, they must be
results.
applied over a base coat of another type; for example,
4. Apply heavy coats with a stiff brush, allowing at
polyvinyl acetate or acrylic emulsion paints.
least 24 hr to elapse between coats.
5. During this time, keep the wall damp by periodi-
FILL COATS
cally spraying it with water.
Fill coats are base coats for exterior masonry. They are
6. Apply additional coats in the same manner.
similar in composition, application and uses to cement-
7. Keep the final coat damp for several days to prop-
based paints. However, fill coats contain an emulsion paint
erly cure.
in place of some water, giving improved adhesion and a
tougher film than unmodified cement paints. Fill coats have
WATER-THINNED EMULSION PAINTS
greater water retention, giving the cement a better chance to
General Characteristics. Water-thinned emulsion
cure. This is particularly valuable in arid areas where it is
paints, commonly referred to as latex paints, are relatively
difficult to keep the painted surface moist during the curing
easy to apply. Water-thinned emulsions may be brush,
period.
roller or spray-applied. However, brush application is prefer-
able, especially on coarse-textured masonry. Emulsion
SOLVENT-THINNED PAINTS
paints dry quickly, have practically no odor and present no
The five major solvent-thinned paints are oil-based,
fire hazard. They may be applied to damp surfaces, permit-
alkyd (synthetic resin), synthetic rubber, chlorinated rubber
ting painting shortly after a rain or on walls damp with con-
and epoxy. Oil-based and alkyd paints are not recommend-
densation.
ed for exterior masonry. Solvent-thinned paints should be
As a group, these paints are alkali-resistant. Hence,
applied only to completely dry, clean surfaces. They pro-
neutralizing washes and curing periods are not usually nec-
duce relatively nonporous films and should be used only on
essary before painting. Water emulsion paints possess high
interior masonry walls not susceptible to moisture penetra-
water vapor permeability and are known to have performed
tion. The exception to this is special purpose paint, such as
well on brick substrates that have been properly prepared.
synthetic rubber, chlorinated rubber and epoxy paints.
Emulsion paints will not adhere well to moderately
Oil-Based Paints. Oil-based paints have been used for
chalky surfaces. If possible, repainting should be done
many years. They are relatively non-porous and recom-
before the previous coat chalks excessively. However,
mended for interior use only. Although several coats may
specifically formulated latex paints are available containing
be required for uniform color and good appearance, they
emulsified oils or emulsified alkyds which facilitate wetting of
bind well to porous masonry. As with most solvent-based
chalky surfaces. This property enables the paint to bond the
paints, they have good penetration on relatively chalky sur-
chalk together and to the substrate.
faces, but are highly susceptible to alkalies. New masonry
The principal water-thinned emulsion paint types are:
must be thoroughly neutralized to avoid saponification.
butadiene-styrene, vinyl, acrylic, alkyd and multicolored lac-
Available in a wide color range, oil-based paints are moder-
quers.
ately easy to apply. Several days' drying is generally
4
required between coats.
Alkyd Paints. Alkyd paints are similar to oil-based
paints in most general characteristics. They may have
slightly less penetration, resulting in somewhat better
color uniformity at the cost of adhering power. Alkyd
paints are more difficult to brush, dry faster and give a
harder film than oil-based paints. These, too, are nonper-
meable and are recommended for interior use only.
Synthetic Rubber and Chlorinated Rubber Paints.
These paints have excellent penetration and good adhe-
sion to previously painted, moderately chalky surfaces as
well as new surfaces. They are reported to be more
resistant to efflorescence and are generally good in alkali
resistance. They may be applied directly to alkaline
masonry surfaces, but are more difficult to brush on than
oil paints. Darker colored synthetic rubber paints lack
color uniformity. Both types have high resistance to corro-
sive fumes and chemicals. For this reason, they are often
specified for industrial applications. Both types require
very strong volatile solvents, a fire hazard which may
prove undesirable.
Epoxy Paints. Epoxy paints are of synthetic resins
generally composed of two parts, a resin base and a liq-
uid activator. They must be used within a relatively short
time after mixing. Epoxies can be applied over alkaline
surfaces, have very good adhering power, and good cor-
rosion and fume resistance. However, some types chalk
excessively if used outdoors. Epoxies are relatively
expensive and somewhat difficult to apply.
"HIGH-BUILD" PAINT COATINGS
High-build paint coatings are generally used on interi-
ors to give the effect of glazed brick. Some coatings are
based on two-component urethane polyesters and epox-
ies. Others are of an emulsion-based coat with acrylic
lacquer. These paint systems usually include fillers to
smooth out surface irregularities.
PAINTING NEAR UNPAINTED MASONRY
Often windows and trim of masonry buildings are
painted with self-cleaning paints to keep surfaces fresh
and clean. Unfortunately, self-cleaning is generally
achieved through chalking. The theory is that rain will
wash away chalked paint, constantly exposing a fresh
paint surface. The theory works well, but too often no pro-
vision is made to keep chalk-contaminated rain water
away from masonry surfaces. The result is usually more
unsightly than dirty paint on trim or windows. Avoid this
staining by choosing nonchalking paints for windows and
trim and by providing a means of draining water away
from wall surfaces.
REFERENCES
1. Manual on the Selection and Use of Paints, Technical
Report #6, National Research Council of Canada,
Division of Building Research, 1950, Ottawa, Canada.
2. Paints for Exterior Masonry Walls, BMS110, National
Bureau of Standards, 1947, Washington, D.C.
3. Field Applied Paints and Coatings, Publication 653,
Building Research Institute, 1959, Washington, D.C.
4. Paints and Coatings, Publication 706, Building
Research Institute, 1960, Washington, D.C.
5. Painting Walls: 1, Building Research Station Digest
(2nd Series), No. 55, Building Research Station,
1965, Garston, Herts., England.
6. Coatings for Masonry Surfaces, by H. E. Ashton,
Canadian Building Digest, CBD 131, November 1970,
Ottawa, Canada.
7. Coatings for Masonry and Cementitious Materials, by
Walter Bayer, Construction Specifier, November 1970,
Washington D.C.

OTHER COATINGS
Heavily applied coatings of the so-called "breathing
type" are available with either a water or solvent base.
They are generally composed of asbestos fiber and sand,
and applied thickly to hide minor surface imperfections.
The presence of moisture on the surface of a masonry
wall generally will not harm the latex type. Lower applica-
tion temperatures of 35 F to 50 F on the other hand are
less damaging to the solvent type.
For both types, adhesion is mostly mechanical
because of low binder and high pigment content. Some
coatings require special primers to insure adhesion.
Although these coatings are reported to have given good
performance on masonry, they tend to show stains where
water runoff occurs.
These coatings are capable of allowing passage of
water vapor, but cannot transmit large quantities of water
that may enter through construction defects. Failure may
occur as a result of freezing of water accumulation behind
the film.

5
 Technical Notes 6A

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
April
1995

COLORLESS COATINGS FOR BRICK MASONRY

Abstract: Colorless coatings are considered for application to brick masonry walls and
floors for several reasons. This Technical Notes discusses the common reasons for applying
colorless coatings to above-grade brick masonry and the appropriateness of such actions. The
types of products which are often used and the advantages and disadvantages of their use are
considered. Recommendations are provided when considering the application of a clear coat-
ing to brick masonry.

Key Words: colorless coatings, film former, graffiti-resistant, penetrant, water penetra-
tion, water repellent.

INTRODUCTION Many times a single product is used to achieve several

Colorless coatings are available in many types and
are designed for a variety of uses. The type of coating
applied to brick masonry is dependent on the desired ef-
fect of the coating and its chemical and physical proper-
ties. Products promoted for use on brick masonry are
not always appropriate. Some can be detrimental to
brick masonry. Function of the brickwork plays an im-
portant role in coating selection. Coatings suitable for
interior brick masonry may not be suitable for exterior
exposures. Similarly, coatings applied to floors or pave-
ments are subject to conditions different from coatings
applied to brick masonry walls. Coating selection is al-
so influenced by the material properties of the substrate.
Recommendations for clear coatings on other masonry
materials are not necessarily appropriate for brick ma-
sonry. Clay brick masonry is considerably different than
stone, concrete and concrete masonry in both physical
and chemical properties. Brick masonry has a different
pore structure, is generally less absorptive, less perme-
able and is not as alkaline as concrete masonry. The
recommendations included herein are applicable only to
clay brick masonry.
This Technical Notes examines the various types of
colorless coatings often applied to brick masonry. Spe-
cific recommendations are found under RECOMMEN-
DATIONS FOR USE. Coatings for below grade ma-
sonry, such as damp proofing or waterproofing coatings,
are not addressed. Other Technical Notes in this series
cover the painting of brick masonry.
REASONS FOR USE
Clear coatings may be applied to brick masonry in an
effort to facilitate cleaning, to resist graffiti, to provide
gloss or to reduce water absorption or penetration.
*This Technical Notes 6A replaces Technical Notes 7E, which has been discontinued.
of these objectives. Selection of a coating should be
based on the desired appearance, resistance to water
penetration, application, material substrate, economics,
life span or other criteria set by the designer or user. In
addition, the disadvantages of using colorless coatings
should be considered during selection.
Water Repellency
It is desirable to minimize the absorption and pene-
tration of water in a brick masonry wall system for
many reasons. Water absorption can lead to staining
and efflorescence when soluble salts are liberated by
moisture in a masonry wall. Water penetration is re-
sponsible for many of the problems encountered in
walls. Water which freezes in nearly saturated brick can
cause deterioration over time. Corrosion of metal ties,
metal studs and other metal items due to prolonged con-
tact with water can lead to structural or serviceability
failures of a building wall. Wood members and sheath-
ing are vulnerable to rotting and mold growth when
wetted. Water penetrating an exterior wall can damage
interior finishes.
To effectively minimize water penetration, care must
be exercised in the material selection, design and detail-
ing of brick masonry. Quality construction and proper
maintenance are also important. Under normal expo-
sures, it is nearly impossible for significant amounts of
water to pass directly through the brick units or mortar.
Most water penetrating a brick masonry wall occurs at
separations and cracks between brick and mortar or at
junctures with other materials.
Clear water repellent coatings are sometimes suggest-
ed to reduce water absorption and reduce the amount of
water that penetrates the exterior brick masonry wythe.
Recent research indicates the varied effectiveness of
clear water repellents in reducing water leakage through
a brick masonry wythe [4,8,11]. Change in the absorp-
tion properties of masonry may have no effect on water
penetration of a masonry wall system. Clear water re-
pellents can seldom stop water penetration through
cracks over 0.02 in. (10 mm) in size. Clear water repel-
lents cannot stop water penetration through incomplete-
ly filled mortar joints or from sources such as ineffec-
tive sills, caps or copings. Their effectiveness under
conditions of wind-driven rain is questionable. As a re-
sult, the use of clear water repellent coatings to elimi-
nate water penetration in a wall with existing defects is
often futile. Clear water repellents are most effective at
reducing the amount of water absorbed by the brick
masonry. Thus, they can help reduce staining and efflo-
rescence caused by moisture absorption, particularly on
highly absorptive masonry.
The applications and limitations of clear water repel-
lents are described in the sections that follow. Methods
for ascertaining the effectiveness of clear water repellents
are discussed under PERFORMANCE CRITERIA.
New Construction Applications. Clear water repel-
lents are sometimes specified for newly constructed
brick masonry as an “insurance measure” against water
penetration and related problems. The thinking is that
clear water repellents will prevent water penetration
which would have otherwise occurred due to imperfec-
tions in construction. Such thinking should be discour-
aged, because clear water repellents cannot compensate
for poor construction or design. As discussed previous-
ly, their effectiveness in stopping water penetration has
limitations. Furthermore, most brick masonry wall sys-
tems do not require a clear water repellent to remain
impervious to rain water. For these reasons, the use of
clear water repellents on newly constructed drainage
walls is not recommended.
Clear water repellents can be useful for brick mason-
ry walls which are particularly vulnerable to water pen-
etration, especially in climates which receive larg e
amounts of rain. These wall types include barrier walls,
chimneys and parapets. When a clear water repellent is
considered for use on these elements, the benefits must
be weighed against the possible disadvantages. Past
successful performance of the proposed coating, for a
number of years in the same exposure conditions and on
the same brick and mortar types, should be required. In
climates which experience freezing and thawing cycles,
the effect of a colorless coating on the durability of the
masonry is a particular concern. For exterior brick
pavements subject to repeated freeze/thaw cycling, the
possibility of accelerated deterioration outweighs any
benefits of clear water repellents.
Whenever applying clear water repellents to newly
constructed masonry walls, a minimum of one month
should pass after close-in of the building before appli-
cation of the coating. This period will allow the walls
to cure sufficently and, more importantly, allow the
evaporation of moisture from the building materials to
2
occur naturally, unimpeded by a coating on the mason-
ry. In fact, a relatively dry substrate is recommended
by many colorless coating manufacturers. A delay of
one year is preferred so that efflorescence due to water
absorbed during construction, often known as “new
building bloom,” is not entrapped by the coating. For a
more complete discussion of efflorescence, refer to
Technical Notes 23 Series.
Remedial Applications. The most common reason
for application of a clear water repellent coating is to re-
duce or eliminate water penetration in a building experi-
encing water penetration problems. The inability of a
coating to eliminate water penetrating through larger than
hairline cracks in the masonry has already been dis-
cussed. When a clear water repellent is being considered
as a means to eliminate water penetration in a brick ma-
sonry wall, several items must be addressed prior to ap-
plication of a coating. It is paramount that the source of
water penetration be determined. The application of a
clear water repellent in lieu of ascertainable repairs is not
recommended. Common repairs which may be neces-
sary and should be completed include:
1. Removal of defective sealant and cleaning, prim-
ing and replacement with a good grade of elas-
tomeric sealant at all windows, copings, sills, ex-
pansion joints between brick masonry and other
materials;
2. Repointing of incompletely filled, cracked or dis-
integrated mortar joints;
3. Removal and replacement of spalled or cracked
brick;
4. Surface grouting of separations between the brick
units and mortar.
These remedial measures are described in Technical
Notes 7F [15].
Other repairs, which are generally more difficult and
costly to complete, include:
1. Clearing mortar blockage from weep holes and the
interior drainage system;
2. Removal and replacement of damaged, omitted or
improperly installed flashing.
These latter repairs are argued by some people to be
unnecessary or uneconomical if using a clear water repel-
lent. However, all of these repair techniques can reduce
water penetration and are long-term solutions. Applica-
tion of a clear water repellent is not considered a long-
term solution. Long-term solutions are preferred.
After remedial measures have been completed and
inspected, it is usually advisable to wait a period of sev-
eral months to determine if additional corrective steps
are necessary. Many times the moisture penetration
problems will be corrected by these initial repairs and
further consideration of coatings can be dismissed.
If water penetration remains a problem, or long-term
solutions are judged to be uneconomical despite their
benefits, the application of a clear water repellent can
be considered. If water absorption appears to be the
problem, a clear water repellent can be particularly ef-
fective. However, clear water repellents are not a per-
manent solution and will require reapplication. See the
discussion under the Durability section for further infor-
mation on the life span of coatings.
Staining and Efflorescence
The use of colorless coatings can reduce the amount of
water absorbed by a brick masonry wall and may help re-
duce staining and efflorescence. As a result, colorless
coatings are sometimes used on brick masonry which has
a relatively high absorption, such as walls which have
been sand-blasted. Brick manufacturers sometimes ap-
ply colorless coatings to units during manufacture to re-
duce staining or initial rate of absorption. ASTM C 216
Specification for Facing Brick requires that the brick
manufacturer report the presence of such coatings. Se-
lection of a coating for any of these uses should be based
on demonstrated successful performance in similar us-
ages and exposures. Staining and efflorescence may not
be completely eliminated by application of a coating. If
staining or efflorescence occurs on masonry which is
treated with a colorless coating, the stains and salts may
be difficult or impossible to remove.
Appearance Change
Another common reason for using a colorless coating
is to achieve a darker, wet or glossy appearance. Gloss
is created by changing the reflectance of the brick ma-
sonry surface. In some cases, change of appearance
may be the undesired side effect of an improperly ap-
plied coating or of poor coating selection. Some coat-
ings may give an undesired sheen or gloss. See Figure
1. Other coatings may impart a yellow appearance to
the masonry. Satisfactory appearance of a treated sur-
face is best judged by examining a sample panel or test
area of masonry before and after treatment.
Undesired Gloss Due to a Colorless Coating
FIG. 1
3
Graffiti Resistance
Many structures used by the public are built with
brick masonry. Schools, government buildings, li-
braries and noise barrier walls are applications where
brick masonry is chosen for its appearance and low
maintenance. Resistance to graffiti and ease of cleaning
can be important. Colorless coatings are sometimes ap-
plied to brick masonry to help achieve these goals.
Such coatings work by keeping graffiti or dirt on the
masonry surface for easier removal. Glazed brick are
often used in similar applications to provide the same
benefits.
TYPES OF COLORLESS COATINGS
Colorless coatings for brick masonry can be classi-
fied into two general categories: film formers and pene-
trants. The two types have significantly different physi-
cal properties and performance. As the name implies,
film formers produce a continuous film on the surface
of the masonry. Penetrants enter up to 3⁄8 in. (10 mm)
into the brick masonry and do not form a surface film.
Most colorless coatings are available in two formula-
tions: water-borne and solvent-borne. Normally, better
penetration and performance is attained using
solvent-borne solutions. However, manufacturers are
increasingly using water-borne solutions which have
lower volatile organic compound (VOC) content. VOC
content is regulated by many states because of the con-
nection with poor air quality. Product data and test re-
sults should be examined to compare performance.
Carrier type influences permissible application condi-
tions. Temperature range, substrate moisture content,
environmental regulations and adjacent materials and
vegetation must be considered.
Colorless coatings are discussed in the following sec-
tions according to generic chemical type. Most color-
less coating manufacturers will provide information on
the generic chemical composition of their products. In
addition, handbooks are available which classify many
proprietary coatings according to their generic chemical
composition [6].
Film Formers
Acrylics, stearates, mineral gum waxes, urethanes
and silicone resins are among the products which form
a film when applied to brick masonry. The large molec-
ular size of these products prevents them from penetrat-
ing into the masonry. Typically, film-forming products
work by adhering a film to the surface of the brick ma-
sonry substrate. Surface preparation can be important
in achieving satisfactory adhesion of a film-forming
coating. Film matierals, continuity and product concen-
tration determine the performance characteristics.
Film-forming products are effective at preventing
water from penetrating into brick masonry. Film form-
ers can bridge the small hairline cracks which are com-
monly the source of water penetration. However, their
ability to exclude water from the exterior also inhibits
evaporation of water within the masonry through the
exterior face. This reduction in the water vapor trans-
mission rate, or lack of breathability, through the brick
masonry is of special concern in exterior brick masonry
subject to freezing and thawing cycles. Thus, film-
forming products are generally not recommended for
brick masonry in such environments.
A film on a masonry wall may facilitate cleaning by
keeping surface contaminants from penetrating into the
masonry. This characteristic leads to their use as graffi-
ti-resistant coatings. When an appearance change is de-
sired, film formers are typically used. Film-forming
products, by their nature, tend to produce a sheen or
gloss when applied. In some cases, they may darken
the appearance of a wall (the wet look) when used in
high concentrations.
Acrylics. Acrylics can be effective as water repel-
lents. However, they are vulernable to cracking due to
thermal fluxuations. They are often used when a high
gloss is desired. Acrylics are available in two forms,
water-borne and solvent-borne. Acrylic emulsions are
water-borne. Acrylic solutions are solvent-borne. Be-
cause of increasing regulation of solvent-borne prod-
ucts, acrylic emulsions are more widely used. Coating
manufacturers typically recommend that acrylics be ap-
plied to substrates that are thoroughly dry. If applied to
a damp substrate, the acrylic film can separate from the
masonry, giving it a cloudy, or whitened, appearance.
Acrylics in particular tend to create a slippery surface.
This is a concern in pavement applications. When sta-
bilized against degradation in ultraviolet (UV) light,
acrylics can last five to seven years.
Stearates. Stearates promoted for use on masonry
Clouding of Brick Masonry Wall
Coated With a Mineral Gum Wax
FIG. 2
4
are generally aluminum or calcium stearates. They are
sometimes known as metallic soaps. Stearates form a
water repellent surface by reacting with free salts in
mineral building materials and plugging the pores.
Some formulations are used as integral water repellents
in concrete masonry and mortar. Their effectiveness as
water repellents varies, and typically film-forming
stearates must be reapplied every year. Stearates also
have the potential to turn cloudy if moisture gets behind
the coating.
Mineral Gum Waxes. Paraffin wax and polyethy-
lene wax are commonly referred to as mineral gum
waxes. These products are typically solvent-borne and
can be good water repellents, able to bridge hairline
cracks. However, they have been known to darken the
substrate and, in cases where moisture gets behind the
coating, turn the surface a milky white. Figure 2 illus-
trates a case where a mineral gum wax promoted for
use on brick masonry was applied to a building which
had water penetrating through cracks in the masonry
and at flashing failures. The sources of moisture were
not addressed, and the coated masonry became moist.
This led to clouding and eventual spalling of the mason-
ry, as shown in Fig. 3.
Urethanes. Urethanes, chemically polyurethanes,
are isocyanate resins. They are classified as either aro-
matic or aliphatic, depending on the compound reacted
with the isocyanate. They are considered one-part ure-
thanes if cured by moisture in the substrate or air, and
two-part if they require a chemical catalyst to cure.
While urethanes can be excellent water repellents and
provide good gloss, they often break down under UV
light. Chemical additives are often used in urethanes to
Spalling of Brick Masonry Wall
Coated With a Mineral Gum Wax
FIG. 3
prevent yellowing and improve gloss retention. Ure-
thanes with such additives usually last from one to three
years. Because they are not resistant to UV light, ure-
thanes are not the best choice for exterior applications.
Silicone Resins. Known chemically as poly-
dimethylsiloxanes (PDMS), silicone resins may form a
film in the presence of moisture when their solids con-
tent is between five and ten percent. The PDMS comes
in many weights and forms. The properties of the resin
depend on the molecular weight and structure of the
PDMS. Early silicone resins were known for reducing
the durability and changing the appearance of masonry.
They often yellowed and were hard to clean. There are
PDMS manufactured today which do not yellow or con-
tribute to soiling. Silicones do not chemically bond
with the substrate, and as a result, have a short life.
Many silicones require reapplication on a yearly basis,
although some last longer.
Penetrants
Penetrating type coatings are characterized by their
penetration into the substrate, typically to depths up to
3⁄8 in. (10 mm). They repel water by changing the cap-
illary force, or contact angle, of the pores in the face of
the masonry from positive (suction) to negative (repel-
lency). Penetrating coatings are typically more resistant
to UV degradation because of their chemical composi-
tion and because they penetrate below the masonry sur-
face. Because they coat the pores rather than bridge
them, penetrants tend to have better water vapor trans-
mission characteristics. The solids content of these ma-
terials commonly ranges from five to forty percent by
weight. Penetrants can be categorized into five groups:
silanes, siloxanes, silicates, methyl siliconates and
blends of these.
Silanes. Silanes used as clear water repellents are
more accurately known as alkylalkoxysilanes or alkyl-
trialkoxysilanes. Their small molecular structure allows
good penetration on even dense substrates. They are
used in relatively high concentrations (typically 20 per-
cent or greater solids content). Silanes chemically bond
with silica- or alumina-containing materials to make the
material water repellent. Silanes are best applied to
slightly damp substrates. An alkaline substrate, such as
concrete or concrete masonry, acts as a catalyst to speed
the reaction to form a water repellent surface. Chemi-
cal catalysts are also used with silanes to improve the
chemical reaction on less alkaline substrates such as
brick.
Siloxanes. The clear water repellent coatings known
as siloxanes are actually oligomerous alkylalkoxysilox-
anes or silsesquioxanes. Although they have a larger
molecular structure than silanes, good penetration and
water repellency can also be achieved by siloxanes.
Like silanes, siloxanes chemically bond with silica- or
alumina-containing materials such as brick. This re-
sults in a long life, up to ten years or more, and makes
5
them more difficult to remove. Siloxanes can also be
applied to a damp surface. Siloxanes are less volatile
than silanes and react with chemically neutral substrates
without a chemical catalyst. Siloxanes are typically
used in solutions having five to seven percent solids by
weight. Siloxanes have been known to work well on
certain brick masonry installations. However, siloxanes
are highly reactive with silica and will bond with glass
which is not properly protected.
Silicates. Ethyl silicates are commonly used as con-
solidants on natural stone and occasionally brick ma-
sonry. They are generally used for restoration of deteri-
orated masonry. Consolidants are designed to react with
and stabilize the substrate to which they are applied.
Their use on brick is uncommon. Sodium silicates and
potassium silicates are sometimes used in the concrete
industry as curing compounds and accelerators. None
are effective water repellents and are not recommended
for this use on brick masonry.
Methyl Siliconates. Methyl siliconates are alkaline
solutions which react slowly with silica-containing ma-
terials in the presence of carbon dioxide to form a water
repellent surface. Siliconates are sometimes injected in-
to brick masonry to form a horizontal barrier to rising
damp. However, because of their slow reaction time,
they make poor water repellents and are not recom-
mended for surface application to exterior brick mason-
ry walls.
B l e n d s . Colorless coatings are also made from
blends of the materials listed above. Blends are created
to produce products with the benefits of the constituent
materials. As such, they reflect the properties of the
constituent materials, but the properties will be modi-
fied somewhat. Thus, it is important that the user re-
view product data and test results for blended products.
PERFORMANCE CRITERIA
Any coating applied to brick masonry will change the
physical properties of the masonry. Appropriate perfor-
mance criteria for colorless coatings are not well de-
fined. Currently, coating manufacturers rely on test
methods developed for common substrates, such as
concrete and brick, to measure the performance of their
products. For example, water repellency is often mea-
sured by comparing the cold water absorption of un-
treated and treated brick using the method described in
ASTM C 67 Test Methods of Sampling and Testing
Brick and Structural Clay Tile. While easy to perform,
the interpretation and use of such laboratory results, for
a single material, has not been determined. Until these
tests are validated with research and correlated to ma-
sonry wall performance, one must rely on good judg-
ment and experience in establishing performance crite-
ria limits. The following criteria can be useful in com-
paring several colorless coating alternatives. The most
critical properties of colorless coatings to be evaluated
are water vapor transmission, water penetration and re-
pellency, durability, reapplication, gloss, slip resistance,
graffiti resistance and environmental considerations.
These properties are discussed in the following sec-
tions. A summary of several properties of colorless
coatings is found in Table 1.
Water Vapor Transmission
The most important property to consider when select-
ing a coating for application on exterior brick masonry
is the water vapor transmission rate. The water vapor
transmission, or breathability, of exterior brick masonry
is important in determining the rate and amount of wa-
ter which can evaporate through the face of the mason-
ry. Coatings which do not breathe well, those not hav-
ing a high water vapor transmission rate, can entrap wa-
ter within the brickwork leading to clouding of the coat-
ing. See Figs. 2 and 4. A minimal reduction in the wa-
ter vapor transmission rate through coated brick mason-
ry reduces the possibility of masonry deterioration due
to freeze-thaw cycles or salt crystallization by ensuring
that natural evaporation can occur. Otherwise, water-
soluble salts which may be normally deposited on the
surface of the masonry as efflorescence may be trapped
beneath the coating. As salts crystallize, they grow sig-
nificantly in size. Accumulation of entrapped salts can
lead to spalling. The potential for these actions may
preclude the use of coatings on brick masonry. Addi-
tionally, older brick masonry structures may be subject
to damaging moisture problems, such as rising damp
and condensation, which are only aggravated by the ap-
plication of a colorless coating.
A method to evaluate the potential of a colorless
coating to entrap damaging salts and cause spalling is
proposed by Binda [3]. Individual brick units are treat-
ed with the colorless coating on their exposed face. The
Clouding of a Colorless Coating on a Brick Pavement
FIG. 4
6
sides of the unit are sealed with rubber to prevent evap-
oration except through the treated face. The units are
subjected to cycles of immersion in a salt solution for 4
hours and air drying for 44 hours. The cross-sectional
size is measured after each cycle. Deterioration is typi-
cally by delaminations of the treated brick face. Hence,
a reduction in brick cross section. A correlation of the
number of cycles to deterioration in this test to the dura-
bility of a masonry assemblage has not yet been estab-
lished. However, this method is one means of assessing
salt crystallization damage potential when evaluating
colorless coatings.
Others have also tried to establish the effect of color-
less coatings on the water vapor transmission rate and
durability of brick masonry. At present, there is no
definitive test. The water vapor transmission rate can
be measured using ASTM E 96 Test Methods for Water
Vapor Transmission of Materials, desiccant (dry) cup
method. A comparative measurement can be made be-
tween an untreated and a treated brick unit sample, or
the water vapor transmission rate of the coating itself
can be determined. Comparative testing of an untreated
and a treated brick sample is advised. For comparative
testing, a maximum ten percent reduction in the rate of
vapor transmission is the recommended limit.
Water Penetration and Water Repellency
Water penetration resistance is an important criterion
when selecting a clear water repellent. However, most
clear water repellent manufacturers measure perfor-
mance of a clear water repellent based on water absorp-
tion. The ASTM C 67 test for cold water absorption is
often used to compare the absorption of treated and un-
treated brick units. This approach has two significant
limitations. Testing an individual brick is not a measure
of the performance of a clear water repellent on the
brick masonry assemblage. Secondly, changing the ab-
sorption of a brick unit may have no beneficial effect on
the water penetration resistance of the brickwork. Per-
formance of a coating is more accurately evaluated by
measuring water penetration resistance of the construct-
ed brick masonry wythe.
The water penetration resistance of clear water repel-
lent coatings should be measured by comparative labo-
ratory testing in accordance with ASTM E 514 Test
Method for Water Penetration and Leakage Through
Masonry. Testing should be performed on a minimum
of three identical wall specimens of the intended mate-
rials and construction. The amount of water penetration
should be measured on each specimen in accordance
with ASTM E 514 before and after coating with the
clear water repellent. The percentage reduction in wa-
ter penetration is a measure of the water repellent effec-
tiveness. A 90 percent reduction in maximum leakage
rate, percent area of dampness on the back face of the
wall and total water collected after 24 hours of testing
[4] as compared to the untreated wall panel is recom-
mended. However, a specified reduction under labora-
 TABLE 1
Typical Properties of Colorless Coatings for Brick Masonry1
Water Vapor Water
Transmission Repellency
Film Formers
Acrylics Poor Very good
Stearates Poor Varies
Mineral gum waxes Poor Good
Urethanes Poor Very good
Silicone resins Fair Varies
Penetrants
Silanes Very good Very good
Siloxanes Very good Very good
Blends Varies Varies
1
Refs. 6, 13
tory conditions may not necessarily reflect performance
of the clear water repellent on the actual masonry con-
struction. Variables in construction can have a signifi-
cant impact on water penetration resistance of a mason-
ry wall. Thus, a 90 percent reduction rate for a labora-
tory test does not automatically translate into a 90 per-
cent reduction in water leakage through the exterior
brick wythe of a constructed building.
Durability
The life span of colorless coatings is an important cri-
terion in material selection. The effective life is influ-
enced by the thickness of the film or depth of penetration
into the brickwork, exposure to UV light, the severity of
weather exposure and the form of masonry construction.
There are several test methods which simulate outdoor
exposure. ASTM G 53 Practice for Operating Light- and
Water-Exposure Apparatus (Fluorescent UV-Condensa-
tion Type) for Exposure of Nonmetallic Materials is one
often specified. The difficulty with using such tests to
measure life span of a coating is trying to correlate labo-
ratory test results to field performance. Coating charac-
teristics, such as gloss or water repellency, can be mea-
sured before and after exposure and the results compared,
but such tests have not been correlated to the actual life
expectancy of the coating. Greater depth of penetration
or film thickness and greater resistance to degradation in
UV light and harmful environments imply longer life for
an exterior applied colorless coating. Many clear water
repellents are warranted by the coating manufacturer to
last ten years or more.
In addition to laboratory testing, monitoring field
performance by comparative testing can determine the
effectiveness of a clear water repellent after several
years of service. The water penetration of a newly coat-
ed wall can be measured and recorded in a specified
area using a field test, such as a Masonry Absorption
Test (MAT) tube [11], RILEM tube or other technique
[87]. Periodic comparisons can be made using the same
technique in the same location. Such evaluation will in-
7
Life Span, Glossy Finish Graffiti-
yr Possible Resistant
5-7 Yes Yes
1 No No
Varies No No
1-3 Yes Yes
1 Yes No
10 + No No
10 + No No
Varies No No
dicate if the coating has met its warranted life and also
when recoating may be necessary.
The durability of a coating applied to an interior brick
pavement is characterized by resistance to abrasion and
yellowing. It is common for film-forming products to re-
quire reapplication to brick floors every few years, de-
pending on the amount of traffic. Evaluation of a coat-
ing’s resistance to abrasion is difficult, because there are
no direct test methods for measurement on brick.
Reapplication
Reapplication of clear coatings is another considera-
tion. Most coatings must be reapplied every 7 to 15
years, and some last considerably shorter periods of
time. Compatibility of coatings can be a problem. For
example, a penetrating coating cannot be applied over
an existing film-forming coating. In some cases, reap-
plication of the same coating may cause clouding. In
other cases, the hydrophobic nature of a coating makes
reapplication difficult or impossible. It may be neces-
sary to strip the treated surface of any prior coating ac-
cording to the coating manufacturer’s recommendations
before a new or different coating can be applied. This
procedure may involve hazardous chemicals often regu-
lated or restricted from use by local, state or federal en-
vironmental regulations. Thus, an existing coating may
have to remain in place until it wears off, even if deteri-
oration of the masonry calls for its removal.
Gloss
Gloss can be measured by determining the re-
flectance of a coating using Federal Test 141a, Method
6121. However, desirable gloss is a subjective matter.
Gloss is best evaluated by examining a representative
test area of brick masonry including the entire range of
colors and textures, one-half of the area treated with the
specified coating, the other half untreated. Acceptable
appearance should be determined by the designer or
owner. An accepted test area should be retained as a
means for judging acceptability of other treated areas.
Slip Resistance
A colorless coating can adversely affect the slip re-
sistance of an interior brick floor or exterior brick pave-
ment. Coated floors or pavements should be evaluated
for slipperiness for safety reasons, especially in public
access areas and in areas where water may contact the
floor or pavement. The slip resistance of a coating is
often measured using ASTM D 2047 Test Method for
Static Coefficient of Friction of Polish-Coated Floor
Surfaces as Measured by the James Machine. Nonhaz-
ardous surfaces have a minimum static coefficient of
friction of 0.5 as measured by this test method [1].
Graffiti Resistance
Graffiti-resistant coatings may be permanent or sacri-
ficial in nature. In addition to the properties already
mentioned, they should be evaluated on the basis of
their resistance to chemicals and degradation in UV
light. A high resistance to common chemical cleaners
is a necessary property of a permanent coating, so that
the graffiti can be removed without removing the coat-
ing. The effect of cleaning chemicals on the coating
can be evaluated by applying the cleaning chemical to a
sample area of coated brick masonry. Always consult
the coating manufacturer prior to such testing for safety
precautions, as reactions between the cleaner and the
coating may be hazardous. Many graffiti-resistant coat-
ings are sold with a special cleaner designed for use
with that coating. If the coating is designed as a sacrifi-
cial layer, ease of removal is important and should be
documented by the product manufacturer and evaluated
by application to a test area. Satisfactory performance
is indicated by successful removal of purposely applied
graffiti. Resistance to weathering and UV stability can
be evaluated using ASTM Test Method G 53 to simu-
late exterior exposure, followed by evaluation of the de-
sired performance characteristics, such as ease of clean-
ing.
Environmental Considerations
Possible environmental hazards are also of concern
when considering a colorless coating. Often the chemi-
cals used in colorless coatings are highly reactive and
can etch glass, damage paint, kill vegetation and emit
harmful vapors. This requires attention to worker safe-
ty and proper protection of adjacent surfaces.
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR USE
Selection of a specific product should be based on
recommended performance criteria described herein
and any other criteria set by the designer to address the
particular conditions involved. The possible advan-
tages of colorless coatings should be weighed against
the disadvantages associated with their use. In addition,
the brick manufacturer should be consulted for recom-
mendations on the use of colorless coatings prior to se-
lection of any coating. Colorless coatings change the
physical properties of the brick masonry on which they
8
are applied. This may be beneficial or, in many cases,
detrimental to the performance of the masonry.
Exterior Walls
In exterior brick masonry walls, one of the foremost
concerns is water penetration. The many factors impor-
tant in determining the water penetration resistance of
brick masonry walls are discussed in Technical Notes 7,
7A and 7B [15]. Clear water repellents should never be
used as a substitute for good design, construction and
maintenance.
When a colorless coating is considered for a brick
masonry wall exposed to freezing, the water vapor
transmission rate is critical to the durability of the ma-
s o n r y. In addition, a condensation analysis, as de-
scribed in Technical Notes 7C and 7D [15], should be
performed to determine the effect of the coating on the
location of condensation within the wall system before
applying a colorless coating.
Because they permit more rapid water vapor trans-
mission, penetrating coatings are preferred over film-
forming coatings for exterior brick masonry walls. If a
clear water repellent is to be used, siloxanes are recom-
mended. Siloxanes provide the advantage of good wa-
ter repellency and long term performance and have
been shown to be effective on many brick masonry
walls. Silanes containing chemical catalysts have also
been used successfully.
Because of the effect of a film on the breathability of
masonry, film-forming coatings should be used cau-
tiously, particularly in freezing environments. Only
products with known performance in a similar climate,
wall type and exposure on brick masonry with similar
physical properties should be used. In areas where
freeze-thaw cycles is a concern, the possible disadvan-
tages of a colorless coating may preclude their use. For
this reason, film-forming coatings should be avoided on
exterior brick masonry walls in freezing climates.
Prior to applying a colorless coating on any exterior
wall, the wall should first be thoroughly inspected and
necessary repairs made. The inspection should deter-
mine the condition and suitability of: caps and copings,
flashing, weep holes, sealant joints, mortar joints and
general execution of details. Technical Notes 7F pro-
vides an inspection checklist for areas of concern. The
source of the problems should be identified and all defi-
ciencies should be carefully repaired or corrected. For
further discussion see the earlier section entitled Reme-
dial Applications. Only when remedial repairs have
been made, and problems still exist, should a clear wa -
ter repellent coating be considered for brick masonry.
Drainage Walls. Drainage-type masonry walls, such
as brick veneer and cavity walls, are designed to ac-
commodate water penetration of the exterior brick
wythe without damage to the interior components of the
wall system. Thus, when designed and constructed
properly, a clear water repellent is not necessary on
newly constructed brick masonry drainage walls.
 When the elements essential to successful perfor-
mance of a drainage wall are not achieved and water
penetration is a problem, a clear water repellent coating
may be appropriate. When a drainage wall is treated
with a colorless coating, the use of vents at the top and
bottom of all wall cavities is recommended to promote
evaporation of moisture from the brick masonry.
Barrier Wa l l s. Barrier walls are exterior single
wythe walls and multiwythe walls with filled collar
joints, which do not contain any provision for internal
drainage of water which penetrates the brick wythe(s).
These walls rely solely on the mass of the masonry to
prevent moisture penetration. Proper design, good
workmanship and maintenance are exceedingly impor-
tant.
Sometimes such walls contain flashing and drainage
spaces formed by interior finishes. For walls without a
provision for drainage of water which does penetrate,
prevention of water entry becomes even more impor-
tant. Walls without drainage spaces, and walls in areas
subject to large amounts of rain, are prime candidates
for the application of a clear water repellent. A clear
water repellent can limit the amount of moisture which
is absorbed by the wall and help reduce the potential for
water penetration.
Chimneys and Parapets. Chimneys and parapets
are other elements where clear water repellents can
sometimes be recommended. These walls can be sub-
Driving Rain Index
FIG. 5
9
ject to early deterioration because of severe exposure.
They are often exposed to wind-driven rain, water run-
down on the exterior walls from the crown or coping,
water penetration from failures in the chimney crown or
wall coping and incorrect flashing installations. Good
detailing of precast chimney crowns and parapet cop-
ings, properly constructed with overhangs, wall flashing
and a drip, prevents many water penetration problems.
H o w e v e r, because of the large amount of moisture
which can contact the surface of a chimney or parapet
wall, a clear water repellent coating can sometimes be
effective in reducing water-related problems. Condi-
tions in which a clear water repellent may be recom-
mended on chimneys and parapet walls include climates
with a driving rain index above three (see Fig. 5) and on
sloped or horizontal projections of such elements.
Interior Walls
Colorless coatings are generally applied to interior
walls to facilitate cleaning or provide a gloss. Water re-
pellency and breathability of an interior wall is general-
ly not a concern. While some penetrating coatings may
provide the desired effect, a film-forming product will
typically give best results when gloss and ease of clean-
ing are desired. Water-borne acrylics (acrylic emul-
sions) and urethanes have been found to produce the
best results for interior brick masonry walls. Acrylics,
in particular, are known to provide a high gloss. Both
are durable in applications with no UV exposure. Fin-
ished appearance is best judged by applying the coating
to a test area on the surface to be treated.
In the case of exterior brick masonry walls which
have their interior face exposed, water vapor transmis-
sion may be a concern. Film-forming products should
be used cautiously, only after the effect of the film on
the water vapor transmission of the wall system has
been evaluated.
Pavements
Brick masonry pavements are significantly different
from vertical brick masonry. Their exposure is different,
as is their construction. An exterior brick masonry
pavement is subjected to a more severe weathering ex-
posure than an exterior vertical wall. Pavements have
greater contact with moisture due to their horizontal ori-
entation and are often not protected by overhangs. In
addition, the lack of a drainage cavity or air space to aid
in drying further increases the severity of exposure.
There are several disadvantages associated with the
use of a colorless coating on pavement surfaces. Color-
less coatings can decrease the slip resistance of the
pavement or floor, especially when wet. Also, pave-
ments and interior floors are subject to abrasion due to
foot traffic which shortens the life expectancy of most
coatings compared to vertical applications.
Exterior Pavements. By nature of their construc-
tion, pavements only allow evaporation of moisture
from the masonry through one face, the wearing sur-
face. As a result, the potential for problems associated
with reduced water vapor transmission are significant.
These disadvantages usually outweigh any potential
benefit. For this reason, colorless coatings are not rec-
ommended for use on exterior brick pavements subject
to freezing and thawing. In exterior environments not
subject to freezing, water vapor transmission rate of the
coating must be high. Clouding of the coating is a par-
ticularly common problem. See Fig. 4.
Interior Floors. Colorless coatings are often applied
to interior brick floors to provide a glossy finish and to
facilitate cleaning. Mortarless brick pavements are
sometimes coated to help retain the jointing sand in the
joints. Urethanes, acrylics, waxes and some penetrating
coatings which meet the performance criteria discussed
herein and those set by the designer can be used on inte-
rior brick masonry floors not subject to freezing. The
primary disadvantage of most colorless coatings used
on floors is their tendency to increase the slipperiness of
the floor. Acrylics can be particularly hazardous; how-
ever, performance varies with formulation, and some
acrylic solutions have been used successfully. New
epoxy-based coatings show promise in this area. Past
successful performance is the best measure of a satis-
factory coating. Another caution is that film-forming
coatings may separate from the brick paving and turn
cloudy if moisture from the brickwork or supporting
members migrates through the brick floor. Consequent-
ly, a film-forming coating should only be applied when
10
the brick floor and supporting members are substan-
tially dry.
CONSIDERATIONS PRIOR TO COATING
Selection of a colorless coating for use on brick ma-
sonry should be based on the desired performance, the
information discussed in this Technical Notes and litera-
ture from the coating manufacturer. Additional items to
be considered prior to application of a colorless coating
follow. Whenever possible, consult with the brick man-
ufacturer for specific recommendations regarding coat-
ing of a particular brick. Properties of each brick are
unique and can affect coating performance.
1. It is suggested that the designer or user require
test reports for relevant performance criteria and
a written warranty from the coating manufacturer
for the performance of the coating over a desig-
nated period of time. The application contractor
should know precisely the work to be performed
and should protect adjacent and surrounding sur-
faces from over-spray as necessary. Qualifica-
tions of the contractor should be verified.
2. The coating should be that of a well-known man-
ufacturer who has been in business for a period of
at least five years. It is suggested that a brand
name be used that has a good track record over a
period of at least five years. References of pro-
jects with similar applications, materials and ex-
posure should be investigated.
3. The coating should be applied at the application
rate and under the climatic conditions recom-
mended for clay brick masonry substrates by the
coating manufacturer. Ty p i c a l l y, temperatures
above 40 °F (4 °C) and below 100 °F (38 °C) are
required. Application on windy days should be
avoided when possible.
4. Repair and replacement of brick and mortar joints
and other necessary repairs should be completed
prior to applying a colorless coating.
5. There should have been no efflorescence or, at
the maximum, only a minor occurrence of efflo-
rescence on the brick masonry to be treated.
Walls less than one year old should not be treated
because efflorescence, “new building bloom”,
may be entrapped by the coating. Walls with a
history of efflorescence should be coated only af-
ter the source of moisture has been addressed.
6. The wall must be clean at the time of application.
Heavy accumulations of atmospheric dirt will in-
terfere with proper penetration or adhesion of the
coating and result in poor performance and shorter
life. See ASTM D 5703 xPractice for Preparatory
Surface Cleaning for Clay Brick Masonry for a
discussion of cleaning techniques which may be
required [2]. In addition, freshly repointed mortar
and repaired sealant joints should cure a minimum
of 72 hours before a coating can be applied [13].
7. The brickwork should have a moisture content
 consistent with that recommended by the coating
manufacturer. Moisture content of the brick ma-
sonry should be checked at several locations by
the method recommended by the coating manufac-
turer.
8. Apply samples of the selected coating to test areas
of at least 10 ft2 (1 m 2) on the building at a loca-
tion representative of the area to be treated or on a
sample panel. Allow these test areas to cure as rec-
ommended by the coating manufacturer. Inspect
and test them to determine satisfactory perfor-
mance with respect to the performance criteria es-
tablished.
These steps must be taken in conjunction with the
recommendations contained within the applicable sec-
tions of this Technical Notes. They cannot guarantee
successful performance, but will greatly increase the
likelihood that the colorless coating will perform as in-
tended. The coating manufacturer will often have addi-
tional recommendations regarding coating selection,
substrate preparation, curing, application methods and
coverage rates. Failure to consider these items can re-
sult in poor performance of the coating and can cause
severe harm to the masonry or surrounding elements.
SUMMARY
This Technical Notes has discussed both the reasons
for and the suitability of colorless coatings for brick
masonry. For most exterior brick masonry, it is advis-
able not to use colorless coatings. Furthermore, clear
water repellents are not necessary on properly designed
and constructed brick masonry. However, under certain
conditions clear water repellents and other colorless
coatings may be beneficial.
The information and suggestions contained in this
Technical Notes are based on the available data and the
experience of the engineering staff of the Brick Institute
of America. The information contained herein must be
used in conjunction with good technical judgment and a
basic understanding of the properties of brick masonry.
Final decisions on the use of the information contained
in this Technical Notes are not within the purview of the
Brick Institute of America and must rest with the pro-
ject architect, engineer and owner.
REFERENCES
1. “ASTM D 2047 Standard Test Method for Static
Coefficient of Friction of Polish-Coated Floor
Surfaces as Measured by the James Machine,”
Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 15.04,
ASTM, Philadelphia, PA, 1994.
2. “ASTM D 5703 Standard Practice for Preparato-
ry Surface Cleaning of Clay Brick Masonry,”
Annual Book of ASTM Standard s, Vol. 6.02,
ASTM, Philadelphia, PA, 1995.
3. Binda, L., “Experimental Study on the Durabili-
ty of Preservation Treatments of Masonry Sur-
faces: Use of Outdoor Physical Models,” Pro -
11
ceedings of the Workshop -The Degradation of
Brick and Stone Masonries Due to Moisture and
Salt Content and the Durability of Surface Treat -
ments, Politecnico di Milano, Milan, Italy, Jan-
uary 1991, pp. 1-8.
4. Brown, R. H., “Initial Effects of Clear Coatings
on Water Permeance of Masonry,” M a s o n ry :
Materials, Properties, and Performance, ASTM
STP 778, J. G. Borchelt, Ed., ASTM, Philadel-
phia, PA, 1982, pp. 221-236.
5. Clark, E.J., Campbell, P. G. and Frohnsdorff, G.
“Waterproofing Materials for Masonry,” NBS
Technical Note 883, National Bureau of Stan-
dards, Gaithersburg, MD, October 1975.
6. Clear Water Repellents for Above Grade Mason -
ry and Horizontal Concre t e, Sealant, Wa t e r-
proofing & Restoration Institute, Kansas City,
MO, 1994.
7. Clear Water Repellent Treatments for Concrete
Masonry, Concrete Masonry Association of Cal-
ifornia and Nevada and the Masonry Institute of
America, Los Angeles, CA, 1993, pp. 38-40.
8. Coney, W. B. and Stockbridge, J. G., “The Ef-
fectiveness of Waterproofing Coatings, Surface
Grouting, and Tuckpointing on a Specific Pro-
ject,” Masonry: Materials, Design, Construc -
tion, and Maintenance, ASTM STP 992, H. A.
Harris, Ed., ASTM, Philadelphia, PA, 1988, pp.
220-224.
9. “Efflorescence: Causes, Mechanisms, Preven-
tion and Control,” Technical Notes on Brick
Construction 23 Series, Brick Institute of Ameri-
ca, Reston, VA, 1985.
10. McGettigan, E., “Selecting Clear Water Repel-
lents,” The Construction Specifier, Vol. 47, No.
6, Construction Specifications Institute, Alexan-
dria, VA, June 1994, pp. 121-132.
11. Roller, Sandra, “A Comparison of ASTM E 514
and MAT Tube Water Penetration Testing Meth-
ods Including an Evaluation of Saver Systems
Water Repellents,” Department of Civil and Ar-
chitectural Engineering, University of Wyoming,
Laramie, WY, October 1994, 208 pp.
12. Roth, M., “Comparison of Silicone Resins, Sili-
conates, Silanes and Siloxanes as Water Repel-
lent Treatments for Masonry,” Technical Bulletin
983-1, ProSoCo, Inc., Kansas City, KS, 1985.
13. Suprenant, B. A., “Water Repellents: Selection
and Usage,” Magazine of Masonry Construction,
Aberdeen Group, Addison, IL, December 1993,
pp. 527-532.
14. “The Cleaning and Waterproof Coating of Ma-
sonry Buildings,” Preservation Briefs, No. 1,
U.S. National Park Service, Washington, DC,
1976.
15. “Water Resistance of Brick Masonry,” Technical
Notes on Brick Construction 7 Series, Brick In-
stitute of America, Reston, VA, 1985.
 7
Technical Notes REVISED

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
Reissued*
February
1998

WATER RESISTANCE OF BRICK MASONRY

DESIGN AND DETAILING, PART I OF III

ABSTRACT: Proper design and detailing of brick masonry walls to allow minimum water penetration into or
through a wall system are absolute necessities. Careful evaluation of several items is a requirement in order
to obtain proper resistance to water penetration. The selection of the proper type of wall is of utmost impor-
tance in the design process as is the need for complete and accurate detailing. In addition to discussing var-
ious wall types, this Technical Notes illustrates suggested details which have been found to be acceptable
methods of achieving walls resistant to water penetration.

KEY WORDS: barrier, brick masonry, design, detailing, drainage, flashing, installation methods, rain,
wall types, weepholes.

INTRODUCTION rain water is allowed to be in contact with the masonry in

Water penetration is responsible for many of the prob- larger quantities and for longer periods of time, thus lead-
lems encountered in masonry walls today. If a wall is satu- ing to more opportunity for water penetration problems.
rated with water, freezing and thawing may cause cracking, The successful performance of a masonry wall
crazing, spelling and disintegration. Water can cause depends on limiting the amount of water penetration and
masonry to experience dimensional changes, metals to cor- controlling any water that enters the wall system. If water
rode, insulation to lose its effectiveness, interior finishes to penetration can be limited, for all practical purposes, the
deteriorate and efflorescence to appear on exterior surfaces. wall will remain dry.
Water is abundant in many forms. Rain and snow con- Water resistance of a masonry wall depends on four
tact building materials, wetting them. Water vapor is present key factors:
in the air from many sources. As a result, since water can- 1. Design, including detailing.
not be completely eliminated, water penetration must be 2. Materials.
controlled. When water passes through brick masonry 3. Construction.
walls, it invariably does so through minute separations 4. Maintenance.
between the brick units and the mortar joints. Under normal
Attention to all four factors is necessary to produce a
exposures, it is virtually impossible for significant amounts of
satisfactorily performing wall. Failure to properly address
water to pass directly through the brick units or through the
any one factor can result in water penetration problems.
mortar. Highly absorbent brick will absorb some water, but
This Technical Notes Series addresses water resis-
certainly do not contribute to an outright flow of water
tance of brick masonry. The first three Technical Notes in
through a wall.
this series provide detailed guidelines in the above areas
Before brick curtain wall systems became popular,
of design, materials and construction. Other Technical
masonry walls usually functioned as both the structural sys-
Notes in the series provide information on condensation
tem and as the exterior skin of the building. As a result,
analysis, and the use of colorless coatings on brick
these masonry walls were quite massive, ranging in thick-
masonry. The subject of "Maintenance" will be covered in
ness from 12 in. (300 mm) up to 6 ft (1.83 m) of solid brick.
a future issue of this Technical Notes Series.
These masonry walls, both because of their thickness and
This Technical Notes deals with proper design of brick
their being in constant compression due to the structural
masonry to resist water penetration.
loads, worked quite well in keeping water out of the interi-
or of the building. Many older masonry walls were built
DESIGN
with cornices and other ornamentation which helped to
The first factor to evaluate in the control of water
protect the faces of the buildings from excessive water
resistance of masonry is that of design. Proper design of
rundown and subsequent water penetration to the interior.
masonry does not mean just proper structural design.
Walls used today are much less massive, and the
Design includes fire resistance, heat transmission, struc-
masonry may be only 3 in. (75 mm) in thickness. In many
tural integrity, material compatibility, sound reduction, aes-
cases, they have minimal overhang at the top, allowing
thetics and water resistance. Other Technical Notes pro-
sheeting of the rain water from the roof or parapet down
vide guidance on all of these different design factors.
to the ground. As a result of these newer wall systems,
 Design for water resistance requires evaluation of
several items, including: (1) sources of moisture; (2)selec-
tion of wall type; and (3) flashing and weepholes. Each of
these items will be addressed separately.
Sources of Moisture
Moisture is present almost everywhere in various
forms, i.e., rain, snow, condensation, ground water, con-
struction water, etc. Some of these lend themselves to
control; some do not. This section deals with wind-driven
rain. Interstitial condensation and its control are discussed
in Technical Notes 7C and 7D.
Wind-Driven Rain. The exposure to which a mason-
ry wall will be subjected is very important to the proper
design of the wall. No single standard design can be
expected to perform equally well under all exposures.
Exposures vary greatly throughout the United States,
from severe on the Atlantic Seaboard and Gulf Coast,
where rains of several hours' duration may be accompa-
nied by high velocity winds; to moderate in the Midwest
and Mississippi Valley, where wind velocities are usually
lower; to slight in the arid areas of the West. See Figure
1. Exposure areas may be defined roughly in terms of
Properties and Performance, ASTM STP 778, J.G.
Borchelt, Ed, American Society for Testing and Materials,
1982, pp. 171-177), see Table 1 and Fig. 2, has been pro-
posed, which is based on the assumption that the likeli-
hood of rain penetration is proportional to the product of
annual average rainfall and annual average wind speed.
The wall exposure (severe, moderate or sheltered) is then
determined by correlating the Driving Rain Index with the
wall relative to its surroundings, using Table 1.
Selection of Wall Type. The selection of the proper
wall type to use in any given situation is very important.
Under normal conditions, it is nearly impossible to keep a
heavy wind-driven rain from penetrating a single wythe of
brickwork, regardless of the quality of the materials or the
degree of workmanship used.
TABLE 1
Wall Exposure to Wind-Driven Raina
Wall Standing Above Surroundings
Driving
Rain Yes No
Indexb (Unprotected) d (Protected) d
Wall Near Facade Edge c Wall Near Facade Edge c

wind pressure and annual precipitation as follows: Greater Less

Severe: Annual precipitation 30 in. or over, wind Than Than Yes No Yes No

pressure 30 psf or over. 0 1.5 severe moderate sheltered sheltered

Moderate: Annual precipitation 30 in. or over, wind 1.5 3.0 severe moderate moderate sheltered
3.0 5.0 severe severe severe moderate
pressure 20 to 25 psf. 5.0 ••• severe severe severe severe
Slight: Annual precipitation less than 30 in., wind a
Exposures are for walls on buildings located more than 5 miles (8 km) from a
pressure 20 to 25 psf, or annual precipita sea, large lake or estuary. All walls on buildings located 5 miles (8 km) or less
tion less than 20 in. from a sea, large lake or estuary have a severe exposure.
b
See Fig.2.
More recently, a Driving Rain Index (Grimm, C.T., "A c
Near facade edge is within one-tenth of the facade width from a corner or
Driving Rain Index for Masonry Walls", Masonry: Materials one-tenth of the facade height from the top.
d
A wall might be condsidered protected where permanent buildings or terrain
face the wall in all directions and have a height above the top of the wall of
more than 1.2 times their individual distances fromthe wall or where there is a
permanent solid wall overhang at the top of the wall having a width of at least
85 percent of the wall height.

Therefore, a major concern is to control the moisture

once it begins to penetrate the wall. Two basic wall sys-
tems are used for this purpose: the drainage wall and the
barrier wall.
Drainage Wall Systems---Drainage wall systems
include cavity walls (metal-tied and masonry-bonded hol-
low walls), and anhored veneer walls. See Figs. 3
through 6. The basic concept behind the drainage wall
assumes a heavy, wind-driven rain may penetrate the exteri-
or wythe of brick. When it does, the moisture migrates
inward to the cavity or air space between the wythes. Here
it flows down the back face of the outer brick wythe, is col-
lected on the flashing, and is directed out of the wall system
through the weepholes. Properly designed, detailed and
constructed drainage wall systems are rated excellent with
respect to water penetration resistance. Specific detailed
information on all aspects of cavity wall systems can be
found in Technical Notes 21 Series. Technical Notes 28
Series addresses anchored veneer wall systems.
Flashing
Flashing is a membrane, installed in a masonry wall
system, which collects water that has penetrated the exteri-

FIG. 1 2
 Driving Rain Indexa
FIG. 2
or wythe and facilitates its drainage back to the exterior. bases, window sills, heads of openings, spandrels, shelf
Flashing is essential in a drainage wall system, and is rec- angles, projections, recesses, tops of walls and roofs.
ommended as a second line of defense in a barrier wall sys- Wall Base - Moisture which does enter a wall gradually
tem. Various types of flashing materials which may be used travels downward. Continuous flashing must be placed
in the design of brick masonry and composite walls are cov- above grade at the base of all walls to divert this water to
ered in Technical Notes 7A Revised. the exterior. In addition, base flashing prevents water from
Locations. Proper design requires flashing at wall rising up into the wall system due to capillary action. Once

Typical Brick Cavity Wall Typical Insulated Brick Cavity Wall

FIG. 3 FIG. 4

3

FIG. 6
the designer has determined the level for placing flashing in
the wall in accordance with the grading plans, care should
be taken that field modifications do not result in any section
of flashing being below grade. See Fig. 8 for typical details.
Window Sills - Through-wall flashing should be placed
under all sills and turned up at the ends to form dams. See
4
Figs. 9 through 11 for examples. Soffits and deep reveals
may require special flashing considerations. Technical
Notes 36 Series contains further details and information.
Steel Lintels - Through-wall flashing should be installed
over all openings. An exception may be those completely
protected by overhangs. The flashing should be placed
directly on top of the lintels and turned up at the ends to
form dams. Fig. 12 shows several examples of lintels which
require flashing. (Note that in some cases, although flash-
ing is not called for, weepholes are still recommended).
Spandrels and Shelf Angles - In concrete or steel
frame buildings, the entire faces of the spandrel beams may
be flashed or the flashing may be inserted in a continuous
reglet installed in the spandrel beam. When the entire face
of the spandrel is flashed, layered flashing (counter-flashing)
should be used. See Fig. 13.
Projections, Recesses and Caps - Projections,
recesses and caps tend to collect rain water and snow.
They should be sloped away from the wall to drain and be
flashed where possible. See Fig. 14. Other details and
information can be found in Technical Notes 36 Series.
Tops of Walls - The tops of all walls and parapets
should have an adequate cap or coping, and there should
be flashing beneath the coping. Drainage-type parapet
walls are recommended as the best wall system for resis-
tance to water penetration. See Figs. 15 through 18 for
examples. Technical Notes 36 Series provides more details
and information on these subjects.
Roof Flashing - Because roof flashing occurs at very
vulnerable points, it must be designed and installed with
great care. Roof flashing design may depend upon the type
of roofing used. Where the roof flashing is metal, the
counter-flashing should also be metal, extending into the
wall and overlapping the roof flashing a minimum of 3 to 4
in. (75 to 100 mm). See Figs. 19 and 20 for examples.
Installation Methods. In addition to specific location
information, there are other considerations regarding instal-
lation of flashing which the designer must address. These
are discussed in detail in this section.
Continuity - Flashing is not usually installed in one
long, continuous sheet. As a result, pieces must be fitted
together on the job. Flashing pieces should be lapped at
least 6 in. (150 mm) and the laps sealed with mastic or an
adhesive compatible with the flashing material.
End Dams - Where the flashing is not continuous, such
as over and under openings in the wall, the ends of the
flashing should be extended beyond the jamb lines on both
sides and should be turned up into the head joint several
inches at each end to form a dam. See Fig. 21.
Extension Through Wall - All flashing should extend
beyond the face of the wall to form a drip. Termination of
through-wall flashing behind the exterior face of the wall is a
dangerous practice and is not recommended. See Fig. 22.
Flashing Around Corners - When flashing around cor-
ners, the flashing should be continuous. To achieve this
continuity, the pieces of flashing may need to be cut, lapped
and sealed to conform to the shape of the structure.
Flashing at Vertical Supports - In some cases, vertical
support angles make it necessary to cut, puncture or other-
wise interrupt the flashing. When this occurs, it is important
 Barrier Types
FIG. 7

Sill in Frame/Brick Veneer Construction

FIG. 9

Foundation Details Sill in Cavity Wall Construction

FIG. 8 FIG. 10

5
Concrete or Stone Sill Steel Shelf Angles
FIG. 11 FIG. 13

Types of Stuctural Steel Lintels

FIG. 12

6
 Brick and Precast Concrete or Stone Caps Coping for Cavity Wall Parapet
FIG. 14 FIG. 15
to make sure that all openings in the flashing are tightly
sealed, and that the flashing is attached to these supports
with mastic.
Gravel Beds - It may be desirable to provide a layer of
gravel several inches deep on top of the base flashing.
This will help keep mortar droppings from falling on the
flashing and clogging the weepholes. Care must be taken
in the choice of size and shape of the gravel to avoid
blocking the weepholes and puncturing the flashing. It is
recommended that a bed of mortar, conforming to the
curve of the flashing, be placed under the flashing for
additional support of the gravel bed. Note that gravel
should not be placed on top of flashing which covers bolt- Rowlock Coping on Solid Masonry Parapet
ed shelf angles as the weight of the gravel on the flashing FIG. 16
may cause tearing or puncturing at the bolt head. See
tions. The details are provided to illustrate the principles
Figs. 22 and 23.
involved, not as standard details.
Bond Breaks - It must be remembered that mortar
The information contained in this Technical Notes is
bond to flashing is not as good as mortar bond to mason-
based on the available data and experience of the techni-
ry units. Where mortar is placed immediately above and
cal staff of the Brick Institute of America. This information
below flashing, flexural strength of the wall may be
should be recognized as recommendations which, if fol-
reduced about 30 to 70 percent. Where flashing is placed
lowed with good judgment, should result in masonry walls
directly on masonry, without mortar, the flexural strength
that are resistant to water penetration.
should be considered as zero.
Final decisions on the use of information, details and
Weepholes materials as discussed in this Technical Notes are not
In order to properly drain any water collected on the within the purview of the Brick Institute of America and
flashing, weepholes must be provided immediately above must rest with the project designer, owner or both.
the flashing at all flashing locations. The practice of spec-
ifying the installation of weepholes one or more courses of
brick above the flashing can cause a backup of water and REFERENCES
is not recommended. In general, weepholes should be at More comprehensive information on specific design
least 1/4 in. (6 mm) in diameter, and should be spaced no procedures and details for various types of walls beyond
further apart than 24 in. (600 mm) o.c. horizontally. In those items discussed in this Technical Notes is contained
other cases, such as where a wick material is used in the in the following publications:
weephole, the spacing should be reduced to 16 in. (400 1. Technical Notes on Brick Construction 7ARevised.
mm) maximum. See Fig. 24. "Water Resistance of Brick Masonry-Materials” -Part
II of III, March 1985.
SUMMARY 2. Technical Notes on Brick Construction 7C, "Moisture
This Technical Notes is the first in a series on water Control in Brick and Tile Walls-Condensation",
resistance of brick masonry. It provides the basic infor- Reissued November 1981.
mation required to properly design and detail brick 3. Technical Notes on Brick Construction 7D, "Moisture
masonry to avoid water penetration problems. Obviously, Control in Brick and Tile Walls-Condensation
this Technical Notes cannot cover all designs or all condi-
7
 Analysis", Reissued November 1981
4. Technical Notes on Brick Construction 21 Revised,
"Brick Masonry Cavity Walls", Jan.-Feb. 1977.
5. Technical Notes on Brick Construction 21ARevised,
"Brick Masonry Cavity Walls-Insulated", May-June
1977.
6. Technical Notes on Brick Construction 21B, ìBrick
Masonry Cavity Walls-Detailing", Jan.-Feb. 1978.
7. Technical Notes on Brick Construction 21C, "Brick
Masonry Cavity Walls-Construction", May-June 1978.
8. Technical Notes on Brick Construction 28 Revised,
"Brick Veneer-New Construction", Jul.-Aug. 1978.
9. Technical Notes on Brick Construction 28A, "Brick
Veneer-Existing Construction", Sept.-Oct. 1978.
10. Technical Notes on Brick Construction 28B Revised,
"Brick Veneer-Panel and Curtain Walls", Feb. 1980.
11. Technical Notes on Brick Construction 36 Revised,
"Brick Masonry Details-Sills and Soffits", Jul.-Aug.
1981.
12. Technical Notes on Brick Construction 36ARevised,
"Brick Masonry Details-Caps and Copings, Corbels Reinforced Parapet Wall
and Racking", Sept.-Oct. 1981. FIG. 17

Masonry Bearing Wall Coping

FIG. 19

Non-Parapet Wall
FIG. 20
Precast Concrete or Stone Coping on Cavity Wall Parapet
FIG. 18
8
 Gravel Beds
FIG. 23
End Dams
FIG. 21

Flashing and Weepholes

FIG. 24

Flashing Extended Beyond Face

FIG. 22

9
 7A
Technical Notes REVISED

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
Reissued*
December
1995

WATER RESISTANCE OF BRICK MASONRY

MATERIALS
PART II OF III
Abstract: This Technical Notes covers considerations and recommendations regarding the availability and
selection of materials to obtain a satisfactory degree of water resistance in the design and construction of brick
masonry walls. It is not the purpose of this Technical Notes to cover all materials or all conditions, but to illustrate
the principles involved. There are undoubtedly materials available which would accomplish the goal of providing
satisfactory water resistance, but are not addressed in this issue. Lack of specific reference to a material would
not preclude its use providing the product met the necessary requirements of the specifier in obtaining water-
resistant brick masonry.
Key Words: brick, coatings, corrosion resistance, flashing, grout, lintels, mortar, sealants, shelf angles,
ties, weepholes.

and Materials (ASTM). ASTM has, for many years, devel-

INTRODUCTION
Water resistance of brick masonry depends on four
key factors: design, materials, construction and mainte-
nance. This Technical Notes discusses materials. Design
for water resistance is addressed in Technical Notes 7
Revised and construction techniques are discussed in
Technical Notes 7B Revised. The discussion of various
aspects of maintenance will be covered in a future issue.
MATERIALS
The use of quality materials in the construction of
masonry walls is of prime importance in attaining a satis-
factory degree of water resistance. When water passes
through brick masonry walls, it invariably does so through
separations or cracks between the brick units and the
mortar. Under normal exposures, it is virtually impossible
for significant amounts of water to pass directly through
brick units. Highly absorbent brick may absorb some
water, but certainly do not contribute to an outright flow of
water through the wall. The key item is the extent of bond
between the brick units and the mortar. Extent of bond is
a measure of the area of contact at the interface between
brick and mortar surfaces. Bond strength, on the other
hand, is a measure of the adhesion between brick and
mortar. High bond strength of brick and mortar combina-
tions may not necessarily result in an extent of bond that
would provide high resistance to water penetration. It fol-
lows that better extent of bond results in increased water
resistance of brick masonry. Tests over the years have
shown that the strongest and most complete bond is
achieved when the suction of the brick unit, at the time of
laying, is below 30 g/min/30 sq in. (30 g/min/194 cm ).
2
As a result, brick with suction more than this value may
have to be wetted prior to laying.
The standards for the choice of quality construction
materials are those of the American Society for Testing
*Originally published in March 1985, this Technical Notes has been reviewed and reissued with editorial changes .
oped standard specifications for basically all building
materials. These specifications are based on laboratory
tests and field experience and, in the case of brick units,
are the result of experience gained over a span exceeding
100 years. It must be remembered that the use of ASTM
specifications will not guarantee that the desired results
will be produced, even if the product meets the appropri-
ate standard in every respect. They are consensus stan-
dards, and they set minimum quality levels for products.
These standards are the best guides available for the
determination of quality construction materials.
Brick Units
The choice of quality brick units is very important.
The choice of a particular unit will normally be based on
such things as color, texture, size and cost. But, there are
other, more important, items that need to be taken into
account by the designer. These are durability, and mor-
tar/brick compatibility.
Because the masonry will be wet during part of its life,
the question of durability is of primary concern. Problems
of cracking, crazing, spalling and disintegration can occur
if an improper choice of brick is made. The ASTM specifi-
cations for brick are written to provide guidance to the
designer in choosing the quality of brick unit for specific
exposure conditions. All of the requirements for compres-
sive strength, absorption and saturation coefficients are
specified to predict the durability level of the units. None
of the ASTM requirements are provided as a guide for
determining the degree of water resistance of the mason -
ry. The degree of water resistance is important to the
durability of the masonry insofar as the more water that
enters the system, the greater the probability that the
masonry will be in a saturated condition during any
freeze/thaw cycles. There is a Note in the ASTM brick
unit specifications regarding the initial rate of absorption
(suction) of the brick units which is provided as a guide
only, not a requirement.
Brick Standards. There are several kinds of brick
units used in construction today and each has its own
ASTM standard, with its own specific minimum require-
ments for Grade and, in some cases, Type. Grades cover
the physical requirements in the standard while Types
cover finish, size and warpage. The most commonly used
brick standards are:
1. Facing Brick - ASTM C 216
2. Building Brick - ASTM C 62
3. Hollow Brick - ASTM C 652
4 Ceramic Glazed Brick - ASTM C 126
Mortar and Grout
The proper choice of mortar and grout to use in a par-
ticular design situation is very important. The primary
concern is to choose a mortar and/or grout which will
bond well with the particular masonry units chosen.
Technical Notes 8 Series provides detailed information on
mortars and grouts for masonry.
Mortar. The two standards for specifying mortars for
unit masonry are ASTM C 270 and BIA M1-88. Four
types of mortar (M, S, N and O) are covered in each of
the standards. ASTM C 270 covers mortars made with
portland cement-lime combinations and those made with
masonry cements. BIA M1-88 addresses only mortars
made with combinations of portland cement and lime.
The Basic Rule - No single type of mortar is best for
all purposes. The basic rule for the selection of a mortar
for a particular project is: Never use a mortar that is
stronger (in compression) than is required by the structur -
al requirements of the project. Always select the weakest
(in compression) mortar that is consistent with the perfor -
mance requirements of the project.
This general rule must, of course, be tempered with
good judgment. For example, it would be uneconomical
and unwise to continuously change mortar types for vari-
ous pieces or parts of a structure. However, the general
idea of the rule should be followed, using good judgment
and economic sense.
Masonry Cements - Proprietary mortar mixes
(masonry cements) are widely used because of their con-
venience and generally good workability. However, there
are some drawbacks to such proprietary mixes. As pro-
prietary materials, their formulae are seldom disclosed by
their manufacturers.
Because of a lack of tight limitations on the type and
amount of ingredients permitted in masonry cements, and
the wide variation permitted in air content, the properties
of brick masonry constructed with masonry cement mor-
tars cannot be predicted with any degree of assurance.
For this reason, masonry cements per se cannot be rec-
ommended. The use of any particular brand should be
based on its performance record and laboratory tests of
masonry assemblages.
2
Grout. The standard for specifying grout for all
masonry work, whether it be unreinforced or reinforced, is
ASTM C 476. Two types of grout, fine and coarse, are
addressed in this standard. Coarse grout differs from fine
grout only in that it contains an addition of #4 aggregate
(pea gravel) to the basic mix. The grout space between
the brick masonry wythes or the cells in reinforceable
brick units should be more than 2 in. (50 mm) when pea
gravel is used. Fine grout should be used for dimensions
less than 2 in. (50 mm). A minimum cavity width of 1 in.
(25 mm) is recommended for fine grout use. Code
requirements may dictate the minimum size grout space.
Ties
Ties in a masonry wall system are provided to con-
nect two or more wythes together. In the case of a cavity
wall, the ties are the mechanism for transferring lateral
loads between the wythes. Wall ties can take the form of
wire ties, wire joint reinforcing, adjustable wire ties or
masonry bonders. One key item is to make sure that the
type of tie chosen will not decrease the water resistance
of the wall system.
Wire Ties. Wire ties, either Z-ties or rectangular ties,
shall comply with ASTM A 82. They should be corrosion-
resistant, 3/16 in. (4.8 mm) diameter steel or metal wire of
equivalent thickness. Applicable ASTM standards for cor-
rosion-resistant coatings or materials are discussed in a
following paragraph of this section.
Wire Reinforcing. Continuous wall ties (joint rein-
forcing) may be used in cavity or solid walls when the
wythes are composed of clay masonry units. These con-
tinuous wall ties may be either truss or ladder-type, with
at least one side wire in each wythe.
When the backup, or the inner wythe of a cavity wall,
is built using concrete masonry units, joint reinforcing is
needed in the concrete masonry to control cracking from
drying shrinkage. This control of cracking helps reduce
water penetration to the interior. Reinforcing should be
either three-wire joint reinforcing, or two-wire reinforcing
with tab ties. In either case, there should be one wire for
each shell of the concrete masonry wythe. Because of
the potential differential movement between brick and
concrete block wythes, the use of ladder-type rather than
truss-type joint reinforcing is recommended.
Adjustable Wire Ties. In some cases, adjustable
wire ties are the only way to tie masonry when courses in
separate wythes do not line up vertically, or to accommo-
date large anticipated vertical differential movement
between wythes in high-rise buildings. They should, how-
ever, be used with caution. Tests have shown that the
strength and stiffness of such ties are drastically reduced
if they are positioned to their maximum adjustment. This
reduction can be as great as a factor of 10. The ties pro-
viding lateral support for the outer wythe should be capa-
ble of resisting both tension and compression, but should
be designed to permit movement parallel to the plane of
the wall in both a vertical and a horizontal direction.
 Masonry Bonders. Masonry bonders are not used
as much today as they were in the past. One of their
main problems is that they provide a direct path for water
penetration from the outside of the wall to the interior
along the head and bed joints. As a result, they are rec-
ommended only in cases where water penetration is a
minor design consideration, or in some instances where
all wythes of a wall are of brick masonry.
Corrugated Metal Ties. Corrugated metal ties
should not be used in masonry construction with the pos-
sible exception of brick veneer on residential construction,
up to three stories in height. This recommendation is
made because of: (1) their shape, which allows water to
flow more freely to the interior; (2) their susceptibility to
corrosion; and (3) their poor structural capacity for trans-
ferring loads between the wythes.
Additional Considerations. Other considerations
which are common to most of the ties mentioned above
also must be considered.
Drips - The use of drips in ties should be evaluated
carefully. Drips may help to keep water from traveling
across wire ties to the interior, but they also reduce the
compressive and tensile strength of the tie in transferring
the lateral loads between the wythes. Since this load
transfer is very important for the structural strength of the
wall assembly, the spacing of the ties should be reduced
when they are manufactured with drips.
Corrosion Resistance - Corrosion resistance is usually
provided by copper or zinc coatings, or by using stainless
steel. To ensure adequate resistance to corrosion, coat-
ings or materials should conform to the following specifi-
cations:
ASTM A 153 -Specification for Zinc Coating
(Hot-Dip) on Iron and Steel Hardware, Class B-3
ASTM A 641 -Specification for Zinc-Coated
(Galvanized) Carbon Steel Wire, Class 3
ASTM B 227-Specification for Hard-Drawn
Copper-Clad Steel Wire, Grade 30 HS
ASTM A 167-Specification for Stainless and
Heat-Resisting Chromium-Nickel Steel Plate, Sheet
and Strip, Type 304
The use of wire ties conforming to the corrosion resis-
tance specified in ASTM A 641 should be limited to walls
where the entire tie is embedded in mortar or grout.
Where a portion of a tie is not embedded, i.e., crosses an
air space or cavity, only ties conforming to ASTM A 153,
ASTM A 167 or ASTM B 227 should be used. While it is
felt that these are conservative recommendations, they
are based on current available data.
Shelf Angles and Lintels
Shelf Angles. Where building codes or other factors
do not permit the brick to be self-supporting for its full
height, the veneer should be supported at each floor, or at
least every other floor, by shelf angles. The shelf angles
should be made of structural steel and properly sized and
anchored to carry the imposed loads. Additional discus-
3
sion and details may be found in Technical Notes 21
Revised and Technical Notes 28B Revised.
Corrosion Resistance - For severe climates and expo-
sures, consideration should be given to the use of galva-
nized or stainless steel shelf angles. Even where galva-
nized or stainless steel shelf angles are used, continuous
flashing should be installed to cover the angle. To ensure
adequate resistance to corrosion, coatings or materials
should conform to the following specifications:
ASTM A 123 - Specification for Zinc (Hot-Galvanized)
Coatings on Products Fabricated from Rolled,
Pressed and Forged Steel Shapes, Plates, Bars and
Strip
ASTM A 167 - Specification for Stainless and Heat-
Resisting Chromium-Nickel Steel Plate, Sheet and
Strip, Type 304
Lintels. The proper specification of material for steel
lintels is important for both structural and serviceability
requirements. The steel for lintels, as a minimum, should
comply with ASTM A 36-Specification for Structural Steel.
For harsh climates and exposures, consideration should
be given to the use of galvanized or stainless steel lintels.
If this is not done, then the steel lintels will require period-
ic maintenance to avoid corrosion. See corrosion resis-
tance requirements under shelf angles, preceding this
section. Technical Notes 31B Revised provides additional
information on structural steel lintels.
Flashing
Flashing in a masonry wall is important for the proper
drainage of water that may penetrate the wall system.
Therefore, the choice of proper flashing material is of
utmost importance. Flashing materials are generally
formed from sheet metals, bituminous membranes, vinyls
or combinations. The selection is largely determined by
cost and suitability. It is suggested that only superior
quality materials be selected, since replacement in the
event of failure will be exceedingly expensive.
Copper. Copper is durable, is available in special,
preformed shapes, and is an excellent moisture barrier.
Although exposed copper may tend to stain adjacent
masonry, it is not materially affected by the caustic alka-
lies present in masonry mortars. It can be safely embed-
ded in fresh mortar and will not deteriorate in continuously
saturated, hardened mortar, unless excessive chlorides
are present. When using copper flashing, prohibit the use
of chloride-based additives in the mortar. Typical copper
flashing is made from 10 to 20-oz sheet copper.
Plastics. Plastics are probably the most widely used
flashing materials. Plastic flashings are tough, resilient
materials, which are highly resistant to corrosion.
However, because the chemical compositions of plastics
vary widely, it is impossible to lump all plastic flashings
into one generalized group. Little information is available
regarding the durability of some of these materials, so it
will be necessary to rely on performance records of the
material, the reputation of the manufacturer, and where
possible, test data to ensure satisfactory performance.
Some of the critical areas are: (1) degradation resistance
to ultraviolet light; (2) compatibility with alkaline masonry
mortars; and (3) compatibility with joint sealants. Typical
thicknesses of plastic flashings are 20 mil to 40 mil (0.5
mm to 1 mm).
Galvanized Steel. Galvanized coatings are subject
to corrosion in fresh mortar. Although the corrosive prod-
ucts apparently form a very compact film around zinc, the
extent of corrosion cannot be accurately predicted.
Bending also reduces their durability by cracking the coat-
ing. Some zinc-alloy flashings are available, but, like
many alloys, these may have properties considerably dif-
ferent from those of the pure metal. The minimum thick-
ness for this type of flashing should be about 0.015 in.
(0.38 mm).
Stainless Steel. Stainless steel is an excellent flash-
ing material. It provides a good water barrier, and has
excellent chemical resistance. ASTM A 167, Type 304,
should be specified. The minimum thickness should be at
least 0.01 in. (0.25 mm).
Combination Flashings. Combination flashings,
such as copper laminated to felt or kraft paper, were
developed to utilize the better properties of each of the
materials making up the flashing while at the same time
lowering their cost. It is beyond the scope of this
Technical Notes to describe the various types of combina-
tion flashings and their properties. The manufacturers' lit-
erature should be consulted for the various flashings
available.
Asphalt-lmpregnated Felt. Asphalt-impregnated felt
is not recommended as a material to be used for flashing
in masonry construction. It is easily damaged during
installation, and in many cases, turns brittle and decays
with time.
Aluminum. The caustic alkalies present in fresh,
unhardened mortar will attack aluminum. Although dry,
seasoned mortar will not affect aluminum, corrosion can
again occur if the adjacent mortar becomes wet.
Aluminum should not be used as a flashing material in
brick masonry construction.
Sheet Leads. Lead, like aluminum, is susceptible to
corrosion in fresh mortar. Furthermore, where lead is par-
tially embedded in mortar, in the presence of moisture, it
develops a differential electrical potential, acting as the
positive element of an electric cell. The resulting elec-
trolytic action gradually disintegrates the embedded lead.
Lead should not be used as a flashing material in brick
masonry construction.
Weepholes
As mentioned in Technical Notes 7 Revised, weep-
holes must be used wherever flashing is located.
Otherwise, the collected water has no way to exit the wall
system. Weepholes can be made in a variety of ways.
Some of the most common ways are leaving head joints
4
open, using removable oiled rods, using plastic or metal
tubes, or using rope wicks. There are also plastic or
metal vents which are installed in lieu of mortar in a head
joint during construction. There is no single method which
produces the best weephole for all situations. As long as
weepholes are placed at the required locations in the
proper size and spacing, the specific type of weephole
chosen is not critical. See details in Technical Notes 7
Revised for location and spacing of weepholes.
Sealants
One of the most important items for preventing water
penetration is the use of proper sealants and caulking
around openings in masonry walls. Too frequently, caulk-
ing is considered a means of correcting or hiding poor
workmanship rather than as an integral part of construc-
tion.
The subject of joint sealants is far beyond the scope
of this Technical Notes, but a few comments are in order.
For normal joints around windows and other openings,
where little or no movement is expected, caulking should
be done using a solvent-based acrylic sealant or a butyl
caulk. For joints subject to large movements, such as
expansion joints, an elastomeric joint sealant, conforming
to the requirements of ASTM C 920, should be used.
This includes silicones, urethanes and polysulfides. In no
case should an oil-based caulking material be used.
Regardless of the type of sealant chosen, proper priming
and backer rods are a must.
Coatings
The use of some type of external coating on the face
of a brick masonry wall, such as paint or clear coatings, is
something which should not be done without a detailed
evaluation of the possible consequences. First, it may not
solve the basic water penetration problem, and second, it
could lead to more serious problems. Technical Notes 6
Revised and Technical Notes 6A should be consulted
before any type of coating is applied to a brick masonry
wall.
SUMMARY
This, the second in a series of Technical Notes on
water resistance of brick masonry, has provided informa-
tion on properly selecting quality materials for masonry
work. Obviously, this Technical Notes cannot cover all
materials or all conditions. The materials are listed to
illustrate the principles involved and may not include all
materials which are available.
The information contained in this Technical Notes is
based on the available data and the experience of the
technical staff of the Brick Institute of America. This infor-
mation should be recognized as recommendations which,
if followed with good judgment, should result in masonry
walls that are resistant to water penetration.
Final decisions on the use of information, details and
materials as discussed in this Technical Notes are not
within the purview of the Brick Institute of America, and
must rest with the project designer, owner, or both.
REFERENCES
For more detailed information on materials and topics
discussed in this Technical Notes, the following publica -
tions should be consulted:
1. Technical Notes on Brick Construction 6 Revised,
"Painting Brick Masonry", May 1972.
2. Technical Notes on Brick Construction 6A,
"Colorless Coatings for Brick Masonry", April 1995.
3. Technical Notes on Brick Construction 8 Revised,
"Portland Cement-Lime Mortars for Brick Masonry,” Sept.
1972.
4. Technical Notes on Brick Construction 8A,
"Standard Specification for Portland Cement-Lime Mortar
for Brick Masonry", Sept. 1988.
5. Technical Notes on Brick Construction 8B, "Mortar
for Brick Masonry-Selection and Controls,” July-Aug.
1976.
6. Technical Notes on Brick Construction 21
Revised, "Brick Masonry Cavity Walls", Jan-Feb. 1977.
7. Technical Notes on Brick Construction 28B
Revised, "Brick Veneer-Panel and Curtain Walls", Feb.
1987.
8. Technical Notes on Brick Construction 31B
Revised, "Structural Steel Lintels", Nov.-Dec. 1981.
9. Annual Book of ASTM Standards, American
Society for Testing and Materials:
(a) Section 1-Iron and Steel Products, Volumes 01.03,
01.04 and 01.06.
(b) Section 2-Nonferrous Metal Products, Volume
02.03.
(c) Section 4-Construction, Volumes 04.01 and 04.05.
(d) Section 15-General Products, Chemical
Specialties and End Use Products, Volume 15.08.

5
 7B
Technical Notes REVISED

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
Reissued*
April
1998

WATER RESISTANCE OF BRICK MASONRY

CONSTRUCTION AND WORKMANSHIP, PART III OF III

ABSTRACT: This Technical Notes covers essential construction practices needed to assure water-resistant
brick masonry. Included are information and recommendations on the preparation of materials to be used in
brick masonry construction. Consideration is also given to the need for good workmanship, which requires the
complete filling of all mortar joints. Discussion centers on acceptable types of tooled mortar joints for exterior
exposure and the need to cover unfinished brick masonry walls.

KEY WORDS: air space, brick, construction, joints, maintenance, materials, mortar, suction, tooling,
workmanship.

INTRODUCTION the mortar stiffens due to the loss of water by evaporation,

This is the third of three Technical Notes addressing
water resistance of brick masonry. Technical Notes 7 Revised
covers design and details, while Technical Notes 7A Revised
covers materials. This issue discusses construction tech-
niques and workmanship. All of these items are vital in
obtaining good water-resistant brick masonry walls.
CONSTRUCTION
The best design and detailing combined with the best
quality materials will not compensate for poor construction
practices and workmanship. Proper construction practices,
including preparation of materials and workmanship, are
essential in attaining a water-resistant brick masonry wall.
Preparation of Materials
Preparation of the materials before the actual bricklaying
begins is very important. Specific procedures must be fol-
lowed to ensure quality masonry and avoid future problems.
Storage of Materials. All materials at the jobsite
should be properly stored to avoid contamination. If pos-
sible, materials should be stored inside an enclosure.
When stored outside, all masonry units, mortar materials,
ties and reinforcing should be stored on platforms, prefer-
ably in a high, dry location. In addition, all materials
should be covered with tarpaulins or some other weather-
resistant material to protect them from the elements.
Mixing of Mortar and Grout. A high water content in
the mortar is necessary to obtain complete and strong
bond between mortar and brick units. Therefore, the mor-
tar should be mixed with the maximum amount of water
that it is possible to use and still produce a workable mor-
tar. It is recommended that all cementitious materials and
aggregates be mixed for at least 3 min and not more than
5 min in a mechanical batch mixer. If, after initial mixing,
*Originally published in April 1985 this Technical Notes has been reviewed and reissued
additional water can be added and the mortar remixed.
All mortar and grout should be used within 2 1/2 hr of ini-
tial mixing and no mortar or grout should be used after it
has begun to set.
One of the most common problems with mortar is
oversanding. Oversanded mortar is harsh, unworkable
and leads to a weak bond between mortar and brick, thus
inviting water penetration problems. The cause of the
oversanding is frequently due to the use of the shovel
method of measuring the sand. The amount of sand that
a shovel will hold varies, depending on the moisture con-
tent of the sand, the person doing the shoveling and the
different size of shovels used on the jobsite. To alleviate
this problem, proper batching methods must be used.
Measurement of sand by shovel should not be permitted.
Technical Notes 8B provides detailed guidelines for vari-
ous methods of more accurately batching mortar.
Wetting Brick Units. Brick with suction greater than
2
30 gm/min/30 sq in. (30 g/min/194 cm ) may need to be
wetted prior to laying to reduce their initial rate of absorp-
tion to an acceptable level to achieve proper bond of mor-
tar to brick. A rough, but effective, test for determining
whether units need wetting consists of drawing, with a
wax pencil, a circle 1 in. (25 mm) in diameter on the sur-
face of the unit which will be in contact with the mortar,
using a 25-cent piece as a guide. With a medicine drop-
per, place 20 drops of water inside this circle and note the
time required for the water to be absorbed. If the time
exceeds 1 1/2 min, the unit need not be wetted; if less
than 1 1/2 min, wetting is recommended. The method of
wetting the brick is very important. Sprinkling or dipping
the brick in a bucket of water just before laying may not
be sufficient. The units should be nominally saturated, but
surface dry at the time of laying. See Figure 1
 ing. Therefore, all joints to receive mortar should be com-
pletely filled as the brick are laid. See Figs. 2 through 4.

Spread a uniform bed of mortar over only a few brick.

Furrow only lightly, if at all. Place plenty of mortar on the end of
Moisture Content of Brick the brick to be placed. Brick is then shoved into place so that
FIG.1 mortar is squeezed out of top of head joint.
FIG. 2
Fig. 1(a) shows the saturated condition which rarely
occurs on the average construction job, except when the
brick are exposed during rainy weather.
Fig. 1(b) shows the dry condition which is unsatisfactory,
except for low-suction brick.
Fig. 1(c) shows the surface-wet condition which may be
satisfactory if the wetness extends to 3/4 in. (18 mm) or
more inside the surface.
Fig. 1(d) shows the ideal situation where the brick have
been saturated, but are surface dry.
Asatisfactory procedure for wetting the brick consists of
letting water run on the pile or pallets of brick. This should be
done the previous day, or not later than several hours before
the units will be used so that the surfaces have an opportuni-
After placing, mortar squeezed out of bed joint is cut off to
ty to dry before the brick are laid. Wetting of low-absorption
prevent staining the wall.
brick units or excessive wetting of other brick units may result
FIG. 3
in saturation and can cause "bleeding" of the mortar joints
and "floating" of the brick units. When the interior and exteri-
or wythes of brick have widely different absorption rates,
such as with an extremely dense and hard-burned facing
brick backed up with a relatively porous building brick, it is
important to maintain the correct water content in the two
types of brick.
Workmanship
The importance of good workmanship to attain quality
masonry has been stressed by many, sometimes to the point
that it may appear that workmanship alone is responsible for
the water permeability of some masonry walls, regardless of
the design or materials used. While this is by no means true,
workmanship is nevertheless a highly important factor in the
construction of watertight masonry. When placing closures, place plenty of mortar on ends of brick
Filling Mortar Joints. To obtain good masonry con- in place and on ends of brick to be placed. Shove closure into
struction, there is no substitute for the complete filling of all place without disturbing brick on either side.
mortar joints that are designed to receive mortar. Partially FIG. 4
filled mortar joints result in leaky walls, reduce the strength of
masonry, and may contribute to disintegration and cracking
due to water penetration and subsequent freezing and thaw-
2
wythes of masonry is called a collar joint. The manner in flashing during construction as well as information on the
which these joints are filled is very important. "Slushing" of proper installation of ties and anchors.
collar joints is not effective since it is difficult to completely fill
all voids in the joints. Frequently, the mortar is caught and
held before it reaches the bottom of the narrow crevice, leav-
ing openings between the face brick and the backup units.
Even when this space is filled, there is no way to compact
the mortar. The mortar does not bond with the brick over its
entire surface. Channels are left between the mortar and the
brick, through which water can trickle down behind the face
brick until it finds a path along which it can travel to reach the
back of the wall (see Fig. 5). A properly constructed collar
joint is completely filled with grout or mortar.
Head Joints
FIG. 6

Slushing does not completely fill the space between the face
brick and the back-up work.
In cavity wall construction, mortar droppings should not be per-
FIG. 5 mitted to fall into the cavity. An aid in preventing this is to bevel
the bed joint away from the cavity.
Bed Joints - A bed joint is the horizontal layer of mortar
FIG. 7
on which a masonry unit is laid. Bed joints should be con-
structed without deep furrowing of the mortar as full bed
joints are an inherent requirement for water-resistant brick
masonry construction. The length of time between the plac-
ing of the mortar on the bed joint and the laying of the suc-
ceeding brick units has an influence on the resulting bond.
If too long a time elapses, poor bond will result. Brick units
should be laid within 1 min or so after the mortar is placed.

Head Joints - A head joint, sometimes called a cross

joint, is the vertical mortar joint between ends of masonry
units. As with bed joints, it is important that head joints also
be completely filled. The best head joints are formed by
completely buttering the ends of the brick with mortar and
shoving the brick into place against previously laid brick.
"Slushing" of the interior head space between individual
brick in a course of brick is not effective. Recommended, as
well as unacceptable, methods of forming head joints are
shown in Fig. 6.

Keeping Air Spaces Clean. In a drainage wall system,

such as a cavity wall or an anchored veneer wall, it is essen-
tial that the air space between the wythes be kept clean. If it
is not, and mortar droppings and protrusions span the air
space, or clog the weepholes, water penetration to the interior
Keeping the Cavity Clean
may occur. See Figs. 7 through 10. Technical Notes 21C
FIG.8
and Technical Notes 28 Series provide further information on

3
When brick are laid on a beveled bed joint, a minimum of mortar
is squeezed out of the joint. Brick (1)-beveled joint; brick (2)-con-
ventional joint.
FIG.9

Typical Mortar Joints

FIG. 11
The mortar squeezed from the joints on the cavity side may be plastered
onto the units. This same procedure may be used for laying exterior
wythes of reinforced brick walls. Mortar droppings should not be permit-
ted in grout core.
FIG. 10

Disturbance of Newly Laid Masonry. Newly laid

masonry units should never be pushed, shoved, tapped or
otherwise disturbed once they are laid in their final posi-
tion and the mortar has begun to set. Any disturbance at
this point will break the bond and may lead to a leak. If
adjustments are necessary, the incorrectly placed unit
should be removed and re-laid in fresh mortar.
Tooling of Mortar Joints. Weathertightness and tex-
tural effect are the basic considerations for mortar joint
finish selection and execution. Proper "striking" or "tool-
ing" of the joints helps the mortar and brick units bond
together and seals the wall surface against moisture pen-
etration. Compression of the mortar produces a denser
mortar at the surface and the most weathertight joint. Only
the concave, "V" and compacted grapevine joints are rec-
ommended for exterior use. For interior masonry work,
other joints, such as the weathered, beaded, struck, flush,
raked or extruded joints can be used (see Figs. 11 and
12).
When mortar becomes thumbprint hard, tool with steel jointer slightly larger
than the mortar joint. Concave or V joints have best weather resistance.
FIG. 12

4

Covering Tops of Walls. Proper covering of mason-
ry walls each night, and especially in time of inclement
weather, is essential for satisfactory performance.
Covering of unfinished walls with tarpaulins or other
water-resistant material, securely tied or weighted in posi-
tion, should be rigorously enforced. Mortar boards, scaf-
fold planks and light plastic sheets weighted with brick
should not be accepted as suitable cover. Metal clamps,
similar to bicycle clips, are commercially available in a
variety of sizes to meet various wall thicknesses. These
are used in conjunction with plastic sheets or water-repel-
lent tarpaulin material and offer excellent protection for
extended periods of time. In many cases, after the
mason finishes his portion of the work, tops of walls are
left for several months with inadequate or ineffective pro-
tective coverings prior to the attachment of permanent
coping. The previously mentioned clamps, along with
proper covering materials, afford an effective solution
when the permanent coping is not attached immediately
after the brickwork is completed.
MAINTENANCE
Even the best masonry requires periodic maintenance
to ensure its continued successful performance. Although
the brick units are quite durable over time, other materials
in the wall system will require periodic repair and/or
replacement. Typical maintenance items which should be
addressed are repairing of cracks in masonry, cleaning
clogged weepholes, removing stains and efflorescence,
repainting steel, replacing caps or copings, repointing
mortar joints (tuck-pointing), replacing deteriorated
sealants and caulking, and cleaning the masonry. A more
complete discussion of maintenance of masonry is
beyond the scope of this Technical Notes. The following
table provides an estimated life of various building materi-
als and can be used as a guide in considering the need
for periodic maintenance:
Brick 100 years or more
Mortar 15-50 years
Paint on Steel 3-5 years
Sealants (caulking type) 4-10 years
Coping Joints 4-8 years
the use of information, details and materials as discussed
in this Technical Notes are not within the purview of the
Brick Institute of America and must rest with the project
designer, owner or both.
REFERENCES
For more comprehensive information on details and
design procedures for various types of walls and detailed
information on materials used to attain water-resistant
brick masonry construction, the following publications
should be consulted:
1. Technical Notes on Brick Construction 7 Revised,
"Water Resistance of Brick Masonry-Design and
Detailing- Part I of III,” Feb. 1985.
2. Technical Notes on Brick Construction 7A Revised,
"Water Resistance of Brick Masonry-Materials - Part II
of III,” March 1985.
3. Technical Notes on Brick Construction 8B, “Mortar for
Brick Masonry - Selection and Controls,” July - Aug.
1976.
4. Technical Notes on Brick Construction 21C, “Brick
Masonry Cavity Walls - Construction,” May - June
1978.
5. Technical Notes on Brick Construction 28 Revised,
“Brick Veneer - New Construction,” July-Aug. 1978.
6. Technical Notes on Brick Construction 28A, “Brick
Veneer - Existing Construction,” Sept. - Oct. 1978.
7. Technical Notes on Brick Construction 28B Revised,
“Brick Veneer - Panel and Curtain Walls,” Feb. 1980.

SUMMARY
This is the third in a series of Technical Notes on
water resistance of brick masonry. It provides basic infor-
mation required for good construction. Obviously, this
Technical Notes cannot cover all construction practices. It
does, however, offer basic information and construction
suggestions which, if used with professional judgment, will
result in successfully performing brick masonry walls.
Other Technical Notes in this series discuss design and
materials.
The information contained in this Technical Notes is
based on the available data and experience of the techni-
cal staff of the Brick Institute of America. This information
should be recognized as recommendations which, if fol-
lowed with good judgment, should result in masonry walls
that are resistant to water penetration. Final decisions on
5
 Technical Notes 7C
on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
Reissued*
September
1988

MOISTURE CONTROL IN BRICK AND TILE WALLS

CONDENSATION

INTRODUCTION
It is generally agreed that the durability of masonry
depends primarily on its resistance to the penetration of
moisture into the body of the masonry. The source of this
moisture may be wind-driven rains or it may be from inte-
rior exposures resulting from various occupancies which
create high humidities. These include, among others, air
conditioning with humidity control, food processing and
unventilated space heaters. Differences in humidity
between inside and outside air resulting from these occu-
pancies will cause vapor flow within the wall and, unless
controlled, either by the use of properly placed vapor bar-
riers or by ventilating, this vapor may condense within the
wall under certain temperature conditions.
When wall surface temperatures are substantially
below air temperatures, condensation may occur on the
wall surface.

CONDENSATION ON WALL SURFACES

Atmospheric air is a mixture of dry air and water
vapor. At a given temperature air is saturated when the
space occupied by the mixture holds the maximum possi-
ble weight of water vapor at that temperature. The
amount of water vapor necessary to saturate the air at
constant pressure depends upon the temperature-the
higher the temperature the more water vapor will be
required. If saturated air at a temperature of 50 deg, for
40 50 60 70 80 90 100
instance, is warmed to a temperature of 70 deg, the mix-
ture is no longer saturated but will absorb additional water
vapor. However, if unsaturated air is cooled at constant
pressure, a temperature will be reached at which the air is FIG. 1
Temperature Drop Curve for Relative Humidities
saturated. This temperature is called the dew point and, if
from 50 Per Cent to 100 Per Cent
the mixture is cooled below the dew point, water will con-
dense from the air. Dew which occurs in the early morn- as the temperature rises.
ings during the warmer months in many localities is one of While the dew point depends upon the amount of
the most common examples of the effect of cooling unsat- water vapor in the air and is the temperature at which the
urated air to a temperature below the dew point or to a water vapor present is sufficient for saturation, there is
point where the water vapor which the air contains begins also a practically constant relation between dew point and
to condense. relative humidity for a considerable range of tempera-
The water vapor in air is called humidity, and relative tures; that is, for a relative humidity of 50 per cent, the dif-
humidity is the ratio of the amount of water vapor which a ference between air temperature and dew point is approx-
mixture contains to the amount required for saturation at a imately 20 deg for any air temperature from 60 deg to 90
given temperature. Obviously, for a fixed amount of water deg. Similar relations hold for other relative humidities. A
vapor, the relative humidity will vary with the temperature, discussion of the reason for this relationship may be
increasing as the temperature is lowered and decreasing found in the ASHRAE Guide and Data Book,
*Originally published in February 1965, this Technical Notes has been reviewed and reissued.
 TABLE 1
Fundamentals and Equipment Volume, 1963, published Difference in Temperature Between Air and Inside Wall
Surface for Various Total Differences in Temperature
by the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-
Between Inside Air and Outside Air
Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
In Fig. 1, the difference in temperature between the
Difference in Temperature Between Inside and
air and the dew point (temperature drop) is plotted for rel- Outside Air, deg Fahr
ative humidities from 50 per cent to 100 per cent. It will Wall Construction
be noted from this curve that for relative humidities above 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
80 per cent a drop in temperature of 6.8 deg or over will 4-in. brick and 4-in. tile,
furred and plastered..... 2 31/2 5 7 9 10 12
cause condensation. These high humidities usually occur 1

during the summer when the difference in temperature “SCR brick,” furred and
plastered....... 2 5 7 10 12 14 17
between the air on opposite sides of a wall is small, prob-
8-in. tile (3-cell), furred
ably 10 deg or less. For walls below grade, the tempera- and plastered..... 11/2 3 41/2 6 7 81/2 10
ture difference of the two sides of the wall may amount to
10-in. brick and brick
20 deg or more. cavity, exposed..... 21/2 41/2 7 9 11 131/2 16
10-in. brick and tile cavity,
If condensation occurs, it may be eliminated by: plastered..... 11/2 3 41/2 6 7 81/2 10
1. Reducing the humidity of the air. This may be 10-in. brick and brick
accomplished by adequate ventilation if the high cavity, vermiculite
insulated, exposed..... 1 2 3 4 5 6 61/2
humidity is caused by conditions inside the building.
10-in. brick and tile cavity,
2. Increasing the temperature of the surface upon vermiculite insulated,
which the condensation occurs. Probably the simplest plastered..... 1 2 21/2 31/2 4 5 6
means of increasing the surface temperature is to
increase the movement of air over the surface. Note: Plaster: gypsum and aggregate.
3. Increasing the heat resistance of the wall. This is Lath: 3/8 in. gypsum.
1
usually done by the addition of an air space or insula- Reg. U.S. Pat. Off., SCPI
tion back of the interior finish.
CONDENSATION WITHIN WALLS
The temperature gradient or temperature drop The National Bureau of Standards Report, BMS63,
through a composite wall is directly proportional to the Moisture Condensation in Building Walls, contains a
resistance of the various elements, including surface method for calculating potential condensation if the tem-
resistances; that is, if the total resistance of a wall is 8.0 perature and vapor-resistant gradients of the wall are
and the resistance of one element is 2.0, the temperature known. The following summarizes the discussion and
drop across this element will be 2/8 of the air temperature method outlined in the report:
difference on the warm and cold sides of the wall. A definite volume of air held at a fixed temperature
Table 1 gives the difference in temperature between can contain permanently no more than a definite amount
the inside surface of various types of walls and the inside of water in the form of vapor. This limiting quantity of
air temperature for differences between inside and outside water per given volume is termed "moisture content at
air, ranging from 10 deg to 70 deg Fahr. These figures saturation". If the air contains a greater proportion of
are based upon the conductivities and conductances of moisture than this at the particular temperature, the water
materials listed in Tables 1, 3 and 4 of Technical Notes 4, will start condensing on the surfaces of the container or
"Heat Transmission Coefficients of Brick and Tile Walls". even on the dust particles in the air which then fall out in
From Table 1, it may be noted that, for a difference in a fine mist. The ratio of the actual moisture content to the
temperature between inside and outside air of 70 deg, the saturation moisture content for the particular temperature
inside surface temperature of an exposed brick-and-brick is termed "relative humidity". It is customarily expressed
cavity wall is 16 deg below the temperature of the inside in per cent.
air. Referring to the curve, Fig. 1, a temperature drop of The concentration of water vapor may also be stated
16 deg will cause condensation for relative humidities of by giving its pressure. If water vapor is present, part of
58 per cent or over. The temperature drop for a vermi- the atmospheric pressure is maintained by the water
culite insulated brick-and-brick cavity wall, exposed, is 6 vapor and the remainder of the pressure by the other con-
1/2 deg for which relative humidities must be 81 per cent stituents of the atmosphere. At a particular temperature
or over to cause condensation. and at saturation, the water vapor exerts a definite pres-
Table 1 may be used in connection with the "tempera- sure.
ture drop" curve to select a type of wall construction which Data on saturated vapor pressures are listed in tables
will be free from condensation of the ASHRAE Guide and Data Book and Table 2 gives
saturated vapor pressures for various temperatures as
included in the 1963 edition. As may be noted, the varia-
tion of vapor pressure with temperature is not constant
but increases rapidly with increased temperature.

2
 TABLE 2
Saturated Vapor Pressures

Fahrenheit Vapor Pressure,

Temperature in. Hg

-10 0.0220
0 0.0376
10 0.0629
15 0.0806
20 0.1027
24 0.1243
30 0.1645
40 0.2477
50 0.3624
60 0.5216
70 0.7392
75 0.8750
80 1.0323
90 1.4219
100 1.9333

The ratio of the actual pressure of the water vapor to

the saturation pressure of the water vapor for the particu-
lar temperature is also termed relative humidity. Its value
when defined thus is essentially the same as that given
previously.
When a given mixture of air and water vapor is cooled
without loss of moisture, a temperature is eventually
reached where the air becomes saturated with water
vapor and condensation can occur. The temperature then
existing is called the dew point.
When a vapor-pressure differential exists, water vapor
will move toward the lower pressure independently of air.
This vapor movement through common building materials
is at a relatively high rate for common pressure differen-
FIG.2
tials. When vapor passes through pores of homogeneous Temperature and Vapor Pressure Distribution
walls, which are warm on one side and cold on the other, for a Brick and Tile Cavity Wall
it may reach its dew point and condense into water within
the wall; but, if the flow of vapor is impeded by a highly ences in temperature through different parts of the wall
vapor-resistant material on the warm side of the wall, the from warm to cold side are proportional to the thermal
vapor cannot reach that point in the wall at which the tem- resistance of these parts.
perature is low enough to cause condensation. As an example, assume a brick and tile, vermiculite
Permeability to water vapor travel is known as perme- insulated cavity wall, unplastered, exposed on the tile side
ance which is defined as "the ratio of water vapor flow to to 75 deg Fahr, 50 per cent relative humidity, and on the
the vapor-pressure difference between the surfaces". brick side to 20 deg Fahr, 90 per cent relative humidity.
Permeance is measured in perms. A perm is equal to 1 The thermal resistances are:
grain per sq ft per hr per in. of mercury vapor-pressure
difference. A perm-inch is the permeance of 1-in. thick- Inside air 0.68
ness of a homogeneous material. The reciprocal of per- 4-in. tile 1.11
meance is called vapor resistance. 2-in. vermiculite 5.56
Differences in vapor pressure through different parts 4-in. brick 0.44
of the wall from inside to outside distribute themselves in Outside air 0.17
proportion to the vapor resistance of the respective parts; R = 7.96 U = 0.125
that is, the fraction of the total vapor-pressure drop from
The vapor resistances are:
inside to outside occurring between the air indoors and
some chosen point within the wall is the same as that 4-in. tile 0.333
fraction of the total vapor resistance of the wall occurring Insulation 0.008
between the air indoors and the chosen point. 4-in. brick 0.480
In this it is analogous to heat flow, in which differ- 0.821

3
 The vapor pressure differential is 50 per cent of satu-
rated vapor pressure at 75 deg (0.4375 in. Hg) minus 90
per cent of saturated vapor pressure at 20 deg (0.0924 in.
Hg) equals 0.345 in. Hg. The temperature difference is
75 deg minus 20 deg equals 55 deg.
From the above resistances, the temperature gradient
and vapor pressure gradient may be plotted as indicated
in Fig. 2. As may be noted, the vapor pressure at the
inside face of the brick wythe is 0.29 and the temperature
at this point is 24 deg.
Referring to Table 2, the saturated vapor pressure at
24 deg is 0.124. Since the actual vapor pressure
exceeds this amount, condensation might be expected to
occur in the insulation just back of the outer wythe.
Vapor transmission tests, sponsored by the Structural
Clay Products Research Foundation, a Division of
Structural Clay Products Institute, were conducted on a
wall similar to the above at Pennsylvania State University.
The temperatures and humidities maintained during these
tests were approximately the same as those assumed.
Data obtained from the tests are included in the paper,
Review of Recent Research, by C. B. Monk, Jr., published
in the Proceedings of the BRI Conference on Insulated
Masonry Cavity Walls, which was held in New York City in
April 1960.
The results of the tests confirm the above calcula-
tions, since frost formed on the cavity face of the brick
wythe. However, Mr. Monk states: "The major observa -
tion of the heat transfer data is the relative constant air-to-
air conductance of the wall during the 18 days of steady
state conditions, indicating no change in the thermal char-
acteristics of the wall due to the frost observed at the end
of the test."
From the vapor transmission tests, it is apparent that,
insofar as condensation affects heat transfer, a vapor bar-
rier is not required on the warm side of an insulated cavity
wall, whose permeance is approximately equivalent to the
wall tested when vapor pressure differentials are of the
order of 1 in. of mercury. However, as previously indicat-
ed, water in a masonry wall may contribute to disintegra-
tion of masonry units and, where soluble salts are present
in the masonry, it also contributes to efflorescence. For
this reason, vapor barriers are recommended on the
warm side of cavity walls with exterior wythes of glazed
brick.

4
 7D
Technical Notes REVISED

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
Reissued*
February
1993

MOISTURE RESISTANCE OF BRICK MASONRY WALLS

CONDENSATION ANALYSIS

Abstract: Moisture, formed by the condensation of water vapor, can cause many problems in brick masonry
walls. Among these are: efflorescence, spalling, corrosion and interior finish damage.
This Technical Notes outlines a method used by designers to assess the possibility of condensation occurring in
a given wall section; and, describes how to alleviate condensation problems through the use of vapor barriers
and/or ventilation.

Key Words: brick, condensation, dew point, humidity, permeance, relative humidity, saturated vapor
pressure, saturation, vapor barrier, vapor pressure, vapor resistance, walls.

INTRODUCTION the cross-section of a single wood framing member, there

When a vapor pressure differential exists, water vapor
will move independently of air. The vapor movement
through common building materials is at a relatively high
rate for common pressure differentials. When vapor pass-
es through pores of homogenous walls, which are warm
on one side and cold on the other, it may reach its dew
point and condense into water within the wall; but, if the
flow of vapor is impeded by a vapor-resistant material in
the wall, the vapor may not reach that point in the wall at
which the temperature is low enough to cause condensa-
tion.
Condensation problems are most frequent during the
heating season when buildings of tight, highly insulated
construction have occupancies and/or heating systems
which produce humidity. This gain in moisture content of
the interior air increases the interior vapor pressure sub-
stantially above that existing in the outdoor atmosphere.
This tends to drive vapor outward from the building
through any vapor-porous materials that comprise the wall
assembly. This may be controlled either by the use of a
properly placed vapor barrier or by decreasing the vapor
pressure differential across the wall section through the
use of ventilation.
Technical Notes 7C contains a discussion of the prin-
ciples of condensation of water vapor, both on the wall
surface and within the wall system. This Technical Notes
is devoted to the analysis of wall systems to determine at
what point or points in the wall assembly condensation
might be expected to occur.
EFFECTS OF CONDENSATION
Many building materials are affected by water. For
example, wood expands with increasing moisture content.
If conditions of varying humidity occur in different parts of
*Originally published in May 1988, this Technical Notes has been reviewed and reissued with editorial changes.
will be a tendency to warp. High humidity can also cause
the decay of wood. Water promotes the corrosion of
metal, and many insulating materials show permanent
change over the course of time when in contact with
water. The insulating value of most materials is greatly
reduced by the presence of free water. Volumetric
changes in fired clay masonry units due to gains in mois-
ture content are to be expected and should be given con-
sideration in the design process. Alternate freezing and
thawing of clay products when saturated may lead to
eventual deterioration, such as cracking and spalling. If
soluble salts are present in or in contact with brick mason-
ry, moisture caused by condensation may contribute to
efflorescence.
CONDENSATION ANALYSIS
This Technical Notes describes the method used to
determine the temperature and vapor pressure gradients
of a wall when the exterior and interior design tempera-
tures and relative humidities are known. Accompanying
this method is an example of determining the points in a
wall system where condensation may be expected to
occur.
Method
The step-by-step method outlined assumes a steady-
state heat loss procedure. The wall section and the interi-
or and exterior temperatures and relative humidities are
therefore held constant. This procedure is easily adapted
to the cooling season by keeping in mind that the temper-
ature and vapor pressure gradients are always plotted
across the wall section from the warm side to the cool
side.
Procedure ed by multiplying the component vapor resistance per-
An 11-column table is set up, similar to that shown in centage by the total vapor pressure difference and divid-
Table 3. ing this product by 100. The result is entered in the rows
The wall components, including the inside air, inside of Column 9 respectively. Total the component vapor
air film and exterior air film, are listed in Column 1. pressure differences. This total must equal the total vapor
The thermal resistance (deg. F * sq. ft. * hr/Btu) of pressure difference, entered at the bottom of Column 9.
each wall component is entered in the rows of Column 2 The component actual vapor pressure is calculated by
respectively. Values of thermal resistance may be found subtracting the component vapor pressure difference from
in Technical Notes 4 Revised, Table 1. the actual vapor pressure of the component preceding it.
The component thermal resistances are totaled and The results are entered in the rows of Column 10 respec-
entered at the bottom of Column 2. tively.
The component thermal resistance percentage is cal- The component actual vapor pressures (Column 10)
culated by dividing the component thermal resistance by are checked against the component saturated vapor pres-
the total thermal resistance of the wall assembly and mul- sures (Column 6). If any wall component has an actual
tiplying this quotient by 100. The results are entered in vapor pressure which is larger than its saturated vapor
the rows of Column 3, respectively. Check the total of the pressure, condensation is likely to occur in that area of
component percentages to make sure that they equal the wall section, as indicated by the asterisks in Column
100. 11.
The temperature drop across each component is cal- Table 3 shows an example of this condensation analy-
culated by multiplying the component thermal resistance sis procedure. The wall being considered is an insulated
percentage by the total temperature drop across the wall brick and block cavity wall system. It is assumed that the
section (Ti - To), an dividing this product by 100. The wall is located in Washington, DC. The analysis is for a
results are entered in the rows of Column 4 respectively. winter day with an exterior temperature of 17 deg. F @
A quick check is to total the component temperature 73% relative humidity, and an interior temperature of 72
drops. They must equal the total temperature drop across deg. F @ 50% relative humidity.
the wall section. The temperature gradient, as well as the saturated
The temperature of the inside air, Ti, is entered in vapor pressure and actual vapor pressure gradients, can
Row 2 of Column 5. be plotted across the wall section, as shown in Figures 2
The component temperatures (the temperature of the and 3 respectively. When plotting the saturated and actu-
component's exterior face) are calculated by subtracting al vapor pressure gradients, the areas where the actual
the component temperature drop from the temperature of vapor pressure gradient is above the saturated vapor
the component preceding it. The results are entered in pressure gradient are where condensation is likely to
the rows of Column 5 respectively. occur.
Check the calculated temperature of the outside air
film. It must equal the temperature of the outside air, To.
The component saturated vapor pressures are taken
from Table 1 for the temperature of each component, and
entered in the rows of Column 6 respectively.
The component vapor resistances (in. Hg * sq. ft. *
hr/gr), taken from Table 2, are entered in the rows of
Column 7 respectively.
The total vapor resistance of the wall section is calcu-
lated by totaling the component vapor resistances. This
total is entered at the bottom of Column 7.
The component vapor resistance percentage is calcu-
lated by dividing the component vapor resistance by the
total vapor resistance of the wall section and multiplying
this quotient by 100. The results are entered in the rows
of Column 8 respectively. Check the total of the compo-
nent vapor resistance percentages to make sure that they
equal 100.
The actual vapor pressure of the interior and exterior
air is calculated by multiplying their saturated vapor pres-
sures by their respective relative humidities. The results
are entered in the rows of Column 10 respectively.
The total vapor pressure difference is calculated by
subtracting the exterior actual vapor pressure from the
interior actual vapor pressure. The result is entered at the Saturated Vapor Pressure Curves
FIG. 1
bottom of Column 9.
The component vapor pressure difference is calculat-
2
 TABLE 1
Pressure of Water Vapor at Saturation
Note: To Convert Pressure in Inches of Mercury
(in. Hg) to psi; (0.49116) (In. Hg)=psi

Saturated Saturated
Temp. Vapor Temp. Vapor
˚F Pressure ˚F Pressure
In. Hg In. Hg

-20 .01259 41 .25748

-19 .01333 42 .26763
-18 .01411 43 .27813
-17 .01493 44 .28899
-16 .01579 45 .30023
-15 .01671 46 .31185
-14 .01767 47 .32386
-13 .01868 48 .33629
-12 .01974 49 .34913
-11 .02086 50 .36240
-10 .02203 51 .37611
-9 .02327 52 .39028
-8 .02457 53 .40492
-7 .02594 54 .42004
-6 .02738 55 .43565
-5 .02889 56 .45176
-4 .03047 57 .46840
-3 .03214 58 .48558
-2 .03388 59 .50330
-1 .03572 60 .52159
0 .03764 61 .54047
1 .03967 62 .55994
Temperature Gradient 2 .04178 63 .58002
FIG. 2 3 .04401 64 .60073
4 .04634 65 .62209
5 .04878 66 .64411
6 .05134 67 .66681
7 .05402 68 .69019
8 .05683 69 .71430
9 .05978 70 .73915
10 .06286 71 .76475
11 .06608 72 .79112
12 .06946 73 .81828
13 .07300 74 .84624
14 .07670 75 .87504
15 .08056 76 .90470
16 .08461 77 .93523
17 .08884 78 .96665
18 .09327 79 .99899
19 .09789 80 1.0323
20 .10272 81 1.0665
21 .10777 82 1.1017
22 .11305 83 1.1379
23 .11856 84 1.1752
24 .12431 85 1.2135
25 .13032 86 1.2529
26 .13659 87 1.2934
27 .14313 88 1.3351
28 .14966 89 1.3779
29 .15709 90 1.4219
30 .16452 91 1.4671
31 .17227 92 1.5135
32 .18035 93 1.5612
33 .18778 94 1.6102
34 .19456 95 1.6606
35 .20342 96 1.7123
36 .21166 97 1.7654
37 .22020 98 1.8199
38 .22904 99 1.8759
39 .23819 100 1.9333
Saturated Vapor Pressure and
40 .24767
Actual Vapor Pressure
FIG. 3

3
 k
TABLE 2
a,*
Permeance and Permeabliity of Materials to Water Vapor

Materials Thickness (In.) Resistance (Rep)

i

Materials Used in Construction

0.31
Concrete (1:2:4 Mix) 1 f
1.3
Brick Masonry 4 f
0.4
Concrete Block (Cored, Limestone Aggregate) 8 f
8.3
Tile Masonry, Glazed 4 d
0.1-0.2
Asbestos Cement Board 0.12 d
2-3
With Oil Based Finishes 0.12 f
0.067
Plaster on Metal Lath 0.75 e
0.091
Plaster on Wood Lath f
0.050
Plaster on Plain Gypsum Lath (With Studs) f
0.020
Gypsum Wall Board (Plain) 0.375 d
0.05
Gypsum Sheathing (Asphalt Impreg.) 1 f
0.05-0.02
Structural Insulating Board (Sheathing Qual.) 1 f
0.02-0.011
Hardboard (Standard) 0.5 f
0.091
Hardboard (Tempered) 0.125 f
0.2
Wood, Sugar Pine 0.125 fb
2.5-0.19
Plywood (Douglas Fir, Exterior Glue) 1 f
0.53
Plywood (Douglas Fir, Interior Glue) 0.25 d
8.3
Acrylic, Glass Fiber Reinforced Sheet 0 d
20
Polyester, Glass Fiber Reinforced Sheet 0.048
Thermal Insulations f

1 0.0083
Air (Still) d

Cellular Glass 1
d
Corkboard 1 0.48-0.38
e
Mineral Wool (Unprotected) 1 0.0086
Expanded Polyurethane (R-11 Blown) Board
d
Stock 1 2.5-0.62
Expanded Polystyrene-Extruded 1 0.83
d

Expanded Polystyrene-Bead 1 0.5-0.17

d

Phenolic Foam (Covering Removed) 1 0.038

Unicellular Synthetic Flexible Rubber Foam 1 5.0-6.7
d

c,d
Plastic and Metal Foils and Films
0.00035
Aluminum Foil 20
0.002 6.3
Polyethylene
Polyethylene 0.006 17
Polyethylene 0.010 33
Polyvinylchloride, Unplasticized 0.002 1.5
0.004 1.3-0.72
Polyvinylchloride, Plasticized
0.001 1.4
Polyester
0.0032 4.3
Polyester 12.5
Polyester 0.0076
0.01 0.2
Cellulose Acetate 3.1
0.125
Cellulose Acetate
i
Materials Weight
h
Resistance (Rep)
g,d
Building Paper, Felts, Roofing Papers
Duplex Sheet, Asphalt Laminated, Aluminum
Foil -- One Side 8.6 500
Saturated and Coated Roll Roofing 65 20
Kraft Paper and Asphalt Laminated, Reinforced
50-120-30 6.8 3.3
Blanket Thermal Insulation Backup Paper, Asphalt
Coated 6.2
2.5
Asphalt -- Saturated and Coated Vapor Retarder Paper 8.6 5.0-3.3
Asphalt -- Saturated but not Coated Sheathing Paper 4.4 0.3
15-16 Asphalt Felt 14 1.0
15-16 Tar Felt 14 0.25
Single -- Kraft, Double 3.2 0.032

4
 TABLE 2 (Cont.)
a,*
Permeance and Permeability of Materials to Water Vapor

i
Materials Thickness (In.) Resistance (Rep)
f
Liquid-Applied Coating Materials
j
Commercial Latex Paints (Dry Film Thickness)
Vapor Retarder Paint 0.0031 2.22
Primer Sealer 0.0012 0.16
Vinyl Acetate/Acrylic Primer 0.002 0.13
Vinyl-Acrylic Primer 0.0016 0.12
Semi-Gloss Vinyl-Acrylic Enamel 0.0024 0.15
Exterior Acrylic House and Trim 0.0017 0.18

Paint -- 2 Coats
e
Asphalt Paint on Plywood 2.5
d
Aluminum Varnish on Wood 3.3-2.0
d
Enamels on Smooth Plaster 2.0-0.66
Primers and Sealers on Interior Insulation Board 1.1-0.48
d

d
Various Primers Plus 1 Coat Flat Oil Paint on Plaster 0.63-0.33
d
Flat Paint on Interior Insulation Board 0.25
Water Emulsion on Interior Insulation Board d
0.03-0.012
2
Materials Oz / Ft Resistance (Rep)
i

Paint -- 3 Coats
Exterior Paint, White Lead and Oil on Wood Siding 3.3-1.0
Exterior Paint, White Lead Oxide and Oil on Wood 1.1
Styrene-Butadiene Latex Coating 2 0.09
Polyvinyl Acetate Latex Coating 4 0.18
Chloro-Sulfonated Polyethelene Mastic 3.5 0.59

b
* In this chapter the permeance, resistance, permeability Depending on construction and direction of vapor flow.
and resistance per unit thickness values are given in the follow- c
Usually installed as vapor retarders, although sometimes used
ing units:
as exterior finish and elsewhere near cold side where special
2
Permeance Perm = gr/h.ft .in.Hg considerations are then required for warm side barrier effective-
2 ness.
Resistance Rep = in.Hg.ft h/gr
2 d
Permeability Perm.in. = gr/h.ft (in.Hg/in.) Dry-cup method.
Resistance/ e
2 Wet-cup method.
unit thickness Rep/in. = (in.Hg.ft h/gr)/in.
f
Other than dry- or wet-cup method.
a g
Table 2 gives the water vapor transmission rates of some repre- Low permeance sheets used as vapor retarders. High perme-
sentative materials. The data are provided to permit compar- ance used elsewhere in construction.
isons of materials; but in the selection of vapor retarder materi- h 2
als, exact values for permeance or permeability should be Basic weight in lb per 100 ft (lb per square ft)
obtained from the manufacturer of the materials under consider- i

ation or secured as a result of laboratory tests. A range of val- Resistance and resistance/in. values have been calculated as
the reciprocal of the permeance and permeability values.
ues shown in the table indicate variations among mean values
for materials that are similar but of different density, orientation, j
Cast at 10 mils wet film thickness.
31

lot or source. The values are intended for design guidance and
k
should not be used as design or specification data. The compi- From ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals.
lation is from a number of sources; values from dry-cup and wet-
cup methods were usually obtained from investigations using
ASTM E96 and C355; values shown under others were obtained
from investigations using such techniques as two-temperature,
special cell, and air-velocity. Values included were obtained
from Ref.14 to 29 and other sources. Some values were
obtained from unpublished tests conducted by Pennsylvania
State University and the Building Research Div., National
Research Council of Canada.

5
 TABLE 3
5
Example

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
1 2 3 4

1 Material T.R. % T.D. ˚F S.V.P. V.R. % V.P.D. A.V.P.

2 Inside Air 0.00 0 0 72 0.791 0.008 0 0 0.577

3 Inside Air Film of Still Air 0.68 5 3 69 0.714 0 0 0 0.577

4 1/2” Drywall (Gypsum) 0.45 4 2 67 0.667 0.027 1 0.005 0.572

5 6” Block 1.53 11 6 61 0.540 0.300 7 0.037 0.535

6 1 1/2” Rigid Insulation

Expanded Polyurethane 9.38 69 38 23 0.119 2.34 59 0.314 0.221 *

7 1” Air Space 0.97 7 4 19 0.098 0.008 0 0 0.221 *

8 4” Block 0.44 3 1 18 0.093 1.3 33 0.176 0.045

9 Outside Air Film 15 MPH 0.17 1 1 17 0.089 0 0 0 0.045

Total 13.62 100 55 3.983 100 0.532

ABBREVIATIONS SUMMARY
The analysis procedure presented in this Technical
T.R. Thermal Resistance
T.D. Temperature Difference (˚F) Notes may be used as an indicator of where condensation
S.V.P. Saturated Vapor Pressure (in Inches Mercury) may occur in a wall section. It may also be used to ana-
V.R. Vapor Resistance (in Inches Mercury) lyze the effect on condensation potential of varying wall
V.P.D. Vapor Pressure Difference (in Inches Mercury)
components and vapor barriers. The information con-
A.V.P. Actual Vapor Pressure (in Inches Mercury)
Ti Inside Air Temperature (˚F) tained in this Technical Notes is based on the available
To Outside Air Temperature (˚F) data and experience of the technical staff of the Brick
RHi Relative Humidity Inside Institute of America. This information should be recog-
RHo Relative Humidity Outside nized as recommendations and should be used with judg-
ment. Final decisions on the use of the information dis-
NOTES cussed herein are not within the purview of the Brick
Institute ofAmerica, and must rest with project owner,
1. See Table 1 of Technical Notes 4 Revised. designer or both.
2. See Table 1
3. See Table 2
4. Condensation is likely to occur in these areas.
5. Information Required for this example
Ti = 72
To = 17
RHi = 73%
RHo = 50%

6
 Technical Notes 7F

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
Reissued*
October
1998

MOISTURE RESISTANCE OF BRICK MASONRY

MAINTENANCE
Abstract: Even though one of the major advantages of brick masonry construction is durability, periodic inspec-
tions and maintenance can extend the life of brickwork in structures. This Technical Notes addresses the use of
suggested inspection programs and specific maintenance procedures. Information is presented on remedial
cleaning and various repair methods. Included in the latter category is the replacement of sealant joints, grouting
of mortar joint faces, tuck-pointing of mortar joints, removal of plant growth, maintenance and repair of weep-
holes, replacement of brick units, installation of a dampproof course, as well as the installation of flashing in exist-
ing walls.
Key Words: cleaning, dampproof course, efflorescence, flashing, grout, inspection, maintenance, moisture
penetration, mortar, sealant, tuck-pointing, weepholes.

problems and needed repair. The checklist in Table 2 is

INTRODUCTION not all-inclusive; however, it may establish a guideline for
This is the seventh Technical Notes in this series use during inspections.
addressing moisture control in brick masonry. In this
Technical Notes, maintenance of brick masonry to coun- SPECIFIC MAINTENANCE
teract moisture penetration is discussed. Generally, if General
brickwork is properly designed, detailed and constructed, Problems resulting from moisture penetration may
it is very durable and requires little maintenance. include: efflorescence, spalling, deteriorating mortar joints,
However, many of the other components incorporated in interior moisture damage, etc. Once one or more of these
the brickwork, i.e., caps, copings, sills, lintels, sealant conditions becomes evident, the direct source of moisture
joints, etc., may require periodic inspection and repair. penetration should be determined and action taken to cor-
Maintenance of buildings may be broken into two gen- rect both the visible effect and the moisture penetration
eral categories: 1) general inspection and maintenance to source. Table 3 lists various problems appearing on
prolong the life and usefulness of a building; and 2) spe- brickwork due to moisture and the most probable source
cific maintenance to identify and correct problems which of moisture penetration. The items checked in the table
may develop. This Technical Notes addresses both gen-
TABLE 1
eral and specific maintenance procedures. A checklist is
Estimated Life Expectancy of Materials
provided for general inspections and specific repair tech- Exposed to Normal Weathering
niques are described.
Estimated Life
GENERAL INSPECTION Material Use
A good, thorough inspection and maintenance pro- Years
gram is often inexpensive to initiate and may prove Brick Walls 100 or more
advantageous in extending the life of a building. It is a Caulking Sealer 8-10
good idea to become familiar with the materials used on a Metal Coping/Flashing 20-40
building and how they perform over a given time period. Mortar Walls 25 or more
Table 1 lists various building materials and their estimated Plastic Flashing 25 or more
life expectancies with normal weathering.
Finishes
It is suggested that periodic inspections be performed
to determine the condition of the various materials used Paint Waterproofing 3-5
on a building. These inspections can be set for any given Plaster Waterproofing 3-5
time period, i.e., weekly, monthly, yearly, etc. A suggested Sealers Dampproofing 1-5
inspection period is "seasonal" so that the behavior of Silicone Dampproofing 1-5
building materials in various weather conditions can be Stucco Waterproofing 3-5
noted. Inspection records, including conditions and com- Waxes Waterproofing 1-5
ments, should be kept to determine future "trouble spots",
*Originally published in February 1986, this Technical Notes has been reviewed and reissued with editorial changes.
 TABLE 2
Brick Masonry Inspection Checklist

MASONRY WALLS NORTH SOUTH EAST WEST

Above Grade
Masonry
Cracked Units
Efflorescence
Loose Units
Missing/Clogged Weepholes
Deteriorated Mortar Joints
Plant Growth
Deteriorated/Torn Sealants
Out-of-Plumb
Spalled Units
Stains
Water Penetration
Flashing/Counterflashing
Bent
Missing
Open Lap Joints
Stains
Caps/Copings
Cracked Units
Drips Needed
Loose Joints
Open Joints
Out-of-Plumb
Below Grade
Foundation Walls
Cracks
Deteriorated Mortar Joints
Inadequate Drainage
Differential Movement
Water Penetration
Retaining Walls
Cracked Units
Decayed Mortar Joints
Damp
Inadequate Drainage
Out-of-Plumb
Spalled Units

represent each source that should be considered when
such problems occur in brick masonry.
After investigating all of the possible moisture pene-
tration sources, the actual source may be determined
through the process of elimination. Many times the source
will be self-evident as in the cases of deteriorated and
missing materials; however, in instances such as improper
flashing, differential movement, etc., the source may be
hidden and determined only through some type of building
diagnostics. In any case, it is suggested to first visually
inspect for the self-evident source before retaining a con-
sultant as it may save time and money in the detection of
the moisture penetration source.
Once the source is determined, measures can then
be taken to effectively remedy the moisture penetration
source and its effects on the brickwork. This Technical
Notes discusses suggested techniques for the reduction
of moisture penetration.
Remedial Cleaning
Moisture penetration is a contributing factor to the for-
mation of efflorescence (see Technical Notes 23 Series).
Generally, efflorescence is easily removed by natural
weathering or by scrubbing with a brush and water. In
some cases, acid may be used to remove stubborn efflo-
rescence (see Technical Notes 20 Revised). Improper
acid cleaning, i.e., absence of pre-wetting, insufficient
rinsing and strong acid concentrations, may be a cause of
further moisture penetration in brick masonry. Cement is
soluble in hydrochloric acid (muriatic acid); therefore, if
any hydrochloric acid remains on the brickwork, the mor-
tar joints may become etched and/or deteriorated. This

2
 TABLE 3
Possible Effects and Sources of Moisture Penetration

Sources of
Moisture
Penetration

Effects of Moisture
Penetration

Efflorescence
See TN 23
Series
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Deteriorated
Mortar √ √ √ √ √ √
Spalled Units √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Cracked Units
√ √ √ √ √ √
Rising Moisture √ √ √
Corrosion of
Back-up √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Materials
Mildew/Algae √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Growth
Damaged Interior
Finishes
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √

situation becomes evident by the formation of one of two Repair Methods

types of efflorescence which are not water-soluble. One
type is a white efflorescence, composed of either sodium
chloride or potassium chloride. The other is a white or
grayish haze, referred to as "white scum", composed of
silicic acid or other silica compounds. Each of these two
types of efflorescence has unique removal solutions.
The first case, where sodium chloride or potassium
chloride is formed, can be corrected by applying a solu-
tion of sodium hydroxide and water to the dry wall. The
solution should consist of 12 oz (350 ml) sodium hydrox-
ide to 1 qt (950 ml) water. The solution should be allowed
to dry on the wall. The sodium hydroxide will penetrate
the wall surface and neutralize the remaining hydrochloric
acid. The wall will effloresce heavily upon drying. These
new water-soluble salt deposits can be removed by natur-
al weathering or by scrubbing with a brush and water.
If "white scum" has formed on the wall, the methods
of removal as discussed in Technical Notes 20 Revised
may be effective. Table 4 summarizes the removal meth-
ods presented in Technical Notes 20 Revised.
After cleaning, the mortar joints should be inspected.
Tuck-pointing of the joints, as discussed later in this
Technical Notes, may be necessary. It should be noted
that these and all cleaning procedures should first be tried
in an inconspicuous area at different concentrations and
judged on effectiveness.
3
Sealant Replacement. Missing or deteriorated caulk-
ing and sealants in contact areas between brickwork and
other materials, i.e., window and door frames, expansion
joints, etc., may be a source of moisture penetration. The
sealant joints in these areas should be inspected. If the
sealant is missing, a full bead of high-quality, permanently
elastic sealant compound should be placed in the open
joints. If a sealant material was installed, but has torn,
deteriorated or lost elasticity, it should be carefully cut out.
The opening must be clean of all old sealant material. A
new sealant should then be placed in the clean joint. All
joints should be properly primed before the new sealant
material is applied. A backer rope material should be
placed in all joints deeper than 3/4 in. (19 mm) or wider
than 3/8 in. (10 mm).
Grouting of Mortar Joints. If the mortar joints devel-
op small "hairline" cracks, surface grouting may be an
effective measure in sealing them. One recommended
grout mixture is 1 part portland cement, 1/3 part hydrated
lime and 1 1/3 parts fine sand (passing a No. 30 sieve).
The joints to be grouted should be dampened. To ensure
good bond, the brickwork must absorb all surface water.
Clean water is added to the dry ingredients to obtain a
fluid consistency. The grout mixture should be applied to
the joints with a stiff fiber brush to force the grout into the
cracks. Two coats are usually required to effectively
reduce moisture penetration. Tooling the joints after the
grout application may help compact and force the grout
into the cracks. The use of a template or masking tape
 TABLE 4
Suggested Solutions to Remove White Scum

SOLUTION CONCENTRATION APPLICATION REMARKS

Proprietary As Recommended As Recommended Consult mfr.

Masking
A. Linseed Oil & Brush on May darken
Varsol 10-25% linseed oil Allow to Dry light-colored
B. Paraffin Oil & brick
Varsol 2-50% paraffin oil Brush on
Allow to Dry

may prove effective in keeping the brick faces clean.

Tuck-pointing Mortar Joints. Moisture may pene-
trate mortar which has softened, deteriorated or devel-
oped visible cracks. When this is the case, tuck-pointing
may be necessary to reduce moisture penetration. Tuck-
pointing is a process of cutting out old mortar to a uniform
depth and placing new mortar in the joint (see Figure 1).
Prior to undertaking a tuck-pointing project, the follow-
ing should be considered: 1) Whether or not to use power
tools for cutting out old mortar. The use of power tools
may damage the brick units surrounding the mortar being
cut out. 2) Any tuck-pointing operation should only be
done by a qualified and experienced tuck-pointing crafts-
man. An individual who is an excellent mason/bricklayer
may not be a good tuck-pointing craftsman. Skills should
be tested and evaluated prior to the selection of the
craftsman. 3) For tuck-pointing for historic preservation
purposes, refer to ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH
DIGEST on "Repointing (Tuck-Pointing) Brick Masonry",
Brick Institute of America, August 1993.
The old mortar should be cut out, by means of a
toothing chisel or a special pointer's grinder, to a uniform
depth of 3/4 in., or until sound mortar is reached (see Fig.
1B). Care must be taken not to damage the brick edges.
All dust and debris must be removed from the joint by
brushing, blowing with air or rinsing with water.
Tuck-pointing mortar should be carefully selected and
properly proportioned. For best results, the original mor-
tar proportions should be duplicated. If this is not possi-
ble, Types N or O mortar should be used, as mortars with
higher cement contents may not properly bond to the orig-
inal mortar. Table 5 lists the proper proportions for Types
N and O mortars.
The tuck-pointing mortar should be pre-
hydrated to reduce excessive shrinkage. The proper
pre-hydration process is as follows: All dry ingredi -
ents should be thoroughly mixed. Only enough clean
water should be added to the dry mix to produce a
damp, workable consistency which will retain its
shape when formed into a ball. The mortar should Tuck-Pointing Mortar Joints
stand in this dampened condition for 1 to 1 1/2 hr. FIG.1

4
 TABLE 5
Mixing Proportions for Types N and O Mortar
It is suggested that a small portion of the ivy (5-10 sq
2
ft [0.5 to 1.0 m ]) be removed from an inconspicuous area
first to determine how the masonry wall will appear once
Parts by Volume Aggregate,
the ivy is removed. Tuck-pointing of the mortar joints may
Mortar Portland Type S Measured in a
be necessary if the mortar has cracked or deteriorated.
Type Cement Hydrated Damp, Loose
Lime Condition Opening Weepholes. In some instances, moisture
may penetrate walls but is unable to escape to the exteri-
or. If this is the case, the weepholes should be inspected
N 1 1 4-1/2 to 6 to determine if they are clogged or insufficiently spaced.
If the weepholes are clogged, they can be cleaned out by
O 1 2 6-3/4 to 9 probing with a thin wood dowel, or stiff wire. If the weep-
holes were not properly spaced, drilling new weepholes
may be necessary. Technical Notes 21B outlines sug-
The joints to be tuck-pointed should be dampened,
gested types and spacing of weepholes. Table 6 is a
but to ensure a good bond, the brickwork must absorb all
summary of the recommended spacing requirements
surface water. Water should be added to the pre-hydrat-
included in Technical Notes 21B.
ed mortar to bring it to a workable consistency (somewhat
It should be noted that weepholes are placed directly
drier than conventional mortar). The mortar should be
above flashing; therefore, care must be exercised not to
packed tightly into the joints in thin layers (1/4 in. [6 mm]
damage the flashing whenever probing or drilling. The
maximum). Each layer should become "thumbprint hard"
use of a stopper to limit the depth of penetration of the
before applying the next layer (see Fig. 1C). The joints
probe or drill bit may be effective in reducing the possibili-
should be tooled to match the original profile after the last
ty of damaging the flashing.
layer of mortar is "thumbprint” hard (see Fig. 1D). As it
may be difficult to determine which joints allow moisture to Replacement of Brick Units. Moisture may pene-
penetrate, it is advisable to tuck-point all mortar joints in trate brick units which are broken or heavily spalled.
the affected wall area. When this occurs, replacement of the affected units may
be necessary. The following procedure is suggested for
Ivy Removal. Ivy growth may be a contributing factor
the removal and replacement of masonry units (see Fig.
to moisture penetration. Ivy shoots, sometimes referred
2).
to as "suckers", penetrate voids in mortar and may con-
A tuck-pointer's toothing chisel should be used to cut
duct moisture into these voids. If this is the case, ivy
out the mortar which surrounds the affected units. For
removal may be necessary.
ease of removal, the units to be removed can be broken.
To effectively remove ivy, the vines should be carefully
Once the units are removed, all of the old mortar should
cut away from the wall. The vines should never be pulled
be carefully chiseled out, and all dust and debris should
from the wall as this could damage the brickwork. After
be swept out with a brush (see Fig. 2B). If the units are
cutting, the shoots will remain. These suckers should be
located in the exterior wythe of a cavity wall, care must be
left in the wall until they dry up and die. This usually
exercised not to allow debris to fall into the cavity.
takes from 2 to 3 weeks. Care should be taken not to
The brick surfaces in the wall should be dampened
allow the suckers to rot and oxidize as this could make
before new units are placed, but the masonry should
them difficult to remove. Once the shoots die, the wall
absorb all surface moisture to ensure a good bond. The
should be dampened and scrubbed with a stiff fiber brush
appropriate surfaces of the surrounding brickwork and the
and water. Laundry detergent or weed killer may be
replacement brick should be buttered with mortar. The
added to the water in small concentrations to aid in the
replacement brick should be centered in the opening and
removal of the shoots. If these additives are used, the
pressed into position (see Fig. 2C). The excess mortar
wall must be thoroughly rinsed with clean water after
should be removed with a trowel. Pointing around the
scrubbing.
replacement brick will help to ensure full head and bed
TABLE 6 joints. When the mortar becomes "thumbprint" hard, the
Recommended Spacing of Weepholes
joints should be tooled to match the original profile.
RECOMMENDED Installation of a Dampproof Course. Moisture may
WEEPHOLE MAXIMUM SPACING migrate upward through brickwork by capillary action.
(Center to Center) This condition appears as a rising water line or "tide mark"
Wick Material on the wall.
16 in. All building codes require the use of a dampproofing
Open Head Joints material on below-grade masonry walls. If this was omit-
24 in.
Other: ted or improperly installed, the insertion of a dampproof
24 in.
Inserts course at a level above the ground, but below the first
Tubes floor, may stop the rising moisture. The installation proce-
Oiled Rods (removable) dure can take one of two forms. One form is the injection

5
 A) DAMAGED BRICK UNITS

C) BUTTER REPLACEMENTUNITS AND CAREFULLY SHOVE

B) CHISELOUTBRICK UNITS AND MORTAR INTO PLACE

Replacement of Brick Units

FIG. 2

of a chemical dampproof course directly into the masonry diate masonry sections are removed. The flashing can
wall. Holes are drilled into the masonry into which a syn- then be placed in these sections. The lengths of flashing
thetic material is inserted. Through a process based on should be lapped a minimum of 6 in. (150 mm) and be
electro-osmosis, the synthetic material forms a continuous completely sealed to function properly. The masonry is
dampproof barrier at this level. The other form of installa- then replaced.
tion is the removal of an entire brick course. A dampproof
material, i.e., plastic, metal or flashing is inserted, and the
brick course is replaced. The brick should be replaced as
described in the preceding section.
Installation of Flashing. Flashing, which has been
omitted, damaged or improperly installed, may permit
moisture to penetrate to the building interior. If this is the
case, a costly procedure of removing brick units, installing
flashing and replacing the units may be required. See
Technical Notes 7 Revised.
To install continuous flashing in existing walls, alter-
nate sections of masonry in 5 to 10 ft (1.5 to 3 m) lengths
should be removed. The flashing is installed in these sec-
tions and the masonry is replaced. The replaced masonry A Method of Installing Continuous
Flashing in Existing Walls
should be properly aged (5 to 7 days) before the interme- FIG. 3

6

SUMMARY
This Technical Notes has presented maintenance pro-
cedures to reduce moisture penetration in brick masonry.
It is suggested that routine inspections of the building be
carried out to determine where future "trouble spots" may
occur. Once a problem resulting from moisture penetra-
tion occurs, the actual source of moisture should be deter-
mined and corrected before any repairs are initiated.
Many moisture control procedures have been presented;
however, all buildings are unique and may experience
individual problems. No one solution will remedy similar
problems on different buildings. It is therefore suggested
that a repair method which will effectively suit the particu-
lar needs of a building be selected when a problem
occurs.
The information contained in this Technical Notes is
based on the available data and experience of the techni-
cal staff of the Brick Institute of America. This information
should be recognized as recommendations which, if fol-
lowed with good judgment, should result in masonry walls
that are resistant to moisture penetration. Final decisions
on the use of this information are not within the purview of
the Brick Institute of America, and must rest with the pro-
ject designer, owner or both.
Publishing Company, 1977.
9. "Paints for Exterior Masonry Walls", Building
Materials and Structures Report BMS 110, National
Bureau of Standards, U.S. Department of Commerce,
Washington, D.C., 1947.
10. "Cleaning of Clay Masonry", Soderstrom, W.K.,
Structural Clay Products Research Foundation, May
1964.
11. ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH DIGEST, "Ivy
on Brick (Pro and Con)", Brick Institute of America,
McLean, Virginia, May 1980.
12. ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH DIGEST,
"Tuck-Pointing", Brick Institute of America, McLean,
Virginia, 1983.
13. Old House Journal, No. 5, Vol. XIII, Brooklyn,
New York, June 1985.
14. "Penetrative Stains for Masonry", Hoskins, R.A.,
Hodsons Dye Agency P/L.
15. Preservation Briefs No. 2, "Repointing Mortar
Joints in Historic Brick Buildings", Heritage,
Conservation and Recreation Service, U.S.
Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C., 1980.
16. Research Report 15, "The Causes and Control of
Efflorescence on Brickwork", Wayne E. Brownell,
Structural Clay Products Institute, August 1969.

REFERENCES

1. "A Glossary of Historic Masonry Deterioration

Problems and Preservation Treatments", Anne E.
Grimmer, Department of the Interior, National Park
Service, Preservation Assistance Division,
Washington, D.C., 1984.
2. "Basic Masonry Techniques", March 1985.
3. "Building Materials and Structures", BMS 33,
'Plastic Caulking Materials', National Bureau of
Standards, U.S. Department of Commerce,
Washington, D.C., 1940.
4. "Building Materials and Structures", BMS 63,
'Moisture Condensation in Building Walls', National
Bureau of Standards, U.S. Department of Commerce,
Washington, D.C., 1940.
5. "Building Materials and Structures", BMS 76,
'Effect of Outdoor Exposure of the Water Permeability
on Masonry Walls', National Bureau of Standards,
U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C.,
1941.
6. "Building Materials and Structures", BMS 94,
'Water Permeability and Weathering Resistance of
Stucco-Faced, Gunite-Faced and "Knap Concrete
Unit" Walls', National Bureau of Standards, U.S.
Department of Commerce, Washington. D.C.. 1942.
7. "Building Materials and Structures", BMS 95,
'Tests of Cement-Water Paints and Other
Waterproofings for Unit-Masonry Walls', National
Bureau of Standards, U.S. Department of Commerce,
Washington, D.C., 1943.
8. "Maintenance Engineering Handbook", 3rd
Edition, Higgins, L.R. and Morrow, L.C., McGraw-Hill
7
 8
Technical Notes REVISED

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
August
1995

MORTARS FOR BRICK MASONRY

Abstract: This Technical Notes addresses mortars for brick masonry. The major ingre-
dients of mortar are identified. Means of specifying mortar are covered. Mortar properties
are described as well as their effect on brick masonry. Information is provided for selection
of the appropriate materials for mortar and properties of mortars.

Key Words: hardened mortar properties, mortar, plastic mortar properties, specifica-
tions, types of mortar.

INTRODUCTION used extensively in this country before the 1900’s. Cur-

Mortar is the bonding agent that integrates brick into
a masonry wall. Mortar must be strong, durable, capa-
ble of keeping the wall intact, and it must help to create
a water resistant barrier. It must accommodate dimen-
sional variations and physical properties of the brick
when laid. These requirements are influenced by the
composition, proportions and properties of mortar.
Because concrete and mortar contain the same princi-
pal ingredients, it is often erroneously assumed that
good concrete practice is also good mortar practice. In
reality, mortar differs from concrete in working consis-
tencies, methods of placement, and structural perfor-
mance. Mortar is used to bind masonry units into a sin-
gle element, developing a complete, strong and durable
bond. Concrete, however, is usually a structural ele-
ment in itself. Mortar is usually placed between ab-
sorbent masonry units, and loses water upon contact
with the units. Concrete is usually placed in non-ab-
sorbent metal or wooden forms which absorb little if
any water. The importance of the water cement ratio for
concrete is significant, whereas for mortar it is less im-
portant. Mortars have a high water cement ratio when
mixed, but this ratio changes to a lower value when the
mortar comes in contact with the absorbent units.
This Technical Notes addresses the materials, means
of specifying and properties of mortars. Other Techni -
cal Notes in this series include a standard specification
for portland cement-lime mortars (BIA M1-88) and the
selection and control of mortars.
MATERIALS
Historically, mortars have been made from a variety
of materials. Burned gypsum and sand were used to
make mortar in ancient Egypt, while lime and sand were
rently, the basic dry ingredients for mortar include port-
land cement, masonry cement, hydrated lime, and sand.
Each of these materials makes a definite contribution to
mortar performance.
Portland Cement
Portland cement, a hydraulic cement, is the principal
cementitious ingredient for mortars. It contributes to
durability, high strength, and early setting of the mortar.
Portland cement used in masonry mortars should con-
form to ASTM C 150 Specification for Portland Ce-
ment. Of the eight types covered by ASTM C 150, only
three are recommended for use in masonry mortars:
Type I - For general use when the special properties
of Types II and III are not required.
Type II - For use when moderate sulfate resistance
or moderate heat of hydration is desired.
Type III - For use when high early strength is desired.
The use of blended hydraulic cements, ASTM C 595
Specification for Blended Hydraulic Cements, such as
portland blast-furnace slag cement, portland-pozzolan
cement, slag cement and natural cement is not recom-
mended unless the mortar containing such cements
meets the property specification of ASTM C 270 Speci-
fication for Mortar for Unit Masonry.
Because high air entrainment can significantly reduce
the bond between the mortar and masonry units or rein-
forcement, the use of air-entrained portland or blended
hydraulic cements is not recommended. Most building
codes have lower allowable flexural tensile stress values
for mortars made with air-entrained portland cement.
Masonry Cements
Masonry cements are proprietary cementitious materi-
als for mortar. They are widely used because of their
convenience and good workability. ASTM C 91 Specifi-
cation for Masonry Cement defines masonry cement as
“a hydraulic cement, primarily used in masonry and plas-
tering construction, consisting of a mixture of portland or
blended hydraulic cement and plasticizing materials
(such as limestone, hydrated or hydraulic lime) together
with other materials introduced to enhance one or more
properties such as setting time, workability, water reten-
tion, and durability”. ASTM C 91 provides specific cri-
teria for physical requirements and performance proper-
ties of masonry cements. The constituents of masonry
cement may vary depending on the manufacturer, local
construction practices and climatic conditions.
Masonry cements are classified into three types by
ASTM C 91: Types M, S and N. The current edition of
ASTM C 91 requires a minimum air content of 8 per-
cent (by volume) and limits the maximum air content to
21 percent for Type N masonry cement and 19 percent
for Types S and M masonry cements. Mortar prepared
in the field will typically have an air content 2 to 3 per-
cent lower than that when tested under laboratory con-
ditions.
In the model building codes, allowable flexural ten-
sile stress values for masonry built with masonry ce-
ment mortars are lower than those for masonry built
with non air-entrained portland cement-lime mortars.
Therefore, the use of masonry cement should be based
on the requirements of the specific application.
Hydrated Lime
Hydrated lime is a derivative of limestone which has
been through two chemical reactions to produce calci-
um hydroxide Ca(OH) 2. Lime, which sets only upon
contact with carbon dioxide in the air, contributes to
bond, workability, water retention and elasticity.
Hydrated lime in ASTM C 207 Specification for Hy-
drated Lime for Masonry Purposes is available in four
types. Only Type S hydrated lime should be used in mor-
tar. Type N hydrated lime contains no limits on the quan-
tity of unhydrated oxides. Types NA and SA lime con-
tain air entraining additives which reduce the extent of
bond between the mortar and masonry units or reinforce-
ment, and are therefore not recommended for mortar.
Because lime hardens only upon contact with carbon
dioxide in the air, hardening occurs slowly over a long
period of time. However, if small hairline cracks devel-
op, water and carbon dioxide which penetrate the joint
will form calcium carbonate. The newly developed cal-
cium carbonate will seal the cracks from further water
penetration. This selfperpetuating process is known as
autogenous healing.
Aggregates
Sand acts as a filler, providing for an economical mix
and controlling shrinkage. Either natural sand or manu-
factured sand may be used. Gradation limits are given
in ASTM C 144 Specification for Aggregates for Ma-
sonry Mortar.
Gradation can be easily and inexpensively altered by
adding fine or coarse sands. Sometimes the most feasi-
ble method requires proportioning the mortar mix to
suit the available sand, rather than requiring sand to
meet a particular gradation. However, if the sand does
not meet the grading requirement of ASTM C 144, it
can only be used provided the mortar meets the proper-
ty specifications of BIA M1 Specification for Portland
Cement-Lime Mortar for Brick Masonry or ASTM C
270.
Water
If water is clean, potable, and free of deleterious
acids, alkalies or organic materials, it is suitable for ma-
sonry mortars.

TABLE 1
Proportion Specification Requirements
NOTE—Two air-entraining materials shall not be combined in mortar.

Proportions by Volume (Cementitious Materials)

Portland Masonry Cement

Mortar Type Hydrated Lime Aggregate Ratio (Measured in
Cement or
Blended or Lime Putty Damp, Loose Conditions)
Cement M S N

Cement-lime M 1 ... ... ... 1

⁄4
S 1 ... ... ... over 1⁄4 to 1⁄2
N 1 ... ... ... over 1⁄2 to 11⁄4
0 1 ... ... ... over 11⁄4 to 2 1⁄2

Not less than 21⁄4 and not more than

Masonry cement M 1 ... ... 1 ... 3 times the sum of the separate volumes
M ... 1 ... ... ... of cementitious materials.
S 1
⁄2 ... ... 1 ...
S ... ... 1 ... ...
N ... ... ... 1 ...
O ... ... ... 1 ...

2
Admixtures
Admixtures are sometimes used in mortar to increase
workability decrease setting time and to retard freezing.
Admixtures to achieve a desired color of the mortar are
the most widely used. Although some admixtures are
harmless, some are detrimental to mortar and the result-
ing brickwork. Since the properties of both plastic and
hardened mortars depend so largely upon mortar ingre-
dients, the use of admixtures should not be considered
unless their effect on the mortar is known. The use of
admixtures should also be examined for their effect on
the wall, masonry units and items embedded in the
wall.
SPECIFYING MORTAR
Masonry mortars are classified into four types: M, S,
N and O. Each mortar type consists of aggregate, wa-
ter, and one or more of the three cementitious materials
(portland cement, masonry cement and lime) listed in
the previous section.
There are two methods of specifying mortar by type
in ASTM C 270 and BIA M1: proportions or properties.
Proportion Specifications
The proportion specifications require that mortar ma-
terials be mixed according to given volumetric propor-
tions. If mortar is specified by this method, no labora-
tory testing is required for the mortar. Table 1 lists pro-
portion requirements of the various mortar types. Note
that a Type N masonry cement may be combined with
portland cement to produce a Type S or Type M mortar.
Property Specifications
The property specifications require a mortar mix to
meet the specified properties under laboratory testing
conditions. If mortar is specified by the property speci-
fications, compressive strength, water retention, and air
content tests must be performed on mortar mixed in the
laboratory with a controlled amount of water. The ma-
terial quantities determined from the laboratory testing
are then used in the field with the amount of water de-
termined by the mason. Table 2 lists property require-
ments of the various mortar types. Properties of field
mixed mortar cannot be compared to the requirements
of the property specifications because of the different
amounts of water used in the mortars.
Proportion vs. Property Specifications
The specifier should indicate in the project specifica-
tions whether the proportion or the property specifica-
tions govern. If the specifier does not, then the propor-
tion specifications govern by default. The specifier
should also confirm that the mortar types selected and
the materials indicated in the project specifications are
consistent with the structural design requirements of the
masonry.
Mortar prepared by the proportion specifications
should not be compared to mortar prepared by the prop-
erty specifications. A mortar that is mixed according to
the proportion specification will have higher laboratory
compressive strengths than that of the corresponding
mortar type under the property specification.
The volumetric proportions given in Table 1 or as de-
termined by laboratory tests can be converted to weight
proportions. The assumed weights per cubic foot for
the materials are:
Portland cement 94 lb (42.6 kg)
Hydrated lime 40 lb (18.1 kg)
Masonry cement Varies, use weight printed
on bag
Sand, damp and loose 80 lb (36.3 kg) of dry sand

TABLE 2
Property Specification Requirements1

Average Compressive Water

Air Content, Aggregate Ratio
Mortar Type Strength at 28 Days, Retention
max. % (Measured in Damp, Loose Conditions)
min. psi (MPa) min. %

Cement-lime M 2500 (17.2) 75 12

S 1800 (12.4) 75 12
N 750 (5.2) 75 14 2
0 350 (2.4) 75 14 2 Not less than 2 1⁄4 and not more than
3 times the sum of the separate volumes
Masonry cement M 2500 (17.2) 75 183 of cementitious materials.

S 1800 (12.4) 75 183

N 750 (5.2) 75 203
O 350 (2.4) 75 203
1 Laboratory prepared mortar only
2When structural reinforcement is incorporated in cement-lime mortar, the maximum air content shall be 12%.
3 When structural reinforcement is incorporated in masonry cement mortar, the maximum air content shall be 18%.

3
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MORTAR
Mortars have two distinct, important sets of proper-
ties; those in the plastic state and those in the hardened
state. The plastic properties help to determine the mor-
tar’s compatibility with brick and its construction suit-
ability. Properties of plastic mortars include workabili-
ty, water retention, initial flow and flow after suction.
Properties of hardened mortars help determine the per-
formance of the finished masonry. Hardened properties
include bond strength, durability, extensibility and com-
pressive strength.
Bond Strength
Bond strength is perhaps the most important single
physical property of hardened mortar. Both the strength
and the extent of bond are important. Variables which
affect the bond strength include texture of the brick,
suction of the brick, air content of the mortar, water re-
tention of the mortar, pressure applied to the joint dur-
ing forming, mortar proportions and methods of curing.
Effect of Brick Texture. Research shows that bed
surface texture is a major factor in determining bond
strength. Mortar bond is greater to roughened surfaces,
such as wire cut surfaces, than to smooth surfaces, such
as die skin surfaces. Sanded surfaces can reduce the
bond strength depending upon the amount of sand on
the surface and its adherence to the surface.
Effect of Brick Suction. The laboratory measured
initial rate of absorption (IRA) of brick indicates the
brick’s suction and whether it should be wetted prior to
use. However, it is the actual suction at the time of
laying which influences bond strength. In practically
all cases, mortar bonds best to brick whose suctions are
less than 30 g/min/30 in.2 (1.55 kg/m 2/min) at the time
of laying. If the brick’s suction exceeds this value then
the brick should be wetted three to twenty-four hours
prior to laying. Wetted brick should be surface dry
before they are laid in mortar.
Several researchers have shown that IRA appears to
have little influence on bond strength.
Effect of Air Content. Available information indi-
cates a definite relationship exists between air content
and bond strength of mortar. Provided other parameters
are held constant, as air content is increased, compres-
sive strength and bond strength are reduced, while
workability and resistance to freeze-thaw deterioration
are increased.
Effect of Flow. An increase in the flow of mortar at
the time of use is beneficial because it can satisfy the
suction of the brick and can allow greater control of the
mortar for the bricklayer. For all mortars, and with
minor exceptions for all brick suctions, bond strength
increases as flow increases. However, too much water
can reduce both workability and bond strength.
The time lapse between spreading mortar and placing
brick will affect mortar flow, particularly when mortar
is spread on high suction brick or when construction
4
takes place during hot, dry weather. In such cases, mor-
tar will have less flow by the time brick are placed than
when it was first spread. Conceivably, bond to brick
placed on this mortar could be materially reduced. For
highest bond strength, reduce this time interval to a
minimum.
Because all mortar is not used immediately after mix-
ing, some of its water may evaporate while it is on the
mortar board. The addition of water to mortar (retem-
pering) to replace water lost by evaporation should be
encouraged. Although compressive strength may be
slightly reduced if mortar is retempered, bond strength
may be lowered if it is not. All mortar should be used
within 21⁄2 hours after mixing since the mortar will begin
to set.
Effect of Movement. Once mortar has begun to
harden, tapping or attempting to otherwise move brick
can be detrimental to bond. Movement at this time will
break the bond between the brick and mortar. The par-
tially dried mortar will not have sufficient plasticity to
readhere well to the masonry units.
Effect of Proportions. There is no precise combina-
tion of materials that will always produce optimum
bond. Type S mortar will typically develop the highest
flexural bond strength of all the mortar types, if all oth-
er variables are held constant.
Effect of Curing. Wet curing of masonry generally
produces higher bond strength than dry curing, but mor-
tar materials will influence the result. Bond strength
design values, however, are based on dry curing.
Test Methods. Because many variables affect bond,
it may be desirable to achieve reproducible results from
a small scale laboratory test. The bond wrench test,
ASTM C 1072 Method for Measurement of Masonry
Flexural Bond Strength, appears to fulfill this need. It
evaluates the flexural bond strength of each joint in a
masonry prism. The bond wrench test has replaced var-
ious tests such as ASTM E 518 and E 72. The appara-
tus as shown in Figure 1 consists of a stack bonded
prism clamped in a stationary frame. A cantilevered
arm is clamped to the top brick over the joint to be test-
ed. The free end of the cantilever arm is loaded until
failure, which occurs when the clamped brick is
“wrenched” off.
In general, to increase the flexural bond strength:
1. Bond mortar to a wirecut or roughened surface
rather than a die skin surface.
2. Use brick with suction less than 30 grams/min/30
in.2 (1.55 kg/m 2/min) when laid. Control high
suction by wetting brick prior to laying.
3. Use Type S portland cement-lime mortar or Type
S masonry cement mortar with air content in the
low to mid-range of ASTM C 91 limits.
4. Mix mortar to the maximum flow compatible with
workmanship. Use maximum mixing water and
permit retempering.
 BEARING PLATE
CLAMPING
BOLTS
Bond Wrench Test Apparatus
FIG. 1
Water Content
Water content is possibly the most misunderstood
aspect of masonry mortar, probably due to the similarity
between mortar and concrete materials. Many design-
ers have mistakenly based mortar specifications on the
assumption that mortar requirements are similar to con-
crete requirements, especially with regard to the water-
cement ratio. Many specifications incorrectly require
mortar to be mixed with the minimum amount of water
consistent with workability. Often, retempering of the
mortar is also prohibited. These provisions result in
mortars which have higher compressive strengths but
lower bond strengths. Mixing mortar with the maxi-
mum amount of water consistent with workability will
provide maximum bond strength within the capacity of
the mortar. Retempering is permitted, but only to re-
place water lost by evaporation. This can usually be
controlled satisfactorily by requiring that all mortar be
used within 21⁄2 hours after initial mixing.
Workability
A mortar is workable if its consistency allows it to be
spread with little effort and if it will readily adhere to
vertical masonry surfaces. Although experienced ma-
sons are good judges of the workability of the mortars,
there is no standard laboratory test for measuring this
5
LOAD
BALL BEARING
TEST SPECIMEN
LOADING ARM BRACKET
UPPER CLAMPING BRACKET
LOWER CLAMPING BRACKET
COMPRESSION MEMBER
STYROFOAM
ADJUSTABLE PRISM BASE SUPPORT
property.
Water retention, flow and resistance to segregation
affect workability. In turn, these are affected by proper-
ties of the mortar ingredients. Because of this complex
relationship, quantitative estimates of workability are
difficult to obtain. Until a test is developed, the re-
quirements for water retention and aggregate gradation
must be relied upon to ensure satisfactory workability.
Initial Flow and Water Retention
Initial flow is essentially a measure of the mortar’s
water content. It can be measured by either of two
methods: 1) ASTM C 109 Method of Test for Com-
pressive Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars, or 2)
ASTM C 780 Method for Preconstruction and Con-
struction Evaluation of Mortars for Plain and Rein-
forced Unit Masonry.
In ASTM C 109, a truncated cone of mortar is
formed on a flow table, which is then mechanically
raised and dropped 25 times in 15 seconds. During this
test, the mortar will flow increasing the diameter of the
mortar specimen. The initial flow is the ratio of the in-
crease in diameter from the initial four inch cone base
diameter, expressed in percent.
In ASTM C 780, a 3 1/2 in. (89 mm) high hollow
cylinder is filled with mortar, and a cone shaped
plunger, whose point is placed at the top of the cylinder,
is dropped into the mortar. The depth of the cone pene-
tration into the mortar is measured. The greater the
penetration of the cone into the mortar the greater its
flow or water content.
Water retention is the ability of a mortar to hold wa-
ter when placed in contact with absorbent masonry
units. The laboratory value of water retention is the ra-
tio of flow after suction to the initial flow, expressed in
percent. Flow after suction, as described in ASTM C
91, is determined by subjecting the mortar to a vacuum
and remeasuring the flow of the mortar. A mortar
which has low water retention will lose moisture more
rapidly. The IRA of the brick is considered in order to
determine if this is detrimental to bond.
Laboratory mortars are based on an initial flow of
only 105 to 115 percent. Construction mortars normal-
ly have initial flows in the range of 130 to 150 percent
to produce a level of workability satisfactory to the ma-
son. Requirements for laboratory prepared mortar
should not be applied to field prepared mortar. Further,
test results of laboratory prepared mortar should not be
compared to test results of field prepared mortar with-
out considering the initial flow of each. The lower ini-
tial flow requirements for laboratory mortars were set to
allow for more consistent test results on most available
laboratory equipment and to compensate for water ab-
sorbed by the units.
In general, the following will increase water reten-
tion:
1. Addition of sand fines within allowable gradation
limits.
2. Use of highly plastic lime (Type S lime).
3. Increase air content.
Extensibility and Plastic Flow
Extensibility is another term for maximum tensile
strain at failure. It reflects the maximum elongation
possible under tensile forces. High lime mortars exhibit
greater plastic flow than low lime mortars. Plastic flow,
or creep, acting with extensibility will impart some
flexibility to the masonry, permitting slight movement.
Where greater resiliency for movement is desirable, in-
crease the lime content while still satisfying other re-
quirements.
Compressive Strength
As with concrete, the compressive strength of mortar
primarily depends upon the cement content and the wa-
ter cement ratio. However, because compressive
strength of masonry mortar is less important than bond
strength, workability and water retention, the latter
properties should be given principal consideration in
mortar selection.
Effect of Proportions. Compressive strength in-
creases with an increase in cement content of mortar
and decreases with an increase in water content, lime
content or over-sanding. Sometimes air entrainment is
introduced to obtain higher flows with lower water con-
6
tent. The reasoning here is that lower water cement ra-
tios will provide higher compressive strengths. Howev-
e r, this generally proves futile since compressive
strength decreases with an increase in air content.
Effect of Retempering. Retempering will decrease
mortar compressive strength, the amount of decrease in-
creasing with time after mixing. Mortar will begin to
stiffen about 21⁄2 hours after initial mixing. Since mix-
ing after initial set lowers compressive strength more,
reduction in strength will be noticeably less if retemper-
ing occurs within that time. It is frequently desirable to
sacrifice some compressive strength in favor of im-
proved bond strength by permitting retempering.
Test Methods. Compressive strength is measured by
testing 2 in. (50 mm) mortar cubes or 2 in. (50 mm) and
3 in. (75 mm) diameter cylinders. Procedures for mold-
ing and testing cubes and cylinders appear in ASTM C
109 and ASTM C 780, respectively. Because the tests
are relatively simple and because they give consistent,
reproducible results, compressive strength is considered
one basis for comparing mortars.
Durability
The durability of mortar in unsaturated masonry is
not a serious problem. The durability of mortar is
shown in the number of masonry structures that have
been in service for many years.
Although an increase in air content may increase the
durability of masonry mortar, it will decrease bond
strength and other desirable properties. For this reason,
and because mortar is normally quite durable without
air entrainment, the use of air-entraining admixtures to
increase air content is not recommended.
Volume Change
Volume changes in mortars can result from four caus-
es: chemical reactions in hardening, temperature
changes, wetting and drying and unsound ingredients
which chemically expand. Differential volume change
between brick and mortar in a given wythe has no im-
portant effect on performance. However, total volume
change can be significant.
Volume change caused by hardening is often termed
shrinkage and depends upon curing conditions, mix
proportions and water content. Mortars hardened in ab-
sorbent molds or in contact with brick exhibit consider-
ably less shrinkage than those hardened in non-ab-
sorbent molds. An increase in water content will cause
an increase in shrinkage during hardening of mortar if
the excess water is not removed.
Change in temperature will lead to expansion and
contraction of masonry. Thermal expansion and con-
traction of masonry and means to accommodate the ex-
pected movement are discussed in Technical Notes 18
Series.
Mortar swells and shrinks as its moisture content in-
creases and decreases, respectively. Moisture content
changes with normal cycles of wetting and drying. The
magnitude of volume change due to this effect is small-
er than that from shrinkage. Unsound ingredients or
impurities can cause mortar to expand. Unhydrated
lime oxides or gypsum are examples of these, and can
cause significant volume change.
Efflorescence
Efflorescence is a crystalline deposit of water-soluble
salts on the surface of masonry. Mortar may be a major
contributor to efflorescence since it is a primary source
of calcium hydroxide. This chemical can produce efflo-
rescence on its own and can react with solutions from
the brick to form insoluble compounds. Mortar can
contain other soluble constituents, including alkalies,
sulfates and magnesium hydroxide.
Currently there is no standard test method to deter-
mine the efflorescence potential of mortar or of a
brick/mortar combination. Scientists conclude that
mortars will effloresce under any standard test.
Color
Colored mortars may be obtained through the use of
colored aggregates or suitable pigments. The use of
colored aggregates is preferable when the desired mor-
tar color can be obtained. White sand, ground granite,
marble or stone, usually have permanent color and do
not weaken the mortar. For white joints, use white
sand, ground limestone or ground marble with white
portland cement and lime.
Mortar pigments must be sufficiently fine to disperse
throughout the mix, must be capable of imparting the
desired color when used in permissible quantities and
must not react with other ingredients to the detriment of
the mortar. These requirements are generally met by
metallic oxide pigments. Iron, manganese and chromi-
um oxides, carbon black and ultramarine blue have
been used successfully as mortar colors. Avoid using
organic colors and, in particular, those colors containing
Prussian blue, cadmium lithophone, and zinc and lead
chromates. Paint pigments may not be suitable for mor-
tars. Most pigments which conform to ASTM C 979
Specification for Pigments for Integrally Colored Con-
crete are suitable for mortar.
Use the minimum quantity of pigments that will pro-
duce the desired results; an excess may seriously impair
strength and durability. The maximum permissible
quantity of most metallic oxide pigments is 10 percent
of the cement content by weight. Although carbon
black is a very effective coloring agent, it will greatly
reduce mortar strength when used in greater propor-
tions. Therefore, limit carbon black to 2 percent of the
cement by weight.
For best results, use cement and coloring agents pre-
mixed in large, controlled quantities. Premixing large
quantities will assure more uniform color than can be
obtained by mixing smaller batches at the job. A con-
sistent mixing sequence is essential for color consisten-
cy when mixing smaller batches at the job. Further, use
the same source of mortar materials throughout the pro-
ject.
7
Color uniformity varies with the amount of mixing
water, moisture content of the brick when laid and if the
mortar is retempered. The time and degree of tooling
and cleaning techniques will also influence final mortar
color. Color permanence depends upon quality of pig-
ments and weathering and efflorescing qualities of the
mortar.
RECOMMENDED MORTAR USES
Selection of a particular mortar type is usually a
function of the needs of the finished masonry element.
Where high winds are expected, high lateral strength is
required and, hence, mortar with high flexural bond
strength should be chosen. For loadbearing walls and
reinforced brick masonry, high compressive strength
may be the governing factor. In some projects consid-
erations of durability, color and flexibility may be of ut-
most concern. Factors which improve one property of
mortar often do so at the expense of others. For this
reason, when selecting a mortar, evaluate properties of
each type and choose that mortar which will best meet
particular end-use requirements. No single type of mor-
tar is best for all purposes. See Technical Notes 8B for
selection of mortar types.
SUMMARY
Mortar requirements differ from concrete require-
ments, principally because the primary function of mor-
tar is to bond masonry units into an integral element.
Properties of both plastic and hardened mortars are im-
portant. Plastic properties determine construction suit-
ability; hardened properties determine performance of
finished elements. No one combination of ingredients
provides a mortar which is highest in all desirable prop-
erties. Factors that improve one property may do so at
the expense of others. When selecting a mortar, evalu-
ate all properties, then select the mortar providing the
best compromise for the particular requirements.
The information and suggestions contained in this
Technical Notes are based on the available data and the
experience of the technical staff of the Brick Institute of
America. The information and recommendations con-
tained herein must be used in conjunction with good
technical judgment and a basic understanding of the
properties of brick masonry. Final decisions on the use
of the information contained in this Technical Notes are
not within the purview of the Brick Institute of America
and must rest with the project architect, engineer and
owner.
REFERENCES
1. ASTM C 270-92a Standard Specification for
Mortar for Unit Masonry, Annual Book of ASTM
S t a n d a rd s, Vol. 04.05, American Society for
Testing and Materials, Philadelphia,PA, 1995.
2. Matthys, J.H., “Brick Masonry Flexural Bond
Strength Using Conventional Masonry Mortar”,
P roceedings of the Fifth Canadian Masonry
 Symposium, University of Vancouver, Vancou-
ver, BC, 1992, pp. 745-756.
3. Melander, J.M. and Conway, J.T., “Compressive
Strengths and Bond Strengths of Portland Ce-
ment-Lime Mortars”, Masonry, Design and Con -
s t ruction, Problems and Repair, ASTM STP
1180, American Society for Testing and Materi-
als, Philadelphia, PA, 1993, pp. 105-120.
4. Ribar, J.W. and Dubovoy, V.S., “Investigation of
Masonry Bond and Surface Profile of Brick”,
Masonry: Materials, Design, Construction and
Maintenance, ASTM STP 992, American Society
for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA ,
1988, pp. 33-37.
5. Robinson, G.C. and Brown, R.H., “Inadequacy
8
of Property Specifications in ASTM C 270”,
Masonry: Materials, Design, Construction and
Maintenance ASTM STP 992, American Society
for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA ,
1988, pp. 7-17.
6. Wood, S.L., “Flexural Bond Strength of Clay
Brick Masonry”, The Masonry Society Journal,
Vol. 13 #2, The Masonry Society, Boulder, CO,
February 1995, pp. 45-55.
7. Wright, B.T., Wilkin, R.D. and John, G.W. ,
“Variables Affecting the Strength of Masonry
Mortars”, Masonry, Design and Construction,
Problems and Repair, ASTM STP 1180, Ameri-
can Society for Testing and Materials, Philadel-
phia, PA, 1993, pp. 197-210.
 8A
Technical Notes REVISED

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
September
1988

STANDARD SPECIFICATION FOR

PORTLAND CEMENT-LIME MORTAR FOR BRICK MASONRY
BIA DESIGNATION M1-88

1. SCOPE C144 Specification for Aggregate for Masonry Mortar

1.1 This specification covers mortars for use in the C150 Specification for Portland Cement
construction of non-reinforced and reinforced brick C207 Specification for Hydrated Lime for Masonry
masonry. Four types of mortar are covered in this specifi- Purposes
cation. Each mortar type may be specified by proportion C511 Specification for Moist Cabinets, Moist Rooms,
specifications or by property specifications. and Water Storage Tanks Used in the Testing of Hydraulic
1.2 The proportion or property specifications shall Cements and Concretes
govern as specified. The mortar type shall be specified C780 Method for Preconstructed and Constructed
by letter designation. Evaluation of Mortars for Plain and Reinforced Unit
1.3 When neither proportion or property specifica- Masonry
tions are specified, the proportion specifications shall gov- 3.2 International Masonry Industry All-Weather
ern, unless data are presented to and accepted by the Council
specifier to show that the mortar meets the requirements Recommended Practices and Guide Specifications for
of the property specifications. Cold Weather Masonry Construction: Section 04200 Unit
Masonry, Article 3 of the Guide Specifications, Ninth
2. MORTAR TYPES Printing, June 6, 1984.
2.1 Four types of mortar are covered.
2.1.1 Type M. A high compressive strength mortar 4. MATERIALS
specifically recommended for masonry below grade and in 4.1 Materials used as ingredients in mortar shall con-
contact with earth. form to the requirements specified in 4.2 to 4.5.
2.1.2 Type S. A mortar recommended for use in 4.2 Cementitious Materials. Cementitious materials
masonry where maximum flexural strength is required. shall conform to the following ASTM specifications:
2.1.3 Type N. A medium strength mortar suitable for 4.2.1 Portland Cement. Types I, II or III of ASTM
general use in exposed masonry above grade and specifi- Specification C150.
cally recommended for parapets, chimneys and exterior 4.2.2 Hydrated Lime. Type S of ASTM C207. Type
walls subjected to severe weathering conditions. N may be permitted if shown by test or performance
2.1.4 Type O. A low strength mortar suitable for use record not to be detrimental to the soundness of the mor-
in non-loadbearing walls of solid masonry units, loadbear- tar.
ing walls of solid units in which the axial compressive 4.3 Aggregates. ASTM Specification C144, except
2
stresses developed do not exceed 100 psi (7 kgf/cm ) and that the grading shall comply to the following limits:
where the masonry will not be subject to severe weather- Seive Size Percent Passing
ing. No. 4 (4.75-mm) 100
No. 8 (2.36-mm) 95 to 100
3. REFERENCED DOCUMENTS No. 16 (1.18-mm) 60 to 100
3.1 American Society for Testing and Materials No. 30 (600-µm) 35 to 70
(ASTM) Standards No. 50 (300-µm) 15 to 35
C91 Specification for Masonry Cement (For determi- No. 100 (150-µm) 2 to 15
nation of water retention and air content, see Section 7.2 No. 200 (75-µm) 0 to 2
and 7.3)
C109 Test Methods for Compressive Strength of
Hydraulic Cement Mortars (Using 2-inch or 50-mm Cube
Specimens)
 4.4 Admixtures. No air-entraining admixtures or
cementitious materials containing air-entraining admix-
tures or agents shall be used in the mortar.
Antifreeze compounds, accelerators, retarders, water-
repellent agents or other admixtures shall not be added to
mortar (see Note 1). Calcium chloride or admixtures con-
taining calcium chloride shall not be added to mortar.
Mortar colors may be added to the mortar if specified.
Mortar containing such colors shall conform to the physi-
cal requirements in Table 2.
Note 1 - This specification is not applicable to extended-life mor-
tars that are mixed under controlled conditions in a central batching
plant.
4.5 Water. Water shall be clean and free of amounts
of oils, acids, alkalies, salts, organic materials, or other
substances that may be deleterious to mortar or any
metal in the wall.
5. REQUIREMENTS
5.1 Proportion Specifications. Mortar conforming
to the proportion specifications shall consist of a mixture
of cementitious material, aggregate, and water all con-
forming to the requirements of Section 4 and shall be pro-
portioned within the limits given in Table 1 for each mortar
type specified. See Appendix A.1 for a guide to the selec-
tion of mortar type.
5.1.1 Mortar of a known higher compressive strength
shall not be substituted where a mortar type of an antici-
pated lower compressive strength is specified without the
consent of the specifier.
5.2 Property Specifications. Mortar conformance to
the property specifications shall be established by test of
laboratory prepared mortar in accordance with Section 6
and 8.2. The laboratory prepared mortar shall consist of a
mixture of cementitious material, aggregate, and water all
conforming to the requirements of Section 4. The physi-
cal properties of the laboratory prepared mortar shall con-
form to the requirements of Table 2. See Appendix A.1 for
a guide to the selection of mortar type.
5.2.1 No change in the laboratory proportions estab-
lished for mortar accepted under the property specifica-
tions shall be made, except for the quantity of mixing
water. Materials with different physical characteristics
shall not be used in the mortar prepared for the work
unless compliance with the requirements of the property
specifications is re-established and accepted by the speci-
fier.
6. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
6.1 Laboratory Prepared Mortar. Laboratory mortar
samples prepared and tested in accordance with Section
7 shall conform to the physical requirements for each type
specified as prescribed in Table 2.
6.2 Field Prepared Mortar. Field prepared mortar
meeting the requirements of Sections 4 and 5 shall not be
flow of 110 ± 5 percent. This quantity of water is not sufficient to
produce a mortar with a workable consistency suitable for laying
masonry units in the field. Mortar for use in the field must be mixed
with the maximum amount of water, consistent with workability, in
order to provide sufficient water to satisfy the initial rate of absorp-
tion (suction) of the masonry units. The properties of laboratory
prepared mortar at a flow of 110 ± 5 percent are intended to
approximate the flow and properties of field prepared mortar after it
has been placed in use and the suction of the masonry units has
been satisfied. The properties of field prepared mortar mixed with
the greater quantity of water, prior to being placed in contact with
masonry units, will differ from the property requirements in Table 2.
Therefore, the property requirements in Table 2 cannot be used as
requirements for quality control of field prepared mortar. ASTM
C780 may be used to measure consistency in field sampled mortar.
7. METHOD OF TESTING
7.1 Compressive Strength. Compressive strength
shall be determined in accordance with ASTM Standard
C109. The mortar shall be composed of materials and
proportions that are to be used in the construction with
mixing water to produce a flow of 110±5 percent.
7.1.1 Specimen storage. Keep mortar cubes for
compressive strength tests in the molds on plane plates in
a moist room or cabinet meeting ASTM Standard C511 for
48 to 52 h in such a manner that the upper surfaces shall
be exposed to the moist air. Remove mortar specimens
from the molds and place in a moist room or cabinet until
tested.
7.2 Water Retention. Water retention shall be deter-
mined in accordance with ASTM Standard C91, except
that the laboratory mixed mortar shall be of the materials
and proportions to be used in the construction.
7.3 Air Content. Determine air entrainment in accor-
dance with Specification C91 except calculate the air con-
tent to the nearest 0.1% as follows (see Note 3):
D= (W1 + W 2 + W3 + VW)
W1 + W2 + W3
+VW
P1 P2 P3
A = 100 - W m
4D
where:
3
D = density of air-free mortar, g/cm ,
W1 = weight of portland cement, g,
W2 = weight of hydrated lime, g,
W3 = weight of sand, g,
Vw = millilitres of water used,
3
P1 = density of portland cement, g/cm ,
3
P2 = density of hydrated lime, g/cm ,
3
P3 = density of sand, g/cm ,
A = volume of air, %, and
Wm = weight of 400 mL of mortar, g.
3

required to meet the physical requirements of Table 2. Note 3 - The weights per cubic foot (kg/m ) of the materials are
considered to be as follows:
When quality control testing is specified, ASTM Standard 3
Material Weight, lb per cu ft (kg/m )
C780 shall be used (see Note 2). Portland cement 94 (1504)
Note 2 - The required properties of the mortar in Table 2 are for lab- Hydrated lime 40 (640)
oratory prepared mortar mixed with a quantity of water to produce a Sand, damp and loose 80 lb (1280) of dry sand

2

8. CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES
8.1 Storage of Materials. Cementitious materials
and aggregates shall be stored in such a manner as to
prevent deterioration or contamination by foreign materi-
als.
8.2 Measurement of Materials. The method of
measuring materials for the mortar used in construction
shall be by either volume or weight, and such that the
specified proportions of the mortar materials can be con-
trolled and accurately maintained. Measurement of sand
by shovel shall not be permitted.
8.3 Mixing Mortars. All cementitious materials and
aggregate shall be mixed for at least 3 min and not more
than 5 min in a mechanical batch mixer, with the maxi-
mum amount of water to produce a workable consistency.
8.4 Retempering. Mortars that have stiffened
because of evaporation of water from the mortar shall be
retempered by adding water as frequently as needed to
restore the required consistency. Mortars shall be used
and placed in final position within 2 1/2 hr after initial mix-
ing.
8.5 Climatic Conditions. Unless superseded by
other contractual relationships or the requirements of local
building codes, cold or hot weather masonry construction
practices relating to mortar shall conform to Sections
8.5.1 or 8.5.2.
8.5.1 Cold Weather. Cold weather masonry con-
struction relating to mortar shall comply with the
International Masonry Industry All-Weather Council's
"Guide Specification for Cold Weather Masonry
Construction", Section 04200 Unit Masonry, Article 3.
8.5.2 Hot Weather. When the ambient air tempera-
ture exceeds 100˚F (38˚C) or 90˚F (32˚C) with a wind
velocity greater than 8 m.p.h. (13 Km/hr), mortar beds
shall not be spread more than 4 ft (1.2m) ahead of
masonry units. Units shall be laid within one minute of
spreading mortar.
9. COST OF TESTS
9.1 Unless otherwise specified, the costs of test shall
TABLE 2
Property Specification Requirements
be borne as follows:
9.1.1 If the results of the tests of laboratory prepared
mortar show that the mortar does not conform to the
requirements of this specification, the costs shall be borne
by the seller.
9.1.2 If the results of the tests of laboratory prepared
mortar show that the mortar does conform to the require-
ments of this specification, the costs shall be borne by the
purchaser.
9.1.3 If the job specifications require that the con-
struction mortar be sampled and tested for the purpose of
quality control, the responsibilities for the costs of such
sampling and testing shall be clearly stated in the specifi-
cations.
10. SPECIFICATION LIMITATIONS
10.1 BIA Specification M1-88 is not intended and
shall not be used to determine physical properties of mor-
tar through field testing.
10.2 ASTM Standard C780 is acceptable for pre-con-
struction and construction evaluation of mortars for non-
reinforced and reinforced masonry.
10.3 Tests of Hardened Mortars. There are no
accepted standard methods of measuring the composition
or physical properties of hardened mortar removed from a
structure (see Note 4).
Note 4 - When necessary, testing of a wall section or a masonry
prism from the completed construction is generally more desirable
than attempting to test individual components.
A

Average Compressive Aggregate Ratio

Mortar Type Strength at 28 Days, Water Retention, Air Content, (Measured in Damp,
Min. psi (MPa) min % max % Loose Conditions)

M 2500 (17.2) 75 12 Not less than 2 1/4 and

not more than 3 1/2 times
S 1800 (12.4) 75 12 the sum of the separate
volumes of cementitious
N 750 (5.2) 75 B
materials.
14
O 350 (2.4) 75 B
14

A
Laboratory prepared mortar only ( See Note 2).

B
When structural reinforcement is incorporated in mortar, the maximum air content shall be 12%.

3
 TABLE 1
Mortar Proportions by Volume APPENDIX
(Nonmandatory Information)
Parts by Aggregated Ratio A1. Selection of Mortar Type
Volume of Parts by (Measured in A1.1 The performance of masonry is influenced by
Mortar Portland Volume of Damp, Loose
various mortar properties such as workability, water reten-
Type Cement Hydrated Lime Conditions)
tivity, bond strength, durability, extensibility, and compres-
M Not less than sive strength. Since these properties vary with mortar
1 1/4
2 1/4 and not type, it is highly important that the mortar type selected for
S more than 3 a particular application is the one that best meets the end-
1 over 1/4 to 1/2
times the sum use requirements. Table A1 is a general guide for the
N of the volumes selection of mortar type for various masonry wall con-
1 over 1/2 to 1 1/4
of cement and
struction. Selection of mortar type should also be based
O lime used.
1 over 1 1/4 to on the type of masonry units to be used as well as the
2 1/2 applicable building code and engineering practice stan-
dard requirements such as allowable design stresses and
lateral support.

TABLE A1
A
Guide for the Selection of Masonry Mortars

Mortar Type
Building Segment Recommended Alternative
Location

Exterior, above grade loadbearing wall N S or M

B
non-loadbearing wall N O or S
parapet wall, chimney and veneer wal N S

Exterior, at or below grade foundation wall, retaining wall, C C

M S or N
manholes, sewers, pavements, walks
and patios
N S or M
Interior loadbearing wall
O N
non-loadbearing wall

A
This table does not provide for many specialized mortar uses, such as reinforced masonry, and acid-resistant mortars, fire box mortar.
B
Type O mortar is recommended for use where the masonry is unlikely to be frozen when saturated or unlikely to be subjected to high winds or
other significant lateral loads. Type N or S mortar should be used in other cases.
C
Masonry exposed to weather in a nominally horizontal surface is extremely vulnerable to weathering. Mortar for such masonry should be select-
ed with due caution.

4
 MORTARS FOR BRICK MASONRY
SELECTION AND QUALITY ASSURANCE
Abstract: This Technical Notes addresses the proper selection of mortar for a variety
of applications of brick masonry. Guidance is given on choosing the right mortar for the
right application. Quality assurance provisions and field testing requirements are also
described.
Key Words: mortar, mixing, quality assurance, selection, types of mortar.
INTRODUCTION
The selection of mortar for brick masonry has many
consequences. Choosing the right mortar can lead to
good performance and a durable masonry wall.
Improper selection can lead to leaky walls or deteriorat-
ing mortar. Mortar selection is more than picking a mor-
tar type. All aspects of a project including design, mate-
rial selection and workmanship must be considered to
lead to the choice of particular mortar materials and
type.
This Technical Notes will provide the designer with a
rationale for selecting the appropriate mortar material
and type. It will also discuss the ways of specifying a
quality assurance program to obtain the desired results.
Other Technical Notes in this series address the proper-
ties of mortar (Technical Notes 8) and a standard speci-
fication for portland cement-lime mortars (Technical
Notes 8A).
SELECTION OF MORTAR
As stated in previous issues of this Technical Notes
series, mortar is the bonding agent that integrates brick
into masonry. It must be durable, capable of keeping the
masonry intact, and it must help resist moisture penetra-
tion. The mortar must also have certain plastic proper-
ties so that it is both economical and easy to use by
masons. One property of mortar that is often overem-
phasized is its compressive strength. Stronger is not
necessarily better when specifying mortar. Making
selections based on compressive strength alone ignores
other important properties such as durability and worka-
bility.
Selection of a mortar for a particular project is a bal-
ancing of the construction requirements and the per-
formance of the finished element with the properties of
the available mortar materials and types. For example,
areas with high winds might require high lateral
strengths; therefore, a mortar that develops high flexur-
al bond strength is needed. Thus, flexural tensile and
compressive stresses set by the building code may indi-
cate a particular mortar type and material. Other con-
siderations may include durability (below grade or in
retaining walls), color uniformity, flexibility, workabili-
ty or other desired properties. In many cases, choosing
a mortar that is compatible with a particular brick can
lead to better performance. For these reasons, the selec-
tion of mortar requires careful evaluation of the proper-
ties for each type of mortar and the selection of mortar
material and type that will best meet the performance
requirements for the project.
The basic rules of mortar selection are:
• No single type of mortar is best for all purposes.
• Do not use a mortar stronger in compression than
is structurally required by the project.
Of course, these basic rules must be tempered with
good judgment. For example, it would be uneconomical
and unwise to continuously change mortar types for var-
ious pieces or parts of a structure. Similarly, not all mor-
tar materials are available in all parts of the United
States and Canada. However, the general idea of the
rules should be followed, using good judgment and eco-
nomic sense.
Mortar Type Characteristics
Mortars are divided into four Types: M, S, N, and O.
These four different types of mortar can be made with a
variety of cementitious materials, such as masonry
cement, mortar cement or portland cement:lime. These
mortars can be provided as preblended mortars, site-
mixed or as extended life mortars. These are just a few
of the possible options. Even with these alternatives,
each mortar type has some basic characteristics:
 TABLE 1
Basic Mortar Selection Guide
Locations Building Segment
Exterior, above grade Reinforced or Loadbearing walls
Veneer or Non-loadbearing walls
Parapets, chimneys
Exterior, at or below grade Foundation walls, Retaining
walls, Sewers, Manholes, Paving
Interior Loadbearing walls
Partitions
1Type N mortar and masonry cement should not be used in the lateral force resisting system for Seismic Design Categories D, E or F.
Type N mortar. General all-purpose mortar with
good bonding capabilities and workability.
Type S mortar. High flexural bond strength.
Type M mortar. High compressive strength mortar,
but not very workable.
Type O mortar. Low strength mortar, mostly used
for interior applications.
Although these mortar types have these basic charac-
teristics, they can be used in a variety of applications.
Again, no single mortar type is best for all purposes.
Table 1 provides a basic guide to mortar selection.
Mortar mixed to the proportion specifications of ASTM
C 270 is recommended for the Type shown.
Influencing Factors
Mortar performance, both in the plastic state and
when hardened, is greatly influenced by the choice and
amount of cementitious materials in the mix. Air con-
tent, workability, and water retention are important char-
acteristics of plastic mortar. Properties of hardened mor-
tar, such as flexural bond strength and water penetration
resistance of the resulting brickwork, are also influenced
by mortar materials and amounts.
In general, it is the bond between the brick and the
mortar that is the most important property. Bond actual-
ly has two components, extent of bond and bond
strength. Extent of bond refers to the amount of intimate
contact between the mortar paste and the brick. Bond
strength refers to the force required to separate the mor-
tar from the brick. Good extent of bond comes from bet-
ter workability and provides resistance to water penetra-
tion. Good bond strength will provide resistance to
cracking and durability of the wall.
It is not only important to consider the properties of
the mortar, but the properties of the units that are used
with the mortar must also be considered. The initial rate
of absorption (IRA) of the unit is typically the property
with the most influence. Brick with a higher IRA
requires a mortar with greater ability to retain the mix-
ing water; while brick with a lower IRA should use a
mortar that does not retain as much water. Bed joint sur-
face texture also has an influence on bond, but may not
be as great an influence as IRA does. So it is the com-
bination of the mortar and brick properties that may dic-
tate the selection of a certain mortar type or kind. [1, 2]
Obviously, the performance of any brick/mortar com-
2
1
Mortar Type
Recommended Alternate
S N
N S
N S
M S
N S
O N
bination will be influenced by the skill of the mason. The
best combination of materials will not achieve its bond
potential if the mason does not press the brick into a suf-
ficient bed of fresh mortar. Disturbing or moving the
brick after initial placement will damage the bond.
These factors influence the water penetration resistance
of the wall. Openings in the mortar joint and lack of con-
tact between the brick and mortar will obviously permit
water penetration.
If a project allows some choices of mortar and brick,
then the selection can be refined and the resulting brick-
work improved. Table 2 provides a refinement of the
selection process when brick material properties are
known in advance. Mortar should be mixed to the pro -
portion specifications of ASTM C 270 for the Type
shown, using the cementitious materials given. These
materials and types are applicable for masonry construc-
tion in temperatures from 40º to 90º F (4 to 32º C).
Under colder or hotter temperatures, other brick/mortar
combinations may be preferable. Refer to Technical
Notes 1 for more information on hot and cold weather
construction procedures. There may be other combina-
tions that perform as well with individual brick. Tests on
particular combinations can be conducted using ASTM
C 1357, Standard Test Methods for Evaluating Masonry
Bond Strength.
Special Mortar Applications
Certain applications may require a special mortar. A
few of these special applications are listed below:
Repointing mortar. Repointing mortars are often
used in restoration projects. It is important that mortar
be compatible with the existing brickwork, especially if
the masonry is very old. It may be necessary to use a
softer mortar for older masonry. Repointing mortars are
usually prehydrated. In this process, the mortar materi-
als are mixed dry and then just enough water is added to
produce a damp unworkable mix. After 1 to 2 hours,
additional water is added to bring it to the proper con-
sistency for placement. A Type O mortar is often used
on older brickwork. A Type N mortar may be used in
newer brickwork. Refer to Technical Notes 7F for more
information on repointing.
Paving. Since paving applications are more likely to
be in a saturated condition, the mortar must be able to
resist this harsh exposure. Since mortar is less durable
 TABLE 2
1
Mortar Selection Based on Brick Properties

Initial Rate of Portland

Mortar Cement Masonry Cement
Absorption Range Cement: Lime
Mortar Mortar
of Brick Mortar

Up to 10
Type S Type S Type S
g/min/30 in.2
(Type N) (Type N) (Type N)
(0.5 kg/min/cm2)

10 to 30
g/min/30 in.2 Type N or S Type N or S Type N or S
(0.5 to 1.5 kg/min/cm 2 )

30 and Over
g/min/30 in.2 Type N
(1.5 kg/min/cm 2) (Type S) -- 2 -- 2
Dry when laid
30 and Over
g/min/30 in.2 Type N Type N Type S
(1.5 kg/min/cm2) (Type S) (Type S) (Type N)
Wetted prior to laying
1Alternate Types listed in parentheses
2Not recommended unless verified with testing

in these applications, flexible brick paving should be for the mortar can be accurately controlled and main-
considered. When necessary, a Type M mortar should be tained. For material weights and recommended propor-
used for areas where the mortar is in contact with the tions, refer to ASTM C 270 or Technical Notes 8A.
ground. However, a mortar with a latex modifier con- The cementitious materials (cement and lime) should
forming to ANSI A118.4 Specification for Latex- be placed in the mixer in whole (preferable) or half bags
Portland Cement Mortar may provide a more durable (minimum). This will require the mixer to be of suitable
assembly. In addition, a Type S mortar could be used as size, depending upon the project requirements and the
an alternate to Type M. Refer to Technical Notes 14A size of the mason crew. The primary problem occurs
for more information on paving materials. with the addition of sand measured by the shovel, which
Stain-Resistant Mortar. Where resistance to stain- is an inaccurate procedure. The following illustration
ing is desired, aluminum tristearate, calcium stearate, or shows an example of batching and measurement con-
ammonium stearate may be added to the mortar. Where trols that are both economical and accurate. A one cubic
maximum stain resistance is desired, such as in interior foot box is filled with sand and then dumped into the
applications, use mortar consisting of 1 part portland mixer. This allows for greater control of sand quantities.
cement, 1/8 part lime and two parts graded fine (80
mesh) sand, proportioned by volume. To this, add alu-
minum tristearate, calcium stearate, or ammonium
stearate equal to 2 percent of the portland cement by
weight.
Chemical Resistant Mortar. Chemical-resistant
masonry is often used in food processing plants, refiner-
ies, or breweries. Chemical resistant mortars may
include silicate mortars, sulfur mortars, resin mortars or
cementitious mortars. Since this is such a specialized
field, appropriate references should be consulted [4].
MIXING REQUIREMENTS
Although there have been advancements in premixed
mortar, most mortar is still mixed on-site. This could
result in undertrained personnel mixing the mortar,
using measuring systems that are inaccurate by their
very nature, i.e. the shovel. While mortars have speci-
fied ranges of material quantities, accurate and repeated
quantities of materials are desired.
Measuring and batching materials should be either by FIG. 1
volume or by weight, such that the specified proportions Obtaining Accurate Sand Quantities

3
Five gallon buckets can be used for this purpose. One 5
gallon bucket equals 2⁄3 cubic foot in volume (0.019 m 3).
QUALITY ASSURANCE
A quality assurance program provides an outline of
policies and requirements intended to assure that certain
project requirements or objectives are met. Quality
assurance requirements may be set by the owner, design-
er or the governing building code. Quality control is a
part of the quality assurance program that may involve
testing, inspection or both. The contractor is often
required to submit documentation showing conformance
to the contract documents. The MSJC Code [3] assumes
that all masonry is constructed under a quality assurance
program.
For mortar, adherence to the specified proportions of
ingredients is the key to quality assurance. Mortar spec-
ified to meet ASTM C 270 results in the required pro-
portions of ingredients for mortar specified by both the
proportion and property specifications methods. The
proportions are given in ASTM C 270 when the propor-
tion specifications method is used. When the property
specifications method is used, laboratory testing estab-
lishes the proportion of materials. Inspection and obser-
vation of the measuring and mixing is thus an essential
component of the quality assurance program. Testing
may be included as a second component.
Inspection
Inspection of masonry is often required to make sure
that the contract documents are being followed.
Inspection of mortar is usually achieved by verifying
that the proper materials were used and that they were
used in the proper proportions. Often there is no need
for testing.
Testing
On most projects, field testing of mortar is not neces-
sary. Laboratory testing of mortar will be necessary to
establish a mix design if the property specifications
method is used. However, such testing is not meant to
be conducted in the field. If the correctly specified
materials are used, and they are proportioned and mixed
according to standard practice, then the mortar should
perform as intended. Empirical evidence of mortar per-
formance assures this. If inspection of the mortar mix-
ing is not possible, then some physical testing of the
mortar may be appropriate.
ASTM C 780 Standard Method for Preconstruction
and Construction Evaluation of Mortars for Plain and
Reinforced Unit Masonry provides methods of field test-
ing mortar. It defines procedures for measuring proper-
ties of plastic mortar such as mortar consistency, board
life and air content. It also provides procedures for
determining the aggregate ratio and water content of
freshly mixed mortar. Finally, it defines procedures for
measuring properties of hardened mortar such as com-
pressive strength and splitting tensile strength. These
tests are to determine the consistency between mortar
4
batches. However, compressive strength test results
from field sampled mortar should not be compared to the
minimum requirements of the property specifications of
ASTM C 270. The different sampling and mixing
requirements of ASTM C 780 will yield different results
from those determined according to ASTM C 270.
ASTM C 270 is for laboratory prepared and tested mor-
tars, while ASTM C 780 is mainly for field sampling and
testing. Compressive strength results obtained accord-
ing to ASTM C 780 can be expected to be lower and
more variable than ASTM C 270 laboratory test results.
Therefore, the test results should not be compared.
The mortar aggregate test found in ASTM C 780 is an
easy test to determine whether the proper proportions
are being used in the field. Freshly sampled mortar is
placed in a jar with isopropyl alcohol. Sand is also sam-
pled to determine its gradation. After weighing the
materials, the fine material is filtered out of the mortar
by the use of a sieve. The remaining portion is assumed
to be the sand portion and therefore the sand to cement
ratio can be determined. This can be compared to the
specified proportions.
For other tests to be useful there must be a basis to
compare against. Therefore, preconstruction testing,
using the materials to be used during the actual con-
struction, is necessary. This preconstruction testing will
provide a set of test results that can be used as a bench-
mark for results from field testing. Other tests in ASTM
C 780 can then be used, but a thorough knowledge of the
test is necessary to avoid inappropriate results.
Interpreting Test Results
If field test methods from ASTM C 780 are used, the
results must be properly interpreted and compared to
pre-construction test results. Close examination should
be made of the method of obtaining the mortar sample,
the making of the test specimen, handling of the speci-
mens during transportation, storage at the laboratory
facilities and test procedures. After the above observa-
tions are completed, some questions should then be
answered if there is a substantial difference in test
results. They are:
1. Did mortar materials or proportions change?
2. Did a change in brick properties (different brick or
wet brick) result in a change to the amount of water
added to the mortar?
3. Was the mortar sampled at the same time after mixing?
4. Were specimens properly constructed?
5. Were there unusual curing conditions?
6. Were specimens damaged during transit or storage?
7. Were test procedures properly followed?
8. Were calculations correctly performed?
As a result of these questions, the possible cause of dif-
ferent test results may be determined. If questions remain
as to the quality of the mortar, additional testing of the
masonry may be required. In some cases, prism tests of
masonry specimens cut from the wall can be conducted
to determine the structural capacity of the masonry.
CONCLUSION
Mortar selection may be a difficult task since there are
so many choices. However, if some general guidelines
are followed as outlined in this Technical Notes, then
good performance can be achieved. Using a good qual-
ity assurance plan will aid in achieving the specified per-
formance.
The information and suggestions contained in this
Technical Notes are based on the available data and the
experience of the engineering staff of the Brick Industry
Association. The information contained herein must be
used in conjunction with good technical judgment and a
basic understanding of the properties of brick masonry.
Final decisions on the use of the information contained
in this Technical Notes are not within the purview of the
Brick Industry Association and must rest with the proj-
ect architect, engineer and owner.
REFERENCES
1. Borchelt, J. G., and Tann, J.A., “Bond Strength
and Water Penetration of Low IRA Brick and
Mortar” Proceedings of the Seventh North
American Masonry Conference, The Masonry
Society, Boulder, CO, 1996, Pages 206-216
2. Borchelt, J. G., Melander, J. M., and Nelson, R.
L., “Bond Strength and Water Penetration of
High IRA Brick and Mortar” Proceedings of the
Eighth North American Masonry Conference,
The Masonry Society, Boulder, CO, 1999
3. Building Code Requirements for Masonry
Structures (ACI 530/ASCE 5/TMS 402) and
Specifications for Masonry Structures (ACI
530.1/ASCE 6/TMS 602), The Masonry Society,
1999.
4. Sheppard, W. L., Corrosion and Chemical
Resistant Masonry Materials Handbook, Noyes
Publications, Park Ridge, NJ, 1986.

5
20MB.I.A. 6/00
 9
Technical Notes REVISED

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
March
1986

MANUFACTURING, CLASSIFICATION
AND SELECTION OF BRICK
MANUFACTURING - PART I

Abstract: This Technical Notes presents some of the fundamental procedures for the manufacture of clay brick.
Discussion centers on the types of clay used; the various phases of manufacturing, from mining through storage
of the finished units; along with descriptions of the three principal processes for forming brick. Further information
is provided regarding the properties that may be of interest to the user. These are durability, color, texture (includ-
ing coatings and glazes), size variation, compressive strength and absorption.

Key Words: absorption, brick, clays, color, compressive strength, drawing, drying, durability, firing, forming,
preparation, shales, size variation, texture, winning.

INTRODUCTION Shales. Shales are clays that have been subjected to

Brick manufacturing still follows the basic steps of
centuries past. However, technological advancements
over the years have made the modern brick plant sub-
stantially more efficient than the plants of yesterday and
have also improved the overall quality of the products. A
more complete knowledge of raw materials and their
properties, better control of firing, improved kiln designs
and more advanced mechanization have all resulted in
the development of a progressive, modern industry.
Other Technical Notes in this series will address the
classification of brick, as well as the selection of the prop-
er brick as to the type of use, exposure to the elements
and durability of the finished assembly.
RAW MATERIALS
Clay is one of the most abundant mineral materials on
earth. Clay for the production of brick must, however,
possess some specific properties and characteristics. To
satisfy modern production requirements, clays must have
plasticity, which permits them to be shaped or molded
when mixed with water; and they must have sufficient wet
and air-dried tensile strength to maintain their shape after
forming. Also, when subjected to rising temperatures, the
clay particles must fuse together (see Firing and Cooling).
Types of Clay
Clays occur in three principal forms, all of which have
similar chemical compositions but different physical char-
acteristics. They are:
Surface Clays. Surface clays may be the upthrusts
of older deposits or of more recent, sedimentary forma-
tion. As the name implies, they are found near the surface
of the earth.
high pressures until they have hardened almost to the
form of slate.
Fire Clays. Fire clays are usually mined at deeper
levels than other clays and have refractory qualities. As a
rule, they contain fewer impurities than shales or surface
clays and have more uniform chemical and physical prop-
erties.
Clays are complex materials; surface clays and fire
clays differ from shales more in physical structure than in
chemical composition. Chemically, all three are com-
pounds of silica and alumina with varying amounts of
metallic oxides and other impurities. Although technically
metallic oxides are impurities, they act as fluxes, promot-
ing fusion at lower temperatures. Metallic oxides (particu-
larly those of iron, magnesium and calcium) influence the
color of the finished fired product.
The manufacturer minimizes variations in chemical
composition and physical properties by mixing clays from
different locations in the pit and from different sources.
However, because clay products have a relatively low
selling price, it is not economically feasible to refine clays
to produce uniform raw materials. Since variations in
properties of raw materials must be compensated for by
varying manufacturing processes, properties of finished
products from different manufacturers will also vary some-
what.
MANUFACTURING
Although the basic principles of manufacture are fairly
uniform, individual plants deviate from these basics to fit
their particular raw materials and methods of operation.
Essentially, brick are produced by mixing ground clay with
water, forming them into the desired shapes, then drying
and firing them. In ancient times, all molding was per-
 Diagrammatic Representation of the Manufacturing Process
FIG. 1
formed by hand. However, since the invention of brick-
making machines during the latter part of the 19th
Century, practically all brick produced in the United States
have been machine made.
Phases of Manufacturing
The manufacturing procedure has six general phases:
1) winning and storage of raw materials, 2) preparing raw
materials, 3) forming units, 4) drying, 5) firing and cooling,
and 6) drawing and storing finished products (see Figure
1).
Winning and Storage. To win originally meant to
obtain. The term, carried to the present with its original
meaning, is applied to mining procedures in the clay
industry. Surface clays, shales and some fire clays are
mined in open pits with power equipment; some fire clays
are taken from underground mines. The clay or shale
mixtures are then transported to plant storage areas.
It is common practice to store enough raw material for
several days' operations, thus insuring continuous opera-
tion regardless of weather conditions. Normally, several
storage areas (one for each source) are provided to per-
mit some blending of the clays. Blending produces more
uniform raw materials, helps to control color and permits
some control over raw material suitability for manufactur-
ing a given type of unit.
Preparation. The clay is crushed to break up large
chunks and remove stones, after which large grinding
wheels, weighing 4 to 8 tons each, revolve in a circular
pan, grinding and mixing the raw material. Most plants
then screen the clay, passing it through inclined vibrating
screens to control particle sizes.
Forming. Tempering, the first step in the forming
process, produces a homogeneous, plastic mass ready
for molding. It is most commonly achieved by adding
water to the clay in a pug mill, a mixing chamber which
contains one or more revolving shafts with blades. After
pugging, the now plastic clay mass is ready to go to the
forming step. At the present time, there are three princi-
pal processes for forming brick: the stiff-mud, the soft-mud
2
and the drypress processes.
Stiff-Mud Process - In the stiff-mud process, clay is
mixed with only sufficient water to produce plasticity, usu-
ally from 12 to 15 percent by weight. After thorough mix-
ing, i.e., "pugging", the tempered clay goes through a de-
airing chamber in which a vacuum of 15 to 29 in. (375 to
725 mm) of mercury is maintained. De-airing removes air
holes and bubbles, giving the clay increased workability
and plasticity, thus resulting in greater strength.
Next, the clay is extruded through a die to produce a
column of clay in which two dimensions of the final unit
are determined. The column then passes through an
automatic cutter to make the final dimension of the brick
unit. Cutter-wire spacings and die sizes must be carefully
calculated to compensate for normal shrinkage during wet
stages through drying and firing (see Size Variation). As
the clay column leaves the die, textures or surface coat-
ings may be applied (see Textures, Coatings and Glazes).
Soft-Mud Process - The soft-mud process is particu-
larly suitable for clays which contain too much natural
water to be extruded by the stiff-mud process. It consists
of mixing clays so that they contain 20 to 30 percent
water and then forming the units in molds. To prevent
clay from sticking, the molds are lubricated with either
sand or water. When sand is used, the brick are "sand-
struck"; but if water is used, they are "water-struck" brick.
Brick may be produced in this manner by a machine or by
hand process.
Dry-Press Process - This process is particularly
adaptable for clays of very low plasticity. Clay is mixed
with a minimum of water (up to 10 percent), then formed
in steel molds under pressures from 500 to 1,500 psi (3.4
to 10.3 MPa) using hydraulic or compressed air rams.
Drying. When wet clay units come from molding or
cutting machines, they contain from 7 to 30 percent mois-
ture, depending upon the forming method. Before the fir-
ing process begins, most of this water is evaporated in
dryer chambers at temperatures ranging from about 100˚F
to 400˚F (38˚C to 204˚C). Drying time, which varies with
different clays, is usually from 24 to 48 hr.
Although heat may be generated specifically for dryer
chambers, it is more commonly supplied as exhaust heat
from firing kilns. In all cases, heat and humidity must be
carefully regulated to avoid excessive cracking in the
ware.
Firing and Cooling. Firing, one of the most special-
ized steps in the manufacture of brick, requires from 40 to
150 hr. depending upon kiln type and other variables.
Several kilns are in use, the chief types being tunnel and
periodic kilns. Fuel may be natural gas, propane, oil,
sawdust, coal or combinations of these fuels.
Dried units are set in periodic kilns according to a pre-
scribed pattern that permits free circulation of hot kiln
gases. A periodic kiln is one that is loaded, fired, allowed
to cool and unloaded, after which the same processes are
repeated. In a tunnel kiln, units are similarly loaded on
special cars which pass through various temperature
zones as they travel through the tunnel. The heat condi-
tions in each zone are carefully controlled and the kiln
operates continuously.
Firing may be divided into six general stages: 1)
water-smoking (evaporating free water), 2) dehydration, 3)
oxidation, 4) vitrification, 5) flashing and 6) cooling. All
except flashing and cooling are associated with rising
temperatures in the kiln. Although the actual tempera-
tures will differ with the clay or shale, water-smoking takes
place at temperatures up to about 400˚F (204˚C), dehy-
dration from about 300˚F to 1800˚F (149˚C to 982˚C), oxi-
dation from 1000˚F to 1800˚F (538˚C to 982˚C) and vitrifi-
cation from 1600˚F to 2400˚F (871˚C to 1316˚C).
Clays are unlike metals in that they soften slowly and
melt or fuse gradually when subjected to rising tempera-
tures. It is this property of clay, its fusibility, which causes
it to become hard, solid and of relatively low absorption
when properly fired. Fusing takes place in three stages:
1) incipient fusion, that point when the clay particles
become sufficiently soft that the mass sticks together; 2)
vitrification, when there is extensive fluxing and the mass
becomes tight, solid and non-absorbent; and 3) viscous
fusion, the point at which the clay mass breaks down and
tends to become molten. The key to the firing process is
to control the temperature in the kiln so that incipient
fusion and partial vitrification are complete but viscous
fusion is avoided.
The rate of temperature change must be carefully
controlled, depending on the raw materials, as well as the
units being produced. Kilns are normally equipped with
recording pyrometers or other temperature sensors to pro-
vide a constant check on the firing process. Near the end
of the firing process, the units may be "flashed" to pro-
duce color variations (see Properties of Brick, Color).
After the temperature has reached the maximum and
is maintained for a prescribed time, the cooling process
begins. Forty-eight to 72 hr required for proper cooling in
periodic kilns; but in tunnel kilns, the cooling period sel-
dom exceeds 48 hr. Because the rate of cooling has a
direct effect on color and because excessively rapid cool-
ing will cause cracking and checking of the ware, cooling
3
is an important stage in the firing process.
Drawing. Drawing is the process of unloading a kiln
after cooling. It is at this stage that units are sorted, grad-
ed, packaged and taken to a storage yard or loaded onto
rail cars or trucks for delivery. The majority of brick today
are packaged in self-contained, steel-strapped cubes,
which can be broken down into individual strapped pack-
ages for ease of handling on the jobsite. The packages
and cubes are formed in such a manner as to provide
openings for handling by fork lifts. Brick manufactured
and selected to produce characteristic architectural effects
resulting from non-uniformity in size, color and texture
may not lend themselves to self-contained packaging, and
are usually shipped on wooden pallets.
PROPERTIES
All properties of brick are affected by composition of
the raw materials and the manufacturing processes. It is
for this reason that most manufacturers blend clays to
reduce the possibility of impurities from one clay source
affecting the overall quality of the finished product.
Similarly, the standardization of the manufacturing
processes permits the manufacturer to limit variations due
to processing and to produce a more uniform product.
Product Use
The properties that most concern the users of brick
are 1) durability, 2) color, 3) texture, 4) size variation, 5)
compressive strength and 6) absorption.
Durability. The durability of brick results from incipi-
ent fusion and partial vitrification during firing. Since com-
pressive strength and absorption are also related to the
firing temperatures, these properties, together with satura-
tion coefficients, are taken as predictors of durability.
However, because of differences in raw materials, a single
value of compressive strength or absorption will not reli-
ably indicate the degree of firing.
Color. The color of fired clay depends upon its chem-
ical composition, the firing temperatures and the method
of firing control. Of all the oxides commonly found in
clays, iron probably has the greatest effect on color.
Regardless of its natural color, clay containing iron in
practically any form will burn red when exposed to an oxi-
dizing fire, due to the formation of ferrous oxide. When
fired in a reducing atmosphere, the same clay will take on
a purple cast. Creating a reducing atmosphere in the kiln
is known as "flashing".
For the same raw materials and methods of manufac-
ture, the darker colors are associated with firing at higher
temperatures, with lower absorptionís and with increased
compressive strengths. However, for products made from
different raw clays, there is no direct relationship between
strength and color or absorption and color.
Textures, Coatings and Glazes . Many brick have
smooth or sand-finished textures produced by the dies or
molds used in forming. Smooth texture, commonly called
a die skin, results from pressure exerted by the steel die
as the clay passes through the die. In the stiff-mud
process, many textures may be applied by attachments
which cut, scratch, roll, brush or otherwise roughen the SUMMARY
surface as the clay column leaves the die. Today, many This Technical Notes on manufacturing brick is the
plants apply engobes (slurries) of finely ground clay, color- first in a series covering the manufacturing, classification
ing agents and water to the roughened column. Sands, and selection of brick. It provides a synopsis of the man-
with or without coloring agents, can be rolled into the slur- ufacturing processes and discusses the various properties
ry coating to create interesting and distinctive patterns in which are a function of these processes. More detailed
the finished product. Engobes are defined as clay slips descriptions of the ceramic properties of brick are not
that develop a hardness which adheres to the brick but within the purview of the Brick Institute of America. This
usually allows the coating to breathe. With high-fired type of information is more readily available through
units, engobes may be almost impervious. ceramic engineers and educators.
Although not common to all manufacturing, ceramic
glazing is a highly specialized, carefully controlled proce-
dure, having two basic variations, high-fired and low-fired
glazing. High-fired glazes are sprayed on units before or
after drying and then kiln-fired at the normal firing temper-
atures of the units. Low-fired glazes are used to obtain
colors which cannot be produced at high temperatures.
They are applied after the unit has been fired to maturity
and cooled; then they are glazed and refired at relatively
low temperatures. Unlike many engobes, glazes are
impervious and do not allow the surface to breathe.
Size Variation. Because clays shrink during both
drying and firing, allowances must be made in the die size
and in the length of cut to achieve the desired size of the
finished product. Both air (dryer) shrinkage and firing
shrinkage vary for different clays, usually falling within the
following ranges:
Air Shrinkage 2 to 8 percent
Firing Shrinkage 2.5 to 10 percent
The principal shrinkage problem is not so much the total
shrinkage as the variation in shrinkage of the clays or
shales.
Firing shrinkage increases with higher temperatures
which, in turn, produce darker shades. Consequently,
when a wide range of colors is desired, some variation
between the sizes of the dark and light units is inevitable.
To obtain products of uniform size, manufacturers attempt
to control factors contributing to shrinkage. However,
because of variations in raw materials and temperature
variations within kilns, absolute uniformity is impossible.
Consequently, specifications for brick include permissible
size variations to permit economical manufacture.
Compressive Strength and Absorption. Both com-
pressive strength and absorption are affected by proper-
ties of the clay, method of manufacture and degree of fir-
ing. Although there are exceptions to the rule, the stiff-
mud process generally produces units having higher com-
pressive strengths and lower absorptionís than units pro-
duced by the soft-mud or dry-press process.
For a given clay and method of manufacture, higher
compressive strengths and lower absorptionís are associ-
ated with higher firing temperatures. Although absorption
and compressive strength can be controlled to a degree
by manufacturing and firing methods, these properties
depend largely upon the properties of the raw materials.
Consequently, they vary widely for different products.

4
 Technical Notes 9A

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
June
1989

MANUFACTURING, CLASSIFICATION AND

SELECTION OF BRICK
CLASSIFICATION - PART II

ABSTRACT: This Technical Notes describes the various kinds of brick and their classification. Specific
requirements including physical properties, efflorescence, dimensional tolerances, distortion, chippage, and
coring are described. Additional requirements for each kind of brick are also covered.

KEY WORDS: appearance, ASTM Standards, brick, chippage, classification, cores, dimensional tolerances,
distortion, efflorescence, exposure, frogs, grades, physical properties, types, uses.

INTRODUCTION durability of the product in actual use. These predictors,

The classification of brick is determined by the usage and other requirements in ASTM standards, are not infalli-
of brick in specific applications. Brick used in the wrong ble. All ASTM standards are reviewed and updated peri-
application can lead to failure or an unpleasing appear- odically to obtain optimal performance.
ance. Standard specifications have been developed to This Technical Notes addresses the specific require-
produce uniform requirements for brick. The standard ments for various classifications of brick. Other Technical
specifications include strength, durability and aesthetic Notes in this series provide the fundamentals of brick
requirements. manufacturing and the proper selection of brick.
The American Society for Testing and Materials BRICK CLASSIFICATION
(ASTM) publish the most widely accepted standards on Depending on its use, brick can be classified by one
brick. These standards are voluntary consensus stan- of several specifications.
dards. All have been through a review process by various
segments of the construction industry - producers, users 1 2
ASTM CSA
and general interest members. Most of the model build-
ing codes reference ASTM standards. Many of the Type of Brick Unit Designation Designation
requirements in the brick standards aid in predicting the
Building Brick C62 --
Facing Brick C216 A82.1
Hollow Brick C652 A82.8
Paving Brick C902 --
Ceramic Glazed Brick C126 --
Thin Brick Veneer Units C1088 --
Sewer & Manhole Brick C32 --
Chemical Resistant Brick C279 --
Industrial Floor Brick C410 --

1
American Society for Testing and Materials, 1916 Race Street, Philadelphia, PA
19103
2
Canadian Standards Association, 178 Rexdale Road, Rexdale (Toronto), Ontario,
M9W 1R3 Canada.

Since chemical resistant brick and industrial floor brick

are special applications, they will not be addressed in this
Technical Notes.
Weathering Indexes in the United States
FIG. 1
 TABLE 1
Uses Grade Requirements for Face Exposures
As the names imply, the uses of brick are similar to
their respective ASTM designations. Weathering Index
Less 50
Building Brick. Building brick are intended for use in
Than and
both structural and non-structural masonry where appear- Exposure 50 Greater
ance is not a requirement. Building brick are typically
used as a backing material. In vertical surfaces:
Facing Brick. Facing brick are intended for use in In contact with earth MW SW
Not in contact with earth MW SW
both structural and non-structural masonry where appear-
In other than vertical sufaces:
ance is a requirement. In contact with earth SW SW
Hollow Brick. Hollow brick are identical to facing Not in contact with earth MW SW
brick but have a larger core area. Most hollow brick are
used in the same application as facing brick. Hollow brick severe exposure will require a face brick to meet the SW
with very large cores are used in walls that are reinforced requirements. The grade is typically based on physical
with steel and grouted solid. Larger cores or cells in hol- properties of the brick. See Technical Notes 9B for selec-
low brick allow reinforcing steel and grout to be placed in tion of grades. The grades for each specification are list-
these units whereas it would be difficult to do so with ed in Table 2, and the physical requirements are listed in
building brick, facing brick or some hollow brick. Table 4.
Paving Brick. Paving brick are intended for use as a
paving material to support pedestrian and light vehicular TABLE 2
traffic. Exposure

Ceramic Glazed Brick. Ceramic glazed brick are

units with a ceramic glaze fused to the body and used as More Less
facing brick. The body may be either facing brick or other ASTM Severe Severe
solid masonry units. Standard Exposure Exposure

Thin Brick. Thin brick veneer units are fired clay

units with normal face dimensions, but a reduced thick- C62 SW MW NW
ness. They are used in adhered veneer applications. Grade
C216 SW MW ---
Sewer and Manhole Brick. Sewer and manhole
brick are intended for use in drainage structures for the Grade
conveyance of sewage, industrial wastes, and storm C652 SW MW ---
water; and related structures, such as manholes and Grade
catch basins. C902 SX MX NX
Class
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
1
There are several terms in each standard used for C126 --- --- ---
classification which may include exposure, appearance, C1088
physical properties, efflorescence, dimensional tolerances, Grade Exterior Interior
distortion, chippage, cores and frogs. Brick can be classi-
fied by use, grade, type and/or class in most specifica- C32 Sewer
2

SS SM ---
tions. All options should be specified, as each ASTM Grade
brick standard has requirements for grade and type which MS MM ---
Manhole
apply automatically if an option is omitted. By not specify-
ing the desired requirements, a delivery may contain brick 1
No requirements for durability
not suitable for the intended use. 2
Based on durability and abrasion
Exposure
Because of the varying climates throughout the coun-
Appearance
try, and the different applications of brick, specific grades
Brick types are related to the appearance of the unit, and
of brick are required. Brick must meet a grade of SW,
specifically to limits on dimensional tolerances, distortion tolerances
MW, or NW based on the weathering index and the expo-
and chippage of the units. The brick type can be selected depend-
sure of the brick. The weathering index is the product of
ing upon whether: a high degree of precision is necessary; a wider
the average annual number of freezing cycle days and the
range of color or size is permitted; or a characteristic architectural
average annual winter rainfall in inches (see Figure 1).
effect is desired. The types of brick for each specification are listed
The exposure is related to either a vertical or horizontal
in Table 3, and requirements for size variation, distortion, and chip-
surface and whether the unit will be in contact with the
page are listed in Tables 5, 6 and 7, respectively.
earth (see Table 1). A higher weathering index or a more

2
 Alternates. Because of the variability of raw materi-
Physical Property Requirements als and production methods throughout the country, it is
The physical property requirements in most specifica- difficult to use only these requirements to classify all brick.
tions are compressive strength, water absorption and sat- Therefore, in each standard there are waivers which
uration coefficient. These properties must be determined include those brick which are durable but cannot be clas-
in accordance with ASTM C 67, Standard Methods of sified under the physical requirements. Using the waiver
Sampling and Testing Brick and Structural Clay Tile. The permits the use of brick which are known to perform well.
minimum compressive strength, maximum water absorp- It does not signify that the brick are of a lower quality.
tion and maximum saturation coefficient are used in com- Waivers include: waiving the saturation coefficient and
bination to predict the durability of the units in use. The water absorption requirements if brick are intended to be
saturation coefficient, also referred to as the C/B ratio, is used where the weathering index is less than 50; waiving
the ratio of 24 hour cold water absorption to the 5 hour the saturation coefficient requirement if the cold water
boiling absorption. The physical property requirements for absorption is less than 8% on an average of five units
each standard are listed in Table 4. allowing one brick of the sample to exceed 8% but be less
TABLE 3 than 10%; waiving the saturation coefficient and water
Appearance absorption requirements if the sample complies with the
50 cycle freeze and thaw test requiring no breakage and
ASTM Tighter Looser not greater than 0.5% loss in dry weight of any individual
Standard Tolerances Tolerances brick (Grade SW only). Freeze-thaw requirements apply
C 62 None only if the units do not meet the saturation coefficient and
C 216 FBX FBS FBA absorption requirements. For waivers specific to each
Type type of brick, consult the appropriate ASTM Specification.
C 652 HBX HBS HBB HBA
Efflorescence
Type
PX PS PA Efflorescence is a crystalline deposit of water-soluble
C 902 salts which forms on the surface of masonry. The princi-
Application
pal objection is an unsightly appearance, though it typical-
C 126 S SS -- ly is not harmful to brick. The test for efflorescence is
Grade described in ASTM C 67. The brick is given a rating of
C 1088 TBX TBS TBA "effloresced" or "not effloresced". ASTM standards (C
Type 216, C 652, C 902, C 1088) require the rating for brick to
C 32 Sewer None be "not effloresced".
Manhole None Although brick is the only material in masonry con-
struction that is tested for efflorescence, brick itself is not
TABLE 4
Physical Properties

Minimum Compressive Maximum Cold Weather Maximum 5 Hr Maximum Saturation

ASTM Strength (psi) Absorption (%) Boiling Absorption (%) Coefficient
Standard Avg of 5 Brick Individual Avg of 5 Brick Individual Avg of 5 Brick Individual Avg of 5 Brick Individual

3000 2500 - - 17.0 20.0 0.78 0.80

C 62 SW
2500 2200 - - 22.0 25.0 0.88 0.90
MW
1500 1250 - - No Limit No Limit No Limit No Limit
NW
3000 2500 - - 17.0 20.0 0.78 0.80
C 216 SW
2500 2200 - - 22.0 25.0 0.88 0.90
MW
30001 1 - - 17.0 20.0 0.78 0.80
C 652 SW 2500
25001 - - 22.0 25.0 0.88 0.90
MW 2200
1

8000 (4000)2 8 (16) 2 11(18) 2 - - 0.78 0.80

C 902 SX 7000(3500)2
3000 14 17 - - No Limit No Limit
MX 2500
3000 No Limit No Limit - - No Limit No Limit
NX 2500
3000 - - - - - -
C 126 Vertical 2500
2000 - - - - - -
Coring Horizontal 1500
- - - 17.0 20.0 0.78 0.80
C 1088 Exterior -
- - - 22.0 25.0 0.88 0.90
Interior -
8000 - - 6.0 9.0 - -
C 32 SS 6000
5000 - - 12.0 15.0 0.80 3 -
SM 3750
3000 - - 17.0 20.0 0.80 3 -
MS 2500
2500 - - 22.0 25.0 0.90 -
MM 2200

1
Hollow brick in bearing position.
2
Numbers in parentheses are for molded brick and apply provided the requirements for saturation coefficient are met.
3
Where a high and uniform degree of resistance to frost action in the presence of moisture is required. See C 32 for waiver of saturation coefficient.

3
a major source of efflorescing salts. TABLE 6
Distortion Tolerances
Dimensional Tolerances
Because of the variations in the raw materials and the Maximum Permissible Distortion (in.)
manufacturing process, brick may vary in size. The per- ASTM
mitted size variation is based on the brick type and the Standard 8 and Under Over 8 to 12 Over 12 to 16
dimension being measured. These variations in size are
listed in Table 5. The variation is plus or minus from the C 62 - - -
specified dimension. Generally, "through-the-body" col- C 216 FBX 1/16 3/32 1/8
ored brick with a wide color range will also have a wide FBS 3/32 1/8 5/32
FBA1 - - -
variation in dimensions. Brick without a wide color range
C 652 HBX 1/16 3/32 1/8
may vary one way or another. Size variation becomes
HBS &HBB 3/32 1/8 5/32
important when constructing an assembly with units HBA 1 - - -
aligned vertically or in wall sections with short horizontal C 902 - -
-
dimensions.
C 1262 - - -
Distortion C 1088 TBX 1/16 3/32 1/8
Permitted distortion, or warpage, of brick is listed in TBS 3/32 1/8 5/32
Table 6. The amount of distortion is based on the brick TBA1 - - -
type and face dimension. Other terms for distortion are C 32 - - -
"bowed" or "banana" brick. A brick that is over the distor-
tion limitations is difficult to lay and is easily noticeable in 1
As specified by the purchaser
the finished wall. 2
Special requirements - see ASTM C 126
Chippage or a corner, and the total length of these chips may not be
Brick may be damaged or chipped during packaging, greater than 10% of the perimeter of the face of the brick.
shipping or on the jobsite. Limitations to the size and Chips are more noticeable on brick that have a surface
number of chips on individual units are listed in Table 7. color different from the body of the brick. Chips on
The amount of chippage is based upon the brick type. "through-the-body" color brick are less noticeable.
A delivery of brick may contain up to 5% broken or
chipped brick beyond the limits in Table 7. The chippage Cores
requirements in Table 7 are based on the remaining 95% Brick are generally classified as solid or hollow. A
of the shipment. The chips are measured from an edge solid brick unit is defined as a unit whose net cross-sec-
tional area in every plane parallel to the bearing surface is
TABLE 5
Dimensional Tolerances

ASTM Maximum Permissible Variation (in.) ±

Standard < 3 in. Over 3 to 4 in. Over 4 to 6 in. Over 6 to 8 in. Over 8 to 12 in. Over 12 to 16 in.

C 62 3/32 1/8 3/16 1/4 5/16 3/8

C 216 FBX 1/16 3/32 1/8 5/32 7/32 9/32
FBS 3/32 1/8 3/16 1/4 5/16 3/8
FBA1 - - - - - -
C 652 HBX 1/16 3/32 1/8 5/32 7/32 9/32
HBS & HBB 3/32 1/8 3/16 1/4 5/16 3/8
HBA1 - - - - - -
C 902 PX 1/16 3/32 - 1/82 - -
PS 1/8 3/16 - 1/42 - -
PA3 - - - - - -
C 1264 - - - - - -
C 1088 TBX 1/16 3/32 1/8 5/32 7/32 9/32
TBS 3/32 1/8 3/16 1/4 5/16 3/8
TBA1 - - - - - -
C 32 ± 1/8 in transverse direction
± 1/4 in length

1
As specified by the purchase
2
Over 5 in. to 8 in.
3
No limit
4
Special Requirements -- see ASTM C 126

4
 TABLE 7
Maximum Permissible Range of Chippage 1

ASTM Standard Percent Chippage in From Percent Chippage in From

C216 C652 C1088 C902 Allowed Edge (in) Corner (in) Allowed Edge (in) Corrner (in)

FBX HBX TBX -- 95% to 100% 0-1/8 0-1/4 5% or less 1/8-1/4 1/4-3/8

FBS
2
HBS TBS -- 90% to 100% 0-1/4 0-3/8 10% or less 1/4-5/16 3/8-1/2

3 85% to 100% 0-5/16 0-1/2 15% or less 5/16-7/16 1/2-3/4

FBS HBS TBS --
As Specified by the Purchaser
FBA HBA, HBB TBA PA
100% 0-5/16 0-1/2 -- -- --
-- -- -- PS
100% 0-1/4 0-3/8 -- -- --
-- -- -- PX
1
There are no chippage requirements for C 62, C 126 or C 32.
2
Smooth texture -- die skin finish.
3
Rough texture - sanded, combed, scratched, wire cut.

75% or more of its gross cross-sectional area measured
in the same plane. Thus, a solid brick unit has a maxi-
mum coring of 25%. A hollow brick unit is defined as a
unit whose net cross-sectional area in every plane parallel
to the bearing surface is less than 75% of its gross cross-
sectional area measured in the same plane. A hollow
brick unit has a minimum coring of 25%, and a maximum
coring of 60%.
Holes in brick, referred to as cores, are used to aid in
the manufacturing process and shipping of brick. The
cores create more uniform drying and firing of the units,
reduce the amount of fuel necessary to fire the units and
reduce shipping costs by reducing weight. Additional
advantages, such as aiding in mechanical bond in a wall,
TABLE 8
Requirements for Cores and Frogs 1
easier laying of the units, etc., may also result from brick
manufactured with cores. Cores are only found in brick
manufactured by the extrusion or dry-press process.
Limits to the amount of coring allowed in brick, the dis-
tance from a core to a face, and web thickness where
applicable are listed in Table 8.
Cells are similar to cores except that a cell is larger in
cross-section than a core. Some requirements for cells
are shown in Table 8. Additional requirements for cells
can be found in ASTM C 652 and C 126.
Frogs
Frogs are depressions in brick usually located on one
bed surface and are included for the same reasons as
cores. Frogs are found in brick manufactured by the

ASTM Net Cores Frogs Cells

Standard Cross-Sectional a A b c E e f g h
Area in.,min in.2,max in.,min in., min in.2,min in.,min in.,min in.,min in.,min

C 62 > 75% 3/4 -- 3/4 3/8 -- -- -- -- --

C 216 > 75% 3/4 -- 3/4 3/8 -- -- -- -- --

C 6522 H40V > 25%, < 40% 5/8 1-1/2 5/8 3/8 1-1/2 3/4 3/4 1/2 --
H60V3 > 40%, < 60% 5/8 1-1/2 5/8 3/8 1-1/2 3/4 3/4 1/2 --

C 902 & C 1088 No Requirements for Coring or Frogging

5
C 1264 -- -- -- -- -- 1-1/2 3/4 3/4 1/2 1/2

C 32 > 75% 3/4 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --

1
Deep frogs shall meet coring requirements of the applicable standard (see ASTM C 62, C 216, C 652) 5
See C 126 for web thickness in cored units
2
Additional coring requirements for cored-shell and double-shell hollow brick in ASTM C 652
3
Based on 3” and 4” nominal width (For 6”, 8”, 10”, and 12” widths see C 652)
4
Additional requirements for cells in ASTM C 126

5
molded process. Panel frogs are limited to a specified
depth and a specified distance from a face.
Requirements for panel frogs are listed in Table 8. Deep
frogs are frogs that are deeper than 3/8" (10 mm) deep,
and must conform to the requirements for coring, hollow
spaces and void area of the applicable standard.
ADDITIONAL REQUIREMENTS
Paving Brick, ASTM C 902
Not only must paving brick conform to the physical
requirements in Table 4, but they must meet additional
requirements for abrasion resistance or alternate perfor-
mance requirements.
Alternate Performance Requirements. If informa-
tion on the performance of units in an application of simi-
lar exposure and similar traffic is given, then the physical
requirements in Table 4 may be waived.
Paving brick manufactured by the molded process
have different physical requirements. See Table 4.
An optional test for the freeze and thaw test is ASTM
C 88 Test Method for Soundness of Aggregates by Use of
Sodium Sulfate. The sulfate soundness test, like the
freeze/thaw test is not required, and the requirements
apply only if the paving units do not meet the saturation
coefficient and absorption requirements.
Abrasion Requirements. Since paving brick are
used in a horizontal application and are exposed to traffic,
brick must meet a specified abrasion limit. Paving brick
are assigned a type by the traffic or abrasion expected.
Type I pavers are exposed to extensive abrasion, such as
driveways or public entries. Type II pavers are exposed
to high levels of pedestrian traffic, such as in stores,
restaurant floors or exterior walkways. Type III pavers,
are exposed to pedestrian traffic, such as floors or patios
in homes. The abrasion resistance can be determined in
either of two ways: 1) an abrasion index is calculated by
dividing the absorption by the compressive strength and
multiplying by 100, or 2) by determining the volume abra-
sion loss in accordance with ASTM C 418 Test Method for
Abrasion Resistance of Concrete by Sandblasting. The
abrasion requirements for Type I, II, and III are listed in
Table 9.
TABLE 9
Abrasion Requirements
Traffic Abrasion Volume Abrasion
Type Index (Max) Loss (Max) (cm 3/cm 2)
Type I 0.11 1.7
Type II 0.25 2.7
Type III 0.50 4.0
Ceramic Glazed Brick, ASTM C 126
Since this specification is for ceramic glazed brick and
tile, there are requirements for properties of the finish.
These are imperviousness, opacity, resistance to fading,
resistance to crazing, flame spread, fuel contribution and
6
smoke density, toxic fumes, hardness and abrasion resis-
tance. Requirements for each of these are included in the
specification.
SUMMARY
This Technical Notes describes the classification of
brick and the specific requirements found in ASTM stan-
dard specifications. It attempts to clarify some of the
wording in ASTM specifications, although an official inter-
pretation from ASTM must be received from the appropri-
ate subcommittee. Problems and confusion can be elimi-
nated if a basic understanding of the ASTM specifications
is known.
The information and suggestions contained in this
Technical Notes are based on the available data and the
experience of the technical staff of the Brick Institute of
America. The information contained herein should be
used with good technical judgment and an understanding
of the properties of brick masonry. Final decisions on the
use of the information discussed in this Technical Notes
are not within the purview of the Brick Institute of America
and must rest with the project designer, owner or both.
REFERENCES
More detailed information on subjects discussed here
can be found in the following publications:
1. ASTM Standard Specifications for Brick, Mortar
and Applicable Testing Methods for Units Reprinted by
the Brick Institute of America.
2. ASTM C 88 Test Method for Soundness of
Aggregates by Use of Sodium Sulfate. Annual Book
of ASTM Standards, Volume 04.02.
3. ASTM C 418 Test Method for Abrasion
Resistance of Concrete by Sandblasting. Annual
Book of ASTM Standards, Volume 04.02.
4. Technical Notes on Brick Construction 9B,
"Manufacturing, Classification and Selection of Brick -
Selection - Part III of III", January 1989.
 Technical Notes
on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
MANUFACTURING, CLASSIFICATION AND
SELECTION OF BRICK
SELECTION --- PART III
Abstract: This Technical Notes addresses the selection of brick. Evaluation of the properties and applications
of brick determines the durability, appearance, and impression of a project. Information is provided regarding
aesthetics, cost and availability.
Key Words: abrasion, absorption, aesthetics, availability, brick, color, compressive strength, cost,
durability, size, texture.
INTRODUCTION
The selection of brick is important in that it determines
a project's durability and appearance, and results in a
lasting impression. It is necessary to identify which quali-
ties and properties of brick are appropriate to consider in
selecting a brick. Brick with a wide variety of strength,
color, texture, size, shape and cost are available. The
owner or designer must decide which characteristics of
brick are most critical. This selection process can dictate
the success of any project.
This Technical Notes addresses the properties and
characteristics which must be considered in the selection
of the appropriate brick for a project. Other Technical
Notes in this series provide the fundamentals of brick
manufacturing and classification of brick.
GENERAL
Brick selection is based on a number of factors. Not
only are aesthetics and durability important, but strength,
absorption, availability and cost are important to the
owner, designers and contractors. The selection process
can be difficult since each group is trying to satisfy differ-
ent requirements. Typically, the final selection is based on
a compromise from all parties involved.
Aesthetics
The use of brick as a building material dates back
centuries. Because of brick's enduring qualities and limit-
less appearances, designers can satisfy their creative
styles with brick. Brick is readily available in many sizes,
colors, textures and shapes. These can be adapted to
achieve virtually any desired style or expression.
The variety of sizes available are shown in Figure 1.
Brick's small module can be related to the scale of the
wall. These sizes can be combined in such a way as to
create different appearances and patterns. Not only does
brick size influence scale and appearance, but the size of
brick influences wall cost because larger units require
*Originally published in January 1989, this Technical Notes has been reviewed and reissued with editorial changes.
9B
Reissued*
December
1995
fewer brick, normally resulting in less labor. When speci-
fying the size of units, dimensions should be listed in the
following order: thickness by height by length.
Brick manufacturers also offer a wide variety of colors
to choose from. Units whose colors range from reds and
burgundies to whites and buffs are manufactured today.
Many manufacturers produce over 100 colors. Many of
these color variations are created during the firing
process. Temperature variations and the order in which
the units are stacked in the kiln determine shades of light
and dark. Ceramic glazes or slurries can be applied to
the surface to achieve colors not possible with some
clays. The possibilities of using units of contrasting colors
in bands or other patterns are endless. Sample panels,
or mockups, can aid in selecting the desired color by
showing the finished appearance.
Another aesthetic feature to consider when selecting
brick is the texture. Textures on brick can be smooth,
wirecut (velour), stippled, bark, brushed, and more. The
texture interacts with light and creates differing and inter-
esting shadows.
Unique design features can easily be achieved by
using special brick shapes. Brick can be molded and
formed into any shape, from simple sloped sill shapes to
fancy watertable brick. For most manufacturers, molded
shapes are easier to produce than extruded shapes,
because the molded, or soft-mud process is more adapt-
able to making brick shapes than the extruded process.
Making very large shapes can be difficult in either process
because of problems with proper drying and firing.
Physical Properties
There are many physical properties which may influ-
ence the selection of brick. Some of these include dura-
bility, absorption, compressive strength and abrasion
resistance. This Technical Notes will provide a basic
understanding of these properties to aid in selection of the
proper brick. Physical properties required for proper per-
formance are given in the appropriate American Society
for Testing and Materials (ASTM) specification for brick.
Durability. Currently, there are two accepted meth-
ods for demonstrating durability under ASTM standards:
1) durability as predicted by compressive strength,
absorption, and saturation coefficient, or 2) durability as
determined by compressive strength and passing 50
cycles of the freeze and thaw test. Specific criteria in
each ASTM specification determines grade or class desig-
nations. Because of the varying climates and applications
of brick, specific grades are required. Brick is assigned a
grade of severe, moderate, or negligible weathering. Fig.
2 indicates areas of the U.S. with differing weather condi-
tions. Table 1 defines where each grade is required.
Technical Notes 9A describes this in more detail. Most
manufacturers make brick to meet the severe weathering
(SW) grade so they may ship brick to all parts of the
country. Some manufacturers produce brick complying
only to the moderate weathering (MW) grade. Brick man-
ufacturers can furnish certification that their product will
meet a certain grade or class.
Absorption. Absorption can be broken into two dis-
tinct categories - absorption and initial rate of absorption
(IRA). Both are important in selecting the appropriate
brick. Absorption of a brick is expressed as a percentage,
and defined as the ratio of the weight of water that is
taken up into its body divided by the dry weight of the
unit. Water absorption is measured in two ways: 1) sub-
merging the test specimen in room temperature water for
a period of 24 hours, and 2) submerging the test speci-
men in boiling water for five hours. These are known as
the 24 hour cold water absorption, and the 5 hour boiling
water absorption, respectively. These two are used to cal-
culate the saturation coefficient by dividing the 24 hour
cold water absorption by the 5 hour boiling. The satura-
tion coefficient is used to help predict durability.
Weathering Indexes in the United States
FIG. 2
2
TABLE 1
Grade Requirements For Face Exposures
Weathering Index
Exposure
Less 50 and
than 50 greater
In vertical surfaces:
In contact with earth MW SW
Not in contact with earth MW SW
In other than vertical surfaces:
In contact with earth SW SW
Not in contact with earth MW SW
The initial rate of absorption (IRA) or suction is the
rate of how much water a brick draws (sucks) in during
the first minute after contact with water. The suction has
a direct bearing on the bon between brick and mortar. It
has been shown by test results that when a brick has high
2
suction (over 30 grams/min/30 in ), a strong, watertight
joint may not be achieved. Therefore, high suction brick
should be wetted prior (3 hrs to 24 hrs) to laying to reduce
the suction and allow the brick's surface to dry. Very low
suction brick should be covered and kept dry on the job-
site. Brick manufacturers can furnish values of IRA and
saturation coefficient of the selected units. The material
specifier or supplier should inform the mason contractor
about the suction of the brick prior to construction.
Compressive Strength. The strength of a unit is
used to determine durability and also compressive
strength of a wall assembly. Typically, most materials are
judged on the basis of strength. However, it is important
not to sacrifice properties of durability and bond for higher
compressive strengths. Most brick currently produced
have strengths ranging from 3,000 psi to over 20,000 psi,
averaging around 10,000 psi. Achieving sufficient com-
pressive strength with brick is seldom a problem.
Abrasion Resistance. This property is important
when brick is used as paving. The resistance to abrasion
is affected by the degree of burning and by the nature of
the raw material. Abrasion is evaluated in terms of cold
water absorption and compressive strength. These two
properties produce an abrasion index which is used to
determine the type of traffic which is suitable for a particu-
lar brick.
Application
A building must perform the functions for which it is
designed. The materials selected for a project must also
perform as intended. The designer must consider all fac-
tors which a wall or material must withstand. Some of the
more important factors include moisture penetration, tem-
perature variations and structural loads. No one standard
assembly is suitable for all localities, occupancies, or
designs; therefore, the designer must evaluate each factor
and its relative effect on the selection of a material or
assembly.
 Moisture Penetration. The use of quality materials
and workmanship is essential in obtaining a satisfactory
degree of water resistance. When water passes through
brick masonry walls, it invariably does so through separa-
tions or cracks between the brick units and the mortar. It
is virtually impossible for significant amounts of water to
pass directly through a brick unit. Therefore, brick units
which develop a complete bond with mortar offer the best
moisture resistance. Brick and mortar properties should
be compared to provide compatible materials which result
in more watertight walls. Currently, there are no require-
ments for the degree of water resistance of a wall.
Temperature Variations. Brick must withstand daily
temperature cycles and seasonal extremes (-30˚F to
120˚F) depending on location, throughout its life. Thermal
expansion and contraction of brick is not critical to the
selection of brick, but it is important to designers and this
movement should be provided for in design and construc-
tion. Brick also withstands temperature extremes in fires.
Since brick is a fired material, it will not burn and acts as
an excellent barrier to fire because it is non-combustible.
Structural Loads. Ability to withstand either gravity
or lateral loads relies heavily on brick strength, mortar
strength and strength of the wall assembly. Compressive
strength requirements found in the ASTM specifications
for brick are based on durability performance. Structural
analysis may require a higher compressive strength in
order to resist the applied loads. It is common to use high
strength units in loadbearing or reinforced brick masonry
projects.
Cost
Material selection is often based on cost, usually ini-
tial cost only. Although initial cost is important, lifecycle
cost is a better tool for making critical decisions. When
deciding between different materials, all costs involved
including labor and maintenance costs, future value and
life expectancy should be considered. The selling price of
brick is governed by many factors, including manufactur-
ing methods and appearance of the unit. When consider-
ing different brick, one must take into account shipping
costs. Since most prices quoted are plant prices, dis-
tance between the manufacturing plant and the jobsite is
a major determinant of these shipping costs. Brick manu-
facturers and distributors can supply brick prices and
shipping prices. Many of the Masonry Institutes through-
out the country provide cost comparisons between differ-
ent materials.
Availability
The availability of brick fluctuates with the time of the
year and current construction trends and demands. On
the average, brick production time runs about 5 days from
pugging of the clay to the finished, fired product. This can
change depending on many factors such as variations in
raw materials, forming process, and kiln types. Many
brick manufacturers have stockpiles of brick, but usually
only a small quantity of each brick type. This may satisfy
smaller jobs, but for large projects requiring large quanti-
3
ties of brick, a special production run must be made for
the job. Most manufacturers have a set schedule as to
when they produce a certain brick shade. It is at this time
that the size of the run will be increased to accommodate
the large order. It is wise to question the manufacturer as
to a brick's availability.
It is best to purchase all brick from the same produc-
tion run because there are typically slight color variations
between runs. All manufacturers have quality controls to
keep this at a minimum.
SUMMARY
This Technical Notes has described which character-
istics of brick are important in selecting a particular unit.
There is a wide selection of brick from which to choose.
Selecting the appropriate material is important to the pro-
ject's longevity and appearance.
The remainder of this Technical Notes is
"Recommended Practices Relating to the Responsibilities
and Relationships in Brick Construction". This document,
developed jointly by the Brick Institute of America,
National Association of Brick Distributors, and the Mason
Contractors Association of America, explains some poten-
tial problems that may occur during and after the selection
process, and how to avoid them.
The information and suggestions contained in this
Technical Notes are based on the available data and the
experience of the technical staff of the Brick Institute of
America. The information and recommendations con-
tained herein should be used along with good technical
judgment and an understanding of the properties of brick
masonry. Final decisions on the use of the information
discussed in this Technical Notes are not within the
purview of the Brick Institute of America and must rest
with the project designer, owner or both.
REFERENCES
More detailed information on subjects discussed here
can be found in the following publications:
1. Brick Institute of America Technical Notes 7
Series - Water Resistance of Brick Masonry
2. ASTM Standard Specifications for Brick.

Most brick construction projects are completed with
the result that building owner, architect, contractor and
brick supplier are completely satisfied with the final prod -
uct. In a few instances, however, mistakes are made or
misunderstandings occur that spoil what would otherwise
be a rewarding and profitable experience for all con -
cerned.
Recognizing this fact, the brick industry, including rep -
resentatives from the manufacturing, sales and installation
segments, have developed this "Recommended Practice"
which identifies the areas in which misunderstandings are
most likely to occur and suggests a procedure to be fol -
lowed that will minimize the effects when mistakes do
occur.
The "Recommended Practices Relating to the
Responsibilities and Relationships in Brick Construction"
was developed through the cooperative efforts of the
Brick Institute of America, the National Association of
Brick Distributors and the Mason Contractors Association
of America. Draft copies of the complete document were
distributed to other construction industry associations for
review and, where appropriate, their advice was included
in the final "Recommended Practice".
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this recommended practice is to pre-
vent misunderstandings which might result from improper
ordering, sampling procedures, or ill-timed examination of
field work.
As in all business relationships, there is a responsibili-
ty among the parties involved - manufacturers, distribu-
tors, contractors, mason contractors, architects, engi-
neers, owners and/or their respective representatives or
agents in producing an acceptable masonry project. It is
to the mutual advantage of all concerned that problems,
when encountered, be identified and addressed in a time-
ly manner.
Contract Allowances
The practice of using only dollar value allowances for
brick in construction specifications and/or contracts is not
recommended because this method does not provide suf-
ficient information to make an informed bid. If an
allowance is used in a construction contract, the size and
grade or other specifications of the unit should be stated
so that an informed bid may be given by the contractor or
supplier. In the initial establishment of an allowance, the
parties should take into consideration the extra cost of
special shapes and other special units required by the
project.
4
RECOMMENDED PRACTICES RELATING TO
THE RESPONSIBILITIES AND RELATIONSHIPS
IN BRICK CONSTRUCTION
Selection and Sampling
Brick is subject to variations in color between produc-
tion runs and occasionally within the same run. Modern
manufacturing processes encompass the use of automat-
ic equipment, the use of which may also result in minor
imperfections in color and texture.
The selection of the color, texture and type of brick,
tile or paving is the responsibility of the owner and/or his
representative. Usually, small samples are used for the
preliminary selection and may not exactly represent the
complete range of colors and textures encountered in pro-
duction runs.
Sometimes, a small sample is sufficient for determin-
ing the final selection. However, when large amounts of
brick are to be erected on a flat plain surface, the prudent
owner, contractor, distributor or manufacturer should
direct or request that the final selection be made from a
field panel (also called a "mock-up"). A field panel is typi-
cally constructed as a free-standing sample which will
later be torn down when the project is complete. Usually,
a quantity of brick equal to 100 standard-size brick will be
used for the construction of the free-standing field panel.
If an owner or the owner's representative requires the
field panel or sample, the distributor or manufacturer may
not have control over the actual erection which is fre-
quently performed by a separate mason contractor. The
party or parties who have control over the work of the
mason contractor (either by direct contract or by other
powers) should take appropriate action during the erection
of the field panel or sample to assure that no additions or
deletions are made to the brick supplied by the distributor
and manufacturer, unless written approval has been
received from the manufacturer for such a change.
Field panels should be constructed from the produc-
tion run that is intended for shipment to the project. In the
event that the field panel has to be constructed for inspec-
tion and final selection before the production run for that
project, the owner and the manufacturer should agree in
writing upon such a use. The manufacturer may reserve
the right to resample from the actual run before shipment
commences.
When the field panel has been formally approved, it is
the manufacturer's responsibility to provide brick as repre-
sented in the sample panel. A strap or control sample is
normally retained at the plant.
Typically, the contractor and mason contractor are
responsible for preserving and maintaining the integrity of
the field panel which is considered the project standard
for bond, mortar, workmanship and appearance, and as
the standard for comparison until the masonry has been
completed and accepted by the owner or the owner's rep-
resentative. If the owner or his representative elects not
to have a field panel erected, the parties may choose to
use the first 100 square feet of actual construction as the placement of a written order the purchaser incurs the spe-
field panel. cific payment responsibility for all special and non-stan-
The owner or a designated representative is responsi- dard items.
ble for acceptance of the work and, therefore, should
inspect, as necessary, while the work progresses. This is References
especially critical at the start of the project to ensure that Brick Institute of America,
the color, texture and workmanship are representative of 11490 Commerce Park Dr.,
the sample field panel and is acceptable. Reston, VA 22091, (703) 620-0010.
The selling party, whether the manufacturer, distribu- Mason Contractors Association of America,
tor or dealer, should visit the jobsite, as necessary, and, in 1550 Spring St.,
addition, should be available for meetings and consulta- Oak Brook, IL 60521, (708) 782-6786.
tion in the event the owner or the owner's representative National Association of Brick Distributors,
discovers a problem. 1600 Spring Hill Road,
In the event the work does not meet with the approval Vienna, VA 22182, (703) 749-6223.
of the owner or the owner's representative, the owner
should immediately notify the contractor in writing, and
appropriate action should be taken to correct the problem.
If necessary, this may require that the work be stopped
and that all interested parties meet to resolve the prob-
lem.

Ordering
All brick orders should be submitted in writing by the
purchaser to the distributor or manufacturer, whichever is
appropriate. The order should include and clearly identify
the following:
A. Job name and type;
B. Location;
C. Owner;
D. Architect;
E. General contractor;
F. Material quantities, including types and quantities
of special or non-standard items, should be accurately
determined so that the order may be shipped in its
entirety. Brick should be described by actual dimen-
sions rather than by generic or trade name;
G. Unit prices, including conditions such as escala-
tion of prices, freight rates and terms;
H. Delivery schedules, including anticipated start
date and rate of shipments;
I. Other information pertinent to the order such as a
copy of that portion of the specifications which applies
to the brickwork.
If special shapes are required, detailed large-scale
drawings should be supplied by the purchaser through
appropriate channels. Most orders are processed through
a chain of purchasing which begins with the signing of the
owner-contractor agreement and ends with the receipt of
an order by the manufacturer. Other parties may be
involved in this process as intermediaries or secondary
parties, including, among others, the owner's representa-
tive, the contractor, the mason contractor and the distribu-
tor. Each party in the chain should endeavor to promptly
process the order and give approvals as necessary so as
to cause minimal delays in the schedule of the project.
Upon receipt of the order, the manufacturer typically
acknowledges the order and should promptly advise the
parties through the chain of purchasing about any unac-
ceptable or impractical terms.
It should also be understood by all parties that by the
5
 Brick Sizes
(Nominal Dimensions)
FIG.1

6
 10
Technical Notes REVISED

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
Reissued*
May
1997

ESTIMATING BRICK MASONRY

TABLE 1
INTRODUCTION Modular Brick and Mortar Required for
SIngle Wythe Walls in Running Bond
Except for the non-modular "Standard Brick" (3 3/4 by
(No allowances for breakage or waste)
2 1/4 by 8 in.) and some oversize brick (3 3/4 by 2 3/4 by
8 in.), virtually 100 per cent of the brick produced and Nominal Size of Cubic Feet of Mortar
used in the United States are sized to fit the modular sys- Brick in. Number of Per 100 Sq.Ft. Per 1000 Brick
Brick per 3/8-in. 1/2-in. 3/8-in. 1/2-in.
tem. Even the "standard" brick is available also in a mod-
t h l 100 sq.ft. Joints Joints Joints joints
ular size (nominal dimensions 4 by 2 2/3 by 8 in.). Since
4 x 22/3 x 8 675 5.5 7.0 8.1 10.3
there is still a considerable production of non-modular 4 x 31/5 x 8 563 4.8 6.1 8.6 10.9
brick, this revised Technical Notes includes estimating 4 x 4 x 8 450 4.2 5.3 9.2 11.7
information for that size of unit in addition to modular 4 x 51/3 x 8 338 3.5 4.4 10.2 12.9
4 x 2 x 12 600 6.5 8.2 10.8 13.7
units.
4 x 22/3 x 12 450 5.1 6.5 11.3 14.4
4 x 31/5 x 12 375 4.4 5.6 11.7 14.9
ESTIMATING PROCEDURE 4 x 4 x 12 300 3.7 4.8 12.3 15.7
Because of its simplicity and accuracy, the most wide- 4 x 51/3 x 12 225 3.0 3.9 13.4 17.1
6 x 22/3 x 12 450 7.9 10.2 17.5 22.6
ly used estimating procedure is the "wall-area" method. It
6 x 31/5 x 12 375 6.8 8.8 18.1 23.4
consists simply of multiplying known quantities of material 6 x 4 x 12 300 5.6 7.4 19.1 24.7
required per square foot by the net wall area (gross areas
less areas of all openings).
Estimating material quantities is greatly simplified The brick and mortar quantities in Tables 1 and 2 are
under the modular system. For a given nominal size, the for running (or stack) bond which contains no headers.
number of modular masonry units per square foot of wall For bonds requiring full headers, the correction factors
will be the same regardless of mortar joint thickness - given in Table 3 must be applied. Also, when estimating
assuming, of course, that the units are to be laid with the quantities for multiwythe walls, the mortar quantities for
thickness of joint for which they are designed. There are interior vertical and/or longitudinal collar joints given in
only three standard modular joint thicknesses: 1/4 in., 3/8 Table 4 must be added.
in. and 1/2 in. Table 5 contains the quantities of portland cement,
In contrast, the number of non-modular standard brick hydrated lime and sand required for 1 cu ft of four types
required per square foot of wall will vary with the thick- of mortar. Although ASTM Standard Specifications for
ness of the mortar joint. Mortar for Unit Masonry (ASTM Designation C 270) per-
In the estimating procedure, determine the net quanti- mits a range of proportions for each mortar type, the
ties of all material before adding any allowances for quantities in Table 5 have been based on a single set of
waste. Allowances for waste and breakage vary, but, as a proportions for each of these types. For convenience in
general rule, at least 5 per cent should be added to the estimating, quantities based on both weight and volume
net brick quantities and 10 to 25 per cent to the net mor- are included in the table. Mortar is generally proportioned
tar quantities. Particular job conditions, or experience, by volume on the job, although proportioning by weight is
may dictate different factors. the more accurate method. For more complete informa-
tion on mortar ingredients, proportions, properties and
ESTIMATING TABLES uses, see Technical Notes 8 Revised, "Portland Cement-
Table 1 gives net quantities of brick and mortar Lime Mortars for Brick Masonry".
required to construct walls one wythe in thickness with
various modular brick sizes and the two most common MORTAR YIELD
joint thicknesses ( 3/8 in. and 1/2 in.). Mortar quantities General. For given volumes of materials, mortar yield
are for full bed and head joints. depends upon proportions, water content and air content.
Table 2 provides similar information for walls con- Water content will vary with sand gradation, lime and
structed only with non-modular brick. cement content, and, quite often, the judgment of the
brick mason.
*Originally published in January 1971, this Technical Notes has been reviewed and reissued.
 TABLE 2
Non-Modular Brick and Mortar Required for Single Wythe Walls in Running Bond
(No allowances for breakage or waste)

Size of Brick With 3/8-in. Joints With 1/2-in. Joints

in. Number of Brick Cubic Ft. of Mortar Cubic Ft. of Mortar Number of Brick CubicFt. of Mortar CubicFt. of Mortar
t h l per 100 sq.ft. per 100 sq.ft. per 1000 brick per 100 sq.ft. per 100 sq.ft. per 1000 brick
2 3/4 x 23/4 x 93/4 455 3.2 7.1 432 4.5 10.4
25/8 x 23/4 x 83/4 504 3.4 6.8 470 4.1 8.7
33/4 x 21/4 x 8 655 5.8 8.8 616 7.2 11.7
33/4 x 23/4 x 8 551 5.0 9.1 522 6.4 12.2

TABLE 3 TABLE 6
Bond Correction Factors for Walls of Tables 1 and 2 1 Average Specific Gravities and Unit Weights1
(Add to facing and deduct from backing)
Material Specific Gravity Unit Weight in
Correction Lbs. per Cubic Ft.
Bond Factor 1 Portland Cement 3.15 94
Lime 2.25 40
Water 1.00 62.4
Full headers every 5th course only 1/5
Full headers every 6th course only 1/6
Full headers every 7th course only 1/7
1
Values for sand are not listed because they vary considerably. Obtain precise val-
ues from laboratory tests (or from supplier).
English bond (full headers every 2nd course) 1/2
Flemish bond (alternate full headers and 1/3
stretchers every course) Mortar yield calculations are based on absolute vol-
Flemish headers every 6th course 1/18 ume. To determine yield, first obtain:
Flemish cross bond (Flemish headers every 1/6 1. Unit weights and specific quantities of all materials
2nd course) (see Table 6).
Double-stretcher, garden wall bond 1/5
2. Total volume of water used in mortar mix, including
Triple-stretcher, garden wall bond 1/7
mixing water and the water present in the sand.
1
Note: Correction factors are applicable only to those brick which have lengths of Sand. When a relatively small amount of water (4 to
twice their bed depths.
10 per cent) is added to dry sand, it bulks, that is, it
TABLE 4
increases in volume far in excess of the volume of water
Cubic Feet of Mortar for Collar Joints added. This increase can be as much as 50 per cent,
depending largely upon the gradation of the sand.
Cubic Feet of Mortar Per 100 Sq. Ft. of Wall Because of bulking, volumetric measurement of sand is
1/4-in. Joint 3/8-in. Joint 1/2-in. Joint not very accurate.
Although weighing sand is a more accurate method of
2.08 3.13 4.17
measurement, it is, perhaps, not nearly so convenient as
measuring volume. For proportion specifications, ASTM
Note: Cubic feet per 1000 units = 10 cubic feet per 100 sq. ft. of wall
number of units per square foot of wall C 270 assumes that 1 cu ft of damp, loose sand (bulked
sand) is equal to 80 lb of dry sand (and that it has bulked
TABLE 5 approximately 38 per cent).
Material Quantities per Cubic Foot of Mortar Specific Gravity of Sand. Obtain the specific gravity
of sand from the supplier. Procedure for determining spe-
Quantities by Volume Quantities by Weight cific gravities of sands is given in ASTM C 128, Standard
Mortar Type and Mortar Type and Method of Test for Specific Gravity and Absorption of Fine
Proportions by Volume Proportions by Volume
Material Aggregate. An average value for silica sands is 2.65.
M S N O M S N O
Moisture Content of Sand. In any given sand, the
1:1/4:3 1:1/2:41/2 1:1:6 1:2:9 1:1/4:3 1:1/2:41/2 1:1:6 1:2:9
moisture content may vary from day to day or even from
Cement 0.333 0.222 0.167 0.111 31.33 20.89 15.67 10.44
hour to hour. While this variation exists, it is not as critical
Lime 0.083 0.111 0.167 0.222 3.33 4.44 6.67 8.89 in mortars as it is in portland cement concrete. Most
1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 80.00 80.00 80.00 80.00
Sand damp loose sands contain approximately 1/2 to 1 gal of
water per cu ft of sand. For many yield calculations, an
assumption of this amount of water may be sufficient.
Where greater accuracy is desired, determine moisture
content according to the procedure given in ASTM C 70,
Standard Method of Test for Surface Moisture in Fine
Aggregate.
2
 Illustrative Example. Determine the batch yield for
Weight of Sand. To accurately determine mortar the following mortar:
yield requires knowledge of the sand's moisture content, Batch proportions by volume: 1 cu ft portland cement,
specific gravity and unit weight (bulked and dry). To 1 cu ft lime, 6 cu ft damp loose sand, and 8 1/3, gal mix-
determine bulked unit weight, weigh 1 cu ft of bulked ing water. For all materials except sand, specific gravities
sand. The standard method for determining unit weight of and unit weights are as shown in Table 6. Specific gravity
aggregate is given in ASTM C 29, Standard Method of of sand, G S = 2.65. Moisture content of sand, w = 8 per
Test for Unit Weight of Aggregate. When moisture con-
cent. Damp loose weight of sand, W = 87 lb per cu ft.
tent and bulked weight are known, the weights of water
Batch weight of sand = 6(87) = 522 lb. Assume mixed
and dry sand are easily computed.
mortar contains 10 per cent air.
Water. Use the total weight of water in yield calcula-
tions; i.e., sum of the weights of mixing water and water Step 1. Determine the total weight of each material in
present in the sand. If the moisture content of the sand is the batch (see Table 6).
known, it is a simple matter to calculate the weight of
cement WC = (1) (94) = 94 lb
water in the sand. Add the weight of water present in the
sand to the weight of mixing water added to the batch at lime WL = (1) (40) = 40 lb
the mixer. To convert gallons of mixing water to pounds, sand W S = (100 - 8)(522) = 480.2 lb
multiply by 8.33. 100
Absolute Volume. The absolute solid volume of a water in (8)(522) = 41.8 lb
material is the volume of its solid portion only; voids are sand 100
not included. Thus:
mixing (81/3)(8.33) = 69.4 lb
V = W
m m water
62.4G m .............................................. ( 1 )
total water WW = 111.2 lb
In Eq (1):
Vm = absolute solid volume of any given material in
Step 2. Using the batch weights determined in Step
cubic feet 1, calculate the absolute solid volume for each material
Wm = batch weight of the material in pounds from Eq (1) and the total from Eq (2):
Gm = specific gravity of the material
The absolute volume of mortar is the sum of the cement VC = 94 = 0.478 cu ft
absolute volumes of all ingredients (cement, lime, sand (3.15)(62.4)
and water):
lime VL = 40 = 0.285
VM = VC+VL+VS+VW .................................... ( 2 ) (2.25)(62.4)

Mortar Yield. Mortar yield is equal to its absolute vol- sand VS = 480.2 = 2.904
ume (VM) plus the volume of entrapped air. When the air (2.65)(62.4)
content of mortar is known, the yield may be found from
the relationship: water VW = 111.2 = 1.782
(1)(62.4)
Y = 100VM ............................................... ( 3 )
100-a total VM = 5.449 cu ft
In Eq (3):
Y = volume of mortar yield in cubic feet Step 3. Determine mortar yield from Eq (3):
VM = absolute solid volume of mortar in cubic feet
from Eq (2) Y = 5.449(100) = 6.05 cu ft
a = air content of freshly mixed mortar in per cent (100-10)
Air contents of freshly mixed portland cement-lime mor-
tars are in the order of 10 per cent.
Note: By the "rule-of-thumb" method the yield is 6 cu ft.
However, had this mix required more or less mixing water,
Mortar Yield by "Rule-of-Thumb". For jobs where
or had it varied in air content, the yield would have varied
mortar yield calculations are not critical, use the following
also. Conceivably, this difference may be significant for
"rule-of-thumb" to determine approximate mortar yield:
large quantity computations.
For each 1 cu ft of damp loose sand, the mortar yield
will be 1 cu ft.

3
 Technical Notes 10A
REVISED

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
Reissued*
July
1986

MODULAR BRICK MASONRY

Association of Home Builders and the Producers' Council,

INTRODUCTION
"Greater productive capacity in the construction indus-
try to meet the demands of an expanding population must
be provided by increases in efficiency in the processes
and techniques of designing and building. An ultimate
objective is the development of a system of construction
in which all materials, components, products and equip-
ment fit together simply and easily with minimum alter-
ations required on the job."
With this statement, the editors of Modular Practice,
published in 1962 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., introduced
the concept of modular coordination to the reader. This
statement is even more to the point today, since the use
of modular coordination in the design and construction of
buildings not only increases production but can also result
in significant cost savings.
Inc. It was supported by those organizations plus individ-
ual memberships. MBSA worked with the Building
Research Advisory Board (BRAB), National Academy of
Sciences-National Research Council in the preparation of
a manual on modular design. The project was carried on
under a grant from the Ford Foundation's Educational
Facilities Laboratories, Inc. This manual, Modular
Practice, is the one quoted at the beginning of this
Technical Notes and is still the most comprehensive treat-
ment of the subject available.
AMERICAN MODULAR STANDARDS
Since the organization of ANSI Standards Committee
A62, BIA has been represented on the committee and has
participated in the development of the following
standards :
1

This year marks the 35th anniversary of a meeting

called by the American Standards Association (now the A62.1 - 1957 Basis for the Coordination of Dimensions
American National Standards Institute) in August 1938, of Building Materials and Equipment
from which the development of the principles of modular A62.2 - 1945 Basis for the Coordination of Masonry
or dimensional coordination stem. This conference, called A62.3 - 1946 Sizes of Clay and Concrete Modular
to explore the need for setting up a project on modular Masonry Units
coordination, was attended by representatives of the vari- A62.4 - 1947 Sizes of Clay Flue Linings
ous facets of the building industry, including the Brick A62.5 - 1968 Basis for the Horizontal Dimensioning of
Institute of America (then SCPI). Their unanimous recom- Coordinated Building Components and
mendation to ASA was that such a project be initiated. Systems
This was effected in 1939 as ASA Sectional Committee A62.6 - 1969 Classification for Properties and
A62 on the Coordination of Dimensions of Building Performances of Coordinated Building
Materials and Equipment, under the sponsorship of the Components and Systems
American Institute of Architects and the Producers' A62.7 - 1969 Basis for the Vertical Dimensioning of
Council, Inc. This committee currently operates under the Coordinated Building Components and
name of ANSI Standards Committee on Pre-Coordination Systems
of Building Components and Systems, although at present A62.8 - 1971 Numerical Designation of Modular Grid
it is without sponsorship. Coordinates
During the past 35 years many organizations have 1
Copies of these standards available from American National Standards Institute,
contributed to both the technical and educational aspects 1430 Broadway, New York, N.Y. 10018.
of the project, including the Federal Government,
American Institute of Architects, American Society of Civil SIZES OF MODULAR BRICK UNITS
Engineers, Associated General Contractors, Consulting Currently, a large percentage of brick is produced in
Engineers Council, National Association of Home modular sizes and, consistent with its long established
Builders, Prestressed Concrete Institute and many trade policy, BIA recommends modular design and the use of
associations representing producers of building products modular products as a means of reducing building costs.
and components manufactured to predetermined sizes. The sizes of modular brick listed in Table 1 are typical
The Modular Building Standards Association was of those generally produced by the industry. However, as
organized in 1957 by the American Institute of Architects, design requirements change, new sizes may be added
Associated General Contractors of America, National
*Originally published in June/July 1973, this Technical Notes has been reviewed and reissued.
and less popular sizes dropped. Also, few manufacturers
produce all of the sizes listed. Therefore, it is recom- MODULAR UNIT DIMENSIONS
mended that the designer consult current manufacturer or The listed dimensions of modular masonry units are
regional catalogs for available sizes in any locality before "nominal'', and are equal to the manufactured or specified
proceeding with a design. dimension plus the thickness of the mortar joint with which
Tables for use in estimating quantities of modular the unit is designed to be laid, as indicated in Fig. 1. For
brick and mortar are given in Technical Notes 10 Revised, example, the manufactured length of a unit whose nomi-
"Estimating Brick Masonry". nal length is 12 in. would be 11 1/2 in. if the unit were
TABLE 1
designed to be laid with 1/2 in. joints, or 11 5/8 in. for 3/8 -
a,b in. joints.
Nominal Modular Sizes of Brick
The manufactured dimensions of a single unit may
Face Dimensions Number of vary from the specified dimensions by not more than the
Unit Thickness Courses in permissible tolerances for variation in dimensions includ-
Height Length
Designation in. 16 in. ed in the applicable ASTM specifications.
in. in.
2 2/3 8
In Table 1, all dimensions are nominal and the stan-
Standard 4 6
Engineer 4 3 1/5 8 5 dard mortar joint thickness is determined by the type and
Economy 8 or quality of the product, particularly by the permissible vari-
Jumbo Closure 4 4 8 4 ation in dimensions. In general, facing brick are laid in
Double 4 5 1/3 8 3
2 12
either 3 3/8 - in. or 1/2 - in. thick mortar joints, although
Roman 4 8
Norman 4 2 2/3 12 6 some products, such as ceramic glazed brick or structural
Norwegian 4 3 1/5 12 5 clay facing tile, are designed for 1/4 - in. thick mortar
Economy 12 or joints.
Jumbo Utility 4 4 12 4
Triple 4 5 1/3 12 3
c
6 2 2/3 12 6 MASONRY UNIT COORDINATION
SCR Brick
6-in. Norwegian 6 3 1/5 12 5 The manner in which the coordination of different
6 4 12 4 modular masonry units is accomplished is shown in Fig.
6-in. Jumbo
8 4 12 4
8-in. Jumbo 2. The exterior facing brick are shown with 3/8 - in. joints
and are backed up with units, such as structural clay tile,
a designed for use with 1/2-in. joints. The inside facing of
Available as solid units conforming to ASTMC 216 or ASTM C 62, or, in some
cases, as hollow brick conforming to ASTM C 652. ceramic glazed units are laid in 1/4-in. joints. The full
b
Refer to Technical Notes 10B, “Brick Sizes and Related Information.” coordination between units is apparent, as indicated in the
c
Reg. U.S. Pat. Off., BIA enlargements. The thickness of the vertical joints
between the different types of units is the average of the
joint thicknesses used with each unit.

FIG. 1
Capital Letters Signify Nominal Dimensions. Lower Case Letters Signify
Actual or Specified Dimensions. The Thickness of Mortar Joint is Shown FIG. 2
as “j.” Dimension Points on Grid Lines are Shown with Arrows. Modular Unit Coordination
Dimension Points Not on Grid Lines are Designated with Dots.

2
DESIGN
The authors of Modular Practice emphasize the
importance of establishing the 4-in. modular grid as a ref-
erence system for the three dimensional elements of plan
and structure, but state that no part of the plan should be
forced to fall on the grid, nor should any dimension be
forced to be multiples of 4 in. However, they also point
out economies that can be effected in construction costs
through the use of modular dimensions, thus minimizing
the altering of predimensioned components at the job site.

GRID LOCATIONS OF MASONRY WALLS

Figure 3 shows grid locations of mortar joints in walls
constructed with various modular units when the walls are
centered between grid lines. It can be seen that all grid
lines coincide with horizontal mortar joints for only the 2 -
in. and 4 - in. nominal heights, thus providing 4 - in. flexi-
bility.
With the 2 2/3 - in. high units (as well as 8 - in. high
units), grid lines coincide with horizontal joints every 8 in.
If 4 - in. flexibility is required, a course of 4 - in. high sup-
plementary units (or a rowlock header course) must be
used.
The fact that alternate grid lines coincide with the
mortar joints when the 2 2/3 - in. high brick is used pro-
vides a simple rule for determining the location of a grid
line with respect to the masonry at any point above or
below a given reference grid line. Any grid line which is
an even multiple of 4 - in. from the reference line will have
the same relative position with respect to the masonry
coursing, while any grid line that is an odd multiple of 4 in.
will have the alternate position. This simple rule greatly
simplifies the checking of course heights, particularly for
lintels, where it is usually essential that the head of the
opening coincide with a horizontal mortar joint.
A symmetrical grid location for walls is usually pre-
ferred to an unsymmetrical position. The correct symmet-
rical location (centered between grid lines or centered on
a grid line) will often be influenced by the length of the
masonry units to be used.
With masonry units whose nominal lengths are 8 or
16 in., vertical (head) joints will occur on grid lines when 4
and 8 - in. thick walls are centered between grid lines,
and they will occur at mid - grid points when these walls
are centered on grid lines.
The above conditions are also true for 12 - in. nominal
length units when they are laid in one-third bond.
However, when these units are laid in center (1/2) bond,
vertical joints in alternate courses will occur on grid lines
and be centered between grid lines.

FIG.3
Elevations Showing Grid Locations

3
CONCLUSION
As this is written (May 1973), it is anticipated that
Congress will pass legislation which would create a
National Metric Conversion Board to plan and coordinate
a voluntary conversion process in which, over a period of
some ten years, the United States will ''go metric". It is
highly probable that modular or dimensional coordination
will be made an integral part of metrication in the con-
struction industry, as it was in Great Britain when it made
the decision to convert to metric about eight years ago. It
is expected that, if this comes to pass, the acceptance
and use of modular coordination will increase at a much
more rapid pace than it has under the evolutionary
process it has been permitted to follow for the past 35
years.

4

BRICK SIZES AND RELATED INFORMATION
Abstract: This Technical Notes provides information on brick sizes and nomenclature.
Standard nomenclature for the twelve most common brick sizes is given. The differences be-
tween nominal, specified and actual dimensions are explained. Vertical and horizontal cours-
ing tables for modular and non-modular sizes are provided.
Key Words: actual dimension, brick, nominal dimension, size, specified dimension,
standard nomenclature.
INTRODUCTION
Brick are available in many varied sizes and have
been called by many different names. This prolifera-
tion of sizes and names can be confusing for the de-
signer and specifier. The problem is further compound-
ed by the need to distinguish between nominal, speci-
fied and actual dimensions. Recent efforts led jointly
by the Brick Institute of America and the National As-
sociation of Brick Distributors have led to the develop-
ment of standard nomenclature for brick which repre-
sent roughly 90 percent of all sizes currently manufac-
tured.
This Technical Notes lists the sizes of brick units
generally available in the United States and presents the
standard nomenclature for brick sizes. The differences
between nominal, specified and actual dimensions are
explained. Guidance is given on the recommended or-
der in which brick dimensions should be listed. Verti-
cal and horizontal coursing tables are presented as an
aid to the reader. Other Technical Notes in this series
provide tables for estimating brick masonry and infor-
mation on modular brick masonry.
BRICK SIZES AND NOMENCLATURE
Brick sizes have varied over the centuries, but have
always been similar to present day sizes. The size of a
brick has historically been small enough to be held in
the hand, and most brick have remained small. Brick is
a building element with a human scale. The use of
small scale elements, such as brick, tends to break
down massive expanses of wall into visually pleasing
parts. Furthermore, the use of oversized units alters the
scale of the masonry unit in relation to the wall. Be-
cause people have a perceived size of brick, the use of
oversize units makes the wall appear smaller.
10B
REVISED
June
1993
Over time new sizes have been developed to meet
specific design, production or construction needs. New
types of construction have required new sizes, such as
hollow units for reinforced masonry and larger units for
increased economy. Hollow units have varying coring
patterns but typically are larger than standard or modu-
lar size and have larger cells to allow placement of ver-
tical reinforcement. Units with larger face dimensions
allow the bricklayer to lay more square foot of wall per
day. Such units, compared to standard or modular size
units, may increase the number of brick laid per day by
over 50 percent. However, as units get larger and heav-
ier, a point of diminishing return exists. Also, units
with larger heights make filling the head joint with
mortar more difficult.
Until now, a given brick size may have been known
Brick Institute of America
by several names due to regional variations. A joint
committee of the Brick Institute of America and the
National Association of Brick Distributors recently de-
veloped standard nomenclature for brick which repre-
sent roughly 90 percent of all sizes currently manufac-
tured. The standard nomenclature for brick sizes is pre- June 1993
sented in Table 1. These terms were developed by a
consensus process involving companies across the
country. The use of these standard terms when describ-
ing brick is strongly recommended.
Table 2 lists other brick sizes that are produced by a
limited number of manufacturers. Since clay is such a
flexible medium, manufacturers can make many differ-
4d
ent sizes. Also, modular and non-modular sizes are il-
lustrated in Figs. 1 and 2, respectively. The coring pat-
terns shown in these figures are for illustrative purposes
BRICK
MASONRY
only. Manufacturers incorporate cores and cells in sol-
id and hollow brick in many different sizes and pat-
terns. The brick manufacturer should be consulted for
information on sizes and coring patterns.
 TABLE 1
Standard Nomenclature for Brick Sizes1

MODULAR BRICK SIZES

Nominal Dimensions, in. Joint Specified Dimensions3, in.

Unit Vertical
Thickness2,
Designation Coursing
w h l in. w h l

3
⁄8 35⁄8 21⁄4 75⁄8
Modular 4 22⁄3 8 3C = 8 in.
1
⁄2 31⁄2 21⁄4 71⁄2

Engineer
3
⁄8 35⁄8 23⁄4 75⁄8
4 31⁄5 8 5C = 16 in.
Modular 1
⁄2 31⁄2 213⁄16 71⁄2

Closure
3
⁄8 35⁄8 35⁄8 75⁄8
4 4 8 1C = 4 in.
Modular 1
⁄2 3 ⁄2
1
3 ⁄2
1
71⁄2
3
⁄8 35⁄8 15⁄8 115⁄8
Roman 4 2 12 2C = 4 in.
1
⁄2 3 ⁄2
1
1 ⁄2
1
111⁄2
3
⁄8 35⁄8 21⁄4 115⁄8
Norman 4 22⁄3 12 3C = 8 in.
1
⁄2 3 ⁄2
1
2 ⁄4
1
111⁄2
Engineer
3
⁄8 35⁄8 23⁄4 115⁄8
4 31⁄5 12 5C = 16 in.
Norman 1
⁄2 3 ⁄2
1
2 ⁄16
13
111⁄2
3
⁄8 35⁄8 35⁄8 115⁄8
Utility 4 4 12 1C = 4 in.
1
⁄2 31⁄2 31⁄2 111⁄2

NON-MODULAR BRICK SIZES

3
⁄8 35⁄8 21⁄4 8
Standard 3C = 8 in.
1
⁄2 3 ⁄2
1
2 ⁄4
1
8
Engineer
3
⁄8 35⁄8 23⁄4 8
5C = 16 in.
Standard 1
⁄2 3 ⁄2
1
213⁄16 8

Closure
3
⁄8 35⁄8 35⁄8 8
1C = 4 in.
Standard 1
⁄2 3 ⁄2
1
31⁄2 8
3 23⁄4 95⁄8
King ⁄8
3
5C = 16 in.
23⁄4 25⁄8 95⁄8

3 23⁄4 8
Queen
3
⁄8 5C = 16 in.
23⁄4 23⁄4 8
11 in. = 25.4 mm; 1 ft = 0.3 m
2Common joint sizes used with length and width dimensions. Joint thicknesses of bed joints vary based on vertical coursing and specified unit height.
3Specified dimensions may vary within this range from manufacturer to manufacturer.

BRICK DIMENSIONS given module. Such dimensions are known as nominal

Brick are identified by three dimensions: width,
height and length. Height and length are sometimes
called face dimensions for these are the dimensions
showing when the brick is laid as a stretcher. The
terms applied to brick positions as they are placed in a
wall are shown in Fig. 3. The shaded areas indicate the
surfaces of the brick that are exposed. Specifications
and purchase orders should list brick dimensions in the
standard order of width first, followed by height, then
length.
When specifying or designing with brick, it is im-
portant to understand the difference between nominal,
specified and actual dimensions. Nominal dimensions
are most often used by the architect in modular con-
struction. In modular construction, all dimensions of
the brick and other building elements are multiples of a
2
dimensions. For brick masonry the nominal dimension
is equal to the specified unit dimension plus the intend-
ed mortar joint thickness. The intended mortar joint
thickness is the thickness required so that the unit plus
joint thickness match the coursing module. In the inch-
pound system of measurement, nominal brick dimen-
sions are based on multiples (or fractions) of 4 in. In
the SI (metric) system, nominal brick dimensions are
based on multiples of 100 mm. For more information
on modular construction see Technical Notes 10A Re-
vised.
As the name implies, the specified dimension is the
anticipated manufactured dimension. It should be stat-
ed in project specifications and purchase orders. Speci-
fied dimensions are used by the structural engineer in
the rational design of brick masonry. In non-modular
construction, only the specified dimension should be
 22⁄3" 31⁄5" 4"

8" 8" 8"

4" 4"
4"
MODULAR ENGINEER MODULAR CLOSURE MODULAR

2" 22⁄3" 31⁄5" 4"

12" 12" 12" 12"

4" 4" 4" 4"
ROMAN NORMAN ENGINEER NORMAN UTILITY

8" 31⁄5"
6"

12"
8" 8" 6"
4" 4"

4"
4"
4"

16"
12"
12" 8" 8"
6"

Modular Brick Sizes

(Nominal Dimensions)
FIG. 1

21⁄4" 23⁄4" - 213⁄16" 35⁄8" - 31⁄2"

8"
35⁄8" - 31⁄2" 8" 8"
35⁄8" - 31⁄2" 35⁄8" - 31⁄2"

STANDARD ENGINEER STANDARD CLOSURE STANDARD

23⁄4" - 25⁄8"
23⁄4" 23⁄4" - 25⁄8"

95⁄8" 8" 85⁄8"

23⁄4" - 3" 23⁄4" - 3" 3"

KING SIZE QUEEN SIZE

Non-Modular Brick Sizes

(Specified Dimensions)
FIG. 2
3
 TABLE 2
Other Brick Sizes1

MODULAR BRICK SIZES

Nominal Dimensions, in. Joint Specified Dimensions3, in.

Vertical
Thickness2,
Coursing
w h l in. w h l

⁄8
3
35⁄8 55⁄8 75⁄8
4 6 8 2C = 12 in.
⁄2
1
31⁄2 51⁄2 71⁄2

⁄8
3
35⁄8 75⁄8 75⁄8
4 8 8 1C = 8 in.
⁄2
1
31⁄2 71⁄2 71⁄2
⁄8
3
55⁄8 23⁄4 115⁄8
6 31⁄5 12 5C = 16 in.
⁄2
1
5 ⁄2
1
2 ⁄16
13
111⁄2

⁄8
3
55⁄8 35⁄8 115⁄8
6 4 12 1C = 4 in.
⁄2
1
5 ⁄2
1
3 ⁄2 1
111⁄2
⁄8
3
75⁄8 35⁄8 115⁄8
8 4 12 1C = 4 in.
⁄2
1
7 ⁄2
1
3 ⁄2 1
111⁄2
⁄8
3
75⁄8 35⁄8 155⁄8
8 4 16 1C = 4 in.
⁄2
1
7 ⁄2
1
3 ⁄2 1
151⁄2
NON-MODULAR BRICK SIZES

3 23⁄4 85⁄8
3
⁄8 5C = 16 in.
3 25⁄8 85⁄8
11 in. = 25.4 mm; 1 ft = 0.3 m
2Common joint sizes used with length and width dimensions. Joint thicknesses of bed joints vary based on vertical coursing and specified unit height.
3Specified dimensions may vary within this range from manufacturer to manufacturer.

used. Tables 1 and 2 provide the specified and nominal COURSING

dimensions, where applicable.
The actual dimension of a unit is the dimension as
manufactured. Actual dimensions may vary slightly
from a specified size. The actual dimensions of a brick
must fall within the range of sizes defined by the speci-
fied dimensions plus or minus the specified dimension-
al tolerances. Dimensional tolerances are found in the
ASTM standard specifications for brick, such as
ASTM C 216 Standard Specification for Facing Brick,
or may be specified in the project documents.
Although nominal dimensions are given only for
modular brick, it should be noted that the heights of
both modular and non-modular brick are the same.
This is because when modular sizes were first intro-
duced, brick manufacturers were faced with the prob-
lem of supplying matching brick to existing non-modu-
lar construction. From an appearance standpoint, most
designers required that the vertical coursing of modular
brick match the existing non-modular brick. Thus, all

STRETCHER
HEADER

SOLDIER SAILOR

ROWLOCK STRETCHER ROWLOCK

Brick Positions in a Wall

FIG. 3

4
 TABLE 3 brick are modular in height. The vertical coursing in-
Vertical Coursing 1,2 formation given in Tables 1 and 2 is a reflection of this
fact. Table 3 provides vertical dimensions based on
No. of Vertical Coursing of Unit the modular vertical coursing given in Tables 1 and 2.
Courses 2C = 4 in. 3C = 8 in. 5C = 16 in. 1C = 4 in. For example, units with heights which course vertical-
ly 2 courses to 4 in. (2C = 4 in.) such as Roman size,
1 0' - 2" 0' - 22⁄3" 0' - 31⁄5" 0' - 4" should use column 1 of Table 3. The dimensions given
2 0' - 4" 0' - 51⁄3" 0' - 62⁄5" 0' - 8" in Table 3 include typical mortar joints of 3⁄8 in. to 1⁄2 in.
3 0' - 6" 0' - 8" 0' - 93⁄5" 1' - 0"
4 0' - 8" 0' - 102⁄3" 1' - 04⁄5" 1' - 4" The actual mortar joint size can be determined from
5 0' - 10" 1' - 11⁄3" 1' - 4" 1' - 8" the vertical coursing information and the specified unit
6 1' - 0" 1' - 4" 1' - 71⁄5" 2' - 0" size. For example, when coursing out with a modular
7 1' - 2" 1' - 62⁄3" 1' - 102⁄5" 2' - 4" height unit, the mortar bed joint is slightly larger than
8 1' - 4" 1' - 91⁄3" 2' - 13⁄5" 2' - 8" 3
9 1' - 6" 2' - 0" 2' - 44⁄5" 3' - 0"
⁄8 in. and slightly less than 1⁄2 in., so that 3 courses of
10 1' - 8" 2' - 22⁄3" 2' - 8" 3' - 4" brick and mortar will equal the 8 in. module. For most
11 1' - 10" 2' - 51⁄3" 2' - 111⁄5" 3' - 8" brick sizes the mortar bed joint will not be exactly 3⁄8 in.
12 2' - 0" 2' - 8" 3' - 22⁄5 " 4' - 0" nor 1⁄2 in. Table 3 is applicable to both modular and
13 2' - 2" 2' - 102⁄3" 3' - 53⁄5" 4' - 4" non-modular brick. In this table, the brick are as-
14 2' - 4" 3' - 11⁄3" 3' - 84⁄5" 4' - 8"
15 2' - 6" 3' - 4" 4' - 0" 5' - 0" sumed to be positioned in the wall as stretchers or
headers.
16 2' - 8" 3' - 62⁄3" 4' - 31⁄5" 5' - 4"
17 2' - 10" 3' - 91⁄3" 4' - 62⁄5" 5' - 8" Horizontal coursing information is given in Table 4.
18 3' - 0" 4' - 0" 4' - 93⁄5" 6' - 0" The table includes coursing for both modular and non-
19 3' - 2" 4' - 22⁄3" 5' - 04⁄5" 6' - 4" modular brick.
20 3' - 4" 4' - 51⁄3" 5' - 4" 6' - 8"
Another useful tool for designers is the brick scale.
21 3' - 6" 4' - 8" 5' - 71⁄5" 7' - 0"
22 3' - 8" 4' - 102⁄3" 5' - 102⁄5" 7' - 4"
The brick scale is a coursing scale marked with multi-
23 3' - 10" 5' - 11⁄3" 6' - 13⁄5" 7' - 8" ples of common nominal brick sizes. They come in a
24 4' - 0" 5' - 4" 6' - 44⁄5" 8' - 0" set which matches the most common architectural
25 4' - 2" 5' - 62⁄3" 6' - 8" 8' - 4"
scales, 1⁄4 in. = 1 ft-0 in., 1⁄2 in. = 1 ft-0 in., etc. Many
26 4' - 4" 5' - 91⁄3" 6' - 111⁄5" 8' - 8" brick manufacturers, brick distributors and masonry
27 4' - 6" 6' - 0" 7' - 22⁄5" 9' - 0"
28 4' - 8" 6' - 22⁄3" 7' - 53⁄5" 9' - 4" promotional groups provide brick scales to designers.
29 4' - 10" 6' - 51⁄3" 7' - 84⁄5" 9' - 8"
30 5' - 0" 6' - 8" 8' - 0" 10' - 0" CONCLUSION
31 5' - 2" 6' - 102⁄3" 8' - 31⁄5" 10' - 4" This Technical Notes presents the standard nomen-
32 5' - 4" 7' - 11⁄3" 8' - 62⁄5" 10' - 8" clature for brick sizes. Information on brick sizes is
33 5' - 6" 7' - 4" 8' - 93⁄5" 11' - 0"
34 5' - 8" 7' - 62⁄3" 9' - 04⁄5" 11' - 4" given and the differences between nominal, specified
35 5' - 10" 7' - 91⁄3" 9' - 4" 11' - 8" and actual dimensions are explained. Coursing tables
36 6' - 0" 8' - 0" 9' - 71⁄5" 12' - 0" for both modular and non-modular brick are provided.
37 6' - 2" 8' - 22⁄3" 9' - 102⁄5" 12' - 4" The information and suggestions contained in this
38 6' - 4" 8' - 51⁄3" 10' - 13⁄5" 12' - 8"
39 6' - 6" 8' - 8" 10' - 44⁄5" 13' - 0"
Technical Notes are based on the available data and the
40 6' - 8" 8' - 102⁄3" 10' - 8" 13' - 4" experience of the engineering staff of the Brick Insti-
41 6' - 10" 9' - 11⁄3" 10' - 111⁄5" 13' - 8" tute of America. The information contained herein
42 7' - 0" 9' - 4" 11' - 22⁄5" 14' - 0" must be used in conjunction with good technical judg-
43 7' - 2" 9' - 62⁄3" 11' - 53⁄5" 14' - 4" ment and a basic understanding of the properties of
44 7' - 4" 9' - 91⁄3" 11' - 84⁄5" 14' - 8"
45 7' - 6" 10' - 0" 12' - 0" 15' - 0" brick masonry. Final decisions on the use of the infor-
mation contained in this Technical Notes are not within
46 7' - 8" 10' - 22⁄3" 12' - 31⁄5" 15' - 4"
47 7' - 10" 10' - 51⁄3" 12' - 62⁄5" 15' - 8" the purview of the Brick Institute of America and must
48 8' - 0" 10' - 8" 12' - 93⁄5" 16' - 0" rest with the project architect, engineer and owner.
49 8' - 2" 10' - 102⁄3" 13' - 04⁄5" 16' - 4"
50 8' - 4" 11' - 11⁄3" 13' - 4" 16' - 8"
100 16' - 8" 22' - 22⁄3" 26' - 8" 33' - 4"

11 in. = 25.4 mm; 1 ft = 0.3 m

2Brick positioned in wall as stretchers or headers.

5
 TABLE 4
Horizontal Coursing1

Unit Length
Number Nominal Dimensions, in. Specified Dimensions, in.
of
Units 8 85⁄8 95⁄8
8 12
1
⁄2 in. jt. 3
⁄8 in. jt. 3
⁄8 in. jt. 3
⁄8 in. jt.
1 0' - 8" 1' - 0" 0' - 81⁄2" 0' - 83⁄8" 0' - 9" 0' - 10"
2 1' - 4" 2' - 0" 1' - 5" 1' - 43⁄4" 1' - 6" 1' - 8"
3 2' - 0" 3' - 0" 2' - 11⁄2" 2' - 11⁄8" 2' - 3" 2' - 6"
4 2' - 8" 4' - 0" 2' - 10" 2' - 91⁄2" 3' - 0" 3' - 4"
5 3' - 4" 5' - 0" 3' - 61⁄2" 3' - 57⁄8" 3' - 9" 4' - 2"
6 4' - 0" 6' - 0" 4' - 3" 4' - 21⁄4" 4' - 6" 5' - 0"
7 4' - 8" 7' - 0" 4' - 111⁄2" 4' - 105⁄8" 5' - 3" 5' - 10"
8 5' - 4" 8' - 0" 5' - 8" 5' - 7" 6' - 0" 6' - 8"
9 6' - 0" 9' - 0" 6' - 41⁄2" 6' - 33⁄8" 6' - 9" 7' - 6"
10 6' - 8" 10' - 0" 7' - 1" 6' - 113⁄4" 7' - 6" 8' - 4"
11 7' - 4" 11' - 0" 7' - 91⁄2" 7' - 81⁄8" 8' - 3" 9' - 2"
12 8' - 0" 12' - 0" 8' - 6" 8' -41⁄2" 9' - 0" 10' - 0"
13 8' - 8" 13' - 0" 9' - 21⁄2" 9' - 07⁄8" 9' - 9" 10' - 10"
14 9' - 4" 14' - 0" 9' - 11" 9' - 91⁄4" 10' - 6" 11' - 8"
15 10' - 0" 15' - 0" 10' - 71⁄2" 10' - 55⁄8" 11' - 3" 12' - 6"
16 10' - 8" 16' - 0" 11' - 4" 11' - 2" 12' - 0" 13' - 4"
17 11' - 4" 17' - 0" 12' - 01⁄2" 11' - 103⁄8" 12' - 9" 14' - 2"
18 12' - 0" 18' - 0" 12' - 9" 12' - 63⁄4" 13' - 6" 15' - 0"
19 12' - 8" 19' - 0" 13' - 51⁄2" 13' - 31⁄8" 14' - 3" 15' - 10"
20 13' - 4" 20' - 0" 14' - 2" 13' - 111⁄2" 15' - 0" 16' - 8"
21 14' - 0" 21' - 0" 14' - 101⁄2" 14' - 77⁄8" 15' - 9" 17' - 6"
22 14' - 8" 22' - 0" 15' - 7" 15' - 41⁄4" 16' - 6" 18' - 4"
23 15' - 4" 23' - 0" 16' - 31⁄2" 16' - 05⁄8" 17' - 3" 19' - 2"
24 16' - 0" 24' - 0" 17' - 0" 16' - 9" 18' - 0" 20' - 0"
25 16' - 8" 25' - 0" 17' - 81⁄2" 17' - 53⁄8" 18' - 9" 20' - 10"
26 17' - 4" 26' - 0" 18' - 5" 18' - 13⁄4" 19' - 6" 21' - 8"
27 18' - 0" 27' - 0" 19' - 11⁄2" 18' - 101⁄8" 20' - 3" 22' - 6"
28 18' - 8" 28' - 0" 19' - 10" 19' - 61⁄2" 21' - 0" 23' - 4"
29 19' - 4" 29' - 0" 20' - 61⁄2" 20' - 27⁄8" 21' - 9" 24' - 2"
30 20' - 0" 30' - 0" 21' - 3" 20' - 111⁄4" 22' - 6" 25' - 0"
31 20' - 8" 31' - 0" 21' - 111⁄2" 21' - 75⁄8" 23' - 3" 25' - 10"
32 21' - 4" 32' - 0" 22' - 8" 22' - 4" 24' - 0" 26' - 8"
33 22' - 0" 33' - 0" 23' - 41⁄2" 23' - 03⁄8" 24' - 9" 27' - 6"
34 22' - 8" 34' - 0" 24' - 1" 23' - 83⁄4" 25' - 6" 28' - 4"
35 23' - 4" 35' - 0" 24' - 91⁄2" 24' - 51⁄8" 26' - 3" 29' - 2"
36 24' - 0" 36' - 0" 25' - 6" 25' - 11⁄2" 27' - 0" 30' - 0"
37 24' - 8" 37' - 0" 26' - 21⁄2" 25' - 97⁄8" 27' - 9" 30' - 10"
38 25' - 4" 38' - 0" 26' - 11" 26' - 61⁄4" 28' - 6" 31' - 8"
39 26' - 0" 39' - 0" 27' - 71⁄2" 27' - 25⁄8" 29' - 3" 32' - 6"
40 26' - 8" 40' - 0" 28' - 4" 27' - 11" 30' - 0" 33' - 4"
41 27' - 4" 41' - 0" 29' - 01⁄2" 28' - 73⁄8" 30' - 9" 34' - 2"
42 28' - 0" 42' - 0" 29' - 9" 29' - 33⁄4" 31' - 6" 35' - 0"
43 28' - 8" 43' - 0" 30' - 51⁄2" 30' - 01⁄8" 32' - 3" 35' - 10"
44 29' - 4" 44' - 0" 31' - 2" 30' - 81⁄2" 33' - 0" 36' - 8"
45 30' - 0" 45' - 0" 31' - 101⁄2" 31' - 47⁄8" 33' - 9" 37' - 6"
46 30' - 8" 46' - 0" 32' - 7" 32' - 11⁄4" 34' - 6" 38' - 4"
47 31' - 4" 47' - 0" 33' - 31⁄2" 32' - 95⁄8" 35' - 3" 39' - 2"
48 32' - 0" 48' - 0" 34' - 0" 33' - 6" 36' - 0" 40' - 0"
49 32' - 8" 49' - 0" 34' - 81⁄2" 34' - 23⁄8" 36' - 9" 40' - 10"
50 33' - 4" 50' - 0" 35' - 5" 34' - 103⁄4" 37' - 6" 41' - 8"
100 66' - 8" 100' - 0" 70' - 10" 69' - 91⁄2" 75' - 0" 83' - 4"

11 in. = 25.4 mm; 1 ft = 0.3 m

25MB.I.A. 7/93

6

Technical Notes
on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
GUIDE SPECIFICATIONS FOR BRICK MASONRY
I OF V
INTRODUCTION
Numerous methods are being explored to reduce con-
stantly rising building costs. One means in which many
segments of the construction industry believe holds
promise of lowering these costs is the use of specific,
definitive and concise specifications. They must convey
to the contractor the exact requirements of the project and
be organized to facilitate take-off and estimating. Many
general contractors have testified that the use of such
specifications results in lower contract bids.
During recent years, organizations, such as the
American Institute of Architects (AIA), Producers' Council
(PC), Associated General Contractors of America (AGC),
and the Construction Specifications Institute (CSI), have
made the improvement of construction specifications one
of their major activities.
In accordance with the work of these agencies, the
guide specifications in this series of Technical Notes are
written to follow the CSI format insofar as possible.
Use of Standards. It is recommended that, where
suitable standards exist, such as those developed by the
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM),
American National Standards Institute (ANSI), American
Concrete Institute (ACI) and other similar nationally recog-
nized organizations, they be used and included in the pro-
ject specifications by reference.
Use of Detailed Descriptive Requirements. While
detailed descriptive requirements are generally necessary
as a means of specifying installation or workmanship, it is
recommended that they be used only as a last resort in
specifying materials.
Use of Performance Specifications. Performance
specifications are not, in general, considered suitable for
specifying architectural building products. It is recom-
mended that, if performance specifications are used to
specify building materials, they should state results
desired or properties desired, but not both.
Use of Trade Names. It is recommended that, if
building products are specified by trade names, the "spe-
cial conditions" contain a clause providing that substitutes
will be considered on a quality and price basis, and that
the phrase "or equal", frequently included in such specifi-
cations, be eliminated.
*Originally published in December 1971, this Technical Notes has been reviewed and reissued.
11
REVISED
Reissued*
April
1986
The following paragraph is suggested for substitu-
tions:
Variation From Materials Specified: It is intended that
materials or products specified by name of manufacturer,
brand, trade name or by catalog reference shall be the
basis of the bid and furnished under the contract, unless
changed by mutual agreement. Where two or more mate-
rials are named, the choice of these shall be optional with
the contractor. Should the contractor wish to use any
materials or products other than those specified, he shall
so state, naming the proposed substitutions and stating
what difference, if any, will be made in the contract price
for such substitution should it be accepted.
Use of Allowances. It is recommended that
allowances be used only with discretion. In all cases of
allowances, there should be sufficient description to indi-
cate to the contractor the extent of labor required to install
the items for which allowances are listed. Also, all
allowances should be listed under special conditions or
under a separate section with cross references to the indi-
vidual trade sections involved.
SPECIFICATIONS FOR
STRUCTURAL CLAY PRODUCTS
Standard specifications for the various types and
grades of brick and tile have been developed by technical
committees of the American Society for Testing and
Materials. Membership of these committees is balanced
among consumers, manufacturers and a general interest
group made up of engineers, scientists, educators, testing
experts and representatives of research organizations.
Because of this balance of committee membership, ASTM
specifications are widely accepted and it is recommended
that the appropriate ASTM specifications be included by
reference in all specifications for solid brick, hollow brick,
structural facing tile (glazed or unglazed) and structural
clay tile.
ASTM standards are under continuous review by the
standing committees having jurisdiction over them. From
time to time these standards are revised as a result of
new developments. The ASTM designation of a standard
consists of a letter and a number permanently assigned to
the standard, a dash and a number indicating the year the
standard was approved: as for example, C 216-69 which
designates the Standard Specifications for Facing Brick
approved in 1969. If the letter T follows the year designa -
tion, it indicates a tentative standard.
When ASTM specifications are included by reference
in project specifications, the full designation, including the
year of approval, should be given, since, obviously, after a
contract has been awarded, a revision of specifications by
ASTM does not alter the contract. Similarly, the dates of
any other specifications or codes included by reference
should be given.
Solid Masonry Units. ASTM Specifications C 216, C
62, and C 126 cover solid building brick, facing brick and
ceramic glazed units made from clay and/or shale. Under
these specifications, a solid masonry unit may be cored
not in excess of 25 per cent; consequently, the term "solid
brick" is not confined to those units which have no cores,
unless so stated in the project specifications.
Hollow Masonry Units. ASTM Specification C 652
covers hollow building brick, facing brick or hollow mason-
ry units made from clay, shale, fire clay or mixtures there-
of, and fired. The term "hollow" in this specification is
defined to mean any unit cored in excess of 25 per cent,
but not more than 40 per cent, in every plane parallel to
the bearing surface.
Supplementary Requirements. ASTM specifications
for brick and tile do not fix the size or color and texture of
the units. They do, however, include requirements for
several grades and types of products, and some of them
contain optional requirements which are applicable to spe-
cific projects, if so specified.
When ASTM specifications are included in project
specifications by reference, it is essential that they be
supplemented with project requirements covering size,
color, grade, type, etc. Without these supplementary pro-
visions, the specifications are incomplete and inadequate
as a basis for estimating.
Size. Size of units required should be included in the
project specifications. Without this information, a contrac-
tor cannot accurately estimate quantity of materials or the
labor required to construct the masonry.
It is recommended that the specified size be the man-
ufactured size. Individual unit dimensions may vary from
the specified or manufactured size by the allowable toler-
ances included in the appropriate ASTM specifications for
the particular type or grade.
Specifying nominal sizes of clay masonry units is not
recommended, due to the ambiguity of the term "nominal".
In some fields, it is understood to mean approximate and
actual dimensions may vary from the nominal only by per-
missible variations in dimensions included in the specifica-
tions. However, in modular design, the nominal dimen-
sion of a masonry unit is understood to mean the speci-
fied or manufactured dimension plus the thickness of the
mortar joint with which the unit is designed to be laid; that
is, modular brick, whose nominal length is 8 in., would
have a specified (manufactured) length of 7 1/2 in. if
designed to be laid with a 1/2 - in. joint, or 7 5/8 in. if
designed to be laid with a 3/8 - in joint.
Color and Texture. Generally, the color and texture of
the brick or structural facing tile in a masonry wall vary
2
slightly. These variations, which prevent monotony in the
appearance of the finished wall, are one of the most
attractive features of brick and tile. Because of these
variations and of the wide variety of colors and textures
produced by the industry, it is impossible to write descrip-
tions of either color or texture which will accurately identify
the products required.
For this reason, ASTM specifications for brick and
structural clay facing tile provide that texture and color
shall conform to an approved sample showing the full
range of color and texture that will be acceptable. The
number of units required in the sample should be stated
in the project specifications and will depend upon the
range of color and texture. In general, it will be from three
to five.
Grade and Type. Most ASTM specifications for brick
or structural clay tile cover two or more grades, and speci-
fications for facing brick, hollow brick and ceramic glazed
structural facing tile include requirements for two or more
types. Specifications for structural clay facing tile cover
two types and two classes.
When these specifications are included in project
specifications by reference, it is essential that the grade
and type or type and class of product required be speci-
fied. Failure to do so makes it difficult for the contractor to
estimate the project and frequently results in a demand
for extras after the contract is awarded.
Cell Arrangement. Structural clay tile are produced
with either vertical cells or horizontal cells. Furring tile,
nominal thickness 2 in., in ceramic glaze often referred to
as "soaps", are produced with either solid backs or open
(ribbed) backs. If either vertical-cell or horizontal-cell units
are required for specific locations, this should be stated in
the project specifications. Similarly, if solid-back soaps or
furring are required, it should be so stated. Otherwise,
product specifications make the selection optional with the
supplier.
Plaster Base Finish. Specifications for structural clay
facing tile and structural clay tile contain requirements for
the finish of surfaces suitable for the application of plaster.
When such surfaces are required, they should be speci-
fied in the project specifications; otherwise, the finish of
the unexposed (back) of the unit is optional with the sup-
plier.
Tests. Most ASTM specifications for structural clay
products provide that the cost of tests of units furnished
for any particular project "shall be borne by the purchas-
er", unless the tests indicate that the units do not conform
to the requirements of the specifications, in which case
"the cost shall be borne by the seller". Project specifica-
tions should state the number of tests that will be required
and should indicate who is responsible for selecting the
samples and who pays the cost of testing.
PROJECT SPECIFICATIONS FOR
STRUCTURAL CLAY PRODUCTS
As previously indicated, it is recommended that ASTM
specifications, supplemented to meet project require-
ments, be used in specifying brick and structural clay tile.
These specifications are suitable for use in any of the fol-
lowing forms:
Open Specifications. This type of specification, fre-
quently required in public work, makes no reference to
product trade names. In such a specification, ASTM
specifications should be included by reference, supple-
mented with project requirements, and an "approved sam-
ple" of the required color and texture should be available
for inspection by bidders prior to submission of bids.
Trade Names. For private work, specifying facing
brick and structural facing tile by trade or manufacturer's
names gives the contractor definite information as to the
product required and provides the architect with assur-
ance that the quality desired will be furnished.
In general, when this method is used, three or more
acceptable products are named and the contractor is
given the option of selecting among them.
When trade names are used for specifying brick or
tile, it is recommended that the units be required to com-
ply with applicable ASTM specifications and that samples
of acceptable units be available for inspection of bidders
prior to bidding; also, that a provision for substitution, sim-
ilar to that previously recommended, be included in the
specifications.
Allowances. The use of allowances for cost of facing
brick and facing tile has been used successfully for many
years and, in general, this method is recommended by the
Structural Clay Products Institute. Allowances place all
contractors on an equal basis and permit the owner to
select products that he considers most desirable.
However, when this method is employed, the specifica-
tions should state the size and texture of the units that will
be selected, the tests that will be required and the respon-
sibility for payment of tests.
“Guide Specifications for Masonry Mortar" will be
included as a separate Technical Notes 11E to comply
with CSI format.
Metric numbers listed are conversions from the cur-
rent customary system and are not industry agreed-upon
standards; i.e., a typical modular 3 1/2 x 2 1/4 x 7 1/2 - in.
(actual size) brick may be produced at some dimensions
other than 89 x 57 x 191 mm when metric dimensions are
adopted within the industry.
The cold weather protection requirements contained
in paragraph 1.05.C are those recommended by the
International Masonry Industry All-Weather Council, pub-
lished December 1, 1970.
In using these specifications, the specification writer
should cheek each section to insure compliance with pro-
ject requirements and modify the paragraphs or delete
those not needed.
REFERENCES
1. Brick and Tile Engineering, Harry C. Plummer,
Brick Institute of America (BIA), November 1967.
2. Building Code Requirements for Engineered Brick
Masonry, BIA, August 1969.
3. Recommended Practice for Engineered Brick
Masonry, J. G. Gross, R. D. Dikkers and J. C.
Grogan, BIA, November 1969.
4. Specifications for Clay Masonry Construction,
BIA, February 1962.
5. Technical Notes on Brick Construction, BIA,
published monthly.
6. Building Code Requirements for Masonry, ANSI -
A41.1-1953 (R 1970).
7. Building Code Requirements for Reinforced
Masonry, ANSI - A41.2-1960 (R 1970).

GUIDE SPECIFICATIONS
The guide specifications in Technical Notes 11A
Revised and 11B Revised are written for both reinforced
and non-reinforced brick masonry, designed to comply
with ANSI A41.1-1953 (R1970), "Building Code
Requirements for Masonry", ANSI A41.2-1960 (R 1970),
"Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Masonry", or
equivalent sections in the Model Building Codes.
The guide specifications in these Technical Notes can
be used for engineered brick masonry designed to comply
with Building Code Requirements for Engineered Brick
Masonry, BIA, August 1969, or equivalent sections in the
Model Building Codes, when additional quality assurance
requirements are incorporated into the specification. See
Technical Notes 11C Revised.
The specifications do not cover requirements for
structural clay tile, concrete masonry units, glass block or
stone. Where these materials and design procedures are
included in the masonry section, the specifications should
be supplemented or revised. It will be found, however,
that many of the requirements pertaining to brick masonry
are also applicable to other types of masonry construc-
tion.
3
 11A
Technical Notes REVISED

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
Reissued*
September
1988

GUIDE SPECIFICATIONS FOR BRICK MASONRY

II OF V
PART I - GENERAL, AND PART II - PRODUCTS

INTRODUCTION The guide specifications in Technical Notes 11A

This Technical Notes contains the guide specifications
in CSI format for Division 4, Section 04210, Part I -
General, and Part II - Products. Part III - Execution is in
Technical Notes 11B Revised.
The specifications are applicable to ANSI A41.1 -
1953 (R1970), ''Building Code Requirements for
Masonry,'' ANSI A41.2 - 1960 (R 1970), “Building Code
Requirements for Reinforced Masonry,” or equivalent sec-
tions in the Model Building Codes.
Revised and 11B Revised can be used for engineered
brick masonry designed to comply with Building Code
Requirements for Engineered Brick Masonry, BIA, August
1969, or equivalent sections in the Model Building Codes,
when additional quality assurance requirements are incor-
porated into the specifications. See Technical Notes 11C
Revised.

Guide Specification Notes

PART I----GENERAL

1.01 DESCRIPTION:
A. Related Work Specified Elsewhere:
1. Concrete work: Section 03__________.
2. Rough carpentry: Section 06__________.
3. Structural steel and metals: Section 05__________.
4. Waterproofing: Section 07__________.
B. Material Installed but Furnished by Others:
1. Bolts.
2. Anchors.
3. Nailing blocks.
4. Inserts.
5. Flashing.
6. Lintels.
7. Doors.
8. Window frames.
9. Vents.
10. Conduits.
11. Expansion joints.
1.02 QUALITY ASSURANCE:
A. Brick Tests:
1.02.A This section can be deleted if
1. Test in accordance with ASTM C 67-__________with the Architect/Engineer has sufficient experi-
following additional requirements: ence and confidence in the brick manufac-
a. If the coefficient of variation of the compression samples turer to accept compliance with project
tested exceeds 12%, obtain compressive strength by specifications based on certification sec-
tion 1.03.C.
multiplying average compressive strength of specimens by
1 - 1.5 v - 0.12
100 ( ) 1.02.A. 1.a. To be applied only for engi-
neered brick masonry.

where v is the coefficient of variation of sample tested.

*Originally published in June 1978, this Technical Notes has been reviewed and reissued with editorial changes.
 b. Cost of tests of units after delivery shall be borne by 1.02.A. 1.b. To be used only in a case of
dispute.
the purchaser, unless tests indicate that units do not
conform to the requirements of the specifications, in
which case cost shall be borne by the seller.
B. Furnish Sample Panel: 1.02. B. 1. The sample panel, when
1. Approximately 4 ft. (1.2 m) long by 3 ft. (1 m) high, showing accepted, shall become the project stan-
the proposed color range, texture, bond, mortar and dard for: bond, mortar, workmanship and
workmanship. All brick shipped for the sample shall be appearance.
included in the panel.
2. Erect panel in the presence of the Architect/Engineer
before installation of materials. 1.02.B.3. Brick for sample panels are
3. When required, provide a separate panel for each type of usually furnished at no cost. If
additional panels are needed, care must
brick or mortar. be exercised not to burden the supplier
4. Do not start work until Architect/Engineer has accepted with excessive costs.
sample panel.
5. Use panel as standard of comparison for all masonry work
built of same material.
6. Do not destroy or move panel until work is completed and
accepted by Owner.
1.03.Aand B Sections can be deleted if
Architect/Engineer has sufficient experi-
1.03 SUBMITTALS: ence and confidence in the brick manufac-
A. Samples: Furnish not less than five individual brick as samples, turer to accept compliance with project
specifications based on certification sec -
showing extreme variations in color and texture.
tion 1.03.C.
B. Test Reports:
1. Test reports for each type of building and facing brick are to be 1.03.B.3. This section should be altered to
submitted to the Architect Engineer for approval. meet the requirements of the project.
Brick are not required to meet the 5-hr
2. Testing and reports are to be completed by an independent
boil absorption and/or saturation coeffi-
laboratory. cient requirements of ASTM C 216, ASTM
3. Test reports shall show: C 62 and ASTM C 652 if they meet the
a. Compressive strength. physical property requirements of Sections
5.1 and 5.2 of ASTM C 216, Sections 3A,
b. 24 - hr. cold water absorption.
3.5 and 3.6 of ASTM C 62 and Sections
c. 5 - hr. boil absorption. 5.1 and 5.2 of ASTM C 652.
d. Saturation coefficient. No limit is placed on initial rate of absorp-
e. Initial rate of absorption (suction). tion (suction). Units having initial rates of
C. Certificates: Prior to delivery, submit to Architect/Engineer certifi absorption exceeding 30 g./min./30 sq. in.
cates attesting compliance with the applicable specifications for (194 cm2) should be wetted prior to laying.
For cold weather masonry construction,
grades, types or classes included in these specifications. higher suctions may be tolerated (up to
1.04 PRODUCT DELIVERY, STORAGE AND HANDLING: 30-40 g.) than for normal construction.
Note Sections 1.05.C.2.a and 3.01.A. 1.
A. Store brick off ground to prevent contamination by mud, dust or
materials likely to cause staining or other defects. 1.03.C. List materials for which certificates
B. Cover materials when necessary to protect from elements. of compliance are required.
C. Protect reinforcement from elements
1.05 JOB CONDITIONS:
A. Protection of Work:
1. Wall covering:
a. During erection, cover top of wall with strong waterproof
membrane at end of each day or shutdown.
b. Cover partially completed walls when work is not in
progress.
c. Extend cover minimum of 24 in. (610 mm) down both
sides.
d. Hold cover securely in place.

2
 2. Load application:
a. Do not apply uniform floor or roof loading for at least 12
hr. after building masonry columns or walls.
b. Do not apply concentrated loads for at least 3 days after
building masonry columns or walls.
B. Staining:
1. Prevent grout or mortar from staining the face of masonry to be
left exposed or painted:
a. Remove immediately grout or mortar in contact with face
of such masonry.
b. Protect all sills, ledges and projections from droppings of
mortar, protect door jambs and corners from damage
during construction.
C. Cold Weather Protection:
1. Preparation:
a. If ice or snow has formed on masonry bed, remove by
carefully applying heat until top surface is dry to the touch.
b. Remove all masonry deemed frozen or damaged.
2. Products:
a. When brick suction exceeds recommendations of
Section 1.03.B.3, sprinkle with heated water:
(1) When units are above 32˚F. (0˚C.), heat
water above 70˚F. (21˚C.).
(2) When units are below 32˚F. (0˚C.), heat
water above 130˚F. (54˚C.).
b. Use dry masonry units.
c. Do not use wet or frozen units. 1.05.C.3 Ideal mortar temperature is
3. Construction requirements while work is progressing: 70˚F. ± 10˚F. (21˚C. ± 6˚C.).
a. Air temperature 40˚F. (4˚C.) to 32˚F. (0˚C.): The mixing temperature should be
(1) Heat sand or mixing water to produce mortar maintained within 10˚F. (6˚C.).
temperatures between 40˚F. (4˚C.) and 120˚F.
(49˚C.).
b. Air temperature 32˚F. (0˚C.) to 25˚F. (-4˚C.):
(1) Heat sand and mixing water to produce mortar
temperatures between 40˚F. (4˚C.) and 120˚F.
(49˚C.).
(2) Maintain temperatures of mortar on boards
above freezing.
c. Air temperatures 25˚F. (-4˚C.) to 20˚F. (-7˚C.):
(1) Heat sand and mixing water to produce mortar
temperatures between 40˚F. (4˚C.) and 120˚F.
(49˚C.).
(2) Maintain mortar temperatures on boards above
freezing.
(3) Use salamanders or other heat sources on both
sides of walls under construction.
(4) Use windbreaks when wind is in excess of 15
mph.
d. Air temperature 20˚F. (-7˚ C.) and below:
(1) Heat sand and mixing water to produce mortar
temperatures between 40˚F. (4˚C.) and 120˚F.
(49˚ C.).
(2) Provide enclosures and auxiliary heat to
maintain air temperature above 32˚F. (0˚C.).
(3) Minimum temperature of units when laid: 20˚F.
(-7˚C.).

3
 4. Protection requirements for completed masonry and masonry not
being worked on:
a. Mean daily air temperature 40˚F. (4˚C.) to 32˚F. (0˚C.):
(1) Protect masonry from rain or snow for 24 hr. by
covering with weather-resistive membrane.
b. Mean daily air temperature 32˚F. (0˚C.) to 25˚F. (-4˚C.):
(1) Completely cover masonry with weather-
resistive membrane for 24 hr.
c Mean daily air temperature 25˚F. (-4˚C.) to 20˚F. (-7˚ C.):
(1) Completely cover masonry with insulating blan
kets or equal protection for 24 hr.
d. Mean daily air temperature 20˚F. (-7˚C.) and below:
(1) Maintain masonry temperature above 32˚F.
(0˚C.) for 24 hr. by:
(a) Enclosure and supplementary heat.
**OR**
(a) Electric heating blankets.
**OR**
(a) Infrared lamps.
**OR**
(a) Other approved methods.
*******
PART II-----PRODUCTS
2.01 BRICK:
A. Facing Brick:
1. ASTM C 216-__________, Grade__________,Type__________.
2. Dimensions:__________ x __________ x __________.
(t) (h) (l )
3. Minimum compressive strength: _____________.
4. Provide brick similar in texture and physical properties to those
available for inspection at the Architect/Engineer's office.
5. Do not exceed variations in color and texture of samples accept
ed by the Architect/Engineer.
**OR**
A. Facing Brick: Provide a cash allowance of__________per thousand.
B. Glazed Brick:
1. ASTM C 126-__________, Grade__________,Type__________.
2. Dimensions:__________ x __________ x __________.
(t) (h) (l )
3. Minimum compressive strength:__________.
C. Building Brick:
1. ASTM C 62-__________, Grade__________.
2. Dimensions:__________ x __________ x __________.
(t) (h) (l )
3. Minimum compressive strength:__________.
D. Hollow Brick:
1. ASTM C 652-__________, Grade__________,Type__________.
2. Dimensions:__________ x __________ x __________.
(t) (h) (l )
3. Minimum compressive strength:__________.
4. Provide brick similar in texture and physical properties to those
available for inspection at the Architect/Engineer's office.
5. Do not exceed variation in color and texture of samples accepted
by the Architect/Engineer.
1.05.C.4 The following options may be
used in cold weather construction:
1. Change to a higher type of mortar
required in ASTM C 270. (Example: If
ASTM type N mortar is specified for normal
temperature, change to type S or type M.)
2. Increase the protection time where
required in Section 1.05.C.4 to 48 hr. with
no change being made in the type of mor-
tar.
3. Without changing the mortar type and
maintaining 24-hr. protection in Section
1.05.C.4, replace type I Portland cement in
the mortar with type III, ASTM C 150.
1.05.C.4.d This section may be written to
allow the contractor to select means of pro-
tection.
2.01.A.1 Grade: SW for brick in contact
with earth or where weathering index is
greater than 50, MW elsewhere. Type:
FBS, FBX, FBA.
2.01.A.2 Determine availability. Typical
actual sizes for use with 3/8 - in. mortar
joints: 3 5/8 x 2 5/16 x 7 5/8 or 11 5/8 in.
(92 x 59 x 194 or 295 mm); 3 5/8 x 2 13/16
x 7 5/8 or 11 5/8 in. (92 x 74 x 194 or 295
mm): 3 5/8 x 3 5/8 x 7 5/8 or 11 5/8 in. (92
x 92 x 194 or 295 mm);3 5/8 x 5 x 7 5/8 or
11 5/8 - in (92x 127x 194 or 295 mm);3 5/8
x 1 5/8 x 11 5/8 in. (92 x 41 x 295 mm); 5
5/8 x 2 5/16 x 11 5/8 in. (143 x 59 x 295
mm); 5 5/8 x 2 13/16 x 11 5/8 in. (l43 x 74 x
295 mm); 5 5/8 x 3 5/8 x 11 5/8 in. (143 x
92 x 295 mm).
2.01.A.3 Required only for structural
masonry. Range: 2000 psi to 14,000 psi
(13.8 MPa to 96.5 MPa).
2.01.B.1 Grade: S for narrow mortar joints;
SS where face dimension variation must be
very small. Type: I, II.
2.01.B.2 See 2.01.A.2.
2.01. B.3 See 2.01.A.3.
2.01.C.1 Grade: SW for brick in contact
with earth or where weathering index is
greater than 50, MW elsewhere, NW in
interior and backup areas.
2.01.C.2 See 2.01.A.2.
2.01.C.3 See 2.01.A.3.
2.01.D.1 Grade: SW for brick in contact
with earth or where weathering index is
greater than 50, MW elsewhere. Type:
HBS, HBX, HBA, HBB.
2.01.D.2 See 2.01.A.2.
2.01.D.3 See 2.01.A.3.

4
2.02 REINFORCEMENT:
A. Cold-drawn steel wire: ASTM A 82-__________.
B. Welded steel wire fabric: ASTM A 185-__________.
C. Billet steel deformed bars: ASTM A 615-_________, 2.02.C Grade 40, 50, 60.
Grade__________. 2.02.D Grade 50, 60.
D. Rail steel deformed bars: ASTM A 616-__________,
2.02.E Grade 40, 60.
Grade_________.
E. Axle steel deformed bars: ASTM A 617-__________,
Grade__________.

2.03 ANCHORS AND TIES:

A. Coated or corrosion-resistant metal meeting or exceeding
applicable standard:
1. Zinc-coating flat metal: ASTM A 153-__________,
2.03.A.1 Class B-1, B-2, B-3.
Class__________.
2. Zinc-coating of wire, ASTM A 116-__________, Class 3.
3. Copper-coated wire: ASTM B 227-__________ , Grade 30HS.
4. Stainless steel: ASTM A 167-__________, Type 304.
B. Types:
1. Wire mesh:
a. Minimum gage: 20.
b. Mesh: 1/2 in. (12.7 mm).
c. Galvanized wire.
d. Width: 1 in. (25 mm) less than width of masonry.
2. Corrugated veneer ties:
a. Minimum gage: 22.
b. Minimum width: 7/8 in. (22 mm).
c. Length: 6 in. (152 mm)
**OR**
2. Wire ties: Use two 10-gage.
*******
3. Cavity wall ties:
a. Wire diameter: 3/16 in. (4.7 mm).
b. Shape: Rectangular, at least 2 in. (51 mm) wide with
ends overlapped or "Z" with 2 - in. (51 mm) legs.
c. Length: Select length to allow 1 - in. (25 mm) minimum
mortar cover of ends or legs.
4. Multi-wythe wall ties:
a. Prefabricated welded joint reinforcement. 2.03.B.4 Cavity wall ties may be used.
b. Longitudinal cross tie wire:
(1) 9 gage.
(2) Spaced 16 in. (406 mm) o.c.
5. Dovetail flat bar or wire anchors:
a. Flat bar:
(1) Minimum gage: 16.
(2) Minimum width: 7/8 in. (22 mm).
(3) Fabrication: Corrugated, turned up 1/4 in. (6.4
mm) at end or with 1/2-in. (12.7 mm) hole within
1/2 in. (12.7 mm) of end of bar.
b. Wire:
(1) Wire gage: 6.
(2) Minimum width: 7/8 in. (22 mm).
(3) Fabrication: Wire looped and closed.
6. Rigid anchors for intersecting bearing walls:
a. Dimensions: 1 1/2 in. (38 mm) wide by 1/4 in. (6.4 mm)
thick by minimum 24 in. (610 mm) long.
b. Fabrication: Turn up ends minimum 2 in. (51 mm) or
provide cross pins.
5
 7. Wire ties for high-lift grout reinforced brick masonry:
a. Minimum gage: 9.
b. Fabrication:
(1) Bend into stirrups 4 in. (102 mm) wide and 2
in. (51 mm) shorter than overall wall thickness.
(2) Form so that tie ends meet in center of one
embedded end of stirrup.

2.04 CLEANING AGENTS:

A. Do not use cleaning agent other than water on brick, except with
concurrence of Architect/Engineer. 2.04.B Specify cleaner recommended by
brick manufacturer.
B. Acceptable cleaner for dark brick: _____________.
C. Acceptable cleaner for light colored brick: _______________. 2.04.C Proper cleaning agent is more criti-
cal for light colored brick.

6
 11B
Technical Notes REVISED

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
Reissued*
September
1988

GUIDE SPECIFICATIONS FOR BRICK MASONRY

III OF V
PART III - EXECUTION

INTRODUCTION
This Technical Notes contains the guide specifications in CSI
format for Part III - Execution. Part I - General, and
Part II - Products are in Technical Notes 11A Revised.

Guide Specification Notes

PART III - EXECUTION

3.01 PREPARATION:
A. Wetting Brick:
1. Wet brick with absorption rates in excess of 30 g./30 sq. in./min. 3.01.A.1 Note requirements for cold
(30 g./194 cm2/min.) determined by ASTM C 67-__________, so weather, section 1.05.C.2.a, and
that rate of absorption when laid does not exceed this amount. section 1.03.B.3 for testing requirements.
2. Recommended procedure to insure that brick are nearly saturat
ed, surface dry when laid is to place a hose on the pile of brick
until the water runs from the pile. This should be done one day
before brick are to be used. In extremely warm weather, place
hose on pile several hours before brick are to be used.
B. Cleaning Reinforcement: Before being placed, remove loose rust,
ice and other coatings from reinforcement.
3.02 GENERAL ERECTION REQUIREMENTS:
A. Pattern Bond: 3.02.A.1 Alter if other than running bond
1. Lay exposed masonry in running bond. required.
2. Bond unexposed masonry units in a wythe by lapping at least 2
in. ( 51 mm).
B. Joining of Work:
1. Where fresh masonry joins partially set masonry:
a. Remove loose brick and mortar.
b. Clean and lightly wet exposed surface of set masonry.
2. Stop off horizontal run of masonry by racking back 1/2 length of
unit in each course.
3. Toothing is not permitted except upon written acceptance of the
Architect/Engineer.
C. Tooling and Tuck Pointing: 3.02.C Alter to allow other joints to meet
1. Tooling: architectural requirements.
a. Tool exposed joints when "thumb-print" hard with a
round jointer, slightly larger than width of joint.
b. Trowel-point or concave-tool exterior joints below grade.
c. Flush cut all joints not tooled.
2. Tuck pointing: 3.02.C.2 Delete if not required.
a. Rake mortar joints to a depth of not less than 1/2

*Originally published in February 1972, this Technical Notes has been reviewed and reissued.
 nor more than 3/4 in. (19 mm).
b. Saturate joints with clean water. 3.02.C.2.c Specify proportions. Pointing
c. Fill solidly with ______________ pointing mortar. mortar should be of same proportions as
d. Tool joints. mortar in main part of wall, if known;
D. Flashing: if not, type N.
1. Clean surface of masonry smooth and free from projections
which might puncture flashing material.
a. Place through-wall flashing on bed of mortar.
b. Cover flashing with mortar.
E. Weep Holes:
1. Provide weep holes in head joints in first course immediately
above all flashing by:
(a) Leaving head joint free and clean of mortar
**OR**
(a) Placing and leaving sash cord in joint.
********
2. Maximum spacing: 24 in. (610 mm) o.c.
3. Keep weep holes and area above flashing free of mortar
droppings.
F. Sealant Recesses:
1. Leave joints around outside perimeters of exterior doors,
window frames and other wall openings:
a. Depth: uniform 3/4 in. (19 mm).
b. Width: 1/4 in. (6.4 mm) to 3/8 in. (9.5 mm).
G. Movement Joints:
1. Keep clean from all mortar and debris.
2. Locate as shown on drawings.
H. Cutting Brick:
1. Cut exposed brick with motor-driven saw.
**OR**
1. By other methods which provide cuts that are straight and true.
********
I. Mortar Joint Thickness:
1. Lay all brick with__________in. joint. 3.02.I Coordinate joint thickness with
3.03 NON-REINFORCED BRICK MASONRY brick specified in 2.01.A.2.
A. Brick Installation:
1. Lay brick plumb and true to lines.
2. Lay with completely filled mortar joints. 3.03.A If hollow units are specified, alter to
3. Do not furrow bed joints. conform to requirements of the units.
4. Butter ends of brick with sufficient mortar to fill head joints.
5. Rock closures into place with head joints thrown against two
adjacent brick in place.
6. Fill vertical, longitudinal joints, except in cavity walls:
a. By parging either face of backing or back of facing.
**OR**
a. By pouring the vertical joint full of grout.
**OR**
a. Shoving alone.
7. Do not pound corners and jambs to fit stretcher units after they
are set in position. Where an adjustment must be made after
mortar has started to harden, remove mortar and replace with
fresh mortar.
B. Cavity Walls:
1. Keep cavity in cavity walls clean by:
a. Slightly beveling mortar bed to incline toward cavity.
**OR**
a. Placing wood strips with attached wire pulls on metal
ties.

2
 b. Before placing next row of metal ties, remove and clean
wood strips.
********
2. As work progresses, trowel protruding mortar fins in cavity flat on
to inner face of wythe.
C. Non-Bearing Partitions: 3.03.C Alter to local code requirements if
1. Extend from top of structural floor to bottom surface of floor suspended ceilings are used.
construction above.
2. Wedge with small pieces of tile, slate or metal.
3. Fill topmost joint with mortar.
D. Structural Bonding:
3.03.D Note special bonding requirements
1. Bond or anchor corners and intersections of loadbearing brick for high-lift grout, section 3.05.B.
walls.
2. Structural bond multi-wythe non-reinforced brick walls 3.03.D.2 Masonry headers, metal ties or
continuous joint reinforcement.
with__________.
a. Extend headers not less than 3 in. (76 mm) into backing.
b. Maximum distance between adjacent headers: 24 in.
(610 mm) either vertically or horizontally.
c. When a single header does not extend through wall,
overlap headers from opposite sides of wall at least 3 in.
(76 mm).
d. Minimum headers: 4%.
**OR**
a. Provide minimum of one cavity wall tie for each 4 1/2 sq.
ft. (0.42 m2) of wall surface.
b. Stagger ties in alternate courses.
c. Maximum distance between adjacent ties:
(1) Vertically: 24 in. (610 mm).
(2) Horizontally: 36 in. (920 mm).
d. Embed ties in horizontal joints of facing and backing.
e. Provide additional ties at openings:
(1) Maximum spacing around perimeter: 36 in.
(920 mm).
(2) Install within 12 in. (305 mm) of opening.
**OR**
a. Use continuous prefabricated joint reinforcement to bond
multi-wythe walls; spaced not more than 16 in. (406 mm)
vertically.
********
3. Stack bond:
a. Embed continuous No. 2 steel reinforcement or No. 9
gage wire in horizontal joints at vertical intervals not to
exceed 16 in. (406 mm).
b. Provide not less than one longitudinal bar or wire for
each 6 in. (152 mm) of wall thickness or fraction thereof.
E. Anchoring:
1. Anchor exterior brick walls facing or abutting concrete members
with dovetail, flat-bar or wire anchors inserted in slots built into
concrete.
a. Maximum anchor spacing:
(1) Vertically: 24 in. (610 mm).
(2) Horizontally: 36 in. (920 mm).
b. Maintain a space not less than 1/2 in. (12.7 mm) wide
between masonry wall and concrete members.
c. Keep space free of mortar or other rigid material to
permit differential movement between concrete and
masonry .
2. For intersecting bearing or shear walls carried up separately:
a. Regularly block vertical joint with 8-in. (203 mm)
maximum offsets.
3
 b. Provide joints with rigid steel anchors.
c. Space anchors not more than 4 ft. (1.2 m) apart
vertically.
**OR**
a. When acceptable to the Architect/Engineer, eliminate
blocking and provide rigid steel anchors spaced not more
than 24 in. (610 mm) apart vertically.
********
3. Anchor non-bearing partitions abutting or intersecting other walls
or partitions with:
a. Cavity wall ties at vertical intervals of not more than 24
in. ( 610 mm).
**OR**
a. Masonry bonders in alternate courses
********
4. Attach brick veneer to backing with metal veneer ties: 3.03.E 4 Tie spacing is based on a design
a. Use one tie for each 4 sq. ft. (0.37 m2 ) of wall area. wind pressure of 20 psf (958 N/m2).
b. Maximum space between adjacent ties: Maximum spacing should be decreased for
higher wind pressures. Recommended
(1) Vertically and horizontally: 24 in. (610 mm). spacing for:
c. Embed ties at least 2 in. (51 mm) in horizontal joint of 30 psf (1436 N/m2):
facing. Vertically: 24 in. (610 mm)
d. Provide additional ties at openings: Horizontally: 16 in. (406 mm)
40 psf (1913 N/m2):
(1) Maximum spacing around perimeter: 36 in. Vertically: 18 in. (457 mm)
(914 mm). Horizontally: 16 in. (406 mm)
(2) Install within 12 in. (305 mm) of opening.
3.04 REINFORCED BRICK MASONRY:
A. Brick Installation: 3.04.A If hollow units are specified, alter to
1. Lay brick plumb and true to lines. conform to requirements of the units.
2. Lay with completely filled mortar joints.
3. Do not furrow bed joints.
4. Butter ends of brick with sufficient mortar to fill head joints.
5. Slightly bevel mortar bed to incline towards cavity.
6. Rock closures into place with head joints thrown against two
adjacent brick in place.
7. Do not pound corners and jambs to fit stretcher units after they
are set in position. Where an adjustment must be made after
mortar has started to harden, remove mortar and replace with fresh
mortar.
B. Forms and Shores:
1. Provide substantial and tight forms.
2. Leakage of mortar or grout is not permitted.
3. Brace or tie forms to maintain position and shape.
4. Do not remove forms and shores until masonry has hardened
sufficiently to carry its own weight and other temporary loads that
may be placed on it during construction:
a. For girders and beams: Minimum 10 days.
b. Under brick slabs: Minimum 7 days.
C. Placing Reinforcement:
1. Position metal reinforcement accurately.
2. Secure against displacement:
a. Hold vertical reinforcement firmly in place by means of
frames or other suitable devices.
b. Horizontal reinforcement may be placed as brickwork
progresses.
3. Spacing:
a. Minimum clear distance between longitudinal bars,
except in columns: Nominal diameter of bar or 1 in. (25
mm).

4
 b. Minimum clear distance between bars in columns: Not
less than 1/2 times bar diameter or 1/2 in. (38 mm). 4
4. Minimum thickness of mortar or grout between brick and
reinforcement: 1/4 in. (6.4 mm), except:
a. 1/4 - in. (6.4 mm) bars may be laid in 1/2-in.(12.7 mm)
horizontal mortar joints.
b. No. 6 gage or smaller wires may be laid in 3/8-in. (9.5
mm) mortar joints.
5. Minimum width of collar Joints containing both horizontal and
vertical reinforcement: 1/2 in. (12.7 mm) larger than sum of diame
ters of horizontal and vertical reinforcement.
6. Splice reinforcement or attach reinforcement to dowels by
placing in contact and wiring.
7. Do not splice reinforcement at points other than shown on
drawings, unless approved by the structural engineer.
8. Shape and dimension reinforcement as shown on drawings:
a. Cold bend all bars.
b. Do not straighten or repair in a manner that will injure
material.
c. Do not use bars with kinks or bends not shown on
drawings.
d. Reinforcement can be heated when entire operation is
approved by structural engineer.
3.05 GROUTING:
A. Low-Lift Grouting:
1. Keep grout core clean from mortar and drippings.
2. Grout spaces less than 2 in. (51 mm) in width at intervals of not
more than 24 in. (610 mm) in lifts of 6 to 8 in. (152 to 203 mm) as
the wall is built.
3. In grout spaces more than 2 brick in thickness:
a. Place or float brick in grout.
b. Minimum grout between brick: 3/8 in. (9.5 mm).
4. Agitate or puddle grout during and after placement to insure
complete filling.
5. Stop grout 1/2 in. (38 mm) below top of masonry:
a. If grouting is stopped for 1 hr. or more.
b. Except when completing grouting of finished wall.
6. If brick headers are used for ties in low-lift grouting space: 3.05.A.6 Using headers for tying wythes
a. Maximum: 8% of wall area. is not recommended; however, if selected,
B. High-Lift Grouting: construction should conform to the
requirements of this section.
1. For running bond, provide one metal tie for each 3 sq. ft. (0.28
ma) of wall with maximum spacing:
a. Vertically: 16 in. (406 mm).
b. Horizontally: 24 in. (610 mm).
2. For stack bond, provide one metal tie for each 2 sq. ft. (0.19 m2)
of wall with maximum spacing:
a. Vertically: 12 in. (305 mm).
b. Horizontally: 24 in. (610 mm).
3. Keep grout core clean from mortar and droppings.
4. Provide cleanout holes by omitting every other brick in bottom
course on one side of wall.
5. Prior to closing cleanout holes and pouring grout, use high-pres
sure jet stream of water or high-pressure air to remove excess
mortar from grout space and to clean reinforcement.
6. Do not plug cleanout holes until condition of area to be grouted
has been approved.
7. Before pouring grout, plug cleanout holes with masonry units
and brace against grout pressure.

5
 8. Grout spaces 2 in. (51 mm) or more in width in lifts not
exceeding 4 ft. (1.2 m) at intervals:
a. Coarse grout: Not more than 48 times the least clear
dimension of grout space.
**OR**
a. Fine grout: Not more than 64 times the least clear
dimension of grout space.
********
b. Not to exceed height of 12 ft. (3.7 m).
9. Do not place grout until the entire wall has been in place 3 days.
10. Vibrate or agitate grout during, and after placement to insure
complete filling of grout space.
11. Stop grout 1 1/2 in. (38 mm) below top of masonry:
a. If grouting is stopped for 1 hr. or more.
b. Except when completing grouting of finished wall.
12. Provide grout blocks at convenient intervals to meet project
requirements.
3.06 If care is taken during laying and the
3.06 CLEANING: wall is acceptable, the requirements of this
A. Cut out any defective joints and holes in exposed masonry and section can be deleted.
repoint with mortar.
B. Clean all exposed unglazed masonry:
1. Apply cleaning agent to sample wall area of 20 sq. ft. (2 m2 ) in
location acceptable to the Architect/Engineer.
2. Do not proceed with cleaning until sample area is approved by
Architect/Engineer.
3. Clean initially with stiff brushes and water.
4. When cleaning agent is required:
a. Follow brick manufacturer's recommendations.
b. Thoroughly wet surface of masonry on which no green
efflorescence appears.
c. Scrub with acceptable cleaning agent.
d. Immediately rinse with clear water.
e. Do small sections at a time.
f. Work from top to bottom.
g. Protect all sash, metal lintels and other corrodible parts
when masonry is cleaned with acid solution.
h. Remove green efflorescence in accordance with brick
manufacturer's recommendations.

6
 11C
Technical Notes REVISED

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
Reissued*
May
1998

GUIDE SPECIFICATIONS FOR BRICK MASONRY

PART IV OF V
ENGINEERED BRICK MASONRY

by periodic testing of masonry prisms. This Technical

INTRODUCTION
This issue of Technical Notes and the following issue,
Technical Notes 11D, contain the required additional sec-
tions and statements to be incorporated into the "Guide
Specifications for Brick Masonry", Technical Notes 11A
Revised and 11B Revised. This will make the guide spec-
ifications in those Technical Notes suitable for Engineered
Brick Masonry.
The sections contained in these Technical Notes deal
primarily with the quality assurance, selection of units,
strength and construction tolerances to provide masonry
that meets the minimum design requirements for
Engineered Brick Masonry.
In the construction of Engineered Brick Masonry, qual-
ity control may be maintained in either of two ways: (1) by
testing the brick and controlling the mortar which can be
done by laboratory tests or by mixing proportions, or (2)
Notes covers quality control by method (1), testing brick
and control of mortar. Technical Notes 11D covers quality
control by method (2), testing masonry prisms.
When quality control by materials testing (brick and
mortar) is to be used, the design compressive strength
(f'm) can be assumed, using Table 2 of the BIA Standard,
"Building Code Requirements for Engineered Brick
Masonry", and the quality control requirements of this
Technical Notes should be incorporated into the guide
specifications in Technical Notes 11A Revised and 11B
Revised.
All other sections of the Guide Specifications for Brick
Masonry (Technical Notes 11A Revised and 11B Revised)
are appropriate for Engineered Brick Masonry.

QUALITY ASSURANCE BASED ON BRICK AND MORTAR TESTS

Guide Specification Notes

PART I - GENERAL
1.02 QUALITYASSURANCE
Delete sections and notes for 1.02 A in Technical Notes 11A Revised,
and substitute the following quality control requirements based on brick
tests.
A. Brick Tests:
1. Preconstruction Tests:
a. Test five brick for compressive strength to determine
acceptability of units for compliance with specifications.
b. Use brick similar to those selected for use, matching
color, texture, raw material, moisture content and coring.
c. Cost of tests shall be borne by the General Contractor.
2. Site Control Tests:
a. Test units selected at random from units delivered to the
project.
b. Cost of tests of units after delivery shall be borne by the
General Contractor, unless tests indicate that units do not
conform to the requirements of the specifications, in which
case cost shall be borne by the seller.

*Originally published in July 1972, this Technical Notes has been reviewed and reissued.
 3. Test in accordance with ASTM C 67-__________, with the
following additional requirements:
a. If the coefficient of variation of the compression samples
tested exceeds 12%, obtain compressive strength by
multiplying average compressive strength of specimens by
1 - 1.5 v - 0.12
( 100 )
where v is the coefficient of variation of sample tested.
Add the following to Section 1.02 in Technical Notes 11A Revised.
C. Preconstruction Requirements: 1.02.C This requirement may be deleted if
1. Prebid conference: not necessary for the project due to bid-
ders being knowledgeable with engineered
a. A prebid conference, directed by the Architect/Engineer, brick masonry.
will be held one week prior to the bid opening to discuss:
(1) Structural concept.
(2) Method and sequence of masonry
construction.
(3) Special masonry details.
(4) Quality control requirements.
(5) Material requirements.
(6) Job organization.
(7) Workmanship.
b. Attendance is mandatory for all prospective:
(1) General contractors. 1.02.C.1.b Invitation to attend should be
extended to others, such as the inspectors
(2) Masonry subcontractors. (local building department and other gov-
(3) Brick suppliers. ernment agencies) and Owner.
2. Preconstruction Testing and Certification:
a. After award of the contract, the General Contractor
1.02.C.2 Inspection, laboratory and testing
shall: for quality control can be a responsibility of
(1) Within 14 days, submit to the the Structural Engineer. If so, revise sec-
Architect/Engineer for approval the name of the tion.
independent laboratory which will perform the site
control tests and provide the certificates and test
reports required in Section 1.03.
(2) Upon approval of the laboratory, certificates
and test reports, and prior to any masonry con
struction, make arrangements for the following
tests:
(a) Brick tests in accordance with
preconstruction requirements, Section
1.02.A
(b) Mortar tests in accordance with mortar
section.
b. Masonry work can begin only after approval of testing.
c. Testing is acceptable if test results indicate that
materials meet the minimum requirements of Part II -
Products.
d. Cost of preconstruction testing shall be borne by the
General Contractor, unless tests indicate that units do not
conform to the requirements of the specifications, in which
case cost shall be borne by the seller.
3. Preconstruction Conference:
a. A preconstruction conference, directed by the
Architect/Engineer, will be held after the award of the
General Contract, but prior to beginning of masonry work
to discuss:
(1) Structural concept.
(2) Method and sequence of masonry
construction.

2
 (3) Special masonry details.
(4) Standard of workmanship.
(5) Quality control requirements.
(6) Job organization. 1.02.C.3.b Invitations to attend should be
b. Attendance is mandatory for: extended to others, such as inspectors
(local building department and other gov-
(1) General contractor job superintendent.
ernment agencies) and Owner.
(2) Masonry subcontractor job superintendent.
(3) Masonry subcontractor foreman.
(4) At least two masons.
(5) Authorized representative of the brick supplier.
(6) Mortar material suppliers.
D. Job Site Quality Control:
1. Site control brick and mortar tests:
a. Use compressive strength of brick units and
compressive strength of mortar cubes to control quality.
b. Test brick in accordance with site control requirements,
Section 1.02.A.
c. Test mortar cubes in accordance with mortar section.
d. Test five brick and three mortar cubes for each 100,000
brick or fraction thereof.
e. Brick and mortar to be selected at random by the
Architect/ Engineer.
f. Site control data shall be acceptable if material exceeds
specified strength.
g. Cost of tests shall be borne by the General Contractor.
**OR**
1. Site control brick and mortar batching:
a. Use compressive strength of brick units and control on
material proportions used in batching mortar to control
quality.
b. Test brick in accordance with site control requirements,
Section 1.02.A.
c. Control mortar batches to conform to proportion 1.02.D.1.c Type M, S or N as specified in
the mortar section. More than one mortar
specification specified in mortar section.
type may be specified. If so, provide sec-
tions to cover all requirements. Mortar
design compressive strengths should be
based on laboratory tests of mortar made
from materials mixed to the proportion
specification as required by the mortar sec-
tion.

d. Test five brick for each 100,000 brick or fraction thereof. 1.02.D.1.e As calculated by the Structural
Engineer. May vary for different parts of the
e. Site control data shall be acceptable if brick
building. If so, provide sections to cover all
compressive strengths meet the requirements of Part II design strengths.
and mortar is batched to proportion specification.
f. Cost of tests shall be borne by the General Contractor.
* * * * * *
2.01.A.1 Grades and Types. Brick subject
to the action of weather or soil, but not sub-
PART II-----PRODUCTS ject to frost action when permeated with
water, shall be of grade MW or grade SW,
2.01 BRICK and where subject to temperature below
A. Facing Brick: freezing while in contact with soil shall be
1. Delete Note and replace with: grade SW. Brick used in loadbearing or
shear wall construction shall comply with
the dimensional and distortion tolerances
specified for type FBS of ASTM C 216-
__________. Where such brick do not
comply with these tolerance requirements,
the compressive strength of brick masonry
shall be determined by prism tests.

3
PART Ill - EXECUTION
3.02 GENERAL ERECTION REQUIREMENTS
Delete Section 3.02.I in Technical Notes 11B Revised, and replace with
3.02.I Coordinate joint thickness with brick
the following Section 3. 02.I and add Section 3. 02.J. specified in 2.01.A.2.
I. Mortar Joint Thickness
1. Lay brick with __________-in. mortar joints, not to exceed 1/2 in.
(12.7 mm).
J. Construction Tolerances: 3.02.J These construction tolerances are
1. Maximum variation from plumb in vertical lines and surfaces of for engineered brick masonry only, and are
columns, walls and arrises: based on actual dimensions. They are
a. 1/4 in. (6.4 mm) in 10 ft. (3 m). intended for the sole purpose of protecting
the structural integrity of engineered brick
b. 3/8 in. (9.6 mm) in a story height not to exceed 20 ft. masonry elements and may not be ade-
(6 m). quate for establishing construction toler -
c. 1/2 in. (12.7 mm) in 40 ft. (12 m) or more. ances associated with esthetics or visual
2. Maximum variation from plumb for external corners, expansion requirements.
joints and other conspicuous lines:
a. 1/4 in. (6.4 mm) in any story or 20 ft. (6 m) maximum.
b. 1/2 in. (12.7 mm) in 40 ft. (12 m) or more.
3. Maximum variation from level of grades for exposed lintels, sills,
parapets, horizontal grooves and other conspicuous lines:
a. 1/4 in. (6.4 mm) in any bay or 20 ft. (6 m).
b. 1/2 in. (12.7 mm) in 40 ft. (12 m) or more.
4. Maximum variation from plan location of related portions of
columns, walls and partitions:
a. 1/2 in. (12.7 mm) in any bay or 20 ft. (6 m).
b. 3/4 in. (19 mm) in 40 ft. (12 m) or more.
5. Maximum variation in cross-sectional dimensions of columns and
thicknesses of walls from dimensions shown on drawings:
a. Minus 1/4 in. (6.4 mm).
b. Plus 1/2 in. (12.7 mm).

4
 Technical Notes 11D

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
Reissued*
September
1988

GUIDE SPECIFICATIONS FOR BRICK MASONRY

PART IV OF V CONTINUED
ENGINEERED BRICK MASONRY

by periodic testing of masonry prisms. This Technical

INTRODUCTION
This issue of Technical Notes is a continuation of
Technical Notes 11C Revised and contains additional sec-
tions and statements to be incorporated into the "Guide
Specifications for Brick Masonry", Technical Notes 11A
Revised and 11B Revised. This will make the guide spec-
ifications in those Technical Notes suitable for Engineered
Brick Masonry.
The sections contained in these Technical Notes deal
primarily with the quality assurance, selection of units,
strength and construction tolerances to provide masonry
that meets the minimum design requirements for
Engineered Brick Masonry.
In the construction of Engineered Brick Masonry, qual -
ity control may be maintained in either of two ways: (1) by
testing the brick and controlling the mortar which can be
done by laboratory tests or by mixing proportions, or (2)
Notes covers quality control by method (2), prism testing.
Technical Notes 11C covers quality control by method (1),
testing brick and control of mortar.
When quality control is maintained by prism tests, the
brick masonry strength is determined in accordance with
paragraph 4.2.2.1 of the BIA Standard, "Building Code
Requirements for Engineered Brick Masonry". Test
prisms are built as the walls are constructed and tested in
compression at 7 days or 28 days. If prism tests are
used, the quality control requirements of this Technical
Notes should be incorporated into the guide specifications
in Technical Notes 11A Revised and 11B Revised.
All other sections of the Guide Specifications for Brick
Masonry (Technical Notes 11A Revised and 11B Revised)
are appropriate for Engineered Brick Masonry.

QUALITY ASSURANCE BASED ON PRISM TESTS

Guide Specification Notes

PART I - GENERAL
1.02 QUALITYASSURANCE
Delete sections and notes for 1.02 in Technical Notes 11A Revised,
and substitute the following quality control requirements based on
prism tests.
A. Prism Tests:
1. Preconstruction Prisms:
a. Build ten prisms:
(1) Of site materials insofar as possible.
(2) Use brick units similar as to color, texture, raw
materials, moisture content and coring.
(3) Under same conditions, insofar as possible, as
the structure.
(4) With same bonding, insofar as possible, as for
structure.
(5) With same mortar as for the structure.
(6) With same joint thickness.
(7) With same workmanship.

*Originally published in August 1972, this Technical Notes has been reviewed and reissued.
 2. Site Control Prisms:
a. Build prisms as required by Section 1.02.D.1 at the
direction of the Architect/Engineer.
(1) Of site materials.
(2) Of brick units selected at random from units
delivered to the project.
(3) At the project site.
(4) With same bonding, insofar as possible, as the
structure.
(5) With site mortar.
(6) With same joint thickness as for the structure.
(7) With same workmanship.
3. Dimensions
a. Minimum height: 12 in. (305 mm).
b. Height-to-thickness ratio (h/t) range:
(1) Minimum: 2
(2) Maximum: 5
4. Mark each specimen for identification.
5. Store prisms:
a. Preconstruction prisms:
(1) In air at temperatures not less than 65˚ F.
(18.3˚ C.).
b. Site control prisms:
(1) At site for not less than 24 hr.
(2) Thereafter, in air at temperatures not less than
65˚F.(18.3˚C.).
6. Test prisms: 1.02.A.6.c It is suggested that calcined
a. Preconstruction prisms: gypsum be used for the capping material.
(1) Five after aging 7 days.
(2) Five after aging 28 days.
b. Site control prisms:
(1) After aging 7 days.
c. Cap each prism with suitable material to provide bearing
surfaces on each end:
(1) Plane within 0.003 in. (0.076 mm).
(2) Approximately perpendicular to the axis of the
prism.
7. Test in accordance with relevant provisions of ASTM E 447-
__________, with the following provisions:
a. For h/t less than 5, reduce specimen compressive
strength by correction factors as follows:

Ratio of height to
thickness (h/t) 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0

(a)
Correction factor 0.73 0.80 0.86 0.91 0.95 0.98 1.00

(a)
Interpolate to obtain intermediate values.

b. If the coefficient of variation of the sample tested

exceeds 10%, obtain the compressive strength by multiply
ing the average compressive strength of the specimens by

1 - 1.5
(100v - 0.10 )
where v is the coefficient of variation of the sample tested.

2
B. Brick Tests:
1. Preconstruction Tests:
a. Test five brick for compressive strength to determine
acceptability of units for compliance with specifications.
b. Use brick similar to those selected for use, matching
color, texture, raw material, moisture content and coring.
c. Cost of tests shall be borne by the General Contractor.
2. Test in accordance with ASTM C 67-__________, with the
following additional requirements:
a. If the coefficient of variation of the compression samples
tested exceeds 12%, obtain compressive strength by
multiplying average compressive strength of specimens by
1 - 1.5 v - 0.12
( 100 )
where v is the coefficient of variation of sample tested.
C. Preconstruction Requirements:
1.02.C This requirement may be deleted if
1. Prebid conference: not necessary for the project due to bidders
a. A prebid conference, directed by the Architect/ Engineer, being knowledgeable with engineered brick
will be held one week prior to the bid opening to discuss: masonry.
(1) Structural concept.
(2) Method and sequence of masonry construction.
(3) Special masonry details.
(4) Quality control requirements.
(5) Material requirements.
(6) Job organization.
(7) Workmanship.
b. Attendance is mandatory for all prospective: 1.02.C.1.b Invitation to attend should be
(1) General contractors. extended to others, such as the inspectors
(local building department and other gov-
(2) Masonry subcontractors. ernment agencies) and Owner.
(3) Brick suppliers.
2. Preconstruction Testing and Certification:
a. After award of the contract, the General Contractor shall: 1.02.C.2 Inspection, laboratory and testing
for quality control can be a responsibility of
(1) Within 14 days, submit to the the Structural Engineer. If so, revise sec-
Architect/Engineer for approval the name of the tion.
independent laboratory which will perform the site
control tests and provide the certificates and test
reports required in Section 1.03.
(2) Upon approval of the laboratory, certificates
and test reports, and prior to any masonry
construction, make arrangements for the following
tests for each combination of brick and mortar:
(a) Tests of ten prisms in accordance with
preconstruction requirements, Section
1.02.A.
(b) Test five brick in accordance with
Section 1.02.B.
b. Masonry work can begin only after approval of testing.
c. Testing is acceptable if test results indicate that
materials meet the minimum requirements of Part II -
Products, or Section 3.02.K.
d. Cost of preconstruction testing shall be borne by the
General Contractor.
3. Preconstruction Conference:
a. A preconstruction conference, directed by the
Architect/Engineer, will be held after the award of the
General Contract, but prior to beginning of masonry work
to discuss:
(1) Structural concept.
(2) Method and sequence of masonry construction.
3
 (3) Special masonry details.
(4) Standard of workmanship.
(5) Quality control requirements.
(6) Job organization.
b. Attendance is mandatory for: 1.02.C.3.b Invitations to attend should be
(1) General contractor job superintendent. extended to others, such as inspectors
(local building department and other gov-
(2) Masonry subcontractor job superintendent. ernment agencies) and Owner.
(3) Masonry subcontractor foreman.
(4) At least two masons.
(5) Authorized representative of the brick supplier.
(6) Mortar material suppliers.
D. Job Site Quality Control:
1. Site control prism tests:
a. Use 7-day compressive strength of brick prisms to
control quality.
b. Build, store and test prisms in accordance with site
control requirements, Section 1.02.A.
c. Build three prisms for each 5000 sq. ft. (465 m2) of wall 1.02.D.1.c Select, depending upon
whichever is more frequent.
area as directed by the Architect/Engineer.
**OR**
c. Provide three prisms for each story height.
d. Site control test data shall be acceptable if the 7-day
prism strength indicates that the 28-day strength will be
equal to or greater than the required minimum ultimate
compressive strength. See Section 3.02.K.
e. Cost of control prisms to be borne by the General
Contractor.
E. Furnish Sample Panel:
1. 4 ft. (1.2 m) long by 3 ft. (1 m) high, of the proposed color range,
texture, bond, mortar and workmanship.
2. Erect panel in the presence of the Architect/Engineer before
installation of materials.
3. Provide separate panels for each type of brick or mortar.
4. Do not start work until Architect/Engineer has accepted sample
panel.
5. Use panel as standard of comparison for all masonry work built
of same material.
6. Do not destroy or move panel until work is completed and
accepted by Owner.
1.03 SUBMITTALS
Add the following section to 1.03 in Technical Notes 11A Revised:
D. Prism Test Reports:
1. Test reports are to be submitted to Architect/Engineer for
approval.
2. Testing and reports are to be completed by an independent
laboratory.
3. Test reports shall show:
a. Age at test.
b. Storage conditions.
c. Dimensions (h/t).
d. Compressive strength of individual prisms.
e. Coefficient of variation (v).
f. Ultimate compressive strength of masonry (f 'm ) which
has been corrected for the coefficient of variation and the
hit of the prisms tested.

4
PART II -PRODUCTS
2.01 BRICK
A. Facing Brick: 2.01.A.1 Grades and Types. Brick subject
to the action of weather or soil, but not sub-
1. Delete Note and replace with: ject to frost action when permeated with
water, shall be of grade MW or grade SW
and where subject to temperature below
PART III -EXECUTION freezing while in contact with soil shall be
grade SW. Brick used in loadbearing or
3.02 GENERAL ERECTION REQUIREMENTS shear wall construction shall comply with
Delete Section 3.02.I in Technical Notes 11B Revised, and replace with the dimensional and distortion tolerances
specified for type FBS of ASTM C 216-
the following Section 3.02.I and add Sections 3.02.J And 3.02.K.
__________. Where such brick do not
I. Lay brick with __________-in. mortar joints, not to exceed 1/2 in. comply with these tolerance requirements,
(12.7 mm). the compressive strength of brick masonry
J. Construction Tolerances: shall be determined by prism tests.
1. Maximum variation from plumb in vertical lines and surfaces of
columns, walls and arrises:
a. 1/4 in. (6.4 mm) in 10 ft. (3 m).
b. 3/8 in. (9.6 mm) in a story height not to exceed 20 ft.
(6 m)
c. 1/2 in. (12.7 mm) in 40 ft. (12 m) or more.
2. Maximum variation from plumb for external corners, expansion
joints and other conspicuous lines:
a. 1/4 in. (6.4 mm) in any story or 20 ft. (6 m) maximum.
b. 1/2 in. (12.7 mm) in 40 ft. (12 m) or more.
3. Maximum variation from level of grades for exposed lintels, sills,
parapets, horizontal grooves and other conspicuous lines:
a. 1/4 in. (6.4 mm) in any bay or 20 ft. (6 m).
b. 1/2 in. (12.7 mm) in 40 ft. (12 m) or more.
4. Maximum variation from plan location of related portions of
columns, walls and partitions:
a. 1/2 in. (12.7 mm) in any bay or 20 ft. (6 m).
b. 3/4 in. (19 mm) in 40 ft. (12 m) or more.
5. Maximum variation in cross-sectional dimensions of columns
and thicknesses of walls from dimensions shown on drawings:
a. Minus 1/4 in. (6.4 mm).
b. Plus 1/2 in. (12.7 mm).
K. Minimum Ultimate Compressive Strength of Masonry 3.02.K Ultimate compressive strength as
2 determined by the Structural Engineer may
(f’m)__________psi ( __________kgf/cm ). vary for different parts and walls of the
building. If so, provide sections to cover all
design requirements.

5
 11E
Technical Notes REVISED

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
September
1991

GUIDE SPECIFICATIONS FOR BRICK MASONRY

PART V
MORTAR AND GROUT
Abstract: This Technical Notes is a guide specification for mortar and grout used in brick masonry.
Using this Technical Notes, a specifier can prepare a job specification for Section 04100. Notes are
provided to help the specifier understand certain decisions that affect the project specifications. The
guide specification is in accordance with the Construction Specifications Institute's (CSI)
Masterformat.
Key Words: brick masonry, grout, guide specification, mortar.

INTRODUCTION tion of the needs of the finished structural element. For

This Technical Notes is a continuation of Technical
Notes 11 Series on "Guide Specifications for Brick
Masonry" and contains the requirements for mortar and
grout for brick masonry. This Technical Notes is appropri-
ate for both empirically designed and rationally designed
brick masonry.
The guide specification in this Technical Notes is in
accordance with the Construction Specifications Institute's
Masterformat and is based on the requirements of BIA M1
Standard Specification for Portland Cement-Lime Mortar
for Brick Masonry contained in Technical Notes 8A and
ASTM C 270 Mortar for Unit Masonry. Mortar conforming
to the requirements of BIA M1 will meet all of the require-
ments of portland cement-lime mortars of ASTM C 270. A
complete discussion of mortar properties is contained in
Technical Notes 8.
GENERAL
Mortar requirements differ from concrete requirements
because the primary function of mortar is to bond mason-
ry units into an integral element. The basic mortar ingre-
dients include portland cement, hydrated lime, sand and
water. Masonry cements, proprietary mortar mixes, are
sometimes used to replace portland cement and hydrated
lime or combined with portland cement to make mortar.
BIA M1, ASTM C 270 and ASTM C 1142 Ready-Mixed
Mortar for Unit Masonry are the recommended standards
for mortar to be used with brick masonry.
Grout is different from both concrete and mortar.
Grout is a high slump mixture used to fill cells of masonry
units or between wythes of masonry to resist stresses and
develop bond with reinforcement. Grout can consist of
portland cement, hydrated lime, fine or coarse aggregate
and water. Grout should be specified by ASTM C 476
Grout for Masonry.
RECOMMENDED MORTAR USES
Selection of a particular mortar type is usually a func-
example, where high wind loads are expected, high lateral
strength may be required and, hence, mortar with high
flexural bond strength should be considered. For load-
bearing walls and reinforced brick masonry, high com-
pressive strength may be the governing factor. In some
projects considerations of durability, color, flexibility, etc.,
may be of most concern. No single type of mortar is best
for all purposes. Factors which improve one property of
mortar may do so at the expense of others. For this rea-
son, when selecting a mortar, evaluate properties of each
mortar type and choose that type and materials which will
best meet all requirements. Technical Notes 8B discuss-
es the selection of mortar types in depth. The following
sections briefly discuss selection of mortar.
Type N Mortar
Type N mortar is suitable for general use in exposed
masonry above grade. It is recommended for use in
parapet walls, chimneys and exterior walls when subject
to severe exposure.
Type S Mortar
Type S mortar is recommended for use in reinforced
and unreinforced masonry where higher flexural strengths
than Type N are required.
Type M Mortar
Type M mortar is recommended for use in masonry in
contact with earth such as foundations, retaining walls,
paving, sewers and manholes, and in reinforced masonry.
Type O Mortar
Type O mortar is suitable for interior use in non-load-
bearing applications.
SPECIFYING MORTAR
Mortars are specified in one of two ways: proportions
or properties, but not both. Mortar prepared by the pro-
portion requirements should not be compared to mortar
prepared by the property requirements.
 The proportion specification requires that mortar
materials be mixed according to given volumetric propor-
tions or weight. If mortar is specified by this method, no
laboratory testing of the mortar is required.
If mortar is specified by the property specifications,
compressive strength, water retention and air content
tests must be performed on mortar mixed in the laborato-
ry. Field mortar is then mixed to the proportions selected
from these laboratory tests.
When neither proportion nor property is specified, the
proportion specifications govern.
SPECIFYING GROUT
Grout is specified by proportion using ASTM C 476.
Either fine or fine and coarse aggregate can be used in
grout. Experience has shown that grout mixed to the
specified proportions performs well with brick masonry
since the grout compressive strength closely matches the
compressive strength of the brick masonry. Grout must
have adequate compressive strength, bonding with rein-
forcement and for embedment of anchor bolts.
There is usually no need to specify compressive strength
of grout unless required by design. Grout strength can be
verified by field testing using ASTM C 1019. Slump of the
grout is usually specified to be between 8 and 11 in.
(203.2 and 279.4 mm).
CONCLUSION
This Technical Notes is a guide specification for mor-
tar and grout for brick masonry. Notes are provided to
assist in editing the specification.
The information and suggestions contained in this
Technical Notes are based on the available data and the
experience of the engineering staff of the Brick Institute of
America. The information contained herein must be used
in conjunction with good technical judgment and a basic
understanding of the properties of masonry. Final deci-
sions on the use of information contained in this Technical
Notes are not within the purview of the Brick Institute of
America and must rest with the project architect, engineer,
owner or all.

Guide Specification Notes

04100 MORTAR AND GROUT

PART 1 GENERAL
1.01 SECTION INCLUDES
A. Mortar for masonry.
B. Grout for masonry.
C. Repointing mortar. 1.02 Some of these broadscope sec-
tions may not be included. Other narrow
1.02 RELATED SECTIONS scope sections under these broadscope
A. Concrete: Section 03__________. sections may be added.

B. Masonry: Section 04__________.

C. Masonry Cleaning: Section 04500.
D. Structural Metal Framing: Section 05100.
E. Rough Carpentry: Section 06100.
F. Waterproofing: Section 07100.
1.03 PRODUCTS INSTALLED BUT NOT FURNISHED UNDER THIS
SECTION
A. Reinforcing Steel: Section 03210.
B. Metal Accessories: Section 04150.
C. Masonry Units: Section O4200.
D. Flashing and Sheet Metal: Section 07600.
1.04 REFERENCES
A. ACI 530.1/ASCE 6-__________ - Specifications for Masonry 1.04 The applicable date for each
Structures. reference can be given here or in
Section 01090-Reference Standards.
B. ASTM C 91 - __________, [UBC Standard No. 24-16] - Masonry Alternate standards are given for
Cement. Uniform Building Code specifications.

2
 C. ASTM C 144 - __________ - Aggregate for Masonry Mortar.
D. ASTM C 150 - __________, [UBC Standard No. 26-1] - Portland
Cement.
E. ASTM C 207-__________, [UBC Standard No. 24-18] - Hydrated Lime
for Masonry Purposes.
F. ASTM C 270-__________, [UBC Standard No. 24-20] - Mortar for Unit
Masonry.
G. ASTM C 404-__________ - Aggregates for Masonry Grout.
H. ASTM C 476-__________, [UBC Standard No. 24-29] - Grout for
Masonry.
I. ASTM C 780-__________ - Preconstruction and Construction
Evaluation of Mortars for Plain and Reinforced Unit Masonry.
J. ASTM C 979-__________ - Pigments for Integrally Colored Concrete.
K. ASTM C 1019-__________, [UBC Standard No. 24-28] - Sampling and
Testing Grout.
L. ASTM C 1142-__________ - Ready-Mixed Mortar for Unit Masonry.
M. BIA Technical Notes 8A - “Specifications for Portland Cement-Lime
Mortar for Brick Masonry”BIA M1-88).
1.05 SUBMITTALS 1.05.A ASTM C 270 and UBC Standard
A. Submit data indicating proportion or property specifications used for No. 24-20 require that mortar be speci-
mortar. fied by proportion or property, not both.

B. Submit test reports for mortar materials indicating conformance to 1.05.B ASTM C 270 and UBC Standard
No. 24-20 require comparison of labora-
ASTM C 270 [UBC Standard No. 24-20] property specifications. Report tory prepared mortars to establish pro-
proportions resulting from laboratory testing used to select mortar mix. portions for field-mixed mortar when the
C. Submit test reports for field sampling and testing mortar in confor- property specifications are used.
mance to ASTM C 780. 1.05.C ASTM C 780 allows precon -
struction evaluation of mortar and com-
D. Submit test reports for grout materials indicating conformance to parison of field prepared mortars.
ASTM C 476 [UBC Standard No. 24-29]. Mortar prepared in the field should not
be compared to values found in the
E. Submit test reports for field sampling and testing grout in conformance property specifications of ASTM C 270
to ASTM C 1019 [UBC Standard No. 24-28]. or UBC Standard No. 24-20.
F. Samples: Submit two ribbons of mortar for conformance with color. 1.05.E ASTM C 1019 or UBC Standard
No. 24-28 is used to test uniformity of
1.06 DELIVERY, STORAGE AND HANDLING grout preparation during construction.
A. Store materials in dry location and protected from dampness and
freezing.
B. Stockpile and handle aggregates to prevent contamination from foreign
materials.
1.07 ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS
A. Follow requirements for cold and hot weather construction in ACI
530.1/ASCE 6 [Uniform Building Code].

PART 2 PRODUCTS
2.01 MORTAR MATERIALS 2.01.A Allowable flexural tensile stress-
A. Cementitious materials: es for masonry built with air-entrained
1. Portland Cement: ASTM C 150 [UBC Standard No. 26-1], portland cement-lime mortars, or with
Type__________. masonry cement mortars are lower than
those built with portland cement-lime
2. Hydrated Lime: ASTM C 207 [UBC Standard No. 24-18], Type mortars.
S__________. 2.01.A.1 Only Types I, II or III.

3. Masonry Cements: ASTM C 91 [UBC Standard No. 24-16],

2.01.A.3 Types M, S, or N.
Type__________.

3
 B. Sand: ASTM C 144. 2.01.B Sand not conforming to ASTM
C 144 must have mortar meet the prop-
erty specification requirements.
C. Admixtures:
1. No air-entraining admixtures or material containing air-entraining
admixtures.
2. No antifreeze compounds shall be added to mortar.
3. No admixtures containing chlorides shall be added to mortar.
D. Water: Clean and potable.
E. Mortar pigment: 2.01.E Limits on amount of pigments
1. ASTM C 979: Pigment shall not exceed 10% of the weight of should be halved when using masonry
portland cement. cement mortars.

2. Carbon black shall not exceed 2% of the weight of portland

cement.
2.02 GROUT MATERIALS
A. Cementitious materials:
1. Portland Cement: ASTM C 150 [UBC Standard No. 26-1],
2.02.A.1 Only Types 1, II or III.
Type__________.
2. Hydrated Lime: ASTM C 207 [UBC Standard No. 24-18], Type
S__________.
B. Aggregates:
1. Fine aggregate: ASTM C404.
2. Coarse aggregate: ASTM C 404.
C. Water: Clean and potable.
D. Admixtures.
2.03 MORTAR AND GROUT MIXES 2.02.D Grout admixtures are used to
A. Mortar - ASTM C 270 [UBC Standard No. 24-20] or BIA M1: decrease grout shrinkage, aid in pump-
1. Type based on proportion specifications. ing grout, or for other reasons. The use
of such admixtures should not adverse-
**OR**
ly affect the performance of the grout.
1. Type__________based on property specifications to achieve
__________ psi strength, __________% air content, __________% 2.03.A Mortar mixes can be specified
water retention. separately by specifying ASTM C 270,
UBC Standard No. 24-20 or BIAM1; or
**OR**
by specifying ASTM C 1142 alone.
2.03.A.1 Type M, S, N or O depending
A. Mortar - ASTM C 1142: Type__________. on design requirements.
2.03.A Ready mixed mortar can be
B. Grout: ASTM C 476 [UBC Standard No. 24-29] mixed on-site or off-site. Types RM,
1. Fine grout. RS, RN or RO.
2. Coarse grout.
3. Slump: __________inches (__________mm). 2.03.B The use of fine or coarse grout
is based on the size of the grout space
and the height of the grout pour.

2.03.B.3 Specify desired slump

PART 3 EXECUTION between 8 and 11 inches (203.2 and
279.4 mm). Higher slump is necessary
3.01 FIELD MORTAR MIXING for smaller dimensioned grout spaces
A. All cementitious materials and aggregate shall be mixed between 3 and with higher unit/grout volume ratios.
and 5 min. in a mechanical batch mixer with the maximum amount of
water to produce a workable consistency. 3.01 ASTM C 270 or BIA M1 can be
B. Control batching procedure to ensure proper proportions by measuring referenced for field mortar mixing.
materials by volume. Sand measurement by shovel count shall not be 3.01.B Materials can be specified by
permitted. weight if volume proportions are con-
verted to weight proportions
C. If water is lost by evaporation within 2 1/2 hours after initial mixing,
retemper with water.
D. Discard all mortar which is more than 2 1/2 hours old.

4
3.02 FIELD GROUT MIXING 3.02 ASTM C 476 can be referenced
for field grout mixing.
A. Control batching procedure to ensure proper proportions by measuring
materials by volume. 3.02.A Materials can be measured by
weight if volume proportions are con-
3.03 INSTALLATION verted to weight proportions.
A. Install mortar and grout in accordance with ACI 530.1/ASCE 6.
3.04 REPOINTING MORTAR
A. Use mortar materials listed in 2.01, Type N. 3.04.A If materials and proportions of
existing mortar are known, use those
B. Prehydrate the mortar by the following method. Mix dry ingredients
instead of Type N mortar if the existing
together. Then add only enough water to make a damp, stiff mix which mortar provided sufficient durability.
will retain its form when pressed in a ball. After 1 to 2 hours, add suffi-
cient water to bring it to the proper consistency.

5
 Technical Notes 13

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
Reissued*
March
1982

CERAMIC GLAZED BRICK FACING FOR EXTERIOR WALLS

INTRODUCTION
It is generally agreed that most disintegration of
masonry units results from water in the masonry and is
due to crystal pressure of (1) ice forming in the pores of
the masonry, or (2) migration of salts and subsequent
crystallization within the pores of the masonry. It is also a
well established fact, confirmed by numerous laboratory
tests, as well as extensive observations of masonry build-
ings, that the principal cause of rain penetration through
brick and tile walls is openings between mortar and
masonry units. Also, it is well established that much of
the water that enters a masonry wall through such open-
ings, by absorption of the masonry or as a result of con-
densation within the wall, escapes by capillary action and
evaporation from the face of the wall.
This process, by which moisture is eliminated from
the masonry, has for years been known as "breathing"
and is an important factor contributing to the durability and
resistance to water penetration of masonry walls. Its
importance is graphically presented in the publication,
Walls Breathe?, of the Western Waterproofing Company
(Missouri Corporation), St. Louis, Missouri, which states:
"At first glance, the statement that lifeless brick, stone
or concrete must 'breathe' may seem strange-yet it is just
as true of a masonry wall as of the human body. If your
pores are sealed by a nonporous coating which prevents
transpiration-evaporation of moisture-you cannot remain
alive. Neither can masonry. FIG. 1
"This is true because excessive moisture continuously
gets into the walls and must be eliminated before it caus -
brick or when an impervious coating is applied to the
es trouble. It usually enters as rain water (1) through the
exterior face of walls, water cannot enter the walls
pores in building materials, (2) into incompletely bonded
through the pores of the brick nor can it escape by this
mortar joints, (3) around copings, sills, and belt courses,
means from the face of the wall. For this reason, it
(4) as condensation of vapor from the interior of the struc-
becomes especially important to reduce the water enter-
ture (this action is more insidious and far-reaching than
ing the wall to an absolute minimum and to provide posi-
most people realize), (5) through capillary contact with the
tive means of escape for water that permeates the wall,
ground.
either as rain or as condensed vapor. The amount of
"Without water in the wall there would be little or no
water that may be expected to enter a wall as a result of
problem of masonry disintegration and disruption. The
rain varies with the exposure which may be defined
only ways to get rid of the excess moisture are (1)
roughly in terms of the resultant wind pressure and pre-
through continuous cavities within walls (hollow wall con-
cipitation maps, shown in Fig. 1, as:
struction) with adequate weep holes at various locations
Severe: annual precipitation 30 in. or over; wind pres-
in the wall, (2) by evaporation through the exterior of the
sure 30 lb per sq ft or over.
masonry.”
Moderate: annual precipitation 30 in. or over; wind
When exterior walls are faced with ceramic glazed
pressure 20 to 25 lb per sq ft.

Originally published in May 1962, this Technical Notes has been reviewed and reissued.
 Slight: annual precipitation less than 30 in.; wind pres-
sure 20 to 25 lb per sq ft or annual precipitation less than
20 in.
The following recommendations covering wall design
and construction are applicable to severe and moderate
exposures as defined above.
Opening Heads. Install through flashing over all
openings except those completely protected by overhang-
ing projections. At steel lintels, place flashing under and
behind the facing material and over the top of the lintel
and bend its outer edge down to form a drip. (See Fig. 3.)

RECOMMENDATIONS
Design.
1. Cavity wall construction is recommended.
2. For walls enclosing heated areas, provide vapor
barrier on warm side of cavity.
3. For walls exposed on both sides; such as free-
standing walls, wing walls and parapet walls;
ventilate cavity. FIG.3
4. Provide adequate flashing.
5. Provide adequate expansion joints (3/4 in. per 100 Spandrels. In skeleton-frame structures, spandrels
ft of wall) and an expansion joint on each side of may be flashed continuously at beams, or with reglets.
each corner, located not more than 10 ft nor less When the entire spandrel is flashed, two-piece flashings
than 4 ft from the corner. may be used, provided they are lapped at least 4 in. When
6. Provide flexible anchorage to columns and beams. cavity walls are supported by concrete spandrel beams,
place the flashing on the shelf angle and extend it at least 8
Specifications. in. up the beam and anchor it into a reglet. When galva-
1. Specify highly plastic mortar; 1 cement: 1 type S nized or stainless steel covered angles are used, flashing
lime:6 sand or 1 cement:1/2 type S lime: 4 1/2 may not be necessary except to cover joints between
sand are recommended. lengths. (See Fig. 4.)
2. Specify full head and bed joints and that cavity be
kept clean and weep holes open.
3. The Specifications of the Facing Tile Institute for
Select Quality Ceramic Glaze Structural Facing
Tile, dated November 1959, provide: "Where
ceramic glaze units are required for exterior use,
the manufacturers should be consulted for
material suitable for this purpose."
Specifiers of ceramic glazed brick for exterior use are
urged to comply with this recommendation and, in so
doing, to indicate to the manufacturers the geographic
location of the project, the type of construction, that is,
enclosure walls, parapets, etc., and the wall design,
including flashing details and mortar specified.
SUGGESTED DETAILS FIG.4

Window Sills. Place through flashing under and

Parapet Walls. Unless coping is impervious with
behind all sills. Extend ends of sill flashing beyond the jamb
watertight joints, place through flashing in the mortar bed
line on both sides and turn them up at least 1 in. into the
beneath it. Where the coping provides an adequate drip,
wall. Slope all sills to drain water away from the building.
the flashing may stop at the wall surface. However,
Where the undersides of sills do not slope away from the
where the copings are flush with the surface of the wall,
building, provide a drip notch or extend flashing and bend-
extend the flashing at least 1/4 in. on both sides and turn
down to form a drip. (See Fig. 2.)
it down to provide a drip. Follow the same procedure
when topping out piers, pilasters, etc. Ventilate parapet
as shown in Fig. 5.

CONSTRUCTION
Draining Cavity. Since its resistance to rain penetra-
tion is the most important single feature of the cavity wall,
the minimum 2-in. cavity width should be maintained. An
air space of less than 2 in. is difficult to keep free of mor-
tar "bridging" or "droppings".
FIG.2 The proper draining of the cavity will depend a great

2
 FIG.5 FIG. 6
deal on the ease with which the moisture is permitted to
clean consists of wood strips to which two lengths of wire
escape at the bottom. Positive means of drainage are
or heavy string are attached. These strips may be 4 to 6
provided by weep holes placed in the exterior wythe at
ft long, and are placed on each tier of metal ties. The
the bottom of the cavity.
mason then builds up the two wythes to the level of the
In curtain and panel wall construction, the weep holes
next row of ties and, before proceeding with the wall, lifts
over lintels or spandrel beam supports should be spaced
out the wood strip, bringing with it any accumulated drop-
32 in. (4 brick lengths) apart. Spacing of weep holes at
pings.
foundation support should be 2 ft on centers.
Many cavity walls in which weep holes are left open Vapor Barrier. Where a vapor barrier is to be
have functioned satisfactorily for years. In such construc- installed on the warm side of the wall, the wythe to which
tion, the weep holes are formed by omitting a vertical joint the vapor barrier is to be applied should be built up ahead
in the exterior brickwork at intervals of 2 to 3 ft, or by of the other wythe at least 16 in., or the vertical distance
inserting oiled rods or pins in head joints which are between the wall ties. Before the second wythe is built up
removed when the mortar is ready for tooling. However, to the same level, the cavity of the first wythe should be
open weep holes provide access for insects and, when given one brush coat of water emulsion asphalt paint.
they are placed over lintel or spandrel flashing, they may Since this coating is to serve as a vapor barrier, the paint
contribute to wall staining and, during high winds, the air
movement through the weep holes into the cavity may
reduce the resistance of the wall to heat flow.
For this reason, it is recommended that, in general,
"wicks" be placed in weep holes. They may be made of
fiberglass or similar inorganic material, or sash cord which
has been used successfully in many cases, although it
will, of course, in time rot out.
If the weep holes are formed by omitting whole verti-
cal joints, a piece of 1/2 - in. fiberglass insulation can be
placed in such joints.
The weep holes will not be effective in draining the
cavity if they are permitted to become plugged with mortar
droppings as the wall is constructed. Keeping the cavity
clean and free of mortar droppings is easily accomplished
by a skilled mason. The simplest method consists of
beveling the cavity edge of the mortar bed immediately
after "stringing" the mortar. The mason does this with the
flat of his trowel as indicated in Fig. 6. When the mortar is
spread in this way, very little if any mortar will be squeezed out
of the bed joints into the cavity when the units are laid. FIG. 7
Immediately following the setting of the masonry unit, Brush coat of water emulsion asphalt paint provides
the mason should spread any mortar which protrudes into vapor barrier on backup.
the cavity over the back of the unit, using the flat of his
trowel. This prevents the mortar from falling to the bottom used should be a vapor resistant type; also, it should be a
of the cavity and clogging the weep holes, and also pro- water emulsion type so that it can be applied cold to a newly
vides a relatively smooth interior surface which aids in laid wall.
placing insulation if it is used. Fig. 7 shows a vapor barrier applied to the inner wythe of
Another method commonly used to keep the cavity a brick and tile cavity wall.
3
 14
Technical Notes REVISED

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
September
1992

BRICK FLOORS AND PAVEMENTS

DESIGN AND DETAILING
PART I OF III

Abstract: This Technical Notes describes the proper design and detailing of a variety of brick paving
assemblies. Design considerations covered include traffic, site conditions, drainage, edge restraints,
joints and appearance. Typical details of various mortarless and mortared brick paving assemblies
are shown.
Key Words: brick, design, flexible pavements, flooring, mortared paving, mortarless paving, paving,
rigid pavements.

INTRODUCTION Types of Brick Paving Surfaces

Since brick is derived from the earth, it is only natural
that it be used as a paving material. Brick is a small ele-
ment paving material which provides an aesthetically
pleasing, stable and durable surface. Brick paving assem-
blies are comprised of the brick surface along with a base
to provide support. In any paving assembly, the base is of
prime importance, for if it is improperly designed or con-
structed, the entire system is prone to failure.
This Technical Notes series discusses a variety of
brick paving assemblies for residential and commercial
applications. Although the principles are the same for all
brick paving assemblies, the recommendations may not
be appropriate for industrial type floors or heavy vehicular
applications. Further information on flexible brick pave-
ments in road and street applications can be found in the
Brick Institute of America's Flexible Brick Pavements:
Design and Installation Guide [1]. This Technical Notes
classifies paving assemblies by type of paving surface
and type of base. Design considerations are given for traf-
fic loads, drainage, site conditions, edge restraints, expan-
sion joints, membranes, slip/skid resistance and appear-
ance. Other Technical Notes in this series address materi-
al selection, installation techniques and special brick
paving assemblies.
CLASSIFICATION OF PAVING ASSEMBLIES
Paving assemblies are classified by the type of brick
paving surface and the type of base supporting the sur-
face. The paving surface receives the traffic wear, pro-
tects the base and transfers loads to the base. The base
and subbase (if required) provide structural support to the
paving system by distributing the load to the subgrade. A
subbase consisting of graded aggregates may be required
when subgrade conditions are poor.
The two types of brick paving surfaces are mortarless
and mortared. Mortarless brick paving contains sand
between the units which are laid on a variety of materials.
Conversely, mortared brick paving consists of units with
mortar between the units and always laid in a mortar set-
ting bed.
Types of Bases
Flexible Base. A flexible base consists of compacted
crushed stone, gravel or coarse sand. Only mortarless
brick paving is suitable for this type of base.
Semi-Rigid Base. This type of base consists of
asphalt concrete, commonly referred to as asphalt. Only
mortarless brick paving is suitable over this type of base.
Rigid Base. Arigid base is defined as a reinforced or
unreinforced concrete slab on grade. Mortarless or mortared
brick paving may be placed over this type of base.
Suspended Diaphragm Base. Suspended
diaphragm bases are structural roof or floor assemblies of
concrete, steel or wood. Mortarless or mortared brick
paving is suitable for this type of base depending on the
stiffness of the diaphragm.
EXAMPLES OF BRICK PAVING ASSEMBLIES
Many combinations of bases, setting beds and brick
paving surfaces can be used. The paving assemblies
included are suggested methods based on experience for
the various types of traffic uses. Although not all potential
paving assemblies are shown due to space limitation, the
following are the most popular configurations.
Flexible Base Pavements
Only mortarless brick paving should be laid over a
flexible base. Flexible bases include crushed stone, gravel
or coarse sand. Applications for flexible bases range from
residential patios to city streets. Flexible paving systems
are typically the most economical to install since less
labor and fewer materials are involved. The thickness of
each layer in a flexible pavement depends upon the
imposed loads and the properties of each layer. A pave-
ment subjected to heavy vehicular traffic requires a thicker
base than a pavement subjected to pedestrian traffic.
Figure 1 is a typical section through a flexible brick
pavement. Brick pavers are set in a 1 in. to 1 1/2 in. (25
to 38 mm) sand setting bed over a compacted base, sub-
base (if necessary) and compacted subgrade. Many com-
mercial pedestrian and vehicular applications can use this
type of assembly. Pavements subjected to vehicular traffic
must be designed to accommodate the wheel loads. The
Flexible Brick Pavements design guide covers design and
installation requirements for heavy vehicular loading.
Mortarless Brick Paving
Aggregate Base
FIG. 1
In residential pedestrian applications, the detail in Fig.
2 can be used. The brick pavers are laid directly on the
compacted sand and subgrade. This application works
best when the subgrade is compacted or on undisturbed
earth, and where frost heave is not a consideration. A
geotextile can be used beneath the sand base where the
soil conditions are poor.
Mortarless Brick Paving
Sand Base
FIG. 2
2
Semi-Rigid Base Pavements
Asphalt bases are classified as semi-rigid bases. Only
mortarless brick paving is suitable over this type of base.
Figure 3 is an example of an asphalt base and an asphalt
setting bed supporting the mortarless brick paving. The
mortarless brick paving and asphalt setting bed can also
be laid on a concrete base. These assemblies are suit-
able for medium to heavy vehicular traffic, pedestrian
malls or other pedestrian areas.
Mortarless Brick Paving
Asphalt Base
FIG. 3
The detail shown in Fig. 4 is another paving assembly
on a semi-rigid base. Two layers of No. 15 building felt or
one layer of No. 30 felt act as a cushion between the
brick pavers and the base and help accommodate size
variations. This detail is only suitable for residential
pedestrian applications.
Mortarless Brick Paving
Concrete or Asphalt Base
FIG. 4
Rigid Base Pavements
Mortarless or mortared brick paving may be laid over
a rigid concrete base. The brick paving assembly shown
in Fig. 4 is applicable for mortarless paving over a new or
existing concrete slab. Only residential pedestrian applica-
tions are appropriate for this assembly. A similar assembly
is shown in Fig. 5 where sand is used as a setting bed.
These assemblies are not appropriate in vehicular appli-
cations, areas of large rainfall or in freezing climates
where the pavement may heave when saturated.
Mortarless Brick Paving
Concrete Base
FIG. 5
Figure 6 shows a typical example of mortared brick
paving over a reinforced concrete slab on grade. Mortared
brick paving can be used for any type of pedestrian or
vehicular traffic in both interior and exterior applications.
This type of assembly is especially well-suited for heavy
vehicular areas such as streets or parking lots and where
surface drainage is necessary.
Mortared Brick Paving
Concrete Base
FIG. 6
3
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Traffic
The weight and amount of traffic often dictate which
paving system to use. The brick paving assembly must be
capable of supporting traffic loads plus its own weight.
The appropriate thickness of the subbase, base and brick
paving units must be considered to adequately distribute
vertical traffic loads. Three general classifications of traffic
are light, medium and heavy, and should be considered
when determining the subbase, base and brick paver
thicknesses. The classifications of traffic are defined as
follows:
Light Traffic. Residential pedestrian traffic only, such
as on patios and walkways.
Medium Traffic. Commercial pedestrian traffic, such
as on city sidewalks, building entrances and shopping
malls. Light vehicular traffic, such as on residential drive-
ways, commercial entranceways and parking lots.
Heavy Traffic. Heavy vehicular traffic, such as
streets, crosswalks, loading docks and roads. The term
heavy refers to both axle loads and frequency of loading.
Heavy vehicular traffic on grade will generally require
rigid, semi-rigid, or thick flexible bases. Medium and light
traffic may be supported on any of these or on suspended
diaphragms.
Load Resistance
Vertical Loads. Vehicular traffic, pedestrian traffic and
the weight of the paving assembly impose vertical loads
upon the paving system. These loads are distributed to
each pavement layer in a radiating manner. Each layer
resists a proportion of the load depending on its strength
and thickness. The most important aspect of designing
the pavement to resist vertical loads is determining the
appropriate thickness of the base. Inadequate base thick-
ness will result in premature failure of the paving system,
while excessive thickness will result in increased costs.
For light and medium traffic applications, the minimum
required thickness of each base material will normally
govern. Pavements subjected to vehicular traffic, other
than residential driveways, generally require design by an
engineer.
Base Thickness -- The minimum thickness of an
aggregate base depends primarily upon the strength of
the subgrade. Typically, a flexible base of properly graded
crushed stone or gravel should be a minimum thickness
of 4 in. (100 mm). The minimum thickness of a reinforced
concrete or an asphalt base in pedestrian and light vehic-
ular traffic applications is 4 in. (100 mm), provided it bears
on adequate subgrade. Concrete and asphalt bases usu-
ally require a subbase. Very heavy loading requires an
increase in thickness for all types of bases. Additional
information on base design is available from the appropri-
ate reference [2,7].
Paving Surface Thickness -- A mortarless brick
paving surface can be supported on a flexible base, a
semi-rigid base, a rigid base or a suspended diaphragm.
Typically the base is designed to resist vertical loads inde-
pendent of the brick paving surface. However, the brick
paving surface does, in fact, contribute to the load-carry-
ing capabilities of the pavement and may be considered in
design if it is of sufficient thickness and constructed prop-
erly. In order for the brick pavers to be considered when
calculating thickness, they must be compacted into place
as described in Technical Notes 14A and the Flexible
Brick Pavements design guide. If brick pavers are not
compacted into place, they should be neglected in the
pavement thickness design but still must meet certain
minimum thicknesses to act as a wearing surface. These
suggested minimum thicknesses for mortarless brick
paving are: light traffic, 1 1/2 in. (38 mm); medium traffic,
2 1/2 in. (57 mm); and heavy traffic, 2-5/8 in. (67 mm). In
order for the brick pavers to be considered in resisting
load they must have a 2-5/8 in. (67 mm) minimum thick-
ness, excluding chamfers, to achieve interlock. Interlock is
the effect of frictional forces, induced by sand beneath
and between the brick pavers, which restricts movement
of the paver and transfers loads between adjacent pavers.
In the case of heavy traffic, the brick pavers and sand set-
ting bed are compacted into place and contribute to the
load-carrying capabilities of the system.
A mortared brick paving surface should always be
supported by a rigid base or suspended diaphragm.
Without a rigid support, the paving system will deflect and
cause cracking in the brick paving surface. The primary
resistance to vertical loading is developed by the flexural
strength of the concrete slab on grade or the roof or floor
diaphragm. There is no minimum thickness for the paving
unit to adequately transfer vertical loads. The required
thickness to perform adequately as a result of horizontal
loads and pavement deflection is in the range of 1/2 in.
(13 mm) to 2 1/4 in. (57 mm) depending on traffic condi-
tions and slab support. Thicker pavers are more likely to
stay in place in the event of cracking.
Horizontal Loads. In addition to vertical loads, vehic-
ular traffic imparts horizontal forces to the paving assem-
bly from braking, acceleration and turning actions of the
wheels. Resistance to horizontal forces is provided by the
bond pattern of the brick paving assembly, the pavement
edging and the bond of the brick units to the base.
Mortarless brick paving resists horizontal forces by
transferring these forces through brick units and sand
filled joints to rigid edging by means of an interlocking
bond pattern. The greatest resistance to horizontal forces
is obtained when the direction of vehicular traffic flow is
perpendicular to the long joints in the bond pattern.
Therefore, continuous joints in running bond and other
bond patterns should be laid perpendicular to the traffic
flow. The herringbone bond pattern resists loads in all
directions and should be used in heavy vehicular areas.
Mortared brick paving resists horizontal forces impart-
ed by vehicles due to the bonding of the units to the base
by the mortar setting bed and full head joints. Thus, bond
pattern and unit orientation are not critical for load transfer
in mortared paving.
4
Drainage
Adequate drainage of flexible and rigid paving sys-
tems is an extremely important design consideration for
successful performance and durability. Ponding water can
cause deterioration of the paving in areas of repeated
freeze/thaw and cause slippery conditions. Continued sat-
uration of the base, subbase and subgrade can reduce
load capacity due to weakening of the soil and cause
deformations or rutting of the pavement.
The best way to obtain drainage of the pavement is to
slope the paving surface to provide as much surface
drainage as possible. A slope of 1/8 in. to 1/4 in. per ft (1
to 2 mm per 100 mm) is suggested. Large paved areas
and vehicular traffic areas may require a slope greater
than 1/4 in. per ft (2 mm per 100 mm). The paving system
should be sloped away from buildings, retaining walls and
other elements capable of collecting or restricting surface
runoff. To improve surface drainage, the direction of con-
tinuous mortar joints should run parallel to the desired
direction of surface runoff.
Mortarless paving requires both surface and subsur-
face drainage. The majority of drainage should occur on
the surface. However, some water will penetrate down-
ward until it reaches an impervious layer. This layer may
be a concrete or asphalt base, a flexible base compacted
to high density, an impervious soil such as clay or an
impervious membrane used to separate pavement layers.
Water not drained off the pavement surface will percolate
to the top of this impervious layer, possibly causing pend-
ing of the water. Due to these conditions, subsurface
drainage is required.
Mortarless brick paving constructed over a porous
base such as gravel may permit drainage through the
entire system to the subgrade. The use of a geotextile
between the sand setting bed and the base will permit
drainage without allowing migration of the sand setting
bed into the base.
Drainage in mortared brick paving systems is restrict-
ed to the surface by full mortar joints and good bond
between the brick paving units and the mortar. A drainage
system should be designed so standing water is kept to a
minimum.
Surface runoff is removed by pavement edge
drainage or by drains within the paving. Drains and
drainage systems must be designed to remove the antici-
pated amount of water. The amount of drainage required
varies with the size and location of the pavement and the
amount of annual rainfall. Most commercial paving appli-
cations require gutters, scuppers or surface grates for sur-
face drainage. In subsurface drainage applications, drains
should have slotted openings on all sides below the
paving surface. Setting bed material should be protected
from washout into the drains by the use of screens or
geotextiles.
 To prevent water from pending against curbs, weep-
holes should be installed through the curb at a maximum
spacing of 24 in. (600 mm) o.c. along the entire edge. The
weepholes should be formed by tubes or pipes with suffi-
cient size to allow water drainage. Curb gutters can also
be used when the gutter is sloped toward a drain. Figures
7 and 8 are examples of drainage in flexible and rigid
base paving systems.
Drainage of Flexible Paving
Aggregate Base
FIG. 7
Drainage of Rigid Paving
FIG. 8
Site
The site may involve anything from a small residential
patio to a major urban renewal project encompassing sev-
eral city blocks. During the planning stages, consideration
should be given to the location of existing or proposed
underground utilities and storm drains convenient to the
user. Flexible brick pavements are ideal in areas where
frequent underground work will be required since removal
and reinstallation is easy and existing materials can be
reused.
Successful installations also depend upon proper sub-
grade preparation. All vegetation and organic materials
should be removed to the proper depth from the area to
be paved. Soft spots such as utility trenches containing
poor subbase material should be removed and refilled
with suitable material which is properly compacted.
5
Edge Restraints
Many different types of edge restraint materials exist,
Including brick, rigid plastic, wood, stone, steel, aluminum
and concrete. Existing walls or structures may also be
used as an edge restraint. The particular application and
site conditions determine which material to use. Any of the
materials previously listed can be used in light traffic
applications. Only concrete, brick or stone embedded in
concrete, some varieties of rigid plastic, or metal should
be used in areas subjected to light or medium traffic.
Heavy traffic applications require cast-in-place concrete,
granite or curbs of equal strength. Asphalt or an asphalt
pavement does not provide adequate edge restraint for
paving subjected to vehicular traffic.
Edge restraints are necessary in mortarless brick
pavements as they hold the pavers together and prevent
spreading and movement of pavers due to horizontal traf-
fic loads. Intermediate restraints may be used within the
pavement when there is an interruption in the paving sur-
face or on sloped or curved areas. Intermediate restraints
will provide additional thrust resistance to traffic loads and
pavement creep.
Edge restraints are not necessary in mortared brick
paving but may be used for aesthetic reasons, to reduce
chipping of perimeter brick or to control landscaping. Any
of the edge restraint materials mentioned may be used.
Expansion Joints
Due to differential moisture and temperature changes,
allowances for movement of various materials which com-
prise the paving assembly should be considered.
Expansion joints are used in the brick paving to accom-
modate these movements. Expansion joint size and loca-
tion vary for each paving assembly relative to climate,
location, orientation, paving unit color and exposure to
solar radiation. Although there are numerous formulae
and guides for predicting the anticipated movement of
materials, proper joint placement often depends on expe-
rience gained from similar past paving applications, along
with good engineering judgment.
Mortarless brick paving usually has the ability to move
slightly and accommodate size changes. Consequently,
expansion joints in mortarless brick paving are not gener-
ally required.
Placement of expansion joints is critical in mortared
brick paving assemblies. Expansion joints in brick paving
which is bonded to the base must align with control joints
in the concrete base below. If this is not possible, a bond
break between the mortar setting bed and concrete slab
must be used. However, this may not be sufficient to pre-
vent cracking of the mortared brick paving near the con-
trol joint location. A typical expansion joint in mortared
brick paving is shown in Fig. 9.
In most cases, an expansion joint spacing of 16 ft (5
m) in exterior mortared brick paving is adequate.
Expansion joints in interior mortared brick paving may be
spaced a maximum of 24 ft (7 m) apart. However, these
distances are dependent on many factors and local condi-
tions including
 Expansion Joints
FIG. 9

those described above. Dimensions should be measured
at right angles to each other in order to keep the recom-
mended distances from being exceeded in either direc-
tion. Expansion joint material should be placed along fixed
objects such as drains or adjacent walls. Suggested
placement of expansion joints for mortared brick paving
are shown in Fig. 10.
Expansion joint filler materials must be highly com-
pressible and be durable when exposed to weather or
abrasion. Generally, paving joint fillers made of materials
such as polyethylene or premolded cellular elastomeric
rod are acceptable. Materials which do not easily com-
press, such as cork or asphaltic control joint fillers, are not
appropriate expansion joint fillers. The top of the joint is
sealed with an elastomeric sealant.

Typical Expansion Joint Placement in Mortared Brick Paving

FIG. 10

6
Membranes
Membranes are used in brick paving applications to
separate layers in a paving system, accommodate differ-
ential movement or serve as a waterproofing element.
Membrane materials include geotextiles, sheet mem-
branes and liquid membranes.
Flexible Base Pavements. In flexible base applica-
tions geotextiles may be used to separate layers. In some
cases, poor soil conditions may warrant the use of a geot-
extile to prevent subgrade soil from migrating upward into
the compacted subbase or base. In other cases an open-
graded, stone base may require a geotextile above it to
prevent the sand setting bed from filtering down through
the base. The opening size of the geotextile should be
small enough to prevent sand filtration. Geotextiles can
also be used to prevent erosion or used to reinforce the
subgrade. If used to reinforce the subgrade, the sections
of geotextile must be lapped a minimum distance. Consult
the geotextile manufacturer for specific recommendations.
Building felt and other impervious membranes should not
be used since they inhibit drainage.
Rigid Base Pavements. Mortared brick paving and
concrete bases have considerably different thermal and
moisture movements. In applications where the spacing
between expansion joints is larger than 16 ft (5 m), it is
important to break the bond between the rigid base and
the mortar setting bed by means of a membrane.
Polyethylene plastic sheets or building felt can be used as
the bond break. The bond break will allow the brick paving
surface to move independently of the base, but still permit
the paving system to provide the necessary transfer of
loads. Bond breaks should be used when the brick expan-
sion joint and concrete control joint are not aligned.
Waterproofing is used in roof deck applications where
it is important to prevent water penetration. The water-
proofing is often applied in liquid form but can also be
sheet membranes. Care should be taken to prevent dam-
age or penetrations to waterproofing membranes during
pavement construction. Technical Notes 14B provides
details for brick paving over roof decks.
Slip and Skid Resistance
The slip resistance characteristics of a paving surface
relate to pedestrian traffic, while skid resistance character-
istics relate to vehicular traffic. Slip and skid resistance
are measures of the slipperiness of a surface. A surface
with high slip or skid resistance is relatively safe, while a
low resistance may indicate a hazardous surface. Both
slip resistance and skid resistance are adversely affected
by water on the surface of the pavement.
It is the surprise of walking from a slip resistant sur-
face onto a wet or nonslip resistant surface that causes
many falls. Since the slip resistance relies on the micro-
texture of the paving brick, a brick with a rougher or wire
cut surface will have a higher slip resistance.
Skid resistance measures the potential of vehicles
skidding on the roadway surface. The skid resistance
depends upon the macrotexture of the paving surface.
Brick texture, joints between pavers and pavers with
chamfered edges have positive effects on the overall skid
7
resistance of the brick pavement. Skid resistance values
of brick pavers fall within the range of concrete and
asphalt pavements [5].
Over time, the skid resistance of all paving surfaces
decreases because of the polishing effect of traffic.. The
skid resistance of most brick paving is initially very high
and decreases while in use, approaching an equilibrium
condition after one year [8]. The skid resistance values
are also affected by seasonal factors.
Aesthetics
The visual impact of brick paving results from the
interplay of many factors including size, shape, pattern,
color and texture. An endless variety of bond patterns can
be achieved with brick paving. The most popular paving
patterns are shown in Fig. 11. These patterns may be laid
with or without mortar joints. Patterns such as herring-
bone, basketweave variations and some running/stack
bond combinations require brick pavers with lengths twice
its width when laid in mortarless brick paving. Two exam-
ples of paver sizes appropriate for mortarless paving bond
patterns are 4 in. (100 mm) by 8 in. (200 mm) and 3 3/4
in. (95 mm) by 7 1/2 in. (190 mm). For mortared brick
paving, nominal dimensions are often used where the
paving unit dimensions listed include the mortar joint
thickness. Thus, when laying out patterns with mortar
joints, it is best to use nominal dimensions.
Brick pavers are manufactured in a variety of colors
such as reds, browns, buffs, grays and others, including
ranges and blends of colors. The type of traffic on the
paving units should be considered when choosing color.
For example, a light colored brick will show dirt and stains
more than a darker colored brick. Also, color patterns can
serve a function. Two or more different colors can be used
to create patterns which guide traffic, such as marking
traffic lanes or parking spaces.
SUMMARY
This Technical Notes describes brick paving assem-
blies and covers their design and detailing. Critical design
concerns in brick paving systems include base prepara-
tion, drainage and load resistance. Pertinent design crite-
ria is provided to aid the development of a proper brick
paving system. The details provided in this Technical
Notes will provide an adequate pavement system for most
applications.
The information and suggestions contained in this
Technical Notes are based on the available data and the
experience of the engineering staff of the Brick Institute of
America. The information contained herein must be used
in conjunction with good technical judgment and a basic
understanding of the properties of brick masonry. Final
decisions on the use of the information contained in this
Technical Notes are not within the purview of the Brick
Institute of America and must rest with the project archi-
tect, engineer and owner.
 Brick Paving Patterns
FIG. 11

REFERENCES 7. Thickness Design for Concrete Highway and

1. Flexible Brick Pavements: Design and Installation Street Pavements, Portland Cement Association, Skokie,
Guide, Brick Institute of America, Reston, VA, 1991, 26 IL, 1984, 44 pp.
pp. 8. Walsh, I.D., The Use of Clay Pavers in the
2. Flexible Pavement Guide for Roads and Streets, Highway, Proceedings No. 44, Clay Paving Bricks, The
National Stone Association, Washington, DC. January Institute of Ceramics, Stoke-on-Trent, United Kingdom,
1985, 27 pp. November 1989, 8 pp.
3. Hammett, M., Smith, R.A., Rigid Paving with Clay
Pavers, BDA Design Note 8, Brick Development
Association, England, December 1988, 15 pp.
4. Knapton, J., Mavin, K.C., Clay Segmental
Pavements, Design Manual 1, Clay Brick and Paver
Institute, Australia, January 1989, 23 pp.
5. Kulakowski, B.T., Evaluation of the Frictional
Characteristics of Brick Pavers, Final Report submitted to
the Brick Institute of America, Pennsylvania
Transportation Institute, University Park, PA, November
1991, 57 pp.
6. Smith, R.A., Flexible Paving with Clay Pavers,
BDA Design Note 9, Brick Development Association,
England, October 1988, 12 pp.

8
 Technical Notes
on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
BRICK FLOORS AND PAVEMENTS
MATERIALS AND INSTALLATION
PART II OF III
Abstract: This Technical Notes describes the materials and installation methods used to
construct brick paving assemblies. Materials covered include brick, setting bed materials,
base materials and membranes. Installation procedures for flexible, semi-rigid and rigid base
paving assemblies are described. Maintenance issues are also discussed.
Key Words: brick, flexible pavements, installation, maintenance, mortared paving, mor-
tarless paving, paving, rigid pavements.
INTRODUCTION
The longevity of brick paving applications has been
proven through many years of successful in-service
performance. This performance is the result of proper
design, proper selection of materials and good work-
manship. Even though brick is the uppermost surface,
it is the base which requires the closest scrutiny and ad-
equate preparation for proper performance of the entire
system. However, all paving materials and layers
should be analyzed and constructed properly.
This Technical Notes deals with the proper selection
of materials and their installation. Guidance is also
provided for the maintenance of brick paving assem-
blies. Other Technical Notes in this series address de-
sign, detailing and special brick paving assemblies in-
cluding floors.
SELECTION OF MATERIALS
Brick
Paving brick selection is usually based on its weather
resistance, abrasion resistance, and appearance relating
to bond patterns, size and tolerances. Brick used in
paving applications should conform to ASTM C 902
Specification for Pedestrian and Light Traffic Paving
Brick or the proposed ASTM Specification for Heavy
Vehicular Paving Brick1.
Durability. For exterior pavements, resistance to de-
terioration due to freezing in the presence of moisture
is of the utmost importance. Repeated freezing and
thawing of moisture within a paving assembly can in-
crease the rate of deterioration and may result in crack-
ing or spalling of the units. The overall durability of
the pavement under these conditions is dependent upon
the quality of materials and the drainage efficiency of
1As of the date of this publication, this standard had not completed the ASTM consensus process.
14A
REVISED
January
1993
the pavement. See Technical Notes 14 Revised for in-
formation on drainage.
Three weathering classes found in ASTM C 902 are
SX, MX and NX. Class SX pavers are intended for use
where the brick may be frozen while saturated with wa-
ter. Class MX pavers are intended for exterior use
where freezing conditions are not present. Finally,
Class NX pavers are acceptable for interior use where
protected from freezing when wet. The durability of a
paving brick is measured using combinations of its
compressive strength, 24 hr cold water absorption and
saturation coefficient. Table 1 shows the physical prop-
erty requirements found in ASTM C 902 for durability
in each class.
Alternates to these requirements are also found in
ASTM C 902. The alternates include a maximum wa-
ter absorption, a 50 cycle freezing and thawing test, a
sulfate soundness test, and a performance alternate.
The maximum saturation coefficient in Table 1 is not
required when the average 24 hr cold water absorption
is less than 6 percent. The maximum saturation coeffi-
cient and maximum cold water absorption in Table 1
are not required when the brick passes the 50 cycle
freezing and thawing test. The sulfate soundness test is
used as an alternate test in place of the requirements of
Table 1. The performance alternate allows the manu-
facturer to furnish data showing that the units perform
well in a similar application of similar exposure and
traffic. The performance alternate must be found ac-
ceptable by the specifier. Alternates are provided in
ASTM C 902 because the performance of units is not
easily determined by limiting physical properties alone.
The use of alternates does not signify that the brick are
of a lower quality, but allows the use of units which are
known to have good performance.
 TABLE 1
Physical Property Requirements of Pedestrian and Light Traffic Paving Brick

Minimum Compressive Maximum 24 Hr Cold Maximum Saturation

Paver Strength, psi (MPa) Water Absorption, % Coefficient
Class
Avg. of 5 Brick Individual Avg. of 5 Brick Individual Avg. of 5 Brick Individual

8000 (56.2) 7000 (48.3) 8 11 0.78 0.80

SX
4000 (27.6)1 3500 (24.1)1 161 181 0.781 0.801

MX 3000 (20.7) 2500 (17.2) 14 17 no limit no limit

NX 3000 (20.7) 2500 (17.2) no limit no limit no limit no limit

1
Requirements for molded brick

Abrasion Resistance. Paving brick are exposed to
the continual abrasive effect of pedestrian and vehicu-
lar traffic. Of these two types of traffic, pedestrian traf-
fic can cause the most wear of the pavement surface.
The impact force of high-heeled shoes causes the high-
est degree of abrasion. Tires, without studs, do not
have such a drastic effect, although brick streets will
polish over time with repeated tire traffic.
Abrasion resistance is a measure of the resistance of
paving brick to the wearing action due to traff i c .
ASTM C 902 lists two ways in which the abrasion re-
sistance of brick pavers can be determined: 1) an abra-
sion index calculated by dividing the 24 hr cold water
absorption by the compressive strength (units of psi)
and then multiplying by 100, or 2) by the volume abra-
sion loss in accordance with ASTM C 418 Test Method
for Abrasion Resistance of Concrete by Sandblasting.
The abrasion requirements for pavers by traffic type are
shown in Table 2.
TABLE 2
Abrasion Requirements of Pedestrian and
Light Traffic Paving Brick
Maximum Volume
Maximum
Traffic Type Abrasion Loss,
Abrasion Index
cm3/cm2
I 0.11 1.7
II 0.25 2.7
III 0.50 4.0
after placement. Since both slip and skid resistance re-
ly on the microtexture of the paving brick, a brick with
a rougher texture such as a wire cut paver will provide
a higher slip and skid resistance.
There are no requirements for testing slip and skid
resistance in ASTM C 902, although there are methods
for testing skid resistance in the proposed ASTM Spec-
ification for Heavy Vehicular Paving Brick. The latter
specification references ASTM E 303 Method for Mea-
suring Surface Frictional Properties using the British
Pendulum Tester (BPT). Skid resistance values of new
brick pavers vary between 51 and 87 which fall within
the range of concrete and asphalt pavements. [4]
Dimensions. Brick pavers are available in a wide
range of sizes. The most commonly available sizes of
pavers are listed in Table 3. Some pavers used in mor-
tarless applications may have a small chamfer not ex-
ceeding 3⁄16 in. (5 mm) in depth or width, or rounded
edges with a radius less than 3⁄16 in. (5 mm). Chamfers
provide a better path for surface drainage along the
pavement surface, better slip and skid resistance and
reduce the amount of chippage along the top edges of
the brick during installation and use. The chamfer di-
mension is subtracted from the specified height when
determining the thickness of the pavement surface lay-
er for design. Pavers used in mortarless applications,
TABLE 3
Typical Specified Sizes or Brick Pavers
Width, in. (mm) Height, in. (mm) Length, in. (mm)

Slip and Skid Resistance. The slip resistance of a 4 (100) 11⁄2 (38) 8 (200)
paving surface is related to pedestrian traffic, while 4 (100) 21⁄4 (57) 8 (200)
skid resistance is related to vehicular traffic. Slip resis-
4 (100) 23⁄4 (70) 8 (200)
tance and skid resistance are measures of the slipperi-
ness of a paving surface. Slip resistance and skid resis- 35⁄8 (92) 11⁄4 (32) 75⁄8 (194)
tance are adversely affected by the accumulation of wa-
3 5⁄8 (92) 21⁄4 (57) 75⁄8 (194)
ter on the pavement surface. Over time, the skid resis-
tance of all paving surfaces decreases because of the 33⁄4 (95) 21⁄4 (57) 7 1⁄2 (191)
polishing effect of traffic. The skid resistance of most 75⁄8 (194) 21⁄4 (57) 75⁄8 (194)
brick is initially very high and decreases while in use,
approaching an equilibrium condition within one year 8 (200) 21⁄4 (57) 8 (200)

2
especially heavy vehicular pavements, may be made
with lugs or spacers. These lugs, usually 1⁄8 in. (3 mm)
in size, space the pavers apart and provide a controlled
gap for jointing sand. Lugs also keep the paver edges
from touching to reduce the amount of chippage during
compaction and use. Lugs should be included when
measuring the specified dimensions and when laying
out a paving pattern.
The dimensional tolerances for pavers from ASTM
C 902 are listed in Table 4. Dimensional tolerances are
more critical in mortarless brick paving applications
than in mortared brick paving applications since thin
sand joints cannot accommodate paver dimensional
variation as easily as thicker mortar joints. Brick with
larger dimensional variation will shift the alignment of
the pattern, making installation difficult in mortarless
herringbone and basketweave applications.
TABLE 4
Dimensional Tolerances of Brick Pavers
Minimum Permissible Variation +, in. (mm)
Application
Dimension, in.
PS PX PA
(mm)
3(76) and
1/8 (3.2) 1/16 (1.6) no limit
under
Over 3 to 4
(76 to 102) incl. 3/16 (4.7) 3/32 (4.7) no limit
Over 5 to 8
1/4 (6.4) 1/8 (3.2) no limit
(127 to 203) incl.
Salvaged Brick. The use of salvaged brick is gener-
ally not recommended for paving applications. This is
obviously true for used building or facing brick. The
durability of brick depends upon the properties of the
units. Generally speaking, salvaged brick will not be
uniformly durable when used in a pavement which is
exposed to weathering. Some older “vitrified brick
pavers” are extremely durable, but are often difficult to
distinguish from poor pavers. Only a paver’s past per-
formance can be used for comparison.
Setting Bed Materials
The setting bed, placed between the base and the
paving surface, functions as a leveling course to help
refine the finished grade due to slight irregularities in
the base or the units. Setting bed materials may be
sand, building felt, asphalt or mortar.
Sand. Sand used as the setting bed should be a
washed, well-graded angular sand with a maximum
particle size of about 3/16 in. (4.8 mm). Sand should
conform to either ASTM C 33 Specification for Con-
crete Aggregates or ASTM C 144 Specification for Ag-
gregate for Masonry Mortar. In setting beds thinner
than 1 in. (25 mm), smaller sand particles such as sands
conforming to ASTM C 144 should be used. In setting
beds thicker than 1 in. (25 mm) and all vehicular appli-
3
cations, sand conforming to ASTM C 33 should be
used. Naturally occurring silica sand should be used in
vehicular pavements.
The sand should be free of salts and other deleteri-
ous materials to avoid efflorescence or staining. The
use of dry sand-cement mixtures should be avoided.
Although cement may tend to keep the sand in place
initially, the mixture will likely break up in a short time
due to flexing of the paving system and weathering. In
addition, use of a sand-cement mixture makes removal
and reuse of the paving units more difficult.
Materials not suitable for use as the setting bed in-
clude sands with clay or dust in excess of that permit-
ted in ASTM C 33 or C 144. Also, fine limestone
screenings must not be used, since this material is nor-
mally too soft and may cause staining.
Building Felt. In residential pedestrian applications,
brick may be placed directly on an asphalt or concrete
base. In these applications, building felt may serve as a
cushion between the brick pavers and the base, and
compensate for minor dimensional variations in the
base or brick. Generally, two layers of No. 15 building
felt or one layer of No. 30 building felt is appropriate.
Building felt should conform to ASTM D 226 or
D 227.
Asphalt. Asphalt setting beds composed of aggre-
gate and asphaltic cement may be used. Proportions of
these materials are generally determined by specialty
contractors or the asphalt plant and are beyond the
scope of this Technical Notes; however, an asphalt set-
ting bed generally consists of 7% asphalt and 93%
sand. This mix is typically prepared and heated at an
asphalt plant before being delivered to the job. A tack
coat of neoprene modified asphalt should be placed on
top of the asphalt setting bed to help adhere the pavers
to the setting bed.
Mortar. Mortar setting beds are used in mortared
brick paving applications. Mortar should conform to
the proportion specifications of ASTM C 270 Specifi-
cation for Mortar for Unit Masonry or ANSI A118.4
Specification for Latex-Portland Cement Mortar when
a latex additive is used.
For exterior mortared brick paving on grade, Type M
mortar is preferred. Type M mortar consists of 1 part
portland cement, 1⁄4 part hydrated lime and 3 3⁄4 parts
sand; or 1 part Type M masonry cement and 3 parts
sand. Type S mortar may be used for exterior applica-
tions when the pavement is not in contact with the
earth, such as suspended diaphragms or in interior ap-
plications. Type S mortar consists of 1 part portland
cement, 1⁄2 part hydrated lime and 41⁄2 parts sand; or 1
part Type S masonry cement and 3 parts sand. Portland
cement should conform to ASTM C 150, Types I, II or
III. Masonry cement should conform to ASTM C 91,
Type M or S. Hydrated lime should conform to ASTM
C 207, Type S, and sand should conform to ASTM C
144. The thickness of the mortar setting bed may vary
from 3⁄8 in. to 1 in. (10 mm to 25 mm).
 Bond coats may be used between the concrete slab
and mortar setting bed. Bond coats consist of portland
cement mixed to a creamy consistency with water or a
latex additive. The bond coat is used to create im-
proved bond between the concrete slab and the mortar
setting bed. It is installed as the setting bed and pavers
are laid, and should not exceed 1⁄16 in. (2 mm).
Latex-portland cement mortars improve bond
strength, reduce water absorption and provide greater
durability than conventional mortars. These mortars
should be used in applications such as heavy vehicular
traffic pavements or pavements where proper drainage
is not possible. Latex-portland cement mortars are also
useful in mortared brick paving over a suspended di-
aphragm and are typically used in thin-set mortar appli-
cations. Latex additives are water emulsions which are
added to and may replace all or part of the mixing wa-
ter. It is advisable to check latex-modified mortar and
brick compatibility with respect to bond strength by
preconstruction testing.
Jointing Materials
Materials used between brick pavers may be mortar
or sand. Mortared brick paving uses mortar between
the pavers. This mortar should be the same as the mor-
tar used for the setting bed. In mortarless brick paving,
the sand which is placed between the pavers should
conform to ASTM C 144 (mason’s sand). However,
the maximum particle size should not be larger than the
joint size. Typically, 1⁄8 in. (3 mm) joints are used in
mortarless brick paving. The sand should be clean and
washed with no deleterious materials. When mortar-
less brick paving is used on slopes or in areas where
jointing sand may be washed out, a portland cement-
sand mixture can be used. This mixture should be used
with caution as it often stains pavers during installation
and makes their reuse difficult. If a sand-cement mix-
ture is necessary, it should consist of 1 part portland ce-
ment and 6 parts sand.
Base and Subbase Materials
Base and subbase materials consist of crushed aggre-
gate, gravel, sand, asphalt or concrete. Suspended di-
aphragms are usually made of concrete, steel or wood.
Asphalt and concrete bases often require an aggregate
subbase. Some flexible bases may require a subbase
because of heavy traffic loads or poor subgrade condi-
tions.
Aggregate Bases and Subbases. Crushed, quarry-
processed aggregate is often used as a base material be-
cause of its availability, ease of use in construction and
good performance. Naturally-occurring gravel may al-
so be used if it meets proper gradation requirements.
The maximum size of aggregate used in construction
depends upon the size of the project and the size of the
compaction equipment being used. Proper gradation of
materials is required to achieve adequate compaction.
Gradation should conform to ASTM D 2940 for heavy
traffic applications, while smaller projects can simply
4
require aggregate graded down from 3⁄4 in. (19 mm) in
size. Aggregates are produced from different raw ma-
terials and are called different names in different parts
of the country. Therefore, aggregate should be speci-
fied by gradation rather than by name.
Either dense graded or open graded aggregate may
be used, although dense graded crushed aggregate de-
velops a stronger, more impervious base. Open graded
aggregate is often used in areas of poor drainage or in
areas subjected to frost heave. If an open graded ag-
gregate base is used beneath a sand setting bed, a geo-
textile must be used to prevent sand from filtering into
the base.
In residential pedestrian applications, sand bases can
be used when the subgrade is compacted or bearing on
undisturbed earth, and in areas where frost heave is not
a consideration. Sand should conform to ASTM C 33
(concrete sand) and be clean and free of deleterious
materials. Salts in the sand will often wick up through
the brick, showing efflorescence on the surface.
Asphalt Bases. New or existing asphalt bases may
be used to support brick paving. Major defects such as
cracks or holes in existing asphalt bases should be re-
paired prior to installation of brick. A membrane can
be placed over an existing asphalt base to strengthen
the pavement and prevent the sand setting bed from
sifting through cracks in the asphalt. The specification
of asphalt for bases is beyond the scope of this Techni -
cal Notes, but the asphalt should conform to ASTM D
3515 (hot-mixed asphalt), ASTM D 4215 (cold-mixed
asphalt) or local codes.
Concrete Bases. New and existing concrete bases
may be used for brick paving. New concrete should be
installed following recommended concrete practices.
Where a mortar setting bed is bonded to a new concrete
slab, a rough textured finish should be used such as that
produced by a screed or wood float. Concrete bases
should be properly cured before the brick pavers are in-
stalled. If brick paving is placed over existing con-
crete, the concrete should be sound, with major cracks
properly repaired. A geotextile can be used to bridge
cracks when using a sand setting bed to prevent sand
from sifting into the cracks. The specification of con-
crete for bases is beyond the scope of this Technical
Notes, but should conform to local codes.
Membranes
Membranes are used in brick paving applications to
separate layers in a paving system, accommodate dif-
ferential movement or serve as a waterproofing ele-
ment. Membrane materials include geotextiles, sheet
membranes and liquid membranes.
Geotextiles or geosynthetics are used to separate
pavement layers while still allowing drainage. They
are composed of various types of fibers that are either
woven or nonwoven. Thickness, permeability, elonga-
tion, grab strength, burst pressure and durability are
properties of geotextiles which should be examined for
their suitability in brick paving applications. The spec-
ification of geotextiles is beyond the scope of this
Technical Notes. Geotextile manufacturers should be
consulted on the suitability of their product in a partic-
ular brick paving application.
Sheet membranes are often used as bond breaks or
waterproofing membranes. Materials such as building
felt, PVC, polyethylene or other proprietary mem-
branes can be used in brick paving applications. Felt
should conform to ASTM D 226 or D 227. Strength
and thickness of these materials should be such that
they will resist punctures.
Liquid-applied membranes are often used to water-
proof decks and may be used as bond breaks. When
used to waterproof, liquid-applied membranes should
be self-adhered to the base to minimize migration of
water caused by leaks. Application and thickness of
the liquid membranes should follow the manufacturer’s
recommendations.
INSTALLATION AND WORKMANSHIP
One factor which has a great impact on the perfor-
mance of brick pavements is workmanship. Proper
preparation and compaction of the base is absolutely
critical. There are numerous ways to install brick
pavements which vary by region. The recommenda-
tions in this Technical Notes are based on experience
and provide a minimum level of workmanship neces-
sary for satisfactory performance.
Subgrade Preparation
One element common to all paving assemblies is the
soil or subgrade. In preparation for the base or sub-
base, the subgrade should be excavated to the proper
elevation, deleterious materials removed, and the sub-
grade compacted. If subsurface drainage is required,
drain pipes should be installed and be properly back-
filled. The entire subgrade should be compacted to 90-
95% maximum density.
Flexible Base Systems
Only mortarless brick paving should be placed over
flexible bases. Generally, flexible bases are the most
economical type of base to install. Proper construction
of the subbase, sand setting bed and brick pavers is
necessary to ensure good performance.
Subbase and Base Preparation. The subbase and
base materials should be spread and compacted in lay-
ers. The thickness of these layers must be consistent
with the capabilities of the compaction equipment.
Heavy compaction equipment such as vibratory rollers
may be necessary when constructing a street with
crushed stone, whereas a plate vibrator may be used
when constructing a sand base for a residential patio.
Each material should be placed and compacted in lay-
ers no greater than 4 in. (100 mm). It is essential that
the intended surface profile of the pavement is formed
by the base so the pavers can be placed on a uniform
thickness of bedding sand.
5
If a geotextile is used, it should be placed after com-
paction of the subgrade or base. The geotextile should
be placed smooth and be overlapped a minimum of 12
in. (300 mm) at its ends. The geotextile should be
lapped further in conditions such as poor soils. The
geotextile should be placed so that the material entirely
covers the base and extends up the side of the excavat-
ed area to contain the setting bed material. Construc-
tion equipment should be kept off of the geotextile.
Check the geotextile manufacturer’s literature for fur-
ther installation recommendations.
Edge restraints should be placed before base installa-
tion if the restraint is anchored below the base. The
edge restraint should be installed after base compaction
if it is intended to be anchored into the base. In the lat-
ter case, the base should extend at least 6 in. (150 mm)
past the end of brick paving above.
Setting Bed Preparation. The setting bed material
should be spread over the base in a uniform thickness.
A screed board is often used to spread the sand. The
setting bed is not meant to and should not be used to
fill in low spots nor its thickness adjusted to bring the
pavement to the correct grade. Any changes in thick-
ness or undulations in the sand will reflect on the pave-
ment surface. To prevent disturbance of the sand it
should not be spread too far in front of the laying face
of the pavers. Prepared setting bed materials left
overnight should be properly protected from distur-
bance and moisture. The moisture content of the sand
during installation should be as uniform as possible,
with the material moist but not saturated. Stockpiled
sand should be kept covered to prevent contamination.
Paver Installation. Pavers should be laid in the de-
sired bond pattern with a 1⁄16 to 1⁄8 in. (2 to 3 mm) aver-
age joint width. The term “handtight” is a misnomer
since sand between the pavers is desired. The joint
width should not exceed 1⁄4 in. (6 mm).
String lines or chalk lines may be used to keep the
pattern aligned. Whole pavers should be laid first, fol-
lowed by pavers cut to size. All pavers should be cut
with a masonry saw to produce an accurate, clean,
straight cut. A trial area may be laid out in advance of
work to determine paver positions and minimize the
amount of cutting required.
In pedestrian paving applications, jointing sand may
be swept into the joints. In some pedestrian and all
vehicular paving applications, the brick should be
vibrated into place using a mechanical plate
vibrator/compactor. Compaction of the brick forms a
more stable surface and promotes interlock between the
sand and pavers. If a vibrator is used, the first pass of
the vibrator should be prior to the spreading of jointing
sand to force bedding sand into the joints from below.
On subsequent vibrator passes, jointing sand is spread
across the surface before compaction. Several passes
of the vibrator may be necessary to fill the joints.
Compaction should not occur within 3 ft (0.9 m) of any
unrestrained edge.
Semi-Rigid Base System
Only mortarless brick paving should be placed over
a semi-rigid asphalt base. Typically, an asphalt base is
supported by an aggregate subbase. Each material lay-
er is compacted as placed. An asphalt or bituminous
setting bed is placed over the base. Usually delivered
hot from the plant, the asphalt setting bed is rolled to a
3
⁄4 in. (19 mm) depth. A tack coat of 2% neoprene-
modified asphalt adhesive should be applied by a mop,
squeegee or trowel on top of the asphalt setting bed.
This tack coat should be very thin, not exceeding 1⁄16 in.
(2 mm), to avoid pumping of the material between the
pavers and onto the surface when hot. When the tack
coat is dry to the touch, paving units may be laid in the
desired bond pattern. After brick placement, sand
should be swept into the joints.
Rigid Base Systems
Both mortarless and mortared brick paving systems
may be laid over a rigid concrete base. Concrete bases
may or may not be laid over an aggregate subbase de-
pending upon the application and traffic. Typically,
the concrete base should cure a minimum of seven days
before installation of the setting bed and pavers.
In mortarless applications, a sand or asphalt setting
bed is laid directly on top of the concrete base. A 1⁄2 in.
(13 mm) sand setting bed or 3⁄4 in. (19 mm) asphalt set-
ting bed is used. A thin tack coat is applied to the as-
phalt setting bed. Membranes can be laid directly on
the concrete base, but only after the base has cured
p r o p e r l y. The pavers are laid and jointing sand is
swept into the joints.
When pavers are installed with mortar, standard
bricklaying or tile setting procedures should be
followed. The preferred method of mortar placement is
with a trowel. The concrete base should be clean and
slightly dampened, but be surface dry immediately
prior to placing the mortar setting bed. The setting bed
is laid in the desired thickness, no more than 2 ft (0.6
m) ahead of the laying of the paving units. Brick
pavers should be buttered with mortar on the bottom
and edges and shoved into the mortar setting bed. The
joints between the units should be completely filled to
minimize moisture penetration. Joints should be tooled
with a concave jointer when the mortar becomes
thumbprint hard.
When installing thin pavers, a thin mortar bed is
used. As with full pavers, the concrete base is cleaned
and dampened. However, a bond coat is applied to the
concrete base prior to installation of the setting bed.
The mortar setting bed and thin pavers are immediately
installed on top of the bond coat.
If care is exercised during mortar installation, cleaning
can be avoided or kept to a minimum. Burlap bags rubbed
over the surface or wet sand swept over the surface may
remove some mortar droppings which are still soft. If
cleaning is necessary, use procedures and cleaning
solutions recommended in Technical Notes 20 Revised.
6
Avoid the use of acid solutions when possible.
An alternate method of installation of full or thin
pavers involves placing pavers on a mortar setting bed
and leaving a space the size of a mortar joint between
the units for a grout mixture. A grout mixture with
proportions of cement, lime and sand the same as the
appropriate mortar but with greater flow is used. The
grout is poured, injected or squeegeed into the joints
after the pavers have set in the mortar. The joints are
tooled to a concave finish when the grout is thumbprint
hard. When grout is placed in the joints in this manner,
special care must be taken to protect the units from
grout stains. Pavers may have their top surface coated
with paraffin or wax before they are laid. Failure to
coat the pavers will result in stains on pavers that are
difficult to remove. Coated pavers may be special
ordered from the brick manufacturer, or the coating
may be applied at the jobsite. The paraffin or wax
should have a melting point between 150 and 170°F
(66 and 77°C). Experience has shown that materials
with lower melting points are often affected by hot
sunlight, while those with higher melting points are
difficult to remove. While applying the coating, care
must be taken to prevent the edges or joint surfaces of
the pavers from becoming coated since the edges must
be clean for proper bond. The pavement should be
steam cleaned soon after the mortar in the joints has
cured.
Pavement Tolerances
The maximum variation from plane of the pavement
surface should be + 3⁄8 in. in 10 ft ( + 10 mm in 300
mm). The edges of any two adjacent pavers should not
d i ffer by more than 1⁄1 6 in. (2 mm) in height for
mortarless brick paving or 1⁄8 in. (3 mm) for mortared
brick paving. Pavers adjacent to drainage inlets and
channels should not be lower than the top of the drain
and not be more than 3⁄16 in. (5 mm) above it.
MAINTENANCE
Although brick paving surfaces are very durable,
some routine maintenance may be necessary.
Snow Removal
Snow removal from brick pavements should not
present any particular problem. It can be removed by
plowing, blowing or brushing away the snow. When
using plows or shovels there are precautionary
measures that can be taken to preserve the surface
character of the brick. Metal blades should be rubber
tipped or mounted on small rollers. The blade edge
should be adjusted to a clearance height suitable for the
pavement surface. Avoid the use of any chemicals
containing rock salt to aid in melting ice. Use of these
materials may cause efflorescence. A product called
urea is used to melt ice at many airports without
causing efflorescence. Otherwise, remove snow before
it can be compacted or turn to ice. To render icy
surfaces passable, use clean sand on the icy areas.
Efflorescence
Many times efflorescence, a white powdery sub-
stance produced by soluble salts, is unavoidable on a
paving surface. Deicers used on adjacent areas may be
deposited onto the brick pavement, soluble salts may
be present within paving system components or salts
may migrate from adjacent soils. Therefore, proper
drainage and maintenance are especially critical to re-
duce the amount of efflorescence. If efflorescence
does appear on the paving surface, natural weathering
or traffic will usually eliminate it. See Technical Notes
23 Series for more information of efflorescence.
Coatings
Coatings or sealers are often desirable on interior
brick floors to facilitate cleaning. Coatings on exterior
brick pavements are not recommended unless the coat-
ing has been proven to perform on exterior brick pave-
ments. Coatings generally have two purposes, to lock
loose sand in the joints for mortarless paving and to
prevent staining and facilitate cleaning. Coatings used
to prevent jointing sand erosion should be applied to
the joints only. All coatings used in exterior applica-
tions must have a high vapor transmission rate and not
adversely affect the slip resistance of the pavement.
Before any coating is applied, the pavement surface
should be fully dry and clean. The choice of any coat-
ing should be based on its intended result.
Repairs
Repointing of mortar joints may be necessary due to
deterioration of the mortar. Procedures given in Tech -
nical Notes 7F should be followed. A stronger repoint-
ing mix is recommended for paving applications than
for wall applications. Type S mortar is usually suffi-
cient to provide good durability as a repointing mortar.
At some time, a brick pavement or utilities under the
pavement may have to be repaired. In mortared brick
paving, units and base materials that are removed
should be discarded and not used again. The returned
fill and subbase should be well compacted and the new
base poured in place. The mortar and pavers should be
replaced using techniques similar to those described for
new construction.
In making repairs on flexible brick pavements, the
paving brick may be reused. A single unit is removed
initially, preferably with a purpose-made tool to pre-
vent damage of the paver. Adjacent pavers may subse-
quently be removed and stacked nearby to be used
again if not damaged. Temporary edge restraints
should be placed at the perimeter of the exposed area to
minimize creeping of the pavement. At all times, ve-
hicular traffic should be kept at least 6 ft (2 m) away
from the work edges. Proper compaction of the new or
returned fill material is very important. Fill material
should be brought up to the proper level and compact-
ed. If the area is too small to permit proper com-
paction, self-stabilized materials such as concrete
7
should be used. One to two ft (0.3 to 0.6 m) of pavers
around the perimeter of the excavated area should be
removed so that accurate levels can be established from
undisturbed work. The sand setting bed should be
screeded and compacted. A thin layer of sand should
be screeded on top of the setting bed to bring the set-
ting bed to the proper level. The pavers are then re-laid
in the correct bond pattern. If creep of the pavement
has occurred during repairs, some units may have to be
saw cut to fit, although temporary edge restraints
should avoid excessive creep. Jointing sand should be
spread over the top of the pavers and the system vibrat-
ed to the finished level with a plate compactor if appro-
priate.
SUMMARY
This Technical Notes describes the proper selection
of materials and installation methods for brick paving
assemblies. The importance of proper installation can-
not be stressed enough for pavement performance and
longevity. Information on maintenance of brick paving
assemblies is also provided.
The information and suggestions contained in this
Technical Notes are based on the available data and the
experience of the engineering staff of the Brick Insti-
tute of America. The information contained herein
must be used in conjunction with good technical judg-
ment and a basic understanding of the properties of
brick masonry. Final decisions on the use of the infor-
mation contained in this Technical Notes are not within
the purview of the Brick Institute of America and must
rest with the project architect, engineer and owner.
REFERENCES
1. American National Standard Specifications for
the Installation of Ceramic Tile, Tile Council of
America, Princeton, NJ, 1985, 57 pp.
2. Flexible Brick Pavements: Design and Installa -
tion Guide, Brick Institute of America, Reston,
VA, 1991, 26 pp.
3. Harris, C.W. and Dines, N.T., Time-Saver Stan -
dards for Landscape Architecture, McGraw-Hill
Book Co., New York, NY, 1988.
4. Kulakowski, B.T., Evaluation of the Frictional
Characteristics of Brick Pavers, Final Report
submitted to the Brick Institute of America,
Pennsylvania Transportation Institute, University
Park, PA, November 1991, 57 pp.
 Technical Notes
on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
BRICK FLOORS AND PAVEMENTS
PART III OF III
INTRODUCTION
Technical Notes 14 Revised and 14A Revised, Parts I
and II of this three part series deal with general consider-
ations, classifications, materials selection, design factors,
types of installations and suggested paving design
assemblies. This issue of Technical Notes will discuss
assemblies and installation techniques pertaining to spe-
cial paving applications.
Brick paving may be adapted to suspended
diaphragm bases, reinforced brick structural slabs with
conventional mortars and installations using high-bond
latex modified mortars. This issue of Technical Notes will
discuss these applications and suggest ways of cleaning
and maintaining brick floors.
SUSPENDED DIAPHRAGM BASES
To assure long term performance on a roof deck or
suspended plaza, certain special design factors must be
considered to minimize the risk of deterioration. A roof
deck plaza application generally must be structurally
sound, esthetically appealing, durable and economical to
install. Consequently, there are special moisture, thermal
and structural considerations inherent in this type of appli-
cation.
Moisture. To insure an effective waterproofing sys-
tem, it becomes necessary to give proper attention to
base and counter flashing details of parapet walls as well
as to the selection of the proper type of horizontal mem-
brane.
For mortarless paving, adequate drainage is very
important to prevent damage to or displacement of pavers
due to water and/or frost action. Sloping membranes in
conjunction with porous base layers will permit water to
percolate or run freely to roof drains. Special all-level roof
drains are available which will handle both pavement sur-
face and subsurface water (see Fig. 1).
Consideration should be given to horizontal differen-
tial movement between structural concrete slabs and the
waterproofing membrane. Built-up bituminous mem-
branes generally have non-elastic properties. Seamless
liquid waterproofing and rubber sheet membranes are
usually elastic in behavior and are capable of adjusting to
horizontal differential movement that may occur in the
supporting base.
Thermal Considerations. The thermal aspects of
Originally published in Nov/Dec 1975, this Technical Notes has been reviewed and reissued with editorial changes.
14B
Reissued*
September
1988
roof terraces are similar to those of normal roofs. The
position of roof insulation is important with respect to the
temperature variation of each element in a paved roof
assembly. Under many conditions it is advantageous to
place insulation directly over membrane waterproofing
when considering thermal and condensation effects.
Generally speaking, roof deck insulation should be of
a non-rotting, moisture resistant, closed-cell type of mater-
ial capable of retaining its thermal resistance in the pres-
ence of water. Traffic loadings may be supported on insu-
lation materials in a deck assembly provided the insula-
tion material is structurally adequate.
Brick pavers like all materials change dimensionally
with changes in temperature. A slip plane between
pavers and a waterproofing membrane is recommended
to avoid disruption of the membrane. For example, it may
consist of a porous gravel cushion, asphalt impregnated
protection board or other materials capable of withstand-
ing both horizontal abrasive movement and vertical traffic
loadings.
Structural Considerations. The structural design of
a suspended base should follow normal accepted design
procedures. The dead weight of brick pavers combined
with other materials and design conditions, such as live
loads, vibration and impact from traffic, should be consid-
ered. For structural design purposes, the dead weight of
mortared or mortarless brick pavers may be taken at
approximately 10 psf per inch of thickness. Since brick
pavers are available in various thicknesses, their total
weight will vary. The most popular pavers mentioned in
Part I are 1 5/8 in. to 2 1/4 in. thick, weighing approxi-
mately 16 to 22 psf, respectively.
In residential wood joist design, consideration must be
given to the additional weight of brick pavers. It will be
necessary to consult a structural design loading table for
wood joists and select a suitable grade and joist size. A
good reference manual is "Wood Structural Design Data"
by the National Forest Products Association (NFPA). The
subfloor thickness and grade should also be checked for
structural adequacy for supporting brick pavers.
For mortared paving, diaphragm action becomes
important in order to maintain the integrity of mortar joints.
Deflection should be limited to l/600 of the span for
mortared paving and l/360 for flexible paving.
 FIG. 1 FIG. 2
Reinforced Structural Concrete Slab Reinforced Brick Masonry

FIG. 3
Corrugated Sheet Steel -- Reinforced Brick Masonry Slab Assembly

to 250 psf. A 2 1/4-in. thick brick slab may be designed to

REINFORCED CONSTRUCTION
Reinforced brick paving can be used to span an open
space or for use over a fill which may tend toward uneven
settlement. Reinforcement of the masonry can eliminate
the necessity for a separate reinforced concrete slab or
other rigid base.
Reinforced brick masonry slabs are practical, espe-
cially over relatively short spans. They are capable of sat-
isfying design loadings for pedestrian and vehicular traffic.
Model building codes stipulate live loads ranging from 50
2
support a 50 psf live load, spanning almost 6 ft [Fig. 2(a)]. Also,
using the same strength brick and mortar, but by
simply turning a unit on edge to increase the slab's thickness, the
design load capacity can be doubled (100 psf) and the span
increased to over 7 ft [Fig. 2(b)].
The design of reinforced brick masonry slabs, as shown in
Table 1, is based on a rational analysis and the Standard, Building
Code Requirements for Engineered Brick Masonry, BIA(SCPI),
August 1969. For additional information on the design of reinforced
brick masonry slabs, the 17 Series of BIATechnical Notes on Brick
 a
TABLE 1
Reinforced Brick Masonry Slabs

Maximum Clear Span

Live Load t= 2 1/4” t= 3 1/2” t= 6 1/4”
1 #2 each joint 1 #2 each joint 1 #3 every 3rd joint
(psf)
1#2 remaining joints
(Fig. 2(a)) (Fig. 2(b)) (Fig. 2(c))

30 6’-10” 10’-5” 14’-5”

40 6’-3” 9’-9” 13’-8”
50 5’-10” 9’-2” 13’-1”
100 4’-6” 7’-3” 10’-11”
250 1’-10” 5’-0” 7’-10”

Construction contain design examples and calculation procedures.

a
Note: Design parameters for the above Table 1 are as follows: The brick com-
FIG. 4
pressive strength average is 8000 psi. The mortar is type M (1:1/4:3), portland
cement-lime and sand. Reinforcement steel is ASTM A 82-66, fs = 20,000 psi. A
Reinforced Structural Concrete Slab
simple span loading condition was assumed stresses were lower than now permitted. This per-
2
(M = wl ). haps explains why such a large factor of safety was
8
All mortar joints are 1/2 in. thick for the slabs shown, except as noted.
exhibited.)

Brick on Sheet Steel Forms. A variation of rein- HIGH-BOND MORTARED PAVEMENT

forced brick construction utilizes corrugated sheet steel as General. Rigid brick paving installed with high-bond
a base. The steel serves as combined form and reinforc- mortar may be generally more resistant to water penetra-
ing and can provide an economical solution to the prob- tion than paving with conventional mortars. This advan-
lem of constructing brick floors over open spans. For tage is primarily the result of higher bonding characteris-
continuous spans, negative steel is placed in grouted tics between the mortar and brick unit.
mortar joints. Brick are placed on a bed of mortar and
SUGGESTED BRICK PAVING DESIGN
vertical joints are filled with mortar or grout (Fig. 3).
ASSEMBLIES
A number of years ago, the Research and
The following assemblies illustrate how brick paving
Development Department, Granco Steel Products Co.,
can be adapted to suspended diaphragm bases of various
tested this method of construction to "determine the feasi-
types. These support bases may consist of reinforced
bility of using 24-gauge Cofar (Cofar is the trade name for
brick masonry slabs, reinforced concrete slabs, steel
combined form and reinforcing corrugated sheet steel pro-
decking, and wood framing.
duced by the Granite City Steel Corp., Granite City,
Illinois) on 14-ft spans, using bricks, mortar and steel act-
Figure 1 -- Reinforced Structural Concrete Slab.
ing compositely to give a structurally sound floor slab."
This assembly is suitable for exterior pedestrian traffic.
Brick were standard size, dry-press, red brick with an
The pea gravel percolation layer will permit rapid drainage
average compressive strength of 7800 psi. The mortar
to occur, thus preventing possible damage from freeze-
was ASTM C 270, type M, of portland cement and hydrat-
thaw cycles of trapped water. The protection board
ed lime. The steel form was of 24 gauge corrugated
should be at least 1/8 in. in thickness and of asphalt
sheet steel (4.25-in. pitch, 1.2-in. depth) with positive rein-
impregnated material.
forcement.
Figure 2 -- Reinforced Brick Masonry Slab. The
The test specimen was approximately 17 in. wide and
various types of reinforced brick masonry slabs, as illus-
5 1/2 in. deep over two continuous 14-ft spans. Test
trated, can support a wide range of live load conditions as
loads consisted of various increments of uniform and con-
shown in Table 1. Reinforced brick masonry slabs elimi-
centrated loads on combinations of one and two spans at
nate the need for other types of support bases.
a time. Repeated concentrated loads were applied and
Figure 3 -- Corrugated Sheet Steel -- Reinforced
relieved for as many as 500,000 cycles.
Brick Masonry Slab Assembly. This assembly com-
Conclusions to the test report emphasized three perti-
bines both reinforced brick masonry and steel decking,
nent points:
constructed with positive and negative reinforcing steel for
1. The brick slab had adequate stiffness and
continuous span applications.
minimal deflections.
Figure 4 -- Reinforced Structural Concrete Slab.
2. Fatigue failure did not occur.
This assembly is suitable for exterior pedestrian traffic and
3. Failure occurred only when the actual uniform
utilizes a bituminous leveling bed.
load exceeded 7 times the design load. (Granco
Figure 5 -- Reinforced Structural Concrete Slab.
engineers designed for 50 psf superimposed loads.
This assembly, utilizing conventional build-up roofing, can
When this specimen was tested, allowable design
be easily adapted to flexible brick paving suitable for out-
3
 FIG. 5
Reinforced Structural Concrete Slab
door pedestrian traffic.
Figure 6 -- Steel Deck Base. This type of construc-
tion may be designed as a non-rated or rated fire resistive
assembly. Figure 6 illustrates only the general material
composition. For specific types of fire resistive assem-
blies consult Factory Mutual and Underwriters'
Laboratories.
Figure 7 -- Wood Framing Assembly. This assem-
bly is suitable for mortarless paving used in residential
frame construction.
Figure 8 -- Wood Framing Assembly. This assem-
bly is suitable for mortared paving used in residential
frame construction.
INSTALLATION AND WORKMANSHIP
There are certain factors that the designer should be
aware of before a final design is selected. These factors
will be discussed in relation to Figs. 1 through 8.
Drains and Waterproofing. For suspended decks
where control of surface drainage is important, all level
drains and waterproofing membranes (Fig. 1) should be
installed in strict accordance with the manufacturers'
instructions and specifications.
Insulation. In Fig. 4, the insulation is required to sup-
port a specific design live load and also must be capable
of withstanding the temperatures transferred through the
protection board from the application of hot bitumen.
Consequently, one installer of this system suggests that
the insulation be capable of withstanding a minimum tem-
perature of 300˚F (149˚C).
In Fig. 6, the insulation is usually installed in steep
asphalt. If the roofing assembly's wearing surface is tem-
porary in nature, the insulation may be laid loose and
removed later for reuse. If a temporary installation is
desired, the possibility of uplift due to high winds should
be considered.
Mortar. High-bond and latex modified portland
cement mortars vary among manufacturers. Therefore,
instructions for their installation should be carefully fol-
lowed. When mortar joints are thumb-print hard, they
should be properly tooled. Various types of conventional
4
FIG. 6
Steel Decking Base
portland cement-lime mortars are discussed in Part I.
Reinforced Brick Masonry Slabs. Brick masonry
slabs spanning open spaces are constructed on forms
with brick units spaced accordingly, to allow for proper
joint thickness. Mortar is used to seal the bottom of the
joint and also to serve as a support for reinforcing steel.
After the steel is placed, all the joints are grouted. To
insure complete filling of the joints, the grout should be
carefully puddled. More detailed suggestions for con-
structing RBM soffits are given in Technical Notes 36,
Revised, "Brick Masonry Details, Sills and Soffits.”
CLEANING
To facilitate cleanup of high-bond mortar or grouted
installations, brick pavers may be prewaxed on the
exposed face with a good grade of paraffin. The paraffin
should have a melting range between 150 ˚F (66 ˚C) and
170 ˚F (77˚C). Experience has shown that paraffins with
lower melting points are often affected by hot sunlight,
while those with higher melting points are difficult to
remove. Prewaxed pavers utilized in conjunction with
conventionally grouted joints will also be easier to clean.
While waxing the pavers, care must be exerted to prevent
the edges or joint surfaces from becoming smeared with
paraffin. The edges must remain clean for proper bond.
When cleaning high-bond mortared pavement, it is
recommended that cleaning be executed as soon as pos-
sible after the mortar joints have been allowed to cure.
Due to high bond characteristics of this mortar, the pave-
ment surface should not be left uncleaned for longer than
three weeks.
Steam cleaning is effective in melting the paraffin
coating and lifting excess mortar. Drains should be pro-
tected from clogging by floating wax. A visual inspection
after cleaning may reveal problem areas requiring scrap-
ing or light brushing with a wire brush.
Generally speaking, if care is exercised during mortar
application, cleaning can be avoided or held to a mini-
mum. Mortarless installations should require little or a
minimum amount of attention. On conventionally
mortared installations, wet sand swept over the surface
 FIG. 7
Wood Framing Assembly
will often remove mortar droppings. Burlap bags may
also be used to remove excess mortar as the mason pro-
gresses. If dry cleaning or hosing with water fails to flush
the surface clean, use a cleaning solution and the proce-
dures in Technical Notes 20, Revised, "Cleaning Brick
Masonry". Avoid the use of strong acid solutions where
possible. Strong acids can dissolve mortar from the joints
and kill grass and shrubbery. They may also cause "acid
burn" discolorations on the brick paving. When applied in
confined spaces, provide sufficient ventilation to dilute the
harmful effects of acid fumes.
CURING AND PROTECTION OF
BRICK MASONRY PAVING
It is suggested that rigid or mortared paving be
allowed to set in an undisturbed condition for a period of
at least 3 days. Afterwards, light pedestrian traffic is per-
missible with protection afforded to the paving as
required. Protect from staining and light impact loads
through the use of large sheets of plywood or hardboard.
Full service of the pavement should be avoided until the
masonry has cured a minimum of 28 days.
For guidelines on cold weather protection, refer to the
Technical Notes 1 Series, "All Weather Construction" and
Technical Notes 11A Revised, "Guide Specifications for
Brick Masonry,” Section 1.05.C.
Flexible brick pavement requires no curing time.
However, before sweeping sand into the joints, spread
damp sand in thin layers and permit it to dry. Sand must
be clean and free of clay to avoid surface "scumming" of
the finished paving.
MAINTENANCE
Brick floors and pavements are usually abrasion resis-
tant and hard wearing. Therefore, they normally do not
require coatings to maintain surface appearance.
However, coatings and waxes are often desirable on inte-
rior brick floors to enhance their appearance and make
the surfaces easier to clean. Coatings on exterior brick
pavement are not recommended. For interior brick there
5
FIG. 8
Wood Framing Assembly
are a few aspects to be considered before applying any
type of coating.
In the past it has been recommended that a sealer be
applied before waxing. In many cases this has proven
satisfactory. However, sealer and wax compatibility
should be checked prior to final application.
Sealers generally have two purposes: (1) to lock
loose sand in the cracks, and (2) provide an impervious
finish. If a sealer is to be used, it should be tried on a
small area and evaluated before full application. A com-
patible wax should be selected, preferably a water emul-
sion type recommended for brick floors.
Before a coating is applied, the floor surface should
be dry. Each maintenance situation, whether it be with a
sealer and wax or a synthetic sealer-finish material
(spray-buffing process), must be judged on its own merits
to determine the most economical means for maintaining
a brick floor.
Snow removal on large or small areas of brick pave-
ment should not present any particular problem.
However, there are precautionary measures that can be
taken to preserve the character of the brick. Avoid the
use of chemicals and ''rock" salt to aid in melting ice. Use
of these materials will introduce soluble salts to the
masonry and may, in turn, be a source of efflorescence.
To render icy surfaces passable, use clean sand on the
affected area.
For snow plowing efficiency, it is suggested that,
where a metal plow blade is used, the edge should be
rubber tipped, or mounted on small rollers. The blade
edge should be adjusted to a clearance height suitable to
the pavement surface. Regardless of the method used,
needless chipping of the edges of the brick should be
avoided.
CONCLUSION
The Brick Institute of America has attempted to dis-
cuss the many factors involved in the design and installa-
tion of brick paving. The suggestions offered should be
utilized under the close direction of a competent profes-
sional. Their use does not preclude nor supplant profes-
sional judgment, but merely provides general and detailed
information on which this judgment can be based. The
designer, anticipating the use of suggested paving details
shown, should analyze his design conditions in conjunc-
tion with the factors discussed in this series of Technical
Notes.
The Brick Institute of America can not assume
responsibility for results or designs obtained from sugges-
tions and recommendations discussed. It is beyond the
scope of the Institute to anticipate every design situation
that may arise, and the designer is urged to consider all of
the factors.

REFERENCES:
1. Building Code Requirements for Engineered Brick
Masonry, 1969, BIA Standard.
2. "Brick Masonry Details, Sills and Soffits,"
Technical Notes 36, Revised, July/Aug. 1981, Brick
Institute of America.
3. "Good Practice for Construction of Mortarless
Brick Paving and Flooring," Brick Association of North
Carolina, Greensboro, North Carolina.
4. "Brick Floors and Brick Paving," BDA Technical
Note, May 1973 Brick Development Association,
London, England.

6
 15
Technical Notes REVISED

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
May
1988

SALVAGED BRICK

Abstract: The use of salvaged brick in new building construction is discussed. Factors affecting the
selection include altered physical properties (durability), esthetics, economics, building code
requirements and experimental testing.

Key Words: brick, masonry, mortar bond, salmon brick, salvaged brick.

given raw clay, the greater the firing temperature, the

INTRODUCTION greater the shrinkage and the darker the color.) Their
Selecting building material requires the consideration usual pinkish-orange color resulted in the name salmon
of four factors: esthetics, design properties, economics brick.
and required level of performance. Salvaged brick are
occasionally selected for their "rugged appearance" and
sometimes for their low initial cost. Rare is the case when
salvaged brick are chosen for their design properties. In
general, walls using salvaged brick are weaker and less
durable than walls constructed of new brick masonry
units. Most salvaged brick are obtained from demolished
buildings which stood 40 to 50 yr, or more. In fact, it may
be next to impossible to salvage brick from modern struc-
tures which use brick set in portland cement mortars.
When brick are initially placed in contact with mortar, they
absorb some particles of the cementitious materials. It is
virtually impossible to completely clean these absorbed
When existing walls are demolished, hard-burned brick and
particles from the surfaces of the brick units. This may
salmons are hopelessly mixed. It is virtually impossible to
greatly affect the bond between brick and mortar when distinguish between durable and non-durable units.
reused.
FIG. 1
MANUFACTURING METHODS
In the early 1900's, manufacturing methods were
markedly different from those of today. De-aired brick During these bygone years, prevalent methods of
were unknown; coal- and wood-fired periodic and scove construction made production of both hard-burned and
kilns were commonplace. The modern solid, liquid or salmon brick economically feasible. Most masonry build-
gas-fired tunnel kilns with accurate temperature controls ings had loadbearing brick walls which were a minimum of
throughout were also unknown. Manufacturing conditions 12 in. in thickness. The hardest, most durable units were
years ago were generally such that large volumes of brick used in exterior wythes; the salmons (and others) were
were fired under greater kiln-temperature variations than used for the interior wythes and were not exposed to the
could be tolerated today. These conditions resulted in a exterior elements. Much sorting and grading of brick was
wide variance in finished products. Brick from the high- performed at the construction site by the mason, although
temperature zones were hard-burned, high-strength, the brick manufacturers eventually assumed this responsi-
durable products; those from low-temperature zones were bility.
under-burned, low-strength products of low durability. The advent of skeleton frames marked the beginning
These temperature variations also resulted in a wide of high-rise construction and the gradual demise of thick
range in absorption properties and color. The under- loadbearing masonry wall construction. (Despite the
burned brick were more porous, slightly larger, and lighter reduction in its use, loadbearing remains a very economi-
colored than the harder-burned brick. (It is the nature of cal method for constructing low- and mid-rise buildings).
ceramic products to shrink during firing. Generally, for a Architects and engineers began to design non-loadbear-
ing walls, and gradually decreased wall thicknesses. This
evolution in design and construction techniques necessi-
tated a change in brick manufacturing procedures. Slowly
but surely, the demand for salmon brick dwindled. After
the use of hollow backup units became prevalent, the
need for salmon brick became practically non-existent. At
the same time, having invented the thinner, lighter weight
panel wall, designers focused their attention on wall
strength which they equated to compressive strength of
the individual brick.
Because the principal demand was for high compres-
sive strength and durability, manufacturers had to produce
a high proportion of well-burned brick. This demand
necessitated a change in manufacturing methods. Thus,
an evolution in design and construction techniques
brought on a significant and beneficial evolution in the
production of brick. (For a synopsis of present day manu-
facturing methods, see Technical Notes 9 Revised,
"Manufacturing, Classification and Selection of Brick;
Manufacturing - Part 1").
MATERIAL SELECTION
Physical Properties. Several arguments are often
advanced in favor of the use of salvaged brick. Among
these are:
1. Because brick are extremely durable, they can be
salvaged and used again.
2. If the brick were satisfactory at the time they were
first used, they are satisfactory at present.
Both arguments are fallacious.
When brick are initially placed in contact with mortar,
they absorb some water and some particles of cementi-
tious materials. The initial rate of absorption (suction) is
an important factor which greatly affects the bond
between brick and mortar. Brick with extremely high or
extremely low suctions do not develop good bond. (For
discussion of bond strength between mortar and new clay
masonry units, see Technical Notes 8 Revised, "Mortars
for Brick Masonry").
With salvaged brick, more factors influence bond.
Pores in brick are filled with particles of lime, dirt and
other deleterious matter. Many bedding surfaces of sal-
vaged brick will not be thoroughly clean, but will instead
be covered with mortar. The bond between new mortar
and old mortar is not very strong. If the original mortar
bond was weak, the new bond will be adversely affected.
The bond to salvaged brick is considerably less than to
similar new brick and has been demonstrated many times
by comparative tests (see Experimental Tests Section in
this Technical Notes).
Most authorities agree that water penetration through
masonry results from incompletely filled joints and incom-
plete bond between brick and mortar. That is, water pen-
etrates through flaws at joints rather than directly through
the brick and mortar. Thus, masonry walls of salvaged
brick, with their inferior mortar bond, are likely to be more
susceptible to water penetration and weaker under lateral
loading than similar masonry of walls constructed of new
2
units. The ultimate compressive strength of the walls will
also be lower if salmon brick are present.
The durability of masonry depends upon the quality of
materials and mortar bond. Generally, salmon brick do
not provide the same durability as new brick when
exposed to weathering. With the thinner masonry walls of
today, brick are used primarily as a facing material to pro-
vide a weather resistant barrier of protection. Thus, many
salmon brick are eventually placed in exposed faces of
walls constructed of salvaged brick. Even where solid
brick walls are used, many salmons are likely to be
exposed to weathering, because it is impossible to accu-
rately sort and grade salvaged brick. With soft, highly
absorptive salmon brick exposed to the weather, and with
poor mortar bond permitting excessive water penetration,
it is quite likely that masonry of salvaged brick will spall,
flake, pit, and crack due to freezing and thawing in the
presence of excessive moisture.
One common characteristic of most manufactured
building materials is a reasonable degree of uniformity
within a particular grade or within a given manufactured
lot. Salvaged brick lack this distinction. Hard-burned and
soft-burned brick, hopelessly mixed during wrecking oper-
ations, effectively create a material stockpile of two widely
differing grades of materials (see Figure 1). A sample of
the material will contain specimens of each grade. If test-
ed for absorption or compression strength properties, the
sample will show widely diversified characteristics. The
average absorption or strength will not approximate the
true values for either grade, but will lie somewhere
between. In effect, it is difficult to determine whether sal-
vaged brick will meet present day material specifications
or building code requirements.
Esthetics. Salvaged brick may satisfy the desire for
a rugged, colorful masonry surface. Architects often
desire the extreme range of colors from dark-red to the
whites and grays of units still partially covered with mortar.
But most frequently the light pink color of the salmon cre-
ates the desired effect. Unfortunately, the pink in salmons
results from under-burning which produces units that
must not be exposed to weathering. Excessive disinte-
gration due to weathering can soon drastically alter the
appearance originally desired (See Figs. 2 - 4).
A chimney of salvaged brick which has spalled considerably within
a relatively short time after construction (Knoxville, Tennessee).
FIG. 2
 been exposed to weather for a term of years cannot be
assumed in the absence of test. Much salvaged brick
comes from the demolition of old buildings constructed of
solid brick masonry in which hard-burned bricks were
used on the exterior and salmon brick as back-up, and,
since the color differences which guided the original brick
masons in their sorting and selecting of bricks become
obscured with exposure and contact with mortar, there is
a definite danger that these salmon bricks may be used
for exterior exposure with consequent rapid and excessive
disintegration. Before permitting their use, the building
official should satisfy himself that second-hand materials
are suitable for the proposed location and conditions of
A close-up of a wall indicating the excessive spalling that is likely use. The use of masonry units salvaged from chimneys is
to occur where salvaged brick are exposed to weathering.
FIG. 3
not recommended, since such units may be impregnated
with oils or tarry material."
All pink brick are not necessarily under-burned. National Building Code, Section 1401.2:
During recent years the architectural demand for a variety "Second-hand units: Brick and other second-hand
in colors has led to the extensive use of raw clays which masonry units which are to be reused, shall be approved
burn other than dark red when fired to maturity. Today, as to quality, condition and compliance with the require-
among other colors, many hard-burned, pink brick are ments for new masonry units. The unit shall be of whole,
available. These units may conform to the requirements sound material, free from cracks and other defects that
for highest quality under applicable ASTM specifications. would interfere with its proper laying or use, and shall be
(Many pink brick conform to Grades SW or MW (severe or cleaned free from old mortar before reuse."
moderate weathering) under ASTM C 216 or C 62.)
Many manufacturers blend different colored brick to
provide a rustic appearance similar to salvaged brick.
There are advantages to using new brick: the architect
may specify any desired color blending and may specify
the desired grade under ASTM specifications. Thus, he
can obtain the desired esthetic effect without sacrificing
durability or strength, a feat which is nearly impossible to
accomplish when using salvaged brick.
Economics. Although in many instances salvaged
brick have sold for more money than new brick, a princi-
pal reason for their use is their low prevailing initial cost.
But initial economy often proves to be false economy. For
example, labor costs are usually higher for salvaged brick
due to the required sorting and cleaning of the units.
Maintenance costs for salvaged-brick masonry are very
likely to exceed this initial cost considering: 1) cutting out
and replacing disintegrated units; 2) tuck pointing mortar
joints to reduce leaks and repair cracks; and 3) repeated
attempts at waterproofing. (The dangers of coating
masonry of under-burned units are discussed in Technical
Notes 6A, "Colorless Coatings For Brick Masonry".
Under-burned units may undergo accelerated disintegra-
tion if impermeable coatings are applied to the exterior
wall face). In many cases, the initial economics of sal-
vaged brick prove false and result in higher total expendi-
tures.

BUILDING CODE REQUIREMENTS (See references)

American Standard Building Code Requirements
for Masonry, ANSI A41.1, Section 2.1.1 (appendix com-
mentary): Because of the greater likelihood that moisture will be present, sal-
"Irrespective of the original grading of masonry units, vaged brick should not be used for exterior patios, walks, pave-
compliance with code requirements of material which has ments, etc.
FIG. 4

3
Standard Building Code, Section 1401.2:
"1401.2.1 Masonry units may be reused when clean,
whole and conforming to the other requirements of this
chapter, except that the allowable working stresses shall
be 50% of those permitted for new masonry units.
1401.2.2 Masonry units to be reused as structural
units in areas subject to the action of the weather or soil
shall not be permitted unless representative samples are
tested for compliance with the applicable requirements of
1402."
Uniform Building Code, Section 2406 (k):
"Reuse of Masonry Units. Masonry units may be
reused when clean, whole and conforming to the other
requirements of this section. All structural properties of
masonry of reclaimed units, especially adhesion bond,
shall be determined by approved test. The allowable
working stresses shall not exceed 50 percent of that per-
mitted for new masonry units of the same properties."
EXPERIMENTAL TESTS
At various times interested parties have conducted
tests to compare salvaged-brick masonry to masonry of
similar new brick. One of the more comprehensive series
of tests was conducted many years ago by the
Engineering Experiment Station, University of New
Hampshire. The following statements are from this test
report: (Project No. 98, "Relative Adhesion of Mortars to
New and Used Brick", for Star Brick Yard, Epping, NY
(1934-1935)).
"The object of this study was to determine by labora-
tory methods the relative adhesion of different standard
mortars to new and used or reclaimed brick . . . (using
only) those materials . . . that would generally be
employed . . .
“. . . as far as materials are concerned . . . a wall laid
up with used or reclaimed bricks . . . differ(s) from one laid
up with new bricks . . . (only) in the adhesion of the mortar
to the brick surfaces. It is this quality with which this
study is concerned."
Four types of used brick were tested and compared to
the same four types of new brick (a total of eight types).
(The report describes the eight brick types tested as
including hard and soft, water-struck and sand-struck,
new and old brick). Seven different standard mortars
were employed. In describing the testing procedures, the
report states, in part:
"The brick to be tested were selected and were
cleaned of all loose particles of mortar which could be
removed by means of a hammer and wire brush. No
attempt, however, was made to remove any particle of
mortar, etc. which adhered so firmly to the brick surface
that pounding and wire brushing would not release it."
The bulk of the report is too large to reproduce in its
entirety. However, the following excerpts from the conclu-
sions to the tests are of interest:
4
" . . . The adhesion of mortar to new (hard) bricks was
materially greater than to second hand bricks."
"With but few exceptions the adhesion of mortar to
hard bricks was far greater than . . . to soft bricks of the
same type."
"Without exception . . . failure of the mortar to adhere
to the surface of used brick far exceeded the failures of
the joint between mortars and new brick. In other words,
it appears that the capillary pores of the second hand
brick were so plugged . . . that the new mortar could not
gain any appreciable hold on the surface of the brick."
" . . . (The tests indicate) that the adhesive strength of
mortar to the hard brick exceeded its cohesive strength..."
"With (all) used brick . . . cohesive strength of the
mortars exceeded many times the adhesive strength of
the same mortars to the surfaces of the brick."
" . . . within the limits of the test . . . relative adhesion
of mortars to . . . reclaimed brick . . . (is) less than half
what can be expected if the same mortars are used with
new brick of the same type and degree of hardness."
SUMMARY
This Technical Notes has discussed the use of sal-
vaged brick in new brick masonry wall construction. The
considerations are based on existing knowledge and
experience. No effort is made or implied that this is a
total discussion of the subject matter, since conditions
vary widely throughout the country. However, it is a basis
from which the designer can decide on the use of sal-
vaged brick in new masonry structures.
Final decisions on the use of the information and sug-
gestions discussed in this Technical Notes are not within
the purview of the Brick Institute of America and must rest
with the project designer, owner or both.
REFERENCES *
American Standard Building Code Requirements for
Masonry; ANSI A41.1; National Bureau of Standards
(Miscellaneous Publications 211); Washington, D.C.; July
15, 1954 (Reaffirmed 1970).
National Building Code, 1987 Edition; Building
Officials and Code Administrators International; 4051 W.
Flossmoor Road, Country Club Hills, Illinois.
Standard Building Code, 1985 Edition; Southern
Building Code Congress International; 900 Montclair
Road, Birmingham, Alabama.
Uniform Building Code, 1985 Edition; International
Conference of Building Officials; 5360 South Workman
Mill Road, Wittier, California.
* Building codes undergo continual revision. The editions listed are those current
as the publication date of this Technical Notes.
 16
Technical Notes REVISED

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
Reissued*
October
1996

FIRE RESISTANCE

INTRODUCTION
Provisions relating to fire safety represent the most
important regulations of every building code, so far as the
safety of the public is concerned. In contrast with the few
structural failures that occur, fire collects a heavy toll of
lives and a high loss of dollars every year.
The performance of walls, columns, floors and other
building members under fire conditions is of major impor-
tance to fire safety. However, these single elements are
only part of the code requirement. It is also important for
the code to provide for a balance between fire ratings of
members and other provisions of equal importance, such
as exit facilities, floor area limitations, separation mini-
mums and height limitations.
This Technical Notes discusses the fire test procedure
used for brick masonry walls and lists the fire ratings of
brick masonry walls and fire protection ratings for beams
and columns. Technical Notes 16A discusses the other FIG. 1
Standard Time-Temperature Curve
parameters of building design which are important for for ASTM E 119 Fire Test
consideration of total fire hazard in buildings.
Wall Specimens. The area exposed to fire shall be
2
FIRE RESISTANCE RATINGS at least 100 sq ft (9 m ) with no dimension less than 9 ft
It has become standard practice to express the (2.7 m). Non-bearing walls and partitions are restrained at
degree of fire resistance required for any member in all four sides, but bearing walls and partitions are not
terms of its ability to withstand exposure to fire as pre- restrained at the vertical edges. (See Fig. 2.)
scribed by the American Society for Testing and Materials'
Standard Methods of Fire Tests of Building Construction
and Materials, E 119.
This standard test, along with other ASTM fire test
standards such as E 84, does not measure the fire hazard
in terms of actual performance in a real fire situation. The
standard does, however, give a comparison of the mea-
sure of performance between assemblies tested under
similar conditions.
Specifications in this test provide that the temperature
on the exposed (fire) side of the test panel shall be con-
trolled by the standard time-temperature curve, as shown
in Fig. 1. The points on this curve that determine its char-
acter are:
1000 ˚F (538˚C) at 5 min
1300 ˚F (704 ˚C) at 10 min
1550 ˚F (843˚C) at 30 min
1770 ˚F (966˚C) at 1 hr
1850 ˚F (1010 ˚C) at 2 hr
2000 ˚F (1093 ˚C) at 4 hr FIG. 2
Fire Test Specimen Showing Placement of Thermocouples.
2300 ˚F (1260 ˚C) at 8 hr

*Originally published in October 1974, this Technical Notes has been reviewed and reissued with editorial changes.
 Columns. Two methods of test are permitted. If the
fireproofing is structural, the column specimen must be at
least 9 ft (2.7 m) long and acceptance is based on ability
to carry an axial load. If the fireproofing is not structural,
the minimum column length is 8 ft (2.4 m) and acceptance
is based on temperature rise in the structural column.
Hose Stream Test. For most ratings, (Strictly speak-
ing, the ASTM procedure determines ultimate fire resis-
tance periods, not fire ratings) ASTM E 119 requires that
walls undergo a fire and hose stream test as well as the
fire endurance test. (Two alternates are available. The
hose stream test may be performed on a duplicate wall
sample which has been subjected to a fire exposure test
for one half of the determined fire resistance period (but
not less than 1 hr); or the hose stream test may be per-
formed on the original wall specimen. The latter is the
usual case for brick walls.) The test subjects a specimen
to impact, erosion and thermal shock over the entire area
of the surface which has been exposed to the fire. The
specifications carefully denote nozzle size, distance, dura-
tion of application and water pressure at the base of the
nozzle. (Some of these requirements vary with the fire
resistance period). (See Fig. 3.)
FIG. 3
After the fire test, a wall specimen is pivoted outward and a hose
stream of water played over the hot face.
Loading. Throughout the fire endurance and hose
stream tests, a constant superimposed load is applied to
bearing walls to simulate a maximum load condition. The
applied load shall be as nearly as practicable to the maxi-
mum load permitted by design in reference to nationally
recognized structural design criteria.
Columns are loaded to develop the design stresses
and then subjected to the standard fire on all sides.
Where the fire protection is not designed to carry loads,
an alternate method of test may be used in which the col-
umn is not loaded. Temperature rise, the sole criterion
here, is measured by at least three thermocouples located
at each of four levels.
2
CONDITIONS OF ACCEPTANCE (FIRE TESTS)
Non-Bearing Walls and Partitions. (No combustible
members framed in). The test is, successful and a fire
resistance period may be assigned to the construction, if:
1. The wall or partition withstands the fire endurance
test without passage of flame or gases hot enough to
ignite cotton waste for a period equal to that for which
classification is desired.
2. And, the wall or partition withstands the fire and
hose stream test without passage of flame, of gases
hot enough to ignite cotton waste, or of the hose
stream. (Although ASTM E 119 does not specifically
state what is meant by "passage of the hose stream",
this is generally accepted to mean that no collapse of
the wall occurs. For example, water passing through
masonry joints is not a cause for rejecting the speci-
men).
3. And, the average temperature of nine thermocou-
ples on the unexposed surface has not increased
more than 250 ˚F (121 ˚C) above its initial tempera-
ture.
Bearing Walls. The conditions of acceptance for
bearing walls are essentially the same as for non-bearing
walls and partitions (above), with the following addition:
1. The specimen must also sustain the applied load
during the fire endurance test.
Columns. Columns with integral structural fireproof-
ing may be assigned a fire resistance period if they suc-
cessfully sustain the superimposed load during the fire
endurance test.
For fireproofing of columns not designed to carry
loads, a fire resistance period may be assigned if the
average temperature rise does not exceed 1000˚F (538
˚C) and the maximum temperature rise does not exceed
1200 ˚F (649 ˚C) at any one point.
TERMINATION POINTS OF TEST METHOD
When an assembly under test reaches any one of the
acceptance criteria; (1) ignition of cotton waste, (2) aver-
age temperature rise on unexposed side above 250˚F
(121˚C), or (3) fails to carry the design load if it is a load-
bearing test; the test is terminated. The first two criteria
relate to the function of providing a barrier against the
spread of fire by penetration of the assembly, the third
relating to structural integrity.
The termination point for fire tests of brick masonry
walls is almost invariably due to temperature rise (heat
transmission) of the unexposed surface. Brick masonry
walls successfully withstand the load during test and the
hose stream test conducted immediately after the wall has
been subjected to the fire exposure. This structural
integrity of brick masonry walls is attested to in many fires
where the masonry walls have remained standing when
all other parts of the building have been destroyed or con-
sumed during the fire.
COMBUSTIBLE FRAMING OR FACING tures which could not be weighed, was estimated from the thickness and
area. All of the weights were converted to equivalent weights of com-
Conditions of Acceptance. The test procedure for bustibles having a calorific value in the range of wood and paper. "
walls supporting combustible framing or facing is essen- Table 2 gives average combustible contents of vari-
tially the same as for other walls. However, no hose ous occupancies as included in the authors' summary of
stream test is required. The test is successful and a fire BMS149.
resistance period may be assigned if:
1. The protection withstands the test and no com- TABLE 2
Average Combustible Contents of Occupancies
bustible members ignite.
2. And, the contact-surface temperature of com-
bustible members does not increase more than 250 Combustible
˚F (121˚C). For members closely embedded on three Occupancy Loading Remarks
sides in masonry, concrete, etc., the permissible tem- lb per sq ft
perature rise is 325 ˚F (163˚C). Residential 10 A reasonable value,
including storage rooms
AMOUNT OF COMBUSTIBLES RELATED TO
SEVERITY OF FIRE Hospitals Maximum in areas for
Burn-out tests conducted at the National Bureau of Patients’rooms, dormi- treatment, surgery and
tories, waiting rooms, clinics = 21.6 lb per sq ft
Standards, which were performed in fireproof structures corridors, kitchens and
with various concentrations of combustibles having calorif- dining rooms 0.8 to 3.9
Administrative and
ic values in the range of wood and paper (7000 to 8000 offices 2.9 to 8.6
Btu per lb) and assembled to represent building occupan- Service areas, store
rooms, laundries, etc. 0.5 to 13.1
cies, indicate that the relation between the amount of 15
Schools Library stackrooms,
combustibles and the fire severity is approximately as store rooms and offices,
given in Table 1 which is reproduced from National representing a small
percentage of total area,
Bureau of Standards Report, BMS92, Fire-Resistance had higher combustible
Classifications of Building Constructions, October 1942. Mercantile Establishments
loads.
Department stores Not over 20
TABLE 1 Manufacturing Establish-
ments
Relation of Amount of Combustibles to Fire Severity
Clothing factories 20
Printing Establishments 30
Offices 20
Average Weight of Average Weight
Combustibles, lb Fire of Combustibles, Fire
per sq ft of Severity, hr lb per sq ft of Severity, hr
floor area floor area
In order to determine the total fuel content or total
5 1/2 30 3 conflagration hazard represented by a building and its
7 1/2 3/4 40 4 1/2
contents, the fire hazard represented by the combustible
10 1 50 6
15 1 1/2 60 7 1/2 materials incorporated in the structure itself must be
20 2 added to the combustibles incident to the occupancy of
the building.

COMBUSTIBLE CONTENTS IN BUILDINGS
In 1947, the Office of Technical Services of the
Department of Commerce sponsored an investigation of
the weights of combustible contents in various occupan-
cies. This survey was made by the Public Buildings
Administration under the supervision of the National
Bureau of Standards and the results are reported in
National Bureau of Standards Report, BMS149,
Combustible Contents in Buildings, published July 1957.
Regarding the weights of combustibles reported, the
report states:
"Only the weights of combustible contents, finished flooring, interior
finish, and trim are included in the weight totals. No combustible struc-
tural elements are included because they are a part of the building itself
and not of the contents.
In general, the amounts of combustibles were obtained by weighing
combustible furniture, equipment, goods, and other combustible contents
in sufficient quantity to enable the total weight of such material within
each area to be computed. The weight of any combustible flooring
material, showcases, partitions, door and window trim, and built-in fix-
FIRE RESISTANCE
The fire resistance ratings of walls and partitions are
usually less than ultimate fire resistance periods as deter-
mined by test, since most building code requirements are
in multiples of 1 hr with a 4-hr maximum. Table 3 gives
ultimate fire resistance periods for solid brick loadbearing
walls. These walls were tested under working loads of
160 psi of gross area, except the 4-in. walls which were
loaded to 80 psi. Ratings for 8-in. or thicker solid brick
walls apply when units are laid in any of the mortars
included in ASTM Specification C 270. Ratings for 4-in.
solid walls apply when the units are laid with type M, S or
N mortar.

3
 a
TABLE 3
Ultimate Fire Resistance Periods for Loadbearing Table 5 lists the fire resistance ratings for steel
Clay and Shale Brick Walls columns covered with brick.
TABLE 5
Ultimate Fire Resistance Period in Hours Fireproofed-Column Fire Ratings

Incombustible
a,b
Members Framed into Combustible Construction Ratings
Wall or No Framed-in Members Framed
Members into Wall
Nominal
Steel Columns, 6 by 6 in. or larger
Wall Wall b b b 3 3/4-in. brick with brick fill
Plaster Plaster Plaster on 4 hr
Thickness Type No On One On Two No Exposed References 1 and 5
in. Plaster Side Sides Plaster Side
2 1/4-in. brick with brick fill
4 Solid 1 1/4 1 3/4 2 1/2 -- -- References 1 and 5 1 hr
8 Solid 5 6 7 2 2 1/2
c
12 Solid 10 10 12 8 9
d a
12 Solid 12 13 15 -- -- Column fire resistance varies with the cross-sectional area of solid material; the
9 to 10 Cavity 5 6 7 2 2 1/2 larger the area, the greater the fire resistance for a given thickness of protection
around the structural steel. Column dimensions are outside dimensions. Smaller
columns may require more cover to achieve equal ratings. For columns that are
a not square, protection should equal that of a square column having equal or lesser
Adapted from BMS92, Reference 7. cross-sectional area.
b
b
To achieve these ratings, each plastered wall face must have at least 1/2-in., 1:3 Thicknesses do not include plaster.
gypsum-sand plaster.
c
Based on load failure.
d
Based on temperature rise (for non-loadbearing walls).

Estimating Effects of Combustible Members.

Where no fire tests are available for unplastered walls
with combustible members framed in, the rating may be
approximated from tests on similar walls without com-
bustible framing by using the factors in Table 4.

a
TABLE 4
b
Estimating Factors for Unplastered Walls with
Combustible Framing

c
Wall Type Factor

All walls with 1 cell in wall thickness...................... 0.4

Eight-inch walls with 3 cells in wall thickness......... 0.4
Eight-inch walls with 2 units in wall thickness......... 0.4 FIG. 4 One-Hour Fire Rating
d
Eight-inch solid walls............................................... 0.4 Construction shown is loadbearing.
All walls with 2 cells in wall thickness...................... 0.5
All 12-in. walls except those with 1 or 2 cells in
wall thickness...................................................... 0.67
REFERENCES
a
Adapted from BMS92, Reference 7. 1. Fire Resistance Ratings, December 1964;
b
For walls plastered with 1/2-in., 1:3 gypsum-sand plaster on the side opposite American Insurance Association, 85 John Street, New
combustible framing, add 1 hr to computed ratings over 3 hr and 1/2 hr to lesser York, NY 10038.
ratings. No increase is permitted for plaster on the same side as combustible
framing nor where combustible members enter from both sides. 2. Harry D. Foster; A Study of the Fire Resistance of
c
Multiply ratings of unplastered walls with no combustible framing by the appropri- Building Materials, Engineering Experiment Station
ate factor to compute ratings for similar unplastered walls which support com- Bulletin No. 104, January 1940; Ohio State University,
bustible framing.
d Columbus, Ohio.
Walls of units which are not cored more than 25 percent.
3. Standard Methods of Fire Tests of Building
Fire Resistance Ratings. Figures 4 through 7 list Construction and Materials, ASTM Designation E 119;
fire resistance ratings for various brick walls. Ratings list- American Society for Testing and Materials, 1916
ed are for loadbearing walls tested with working loads of Race St., Philadelphia, PA 19103.
160 psi of gross area, except the 4-in. wall in Fig. 5 was 4. Fire Resistance of Brick Walls, Technical News
loaded to 92 psi and the 4-in. wall in Fig. 4 was loaded to Bulletin No. 124, August 1927; National Bureau of
80 psi. Standards, Washington, D.C.
5. Ingberg, Griffin, Robinson, Wilson; Fire Tests of
4
 Building Columns, Technologic Paper No. 184, 1921;
National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C.
6. Fire Endurance of Hollow Brick Walls, Technical
News Bulletin, Vol. 35, No. 4, April 1951; National
Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C.
The following three references are Building
Materials and Structures Reports, published by the
National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C.:
7. Fire-Resistance Classifications of Building
Constructions, BMS92, October 7, 1942.
8. Fire Tests of Brick Walls, BMS143, November 30,
1954.
9. Combustible Contents in Buildings, BMS149, July
25, 1957.
10. Report of a Standard ASTM Fire Endurance and
Hose Stream Test of an Unsymmetrical Limited Load
Bearing Wall Assembly, Building Research Laboratory
Report No. 5477, November 1973; Engineering
Experiment Station, The Ohio State University,
Columbus, OH 43210.
11. Report of a Standard ASTM Fire Endurance Test
and Fire and Hose Stream Test on a Wall Assembly ,
Building Research Laboratory Report No. T-3660,
October 1966; Engineering Experiment Station, The
Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210.
12. Fire Resistance of a Brick Cavity Wall System,
Report No. E.S. 6975, October 1968; Structural
Research Laboratory, Richmond Field Station,
University of California, Berkeley California.
13. "SCR brick" (Reg. U.S. Pat. Off., SCPI(BIA)) Wall
Fire Resistance Test, by Ohio State University
Engineering Experiment Station; Research Report No.
2, Structural Clay Products Research Foundation
(BIA), September 22, 1952.
14. Report of a Standard ASTM Fire Endurance and
Hose Stream Test, Building Research Laboratory
Reports, Nos. T-1971, March 1962, and T-1972,
March 1962; and Report of a Standard ASTM Fire
Endurance and Hose Stream Test on a Wall
Assembly, Report No. T-3016, August 1964;
Engineering Experiment Station, The Ohio State
University, Columbus, OH 43210.

5
4-IN SOLID BRICK WALL 4-IN. SOLID BRICK WALL

No members framed in Non-combustible or no members

framed in
Units at least 75 percent solid laid in
mortar, and backed with a hat Units at least 75 percent solid
shaped metal furring channel Plaster 2 sides
3/4 in. thick formed from
0.021-in. sheet metal
attached to the brick wall on
24-in. centers using four
whistle plugs and diamond
pointed 6d common nails;
and 1/2-in. type X gypsum
wallboard attached to the
metal furring strips with
1 1/2-in. long type S-12
screws spaced 8 in. o.c.

Reference 10 References 1 and 7

6-IN. “SCR brick”* WALL 8-IN. SOLID BRICK WALL

Non-combustible or no members Combustible members framed in

framed in
Units at least 75 percent
Units at least 75 percent solid solid
No plaster required No plaster required

Reference 13

References 1 and 7
*Reg. U.S. Pat. Off., SCPI (BIA)

8-IN. HOLLOW BRICK WALL 10-IN. BRICK CAVITY

WALL
Combustible members framed in
Combustible members
Units at least 71 percent solid framed in
No plaster required
Combustible members fully Units at least 75 percent
embedded solid
No plaster required
Walls filled solidly at
combustible members

References 1 and 6
References 1, 7 and 9

FIG. 5 Two-Hour Fire Ratings

Constructions shown are loadbearing.

6
 8-IN. HOLLOW BRICK
8-IN. HOLLOW BRICK WALL WALL

Non-combustible or no members Combustible members framed

framed in in

Units at least 71 percent solid Units at least 71 percent

No plaster required solid
Plaster 2 sides (5/8-in.)

References 1 and 6
References 1 and 6

8-IN. SOLID BRICK 8-IN. BRICK CAVITY WALL

WALL
Non-combustible or no members
Combustible members framed in
framed in
Units at least 75 percent solid
Units at least 75 percent No plaster required
solid
Plaster 2 sides

Reference 1
Reference 12

FIG. 6 Three-Hour Fire Ratings

Constructions shown are loadbearing.

7
8-IN. SOLID BRICK WALL 8-IN. HOLLOW BRICK WALL

Non-combustible or no members Non-combustible or no members

framed in framed in

Units at least 75 percent solid Units at least 71 percent solid

No plaster required Plaster 2 sides (5/8-in. plaster)

References 1 and 7

Units at least 60 percent solid

Cells filled with perlite loose fill
insulation
References 1 and 7 No plaster required

Reference 11

10-IN. BRICK CAVITY WALL

12-IN. SOLID BRICK
Non-combustible or no members WALL
framed in
Combustible members
Units at least 75 percent solid framed in
No plaster required
Units at least 75
percent solid
No plaster required

References 1, 7, and 9
References 1 and 7

FIG. 7 Four-Hour Fire Ratings

Constructions shown are loadbearing.

8
 Technical Notes 16B

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
Reissued*
August
1991

CALCULATED FIRE RESISTANCE

Abstract: Fire-resistance periods for building components are normally determined by
physical tests conducted according to ASTM E 119 Standard Methods of Fire Tests of Build-
ing Construction and Materials. This Technical Notes addresses analytical methods to deter-
mine fire ratings for building construction not specifically tested under ASTM E 119. De-
scribed are procedures for calculating the fire resistance of clay masonry walls including: 1)
effects of plaster; 2) effects of air spaces; 3) multi-wythe construction; and 4) equivalent
thickness for hollow masonry units.

Key Words: brick, building codes, fire ratings, fire resistance period.

INTRODUCTION Fire Resistance Period: the property of a material

Fire resistance is determined by standard test meth-
ods and used by model building codes to provide both
life safety and property protection. Standards to estab-
lish fire resistance are developed and adopted by a con-
sensus group. Model codes contain mandatory require-
ments which local jurisdictions adopt as law to govern
building design and construction.
Fire resistance is a property of all types of building
construction and is related to whether the materials are
combustible or non-combustible. Clay masonry is a
non-combustible material and has excellent fire resis-
tance in building construction. Accepted practice has
been to determine the fire resistance of clay masonry
walls by ASTM E 119 Method for Fire Tests of Build-
ing Construction and Materials.
There are some instances when a particular type of
building construction has not been physically tested by
the ASTM E 119 test method. This Technical Notes
provides an analytical method to determine the fire rat-
ing for building construction not specifically tested by
ASTM E 119. This method is commonly known as the
calculated fire resistance. This Technical Notes, the
third in this series, concentrates on calculated fire resis-
tance as it applies to model building code requirements.
Other Technical Notes in this series address the ASTM
E 119 test method and fire resistance ratings for bearing
wall applications.
DEFINITIONS
To fully understand the calculated fire resistance pro-
cedure, two terms must be defined. These two defini-
tions will be referenced throughout this Te c h n i c a l
Notes.
* Originally published in June 1991, this Technical Notes has been reviewed and reissued with editorial changes.
or assembly to withstand fire or give protection from it
for a specific period of time. As applied to elements of
buildings, fire resistance is characterized by the ability
to confine a fire, to continue to perform a given struc-
tural function, or both.
Fire Rating: a time required, usually expressed in
the lowest full hour, for an element in a building to
maintain its particular fire resistance properties. Model
building codes establish the required fire ratings for
various building elements.
THEORY
The resistance of clay masonry walls to fire is a well
established fact and has been found to be a function of
wall mass or thickness. Fire resistance tests have been
conducted on walls of solid and hollow clay units.
During the ASTM E 119 fire test, the fire resistance of
clay masonry walls is usually established by the tem-
perature rise on the unexposed side of the wall speci-
men. Few masonry walls have failed due to loading or
thermal shock of the hose stream.
The method of calculating fire resistance periods is
described in NBS BMS 92, “Fire Resistive Classifica-
tions of Building Construction”, National Bureau of
Standards, 1942. The construction must be similar to
others for which the fire resistance periods are known,
or of composite constructions for which the fire resis-
tance periods of various components are known. Re-
garding the derivation of the general calculated fire re-
sistance formulae, the authors state:
“In most cases the fire resistance period will be de -
termined by the temperature rise on the unexposed side
of the wall, and it is on this criterion that the following
method of interpolation and extension is based.
 According to the general theory of heat transmission,
if walls of the same material are exposed to a heat
source that maintains a constant temperature of the
surface of the exposed side, and the unexposed side is
protected against heat loss, the time at which a given
temperature will be attained on the unexposed side will
vary as the square of the wall thickness.
In the standard fire test, which involves specified
conditions of temperature measurement and a fire that
increases the temperature at the exposed surface of the
wall as the test proceeds, the time required to attain a
given temperature rise on the unexposed side will be
different from where the temperature on the exposed
side remains constant at the initial exposure tempera -
ture for any period. It has been found that comparisons
fairly consistent with test results can be obtained by as -
suming the variation to be according to some lower
power of n than the second. The fire resistance period
of the wall can be then expressed by the formula:
R = (cV)n Eq. 1
where: R = fire resistance period, hr
c = coefficient depending on the material,
design of the wall, and the units of
measurement of R and V
V = volume of solid material per unit area
of wall surface, and
n = exponent depending on the rate of
increase of temperature at the exposed
face of the wall
For walls of a given material and design, it was
found that an increase of 50 percent in volume of solid
material per unit area of wall surface resulted in a 100
percent increase in the fire resistance period. This re -
lationship gives a value of 1.7 for n. The lower value
for n as compared with 2 for the theoretical condition
of constant temperature of the exposed surface is to be
expected as the rising temperature at the exposed sur -
face would tend to shorten the fire resistance period of
walls qualifying for relatively higher ratings.”
The fire resistance period of a wall may be expressed
in terms of the fire resistance of the conjoined wythes
of the wall as follows:
“If R1, R2, R3, etc. = fire resistance periods of walls
(or component laminae of walls) having volumes of sol -
id material per unit area of wall surface of V 1 ,
V2,V3,etc., respectively, also letting c and n be defined
as above, then for walls in general, R1 = (c1V1)n, R2 =
(c2V2)n , and R3 = (c3V3)n.”
The fire resistance period of the composite wall us-
ing the form of Eq. 1 will be:
R = (ctVt)n, Eq. 2
where: Vt = V1 + V2 + V3
and ct = (c1V1 + c2V2 + c3V3) / V
therefore, R = (c1V1 + c2V2 + c3V3)n
2
= (R11/n + R21/n + R31/n) n Eq. 3
Substituting 1.7 for n and 0.59 for 1/n, the general
calculated fire resistance formula becomes:
R = (R10.59+ R20.59 + R30.59 ... + Rn0.59)1.7 Eq. 4
where: R1, R2, and R3 ... Rn = known fire resistance
periods of the component laminae, in hr
The calculated fire resistance has been expressed in
terms of the fire resistance periods of the component
laminae of the wall, which need not be of the same ma-
terial and design.
For walls of similar materials but of different thick-
nesses, the formula can be adjusted to the following
form:
R2 = R1 (V1 / V2)1.7 Eq. 5
where V 1 and V 2 are the volumes of solid materials per
unit area of wall surface, and R2 and R1 are the corre-
sponding fire resistance periods.
Using this theory, the fire resistance period of a wall
assembly can be determined from the fire resistance pe-
riods of the component laminae. Either the fire resis-
tance periods determined by fire tests or the fire rating
established from the fire tests can be used. Use of actu-
al fire resistance periods determined by tests will pro-
vide more accurate results than the use of fire ratings.
This is because fire ratings are based on the lowest full
hour achieved. As an explanation, a wall with a fire re-
sistance period end point of 2 hours and 40 minutes
will only attain a fire rating of 2 hours. Further, many
fire tests of clay masonry walls are terminated once the
wall attains the desired fire rating rather than continu-
ing the fire test to its end point. The calculated fire re-
sistance, using either the fire resistance period or fire
rating, can thus be used to verify that the wall assembly
equals or exceeds the fire rating required by the build-
ing code enforced in the area in question.
CALCULATED FIRE RESISTANCE
Multi-Wythe Construction
The theory behind calculated fire resistance indicates
that a multi-wythe wall, i.e., a wall consisting of two or
more dissimilar materials, has a greater fire resistance
than a simple summation of the fire resistance periods
of the various layers. Equation 4 developed from NBS
BMS 92 yields a calculated fire resistance if the fire re-
sistance periods for each dissimilar material are known.
The fire resistance periods can be used to determine the
total fire resistance of a multi-wythe wall composed of
a combination of concrete, concrete masonry or clay
masonry. The fire rating of the multi-wythe wall will
be the maximum number of full hours thus determined.
Tables 1 through 5 are extracted from known fire re-
sistance tests performed under ASTM E 119. Tables 1,
2, 4, 5 and 7 can be used to calculate fire resistance pe-
riod for walls constructed of a combination of clay ma-
sonry, concrete masonry or concrete walls.
 TABLE 1
Fire Resistance Periods for Non-Loadbearing and Loadbearing Clay Masonry Walls1,2

Wall or Partition Assembly, Members Framed Into Wall or Partition

Minimum Nominal Thickness Combustible None or Non-Combustible

(minutes) (minutes)

CLAY OR SHALE, SOLID

4 in. brick 75
6 in. brick 153
8 in. brick 120 240
12 in. brick 240

CLAY OR SHALE, HOLLOW

8 in. brick, 71% solid 120 180
12 in. brick, 64% solid 240
8 in. brick, 60% solid, cells filled with loose fill insulation 240

CLAY OR SHALE, ROLOK

8 in. Hollow Rolok 60 150
12 in. Hollow Rolok 180 240
8 in. Hollow Rolok Bak 240

CAVITY WALLS, CLAY OR SHALE

8 in. wall; two 3 in. (actual) brick wythes
separated by 2 in. air space; masonry joint
reinforcement spaced 16 in. o.c. vertically 180
9 in. wall; two nominal 4 in. wythes separated by 2 in. air space;
1/4 in. metal ties for each 3 sq ft of wall area 603 240
CLAY OR SHALE BRICK, METAL FURRING CHANNELS
5 in. wall, 4 in. nominal brick (75% solid) backed with a
hat shaped metal furring channel 3/4 in. thick formed from
0.021 in. sheet metal attached to brick wall on 24 in. centers
with approved fasteners; and 1/2 in. Type X gypsum board
attached to the metal furring strips with 1 in. long Type S
screws spaced 8 in. on centers 120

HOLLOW CLAY TILE, BRICK FACING

8 in. wall; 4 in. units (40% solid)4 plus 4 in. solid brick 60 210
12 in. wall; 8 in. units (40% solid)4 plus 4 in. solid brick 120 240

1Units shall comply with the requirements of ASTM C 62, C 126, C 216 or C 652.
21 in. = 25.4 mm.
3A 9 in. wall has a 120 min rating if the hollow spaces near combustible members are filled with fire resistance materials for the full thickness of the wall and for at
least 4 in. above and below and between the combustible members.
4Units shall comply with the requirements of ASTM C 34.

Effects of Plaster The thickness coefficients of plaster for use in the

Sanded gypsum plaster applied to either face of a
clay masonry wall will increase the fire resistance peri-
od of the wall. Tests of solid clay masonry unit walls
show the effect of one coat of plaster on the fire ex-
posed side of a specimen to be approximately the same
as for one coat of plaster on the unexposed side. No
tests have been performed with plaster on only the un-
exposed side of hollow clay tile walls, but there is no
reason to suspect performance different from that of
solid clay masonry walls.
The calculated fire resistance formula to include the
effect of sanded gypsum plaster on either one or two
sides becomes:
R = (Rn0.59 + pl)1.7 Eq. 6
where: R = calculated fire resistance of the assembly, hr
Rn = fire rating of individual wythe, hr
pl = thickness coefficient of sanded
gypsum plaster
3
formula for determining the calculated fire resistance of
plastered clay masonry walls are taken from NBS BMS
92. The constants were derived from available test re-
sults. The average thickness of plaster applied in the
series of tests ranged from 1/2 inch (12.7 mm) to 3/4
inch (19.1 mm). These thicknesses are most likely to
be used in new building construction or are found to be
applied on existing walls in a building where the fire
rating is not known.
Values of pl for use in Equation 6 are given in Table
6. Thickness coefficients of sanded gypsum plaster
should be selected based on the actual thickness of plas-
ter applied to the wall and whether one or two sides of
the wall is plastered. When using Equation 6, values
for R n must be hourly ratings. Thickness coefficients
for other types of plaster materials have not been deter-
mined to date.
 TABLE 2
Fire Resistance Periods For Non-Loadbearing And Loadbearing Clay Tile Masonry Walls1,2

Wall or Partition Assembly, Members Framed Into Wall or Partition

Minimum Nominal Thickness Combustible None or Non-Combustible

(minutes) (minutes)

HOLLOW CLAY TILE

8 in. unit; 2 cells in wall thickness, 40% solid 45 75
8 in. unit; 2 cells in wall thickness, 43% solid 45 90
8 in. unit; 2 cells in wall thickness, 46% solid 60 105
8 in. unit; 2 cells in wall thickness, 49% solid 75 120
8 in. unit; 3 or 4 cells in wall thickness, 40% solid 45 105
8 in. unit; 3 or 4 cells in wall thickness, 43% solid 45 120
8 in. unit; 3 or 4 cells in wall thickness, 48% solid 60 150
8 in. unit; 3 or 4 cells in wall thickness, 53% solid 75 180
12 in. unit; 3 cells in wall thickness, 40% solid 120 150
12 in. unit; 3 cells in wall thickness, 45% solid 150 180
12 in. unit; 3 cells in wall thickness, 49% solid 180 210
12 in. wall; 2 units with 3 or 4 cells in wall thickness, 40% solid 120 210
12 in. wall; 2 units with 3 or 4 cells in wall thickness, 45% solid 150 240
12 in. wall; 2 units with 3 or 4 cells in wall thickness, 53% solid 180 240
16 in. wall; 2 or 3 units with 4 or 5 cells in wall thickness, 40% solid 240 240

STRUCTURAL CLAY TILE

4 in. unit; 1 cell in wall thickness, 40% solid3,4 75
6 in. unit; 1 cell in wall thickness, 30% solid3,4 120
6 in. unit; 2 cells in wall thickness, 45% solid5 60
4 in. unit; 1 cell in wall thickness, 40% solid4,5 75
6 in. unit; 1 cell in wall thickness, 30% solid4,5 120

HOLLOW STRUCTURAL CLAY TILE

8 in. unit; 2 cells in wall thickness, 40% solid 45 75
8 in. unit; 2 cells in wall thickness, 49% solid 75 120
8 in. unit; 3 or 4 cells in wall thickness, 53% solid 75 180
8 in. unit; 2 cells in wall thickness, 46% solid 60 105
12 in. unit; 3 cells in wall thickness, 40% solid 120 150
12 in. wall; 2 units, with 3 cells in wall thickness, 40% solid 120 210
12 in. wall; 2 units with 3 or 4 cells in wall thickness, 45% solid 150 240
12 in. unit; 3 cells in wall thickness, 45% solid 150 180
12 in. unit; 3 cells in wall thickness, 49% solid 180 210
16 in. wall; 2 units with 4 cells in wall thickness, 43% solid 240 240
16 in. wall; 2 or 3 units with 4 or 5 cells in wall thickness, 40% solid 240 240

1Units shall comply with the requirements of ASTM C 34, C 56, C 212 or C 530.
21 in. = 25.4 mm.
3Ratings are for dense hard-burned clay or shale.
4Cells filled with tile, stone, slag, cinders or sand mixed with mortar.
5Ratings are for medium-burned clay tile.

Effects of Air Spaces Hollow Clay Masonry Walls

A continuous air space separating wythes of masonry
will increase the calculated fire resistance of masonry
walls. A continuous air space can occur between
wythes of masonry or between masonry and concrete.
The calculated fire resistance formula then becomes:
R = (R10.59 + R20.59 + ...Rn0.59 + as)1.7 Eq. 7
where: R = calculated fire resistance of the
assembly, hr
R1, R2 and Rn = fire rating of the individual wythes, hr
as = coefficient for continuous air space
NBS BMS 92 indicates that a continuous air space
from 1/2 inch (12.7 mm) to 3-1/2 inch (89 mm) may be
estimated by the use of a value 0.3 for each continuous
air space. Thus a value of 0.6 would be used in multi-
wythe wall with two continuous air spaces. Values for
Rn in Equation 7 must be in hours.
4
Although many fire tests on hollow clay masonry
walls have been conducted, it would be virtually im-
possible to test all combinations of unit size and shape
used in construction. Fire resistance periods can be
readily obtained or estimated from the unit’s equivalent
thickness. It is accepted practice to determine the fire
resistance of concrete masonry units based on the type
of aggregate used to manufacture the units and the
equivalent thickness of solid material in the wall. Re-
cent developments in the clay masonry industry have
led to the use of the equivalent thickness method for
determining the fire resistance of hollow clay masonry
units which conform to ASTM C 652 Standard Specifi-
cation for Hollow Brick Made From Clay or Shale.
The equivalent thickness method permits the determi-
nation of fire resistance period of hollow clay units that
 TABLE 3
Fire Resistance Periods For Steel Frame/Brick Veneer Walls1

Fire Resistance Period

Wall or Partition Assembly Plaster Side Exposed Brick Faced Side Exposed
(minutes) (minutes)

Steel studs faced outer side with

1/2 in. wood fiber board sheathing next
to studs, 3/4 in. air space formed with
3/4 in. x 1 5/8 in. wood strips placed over
the fiberboard and secured to the
studs; metal or wire lath nailed to
such strips, 3 3/4 in.brick veneer
held in place by filling 3/4 in. air space
between the brick and lath with 90 240
mortar. Inside facing of studs: 3/4 in.
unsanded gypsum plaster on metal or
wire lath attached to 5/16 in. wood strips
secured to edges of the studs.

Steel studs faced outer side with

1 in. insulation board sheathing attached
to studs, 1 in. air space, and 3 3/4 in. brick
veneer attached to steel frame with
metal ties every 5th course. Inside
facing of studs: 7/8 in. sanded gypsum 105 240
plaster (1:2 mix) applied on metal or
wire lath attached directly to the studs.

Same as above except use 7/8 in.

vermiculite-gypsum plaster or 1 in.
sanded gypsum plaster (1:2 mix) 120 240
applied to metal or wire.

Steel studs faced outer side with

1/2 in. gypsum sheathing board,
attached to studs, and 3 3/4 in. brick
veneer attached to steel frame with
metal ties every 5th course. Inside
facing of studs: 1/2 in. sanded 120 240
gypsum plaster (1:2 mix) applied to
1/2 in. perforated gypsum lath
securely attached to studs and having
strips of metal lath 3 in. wide applied
to all horizontal joints of
gypsum lath.

11 in. = 25.4 mm.

may not have been physically tested under ASTM E
119. The fire resistance periods for hollow clay mason-
ry units included in Table 7 are based on the equivalent
thickness principle.
Equivalent thickness is the average thickness of solid
material in the wall. It is found by taking the total vol-
ume of a wall unit, subtracting the volume of core or cell
spaces and dividing by the area of the exposed face of the
unit. The equivalent thickness of hollow clay masonry
units can be calculated from the actual thickness and the
percentage of solid material in the unit. Both of these
measurements can be obtained when the units are sam-
pled and tested according to ASTM C 67 Methods of
Sampling and Testing Brick and Structural Clay Tile.
The equivalent thickness is based on the equation:
ET = V Eq. 8
lxh
5
where: ET = equivalent thickness, in.
V = net volume (gross volume less void
area), in.3
l = length of hollow brick, in.
h = height of hollow brick, in.
When the walls are plastered with sanded gypsum
plaster, the effect of the plaster may be included by
using Equation 6 once R n is calculated using the
equivalent thickness method for the hollow clay ma-
sonry unit. However, Equation 6 can only be used
when plaster consists of sanded gypsum materials. To
determine the effects of other plaster materials for
hollow clay masonry units, the only option is to in-
clude the thickness of the plaster when determining
the net volume, V, in Equation 8.
 TABLE 4
Minimum Equivalent Thickness (inches) of Loadbearing or Non-Loadbearing Concrete Masonry Walls2,3,4,5
1

Fire Resistance Periods (minutes)

Type of Aggregate 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 165 180 195 210 225 240

Pumice or Expanded
Slag 1.5 1.9 2.1 2.5 2.7 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4.0 4.2 4.4 4.5 4.7

Expanded Shale,
Clay or Slate 1.8 2.2 2.6 2.9 3.3 3.4 3.6 3.8 4.0 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8 4.9 5.1

Limestone, Cinders,
or Unexpanded Slag 1.9 2.3 2.7 3.1 3.4 3.7 4.0 4.3 4.5 4.8 5.0 5.2 5.5 5.7 5.9

Calcareous Gravel 2.0 2.4 2.8 3.2 3.6 3.9 4.2 4.5 4.8 5.0 5.3 5.5 5.8 6.0 6.2

Siliceous Gravel 2.1 2.6 3.0 3.5 3.9 4.2 4.5 4.8 5.1 5.4 5.7 6.0 6.2 6.5 6.7

1
Equivalent thickness is the average thickness of the solid material in the wall. It is found by taking the total volume of a wall unit, subtracting the volume of core
spaces, and dividing this by the area of the exposed face of the unit.
2
Values between those shown in the table can be determined by direct interpolation.
3 Where combustible members are framed into the wall, the thickness of solid material between the end of each member and the opposite face of the wall, or
between members set in from opposite sides, shall not be less than 93% of the thickness shown in the table.
4Units shall comply with the requirements of ASTM C 55, C 73, C 90 or C 145.
5 Extracted from the 1991 Edition of the Standard Building Code, Southern Building Code Congress International, Table 3103.1.

EXAMPLES OF CALCULATED FIRE RESISTANCE Using Equation 6 and Table 6 with 3/4 inch thick
Multi-Wythe Construction plaster on two sides

A composite wall consists of 4 inch (100 mm) nomi- R = [(2)0.59 + 0.90]1.7

nal face brick with a mortared collar joint and 4 inch = 4.45 hr, Fire Rating = 4 hr
(100 mm) siliceous aggregate concrete wall. The fire Effects of Air Spaces
resistance rating is determined as follows:
A cavity wall consists of 4 in. (100 mm) nominal
From Table 1
solid clay masonry units, a 2 in. (50 mm) air space and
4 inch nominal face brick, R1 = 60 min (1 hr)
8 in. (200 mm) limestone, cinder or unexpanded slag
From Table 5
concrete masonry unit. The concrete masonry unit has
4 inch siliceous concrete wall, R2 = 77.3 min
actual dimensions of 8 x 8 x 16 inches and is 50% sol-
(1.29 hr)
id. The fire rating is determined by Eq. 7 as follows:
Fire Resistance is calculated by Equation 4
From Table 1
R = (R10.59 + R20.59)1.7
4 in. nominal solid clay unit, R1 = 60 min or 1 hr
= [ (1.0)0.59 + (1.29)0.59 ]1.7 A 2 in. air space, as = 0.30
= 3.70 hr An 8 x 8 x 16 CMU composed of limestone, cinder or
Fire Rating is expressed in multiples of hours with 4 unexpanded slag has an equivalent thickness of
hr as a maximum required in all model building codes. ET = (8)(8)(16) x 0.50
A wall with a calculated fire resistance of 3.70 hr can- (8)(16)
not attain a 4 hr fire rating. Thus, the fire rating is 3 hr. = 4 in., From Table 4, fire rating = 120 min (2 hr)
Effects of Plaster Fire Resistance is calculated by Eq. 7:
A 6 inch (150 mm) solid brick masonry wall has a R = (R10.59 + R20.59 + as)1.7
120 min (2 hr) fire rating from Table 1. Determine the = [(1)0.59 + (2)0.59 + 0.3]1.7
fire rating with 3/4 inch (19.1 mm) thick sanded gyp-
sum plaster on one and two sides. = 5.77 hr, Fire Rating = 4 hr
Using Equation 6 and Table 6 with 3/4 inch thick Hollow Clay Masonry Walls
plaster on one side Determine the equivalent thickness and fire rating
R = (Rn0.59 + pl)1.7 for a nominal 8 x 4 x 12 in. (200 x 100 x 400 mm) hol-
= [(2)0.59 + 0.45]1.7 low clay masonry unit with the coring pattern shown in
Figure 1.
= 3.13 hr, Fire Rating = 3 hr First, determine the net volume of the unit.
6
 TABLE 5
Fire Resistance Periods For Concrete Walls (minutes)

For Thickness (inches) Of

Type of Material 1 1/2 2 2 1/2 3 3 1/2 4 4 1/2 5 5 1/2 6 6 1/2 7

Siliceous aggregate
concrete 16.8 23.9 34.7 45.4 61.0 77.3 97.4 120.5 144.4 170.0 200.3 235.7

Carbonate aggregate
concrete 18.0 27.7 40.7 52.9 67.5 87.6 112.2 135.4 164.5 187.0 229.4 270.1

Sand-lightweight
concrete 23.9 35.4 53.8 75.3 104.1 135.4 170.0 207.8 250.22 2 2 2

Lightweight concrete 24.5 39.9 60.0 84.5 115.8 148.3 187.0 229.4 280.22 2 2 2

Insulating concrete 3 43.8 80.3 116.9 138.0 204.7 258.42 2 2 2 2 2 2

1
Extracted from the 1991 Edition of the Standard Building Code, Southern Building Code Congress International, Table 3102.1B.
2
The fire resistance period for this thickness exceeds 240 minutes.
3
Dry unit weight of 35 pcf or less and consisting of cellular, perlite or vermiculite concrete.

Gross volume = t x h x l tute of America. The information contained herein

= (7.625) (3.625) (11.625) must be used in conjunction with good technical judge-
= 321.3 in.3 ment and a basic understanding of the fire resistance
Next, determine core area volume properties of brick masonry. Final decisions on the use
= 2 [(4.625) (3.625) (2.875)] + (4.625) of the information presented are not within the purview
(3.625) (0.625) of the Brick Institute of America and must rest with the
= 106.9 in.3 project architect, designer, owner or all.
Net volume = 321.3 - 106.9
= 214.4 in.3 REFERENCES
% Solid = 214.4/321.3 = 0.667, unit is 66.7% solid 1. Fire Protection Planning Report No. 13, “Ana-
Determine equivalent thickness, ET by Eq. 8 lytical Methods of Determining Fire Endurance
ET = V of Concrete and Masonry Members - Model
1xh Code Approved Procedures”, Concrete & Ma-
= 214.4 sonry Industry Fire Safety Committee.
(11.625)(3.625) 2. “Fire Resistance of Various Masonry Walls”,
= 5.09 in. G.E. Troxell, University of California at Berke-
From Table 7 a hollow clay masonry unit, unfilled, ley, 1967.
with an ET = 5.09 attains a 240 min or 4 hr fire rating. 3. Fire Test Report #83-13, “Two Hour Fire Resis-
tance Tests of Higgins Brick Company Solid
SUMMARY
Grouted 5-Inch Hollow Brick Units” by Fisher
This Technical Notes has addressed analytical meth- and Williamson.
ods to determine fire ratings for building construction 4. International Conference of Building Officials
not tested under ASTM E 119, commonly known as Research Reports #1957, #2730 and #4062.
calculated fire resistance. Procedures for calculating 5. NBS Research Paper No. 37, Fire Resistance of
the fire rating of multi-wythe construction, plastered Hollow Load Bearing Wall Tile, National
clay masonry walls, the effects of air spaces within Bureau of Standards, 1928.
wall construction and the equivalent thickness of hol- 6. “Standard Building Code, Chapter 31” Southern
low clay masonry units are presented. Building Code Congress, International, 1991
Fire ratings play an important part of building wall Edition.
selection. The information presented in this Technical 7. Structural Engineers Association of California,
Notes will be useful for calculating the fire rating of “Annual Report for the Fire Ratings Commit-
untested wall assemblies composed of clay masonry tee”, 1962.
and combinations of clay masonry with other construc- 8. Technical Notes on Brick Construction 16 Re-
tion materials such as concrete and concrete masonry. vised, “Fire Resistance”, Reissued May 1987.
The information and suggestions contained in this 9. Williamson, R.B., “Standard Fire Tests of Un-
Technical Notes are based on the available data and the loaded Hollow 6-inch Brick/Block Panels (filled
experience of the engineering staff of the Brick Insti- with lightweight Aggregate; Vermiculite)”.

7
 1.5 IN. 1.125 IN. 1.125 IN. 1.5 IN.

1.5 IN.
3.625 IN.

4.625 IN.

11.625 IN. 1.5 IN.

7.625 IN.

2.875 IN. 0.625 IN. 2.875 IN.

FIG. 1
Hollow Clay Masonry Unit Dimensions

TABLE 6
Coefficients For Plaster (pl)1

Thickness of Plaster (in.) (mm) One-Side Two-Side

1/2 (12.7) 0.30 0.60

5/8 (15.9) 0.37 0.75

3/4 (19.0) 0.45 0.90

1Values listed are for 1:3 sanded gypsum plaster.

TABLE 7
Minimum Equivalent Thickness1 (in.) of Loadbearing or Non-Loadbearing Hollow Clay Masonry Walls2,3,4,5

Fire Resistance Period (minutes)

Type of Material 60 120 180 240

Brick of clay or
shale, unfilled 2.3 3.4 4.3 5.0

Brick of clay or
shale, grouted or
filled with perlite,
vermiculite or
expanded shale
aggregate 3.0 4.4 5.5 6.6

1Equivalent thickness is the average thickness of solid material in the wall. It is found by taking the total volume of a wall unit, subtracting the volume of core or
cell spaces and dividing by the area of the exposed face of the unit.
2Values between those shown in the table can be determined by direct interpolation.
3Where combustible members are framed in the wall, the thickness of solid material between the end of each member and the opposite face of the wall, or
between members set in from opposite sides, shall not be less than 93% of the thickness shown in the table.
4Units shall comply with the requirements of ASTM C 652.
5Extracted from the 1991 Edition of the Standard Building Code, Southern Building Code Congress International, Table 3104.4.

8
 Technical Notes 17
REVISED

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
October
1996

REINFORCED BRICK MASONRY

INTRODUCTION
Abstract: The concept and use of reinforced brick masonry (RBM) has a long history.
This Technical Notes documents the history of RBM. Recent research and current code pro-
visions are enumerated. Several applications of RBM show the variety of possible uses.

Key Words: applications, brick, construction, history, reinforced brick masonry, rein-
forcement, research.

INTRODUCTION
Reinforced brick masonry (RBM) consists of brick
masonry which incorporates steel reinforcement embed-
ded in mortar or grout. This masonry has greatly in-
creased resistance to forces that produce tensile and
shear stresses. The reinforcement provides additional
tensile strength, allowing better use of brick masonry’s
inherent compressive strength. The two materials com-
plement each other, resulting in an excellent structural
material. The principles of reinforced brick masonry
design are the same as those commonly accepted for re-
inforced concrete, and similar formulae are used.
Brick masonry is one of the oldest forms of building
construction, and reinforcement has been used to
strengthen masonry since 1813. In the modern sense re-
inforced brick masonry in the United States is a relative-
ly new type of construction, with specific design proce-
dures and construction methods. These have been de-
veloped from experimental investigations beginning in
the 1920’s and with the experience of the performance
of thousands of reinforced masonry buildings. These
structures demonstrate the practicality and economy of
the construction, and their performance confirms the
soundness of the design principles. Figure 1 shows the
Los Angeles Police Department, Devonshire Station, a
reinforced brick structure, located 3 miles (4.8 km) from
the epicenter of the Northridge earthquake. There was
no structural damage and the building reportedly func-
tioned as an emergency services coordination center fol-
lowing the 6.7 magnitude earthquake.
This Technical Notes presents the history of rein-
forced brick masonry with a review of recent research
and applications. Other Technical Notes in this series
provide information on the design of reinforced brick
masonry including applications such as beams, lintels,
and retaining walls.
HISTORY
Marc Isambard Brunel is credited with the discovery
of reinforced masonry. He first proposed the use of re-
inforced brick masonry in 1813 as a means of strength-
ening a chimney then under construction. However, it
was in connection with the building of the Thames Tun-
nel in 1825 that he made his first major application of
reinforced brick masonry. As a part of the construction
of this tunnel, two brick shafts were built, each 30 in.
(760 mm) thick, 50 ft (15 m) in diameter and 70 ft (21
m) deep.
The shafts were reinforced vertically with wrought
iron rods, 1 in. (25 mm) in diameter, built into the
brickwork. Iron hoops, 9 in. (230 mm) wide and 1/2 in.
(13 mm) in thickness, were laid in the brickwork as
building progressed. The first shaft was built to a
height of 42 ft (13 m) and then sunk by excavating soil
from the interior, using what is now commonly known
as the open method of cassion construction. The re-
maining 28 ft (8.5 m) of its height was added to the top
of the shaft as it settled and was stabilized by underpin-
Los Angeles Police Department, Devonshire Station
FIG. 1
ning. In spite of unequal settlement of the shaft no
cracks developed in the brick masonry. As a result, the
second shaft was built to its entire height of 70 ft (21 m)
before it was lowered. Richard Beamish, in his Mem -
oirs of the Life of Sir Marc Isambard Brunel [1], de-
scribes this construction and states that, after an unequal
settlement of 7 in. (180 mm) on one side and 3 in. (76
mm) on the other, “the surge was alarming, but so ad -
mirably was the structure bound together that no injury
was sustained.” Brunel continued the use of reinforced
masonry and in 1836 constructed test structures in an
effort to determine the additional strength imparted to
the masonry by the reinforcement.
Other engineers became interested in this type of
construction and in 1837 Colonel Pasley of the Corps of
Royal Engineers conducted a series of tests on rein-
forced brick masonry beams and reported results com-
parable to those obtained by Brunel. Pasley’s tests were
designed to settle the prevailing argument as to whether
the flat hoop iron used as reinforcement really strength-
ened brick beams.
Three beams were built, each 18 in. (460 mm) wide
and 12 in. (305 mm) (4 brick courses) deep, with a 10 ft
(3 m) span. One beam was built without reinforcement,
with the brick laid in neat cement. The second beam
was also laid in neat cement, but this beam was rein-
forced with 5 pieces of hoop iron; two placed in the top
mortar joint, one in the middle joint and two in the bot-
tom mortar joint. The latter of these obviously carried
most of the tensile stress. The third beam was rein-
forced in the same manner as the second beam, but the
brick were laid in a mortar composed of 1 part lime and
3 parts sand. The first beam failed at a load of 498 lb
(2.2 kN); the second beam carried 4723 lb (21.0 kN);
and the third beam failed at between 400 and 500 lb
(1.8 and 2.2 kN); thus settling the dispute. The results
point out that bond between the brick, mortar and rein-
forcement develops when cement-based mortars are
used.
As indicated by the placement of the reinforcement
in Pasley’s beams, the manner in which steel and ma-
sonry act together to resist forces was not completely
understood at that time. The empirical formulae de-
rived from such tests could not be used to determine di-
mensions and reinforcement of structural members
varying in cross section or span from those tested.
However, the interest in reinforced masonry construc-
tion continued and, with the increased use of cement in
mortar, additional tests were conducted.
One such test that received widespread publicity was
a reinforced brick beam tested at the Great Exposition
in London in 1851. The “new cement,” commercially
known as Portland Cement was used in the construc-
tion. This test was highly successful, and the publicity
which it received resulted in the more widespread use
of portland cement in several European countries and,
to a lesser degree, in the United States.
N. B. Corson published an article in the July 19,
2
1872 issue of Engineering [5] in which he reviewed the
data obtained from the Exposition’s test beam, Brunel’s
test structures, tests of unreinforced masonry beams and
arches, and the performance of a large number of ma-
sonry structures. From these data, Corson computed
tensile stresses of unreinforced masonry and recom-
mended an allowable tensile stress for use in the design
of masonry lintels. This appears to be the first recorded
technical discussion of the relation of tensile strength of
masonry to mortar strength. However, it did not recog-
nize the full effect of the metal reinforcement in in-
creasing the tensile strength of a member.
The use of reinforced brick masonry continued to
spread. The benefits of combining the tensile strength
of iron or steel with the compressive strength of mason-
ry was evident to those familiar with the potential dam-
age of earthquakes. The Palace Hotel opened in San
Francisco in 1875, covering a full city block, rising sev-
en stories in height. The 3 ft (0.9 m) thick solid brick
walls were reinforced by iron bands every few feet.
These formed a “basket” that completely encircled the
building. This is one of the few large structures that en-
dured the 1906 San Francisco earthquake [2].
During the period 1880 to 1920, there was little
recorded use of reinforced brick masonry and experi-
mental investigations of this type of construction appear
to have been practically discontinued.
In 1923, the Public Works Department of the Gov-
ernment of India published Technical Paper No. 38 [3],
a comprehensive report by Undersecretary A. Brebner
of extensive tests of reinforced brick masonry structures
extending over a period of about two years. A total of
282 specimens were tested, including reinforced brick
masonry slabs of varying thicknesses, reinforced brick
beams, both reinforced and unreinforced columns, and
reinforced brick arches. The tests reported by Brebner
appear to be the first organized research program on re-
inforced brick masonry and the data obtained provided
answers to questions raised regarding this type of con-
struction. This research marks the initial stage of the
modern development of reinforced masonry.
Following Brebner’s report and his statement of a ra-
tional design theory for reinforced brick masonry, its
use increased, particularly in India and Japan. Both
countries are subject to severe earthquakes, and build-
ings expected to withstand such shocks must be de-
signed with relatively high resistance to lateral forces.
Since structural steel and suitable lumber for concrete
formwork were relatively expensive in these countries,
engineers turned to reinforced brick masonry. It be-
came standard construction for public and important
private buildings, as well as for many types of engineer-
ing structures, such as retaining walls, bridges, storage
bins, and chimneys.
Brebner wrote in 1923 of reinforced brick masonry,
“In all, nearly 3,000,000 ft 2 (279,000 m2) have been
laid in the last three years”. Skigeyuki Kanamori, Civil
E n g i n e e r, Department of Home Affairs, Imperial
Japanese Government, is reported in the July 15, 1930
issue of Brick and Clay Record [7] as stating, “There is
no question that reinforced brickwork should be used
instead of (unreinforced) brickwork when any tensile
stress would be incurred in the structure. We can make
them more safe and stronger, saving much cost. Fur -
ther, I have found that reinforced brickwork is more
convenient and economical in building than reinforced
concrete and, what is still more important, there is al -
ways a very appreciable saving in time.” Structures de-
scribed by Kanamori include sea walls, culverts and
railway retaining walls, as well as buildings.
Research in the United States, sponsored by the Brick
Manufacturers Association of America and continued by
the Structural Clay Products Institute and the Structural
Clay Products Research Foundation, contributed much
valuable material to the literature on reinforced brick ma-
sonry. Since 1924, numerous field and laboratory tests
have been made on reinforced brick beams, slabs and
columns, and on full size structures. Fig. 2 is an example
of a 1936 test to demonstrate the structural capabilities of
reinforced brick masonry elements.
During this period, research was conducted on both
reinforced and unreinforced brick masonry at the Na-
tional Bureau of Standards, now the National Institute
of Standards and Technology, and at practically all of
the principal engineering colleges of the United States.
As new data were developed through research, the er-
ratic performance of some of the earlier reinforced
brick test specimens could be explained and, one by
Early Test of RBM Element
FIG. 2
3
one, the principal variables affecting the strength of re-
inforced brick masonry have been identified and, to
large degree, evaluated.
In 1933 the Brick Manufacturers Association of
America published Brick Engineering, Vol. III, Rein -
forced Brick Masonry, by Hugo Filippi [6]. Regarding
the uses of reinforced brick masonry, the author states,
“Reinforced brick masonry is well adapted for use in
the following types of structures, either wholly or in
part: Buildings, Culverts and Bridges; Retaining Walls
and Dams; Reservoirs; Sewers and Conduits; Tanks
and Storage Bins; Chimneys and Circular Construc -
tions; Abutments, Piers, Trestle Bents, etc.
“In the United States alone, during the past year and
one-half, more than 40 individual jobs of reinforced
brick masonry have been built, consisting of such dis -
tinctive types of construction as highway bridges, stor -
age bins, industry track trestle piers, floor and roof
slabs, beams, girders and long lintels. At the present
time approximately 50 additional jobs are either under
construction or under consideration in various parts of
the country.”
During the period referred to by Filippi, the develop-
ment and use of reinforced brick masonry in the United
States were in their early stages. A significant change
in the use of RBM came after the 1933 Long Beach
earthquake. It was realized that unreinforced structures
were susceptible to major damage from earthquakes and
that RBM could be used to save lives. Codes were de-
veloped that promoted the use of reinforced structures.
Since that time thousands of such structures have been
built and reinforced brick masonry construction has
been adopted as standard practice for various types of
structures in many areas.
RECENT RESEARCH
Research on reinforced brick masonry has continued.
In 1984, the Technical Coordinating Committee for Ma-
sonry Research (TCCMAR) was formed for the purpose
of defining and performing both experimental and ana-
lytical research and development necessary to improve
structural masonry technology [9]. A unique aspect of
this research was a phased step-by-step program of sep-
arate, but coordinated research tasks. Initial research on
materials was used in later tests on assemblies. These
led to tests of building elements and then the combina-
tion of wall and floor elements. The research culminat-
ed in a full-scale, five story structure subjected to dy-
namic loading in 1993. Much of the research led to the
development of a limit states design procedure for ma-
sonry.
Interest in better utilization of brick masonry’s high
compressive strength has led to research in prestressed
brick masonry. Knowledge about this form of rein-
forced brick masonry was increased by research in
Great Britain. Research is currently underway in the
United States, as is the development of design proce-
dures.
BUILDING CODE PROVISIONS
Building codes first covered reinforced brick mason-
ry in 1953 in the American National Standards Insti-
tute’s A41.2 document [4]. Since that first code on
RBM, other codes such as the Uniform Building Code
and the Masonry Standards Joint Committee Code (ACI
530/ASCE 5/TMS 402) have adopted provisions.
Most code provisions on reinforced masonry are
based on allowable stress design (ASD). In ASD, the
reinforcement in masonry is designed to resist all ten-
sile forces. The reinforcement increases the masonry’s
shear resistance and may contribute to the compressive
strength. The stress-strain relationship is linear at
working loads and the strain is proportional to the dis-
tance from the neutral axis. Code requirements cover
axial compression, flexure, and shear.
The Uniform Building Code has provisions for slender
wall design, which is loosely based on strength design. A
more comprehensive design method, known as limit
states design is in development. Limit states design con-
siders the actual performance of the materials as they un-
dergo load and deformation. Significant changes in the
state of stress, such as cracking of the masonry and yield-
ing of the steel, are identified. The capacity, or strength,
of the element at these limit states is compared to that re-
quired to resist the applied load. These code provisions
Double Wythe Reinforced Brick Masonry
are expected to provide a complement to ASD.
FIG. 3
BASIC CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURES
The earliest method of placing reinforcement into
brick masonry was simply to place iron or steel bars in
mortar joints as the bricks were laid. Later the rein-
forcement was placed in collar joints between two ma-
sonry wythes and surrounded by mortar or fine grout.
Eventually the space between wythes was increased in
width and filled with grout. Horizontal reinforcement
and grout were placed as the outer wythes were com-
pleted. The next development was the “High Lift Grout-
ing System” in which the brick masonry wythes are
built up around the reinforcement and allowed to set for
a minimum period of three days. Then grout is pumped
into the space containing the reinforcement. This
method was developed in the San Francisco area during
the late 1950s. This double wythe reinforced brick ma-
sonry is shown in Fig. 3. Reinforced Hollow Brick Masonry
The most recent means of constructing reinforced FIG. 4
masonry incorporates hollow brick. These units are
manufactured with large open cells which align verti- APPLICATIONS AND EXAMPLES
cally when the units are laid. Vertical reinforcement is
placed in the cells by laying the brick over or around During the past 60 years, reinforced brick masonry
the bars, or by threading the bar in after the brick are has been used for the construction of a variety of struc-
laid. Horizontal reinforcement is placed in bed joints or tures. In those countries where labor costs are low, one
in continuous bond beams made by removing portions of its principal uses has been for the construction of
of the webs that connect the face shells. Spaces con- floor and roof slabs. However, in the United States, its
taining reinforcement are grouted in lifts of up to 5 ft most extensive use has been in the construction of verti-
(1.5 m) to make grout pours of up to 24 ft (7.3 m). cal members, such as walls and columns. Since no
Construction of reinforced hollow brick masonry is forms are required for these members, reinforced brick
shown in Fig. 4. masonry is competitive with reinforced concrete, and

4
walls of minimum thickness and light structural mem-
bers can be constructed at substantially less cost in rein-
forced brick masonry than in reinforced concrete.
Reinforced brick beams and lintels allow the design-
er to achieve exposed brick on the underside of these el-
ements as in Fig. 5. This provides a horizontal finished
surface that matches the vertical surface. The idea of
brick hanging upside down must be disconcerting.
Some designers seem reluctant to use RBM construc-
tion for brick lintels or soffits. As demonstrated by
tests since 1837, the bond of the mortar and grout to the
brick holds the brick in place.
Structures of all sizes, from single story residences to
23 story buildings have been constructed of reinforced
brick masonry as shown in Figs. 6 and 7. The applica-
tions range from retaining walls to exterior cladding.
Reinforced Brick Masonry Single Family Residence,
The added tensile strength of the reinforcing steel opens
Ashburn, VA
the possibility for prefabricated brick panels. This FIG. 6
method of design and construction is utilized frequently
to achieve unusual shapes and bond patterns in brick
masonry. See Fig. 8.
SUMMARY
The use of reinforced brick masonry has been record-
ed for over 175 years. RBM construction has been
adapted to a wide variety of applications throughout its
history. Beams, column, pilasters, arches, and other
RBM elements have been used in buildings, culverts,
retaining walls, silos, chimneys, pavements and bridges.
Continuing research on RBM results in more economi-
cal structures able to withstand all types of loading.
The information and suggestions contained in this
Technical Notes are based on the available data and the
experience of the engineering staff of the Brick Institute
of America. The information contained herein must be
used in conjunction with good technical judgment and a
basic understanding of the properties of brick masonry.
Final decisions on the use of the information contained
in this Technical Notes are not within the purview of the
Brick Institute of America and must rest with the pro-
ject architect, engineer and owner.

Reinforced Brick Masonry High Rise,

Reinforced Brick Beams Cleveland, OH
FIG. 5 FIG. 7
5
 REFERENCES
1. Beamish, R., Memoirs of the Life of Sire Marc
Isambard Brunel, Longmans, London, England,
1862.
2. Berger, Molly W., “The Old High-Tech Hotel,”
Invention and Technology, Fall 1995, pp. 46-52.
3. Brebner, A., Notes on Reinforced Brickwork,
Technical Paper No. 38, Government of India,
Public Works Department, India, 1923.
4. “Building Code Requirements for Reinforced
Masonry,” American Standards A 41.2-1960,
American Standards Association, New Yo r k ,
NY, 1960.
5. Corson, N. B., “Article on Brick Masonry,” En -
gineering, London, July 19, 1872.
6. Filippi, Hugo, Brick Engineering, Volume III,
Reinforced Brick Masonry, Brick Manufacturers
Reinforced Brick Masonry Panels Association of America, Cleveland, OH, 1933.
FIG. 8 7. Kanamori, S., “Reinforced Brickwork Opens
Greater Possibilities,” Brick and Clay Record,
Chicago, IL, Vol. 77, #2, July 1930, pp. 96-100.
8. Plummer, H. C. and Blume, J. A., “Reinforced
Brick Masonry and Lateral Force Design,”
Structural Clay Products Institute, Washington,
D.C., 1953.
9. “Status Report, U.S. Coordinated Program for Ma-
sonry Building Research,” Technical Coordinating
Committee for Masonry Research, Nov. 1988.

6
 Technical Notes 17A
REVISED

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
August
1997

REINFORCED BRICK MASONRY

MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION
Abstract: This Technical Notes provides a discussion of the proper methods of con-
structing reinforced brick masonry. Materials used in reinforced brick masonry are included.
Construction of brick masonry, placement of steel reinforcement and grouting are addressed.
Recommendations are provided to ensure that the completed masonry will provide adequate
performance. Particular emphasis is placed on those aspects of construction that are unique
to reinforced brick masonry. Various quality assurance procedures and tests are also ex-
plained.

Key Words: bracing, brick, construction, grouting, inspection, reinforced brick masonry
reinforcement, shoring.

INTRODUCTION applicable ASTM standards as required by the Specifi -

Reinforced brick masonry (RBM) is different from
more conventional brick veneer in many ways. Key to
those differences is the concept of grouting the brick ma-
sonry. Grouted brick masonry is defined as construction
made with clay or shale units in which cavities or pock-
ets in elements of solid units, or cells of hollow units are
filled with grout. Common examples of RBM elements
are beams, columns, pilasters, multi-wythe brick walls
with grouted collar joints and hollow brick walls. This
Technical Notes reviews the materials and construction
practices used to build RBM elements. The different
techniques are discussed with particular emphasis on the
concept of grouting and the placement of reinforcement.
Quality assurance and minimum standards of workman-
ship to ensure a high level of consistency and adequate
masonry performance are addressed.
The information in this Technical Notes should be
carefully reviewed by the mason contractor prior to
constructing reinforced brick masonry. It should also
be studied by the masonry inspector. Other Technical
Notes in this series provide design theories and design
aids for RBM elements such as beams, walls, columns
and pilasters.
RBM MATERIALS
The materials used to construct RBM elements
should comply with applicable ASTM standards. Brick
should meet the requirements of ASTM C 62 Specifica-
tion for Building Brick, C 216 Specification for Facing
Brick, or C 652 Specification for Hollow Brick. Mortar
should comply with the requirements of ASTM C 270
Specification for Mortar for Unit Masonry. Grout
should comply with ASTM C 476 Specification for
Grout for Masonry. Metal wall ties, bar positioners,
and reinforcing bars and wires should comply with the
cation for Masonry Str u c t u re s (ACI 530.1/ASCE
6/TMS 602) [2], also known as the MSJC Specification.
All metal wall ties, positioners and joint reinforcement
should be corrosion resistant or protected from corro-
sion by appropriate coatings. Refer to Technical Notes
3A for a discussion of the material properties of brick,
mortar, grout and reinforcement.
The materials in both fine and coarse grout should
comply with the requirements of ASTM C 476 Specifi-
cation for Grout for Masonry. Both fine grout and
coarse grout should comply with the volume proportions
given in ASTM C 476. Specifying grout by proportions
is preferred over specifying a minimum grout strength.
Typically, the maximum aggregate size should be 3⁄8 in.
(9.5 mm) for coarse grout. While larger size aggregate
can be used when filling large grout spaces, it must be
noted that such grout likely cannot be pumped and will
require placement by pouring from a hopper.
It must be remembered that grout is different from
concrete. Concrete is placed with a minimum of water
into nonporous forms. Grout is poured with consider-
ably more water, as the brick masonry creates absorp-
tive forms. Grout should be sufficiently fluid to flow
into the space to be filled, and surround the steel rein-
forcement, leaving no voids. It should be wet enough
to flow without separation of the constituents. Whereas
good mortar should stick to a trowel, it should be im-
possible for grout to do so. The water cement ratio as
mixed, highly important in concrete work, is less im-
portant for grout in brick masonry. Although excessive
water is detrimental to the strength and durability of the
grout, when introduced into the brick masonry the water
cement ratio rapidly changes from a high to a low val-
ue. Grout is often mixed too dry and stiff for proper
placement.
 One concern with the use of a very fluid grout mix-
ture is excessive shrinkage. Shrinkage can create voids
in the grout space, which are to be avoided. For this
reason, plasticizers and shrinkage-compensating admix-
tures are recommended for grout in brick masonry.
Such admixtures will provide the necessary fluidity
while also producing a hardened grout mixture with
minimal voids.
There is a temptation to fill the grout space with the
mortar that is used to lay up the brickwork, especially
when simultaneously laying brick and grouting. This is
not recommended, but may be permitted by local build-
ing codes. It is common to find excessive voids in the
grout space with this practice. Proper placement and
consolidation of grout or grout mixture with a shrinkage-
compensating admixture and poured in a continuous pro-
cess is much more likely to form a solid grout fill.
RBM CONSTRUCTION
The construction of RBM elements can be separated
into three parts: brick masonry construction, placement
of the steel reinforcement and grouting. Each of these
steps is critical to the end result. Following is a review
of these three construction procedures in the order of
their execution.
There are two key points to remember when laying
the brick. First, the brick masonry is the permanent
formwork for the grout. This masonry formwork must
be built in a manner that facilitates placement and posi-
tioning of the steel reinforcement and installation of
grout. Second, the quality of workmanship will have a
significant impact on the strength of the RBM. Unfilled
mortar joints and elements that are out-of-plumb will
not provide the performance assumed by the designer.
All RBM elements constructed of solid brick should
be laid with full head and bed joints. The ends of brick
should be buttered with sufficient mortar to fill the head
joints. Furrowing of bed joints should not be deep
enough to result in voids. Years ago, it was believed by
some that the head joints in solid brick masonry could be
made only half full and that the grout would flow into the
remainder of the head joint and fill the voids. It was felt
that the grout would form a shear key and make the brick
masonry bond more strongly to the grout core. This is
not the case. In fact, creation of voids is more likely with
this practice, which reduces the masonry’s strength and
can promote efflorescence due to entrapped water.
Hollow brick are normally laid with face shell bed-
ding. That is, the unit’s face shells are filled solidly
with mortar and head joints are filled with mortar to a
depth equal to the face shell thickness. In some in-
stances, bed joints of cross webs are covered with mor-
tar to confine grout or to increase net area. Head joints
may be filled solid for similar reasons.
Cleanouts and Maintaining a Clear Grout Space
Cleanouts are used to remove all mortar droppings
and debris from the bottom of a grout space and also to
2
ensure proper placement of reinforcement prior to
grouting. Cleanouts should be provided in the bottom
course of all spaces to be grouted when the grout pour
exceeds 5 ft (1.5 m) in height. In partially grouted ma-
sonry, a cleanout is recommended at each vertical bar.
In fully grouted masonry, the spacing of cleanouts
should not exceed 32 in. (813 mm) on center according
to the MSJC Specification. For reinforced brick mason-
ry elements constructed with solid brick, cleanouts
should be formed by omitting brick in the bottom
course periodically along the base of the element. For
hollow brick masonry, cleanouts should be provided in
the bottom course of masonry by removing the face
shell of the cells to be grouted. Examples of cleanouts
in brick masonry walls are shown in Figure 1. The
minimum cleanout opening dimension should be 3 in.
(76 mm). However, smaller spaces can be used if it is
shown with a demonstration panel that the spaces can
be cleaned.
The grout spaces should be cleaned prior to grouting.
It is good practice to clean out grout spaces at the end
of each work day so that mortar droppings can be easily
removed. A high pressure water spray, compressed air
or industrial vacuum cleaner should be used for this
purpose. Many contractors have found that cleaning of
the grout space is facilitated by placing a layer of sand
or sheets of plastic film at the bottom of the cleanout to
catch mortar droppings. After cleaning and prior to
grouting, cleanouts should be closed with masonry units
or sealed with a blocker to resist grout pressure. A min-
imum curing time of two days is recommended for the
cleanout plugs or they should be adequately braced
against the grout pressure. Bracing is discussed further
in the section on Shoring and Bracing.
For solid brick masonry, the top of the mortar bed
joint should be beveled outward from the center of the
grout space to minimize the amount of mortar extruded
into the grout space when the brick are laid, as illustrat-
ed in Fig. 2. Mortar protruding from bed or head joints
into the grout space should be struck flush with the sur-
face or removed prior to grouting. The maximum pro-
Example of Grout Space Cleanouts
FIG. 1
 BEVELED BED JOINTS

Sponges to Keep Cell Clear of Mortar Droppings

Beveling Mortar Bed Joints
FIG. 3
FIG. 2

trusion of a mortar fin should be 1⁄2 in. (13 mm). The within these limits are not as strong in compression as
spaces to be grouted should also be kept free of mortar those that are. The thickness of mortar joints will also
droppings. One method of keeping collar joints clear influence the masonry’s strength. Excessively thin or
consists of laying wood strips on the metal ties as the thick mortar joints will reduce brick masonry’s tensile
two wythes of brick masonry are built. The strips catch and compressive strength. The erection tolerances
mortar droppings during construction and are removed stated in the MSJC Specification are given in Table 1.
by means of attached heavy strings or wires as the wall This specification and its accompanying B u i l d i n g
is built. To keep the cells of hollow brick clear for Code Requirements for Masonry Stru c t u re s ( A C I
grouting, sponges are typically used, as shown in Fig. 3. 530/ASCE 5/TMS 402) [1] [also known as the MSJC
Code] stipulate minimum size of grout spaces that are
Erection Tolerances
dependent on the height of grout pour and the grout
All RBM elements should be laid within the permit- type. The limits given in Table 2 are to ensure ade-
ted dimensional tolerances found in the MSJC Specifi- quate access of grout to the space.
cations. Masonry elements that are not constructed
Shoring and Bracing
RBM elements typically require temporary support
TABLE 1 during construction provided by shoring and bracing.
Erection Tolerances for RBM Elements
TABLE 2
Elements Tolerance from Specified
Dimension, in. (mm) Grout Space Requirements
Dimension of assembly, in
- 1⁄4 (6.4) +1⁄2 (13) Grout Maximum Minimum Width Minimum Grout
cross-section or elevation
Type Grout Pour of Grout Space Space Dimensions
Grout space or cavity width -1⁄4 (6.4) + 3⁄8 (9.5) Height, Between for Grouting Cells
ft (m) Masonry Wythes, of Hollow Units1,2
in. (mm) 1 in × in. (mm × mm)
Mortar Bed joints ±1⁄8 (3.2)
joint Head joints -1⁄4 (6.4) + 3⁄8 (9.5) 1 (0.3) 3
⁄4 (19) 11⁄2 × 2 (38 × 51)
thickness Collar joints -1⁄4 (6.4) + 3⁄8 (9.5)
5 (1.5) 2 (51) 2 × 3 (51 × 76)
Fine
12 (3.7) 21 ⁄2 (64) 21⁄2 × 3 (64 × 76)
Variation In 10 ft (3.1 m) ±1⁄4 (6.4)
from level 1 Maximum ±1⁄2 (13) 24 (7.3) 3 (76) 3 × 3 (76 × 76)

Variation from In 10 ft (3.1 m) ±1⁄4 (6.4) 1 (0.3) 1 1⁄2 (38) 11⁄2 × 3 (38 × 76)
plumb and In 20 ft (6.1 m) ±3⁄8 (9.5) 5 (1.5) 2 (51) 21⁄2 × 3 (64 × 76)
Coarse
true to a line Maximum ±1⁄2 (13) 12 (3.7) 2 1⁄2 (64) 3 × 3 (76 × 76)
24 (7.3) 3 (76) 3 × 4 (76 × 102)
Alignment of Bearing member ±1⁄2 (13)
columns and Non-bearing 1Grout space dimension is the clear dimension between any masonry
walls2 member ±3⁄4 (19) protrusion and shall be increased by the diameters of the horizontal bars
within the cross secton of the grout space.
1Bed joints and top surface of bearing members. 2Area of vertical reinforcement shall not exceed 6 percent of the area of the
2 Bottom versus top. grout space.

3
These supporting members are typically of wood or
steel construction. Temporary support is required for
two reasons. First, grout is very fluid when placed and
exerts considerable pressure on the surrounding brick
masonry. Second, RBM elements gain strength over
time as the mortar and grout cure and harden. RBM
walls, columns and pilasters are often braced along their
height. RBM beams and arches may require both
shoring for vertical support and bracing for lateral load
resistance and grout pressure resistance.
Shoring and bracing should be left in place until it is
certain that the masonry has gained sufficient strength
to carry its own weight and all other imposed loads in-
cluding temporary loads that occur during construction.
The most common problem related to temporary sup-
ports for masonry elements is inadequate lateral bracing
to resist wind pressures during construction until the
masonry has gained sufficient strength to resist these
loads. This is especially true when the roof and floor
diaphragms have not been installed and anchored to the
top of the masonry wall. Without proper bracing, the
wall is a free-standing cantilever element and is more
vulnerable to collapse.
Appropriate time for removal of shoring and bracing
depends on many factors. For example, proper curing of
the mortar and grout may take considerably longer under
cold weather conditions. The results of suitable compres-
sion tests of prisms or grout may be necessary as evidence
that the masonry has attained sufficient strength to permit
removal of shoring or bracing. Rules-of-thumb for the
minimum time which should elapse before removal of
shoring or bracing that have been recommended for many
years include the following:
1. For RBM beams, 10 days after completion of the
element
2. For RBM arches, 7 days after completion
3. Lateral bracing for walls, columns and pilasters, 7
days after placement of the grout.
Longer time periods will be necessary with inade-
quate curing conditions. It is always a good idea to
consult the project engineer for a recommended bracing
scheme and the length of time required for bracing to
remain in place.
Curing Time Prior to Grouting. If grouting is per-
formed too rapidly after construction the hydrostatic
pressure of the grout can cause ”blowout” of mortar
joints or even entire sections of brickwork. This is es-
pecially true when the grout pour is high. Blowout of
the grout can be avoided by a combination of proper
curing time, adequate wall ties or joint reinforcement
across the grout space and bracing.
Recommended duration of curing prior to grouting
depends upon the method of grouting and the extent of
bracing to resist the grout pressure. If no bracing
against grout pressure is provided, the masonry should
be permitted to cure for at least 3 days to gain strength
before placement of grout in lifts greater than 5 ft (1.5
m) in height. For shorter grout lift heights, grout may
4
be poured relatively soon after the brick are laid. Since
grout lift heights are very short, the mason contractor
should adjust the speed of construction as needed to
avoid blowout of the wall.
Wall Ties Across Grout Spaces. Freshly placed grout
exerts a hydrostatic pressure on the surrounding masonry
formwork. This pressure increases with increasing pour
height. To resist the grout pressure, wall ties are used
across the grout space to tie the brick wythes together.
For multi-wythe masonry walls, a minimum number of
wall ties will already be provided to tie the wythes to-
gether in accordance with the building code. The wall
ties resist the grout pressure by their tensile capacity.
The ties provide the additional benefit of a positive me-
chanical anchorage between the grout core and the sur-
rounding masonry. Ties may not be required across
small grout spaces such as in columns or pilasters.
Wall ties across grout spaces should be at least W1.7
(9 gage) wire. For masonry elements laid in running
bond, ties should be spaced not more than 24 in. (610
mm) o.c. horizontally and not more than 16 in. (406
mm) o.c. vertically. If stack bond is used, the vertical
spacing should be reduced to 12 in. (305 mm) o.c. All
ties should be placed in the same line vertically to facil-
itate the grout consolidation process. Ties should be
embedded at least one-half the thickness of the masonry
wythe.
Bracing Against Grout Pressure. For grout pour
heights less than approximately 5 ft (1.5 m), bracing of
the brick masonry may not be necessary. If the grout
pour height is greater, consideration should be given to
bracing the masonry. This is especially true when a
longer curing time for the brick masonry prior to grout-
ing is not feasible. Bracing members are typically ex-
ternally applied wood construction. The bracing mem-
bers should be designed by an engineer, based on the
grout pour height.
PLACEMENT OF STEEL REINFORCEMENT
Steel reinforcement should be placed in accordance
with the size, type and location indicated on the project
drawings, and as specified. Dissimilar metals should
not be placed in contact with each other because this
can promote corrosion of the reinforcement. Non-
metallic flashing should be used when the flashing will
come in contact with the reinforcement. If it is possi-
ble, all vertical steel reinforcement should be placed af-
ter completion of the masonry surrounding the grout
space. This keeps the reinforcement out of the mason’s
way during construction and makes cleaning of the
grout space easier. It also prevents contamination of the
reinforcement by mortar droppings or protrusions that
can adversely affect grout bond to the reinforcement.
Applicable building codes should be consulted re-
garding placement requirements for reinforcement in
masonry elements. A summary of the placement re-
quirements for reinforcement in masonry stated in the
MSJC Code is given in Table 3. These requirements
are to ensure proper bond to the grout, corrosion protec-
tion and fire resistance of the reinforcement. Table 3 al-
so identifies the tolerance limits on positioning rein-
forcement in masonry elements. Reinforcement should
only be spliced where indicated on the project draw-
ings. Reinforcement should not be bent or disturbed af-
ter placement of the grout.
Vertical reinforcement should be accurately placed
and secured prior to the grouting process. Reinforce-
ment can be secured by wire ties or other spacing de-
vices. Some examples of common bar spacing devices
are shown in Fig. 4. Vertical reinforcement should be
braced at the top and bottom of the element. Additional
positioners may be necessary to facilitate proper place-
ment of the bars. When reinforcement is spliced in a
grout space between wythes or within an individual cell
of hollow brick masonry, the two bars should be placed
in contact and wired together. Vertical reinforcement in
hollow brick masonry may be spliced by placing the
bars in adjacent cells, provided the distance between Bar Spacing Devices
bars does not exceed 8 in. (204 mm). FIG. 4

TABLE 3
Reinforcement Placement Requirements

Spacing Requirements

Diameter of
Minimum clear distance between parallel bars and between larger bar,
a contact lap splice and adjacent splices or bars but at least
1 in. (25 mm)

11⁄2 times the

diameter of the
Minimum clear distance between vertical bars and between a contact lap
larger bar,
splice and adjacent splices or bars in columns and pilasters
but at least
1 ⁄2 in. (38 mm)
1

Fine grout ⁄4 in. (6.4 mm)

1
Minimum grout thickness between
reinforcement and surrounding masonry
Coarse grout 1
⁄2 in. (13 mm)

Masonry face No. 6 or larger 2 in. (51 mm)

exposed to earth
Bars or weather No. 5 or smaller 1 ⁄2 in. (38 mm)
1

Minimum
masonry Masonry face not exposed to earth or weather 11⁄2 in. (38 mm)
cover
Joint Masonry face exposed to earth or weather 5
⁄8 in. (16 mm)
reinforcement
wires Masonry face not exposed to earth or weather ⁄2 in. (13 mm)
1

Erection Tolerances

Maximum variation of vertical bar position along wall

2 in. (51 mm)
length from location indicated on project drawings

d ≤ 8 in. (203 mm) ±1⁄2 in. (13 mm)

Tolerance from “d” dimension
8 in. (203 mm) < d ≤ 24 in. ±1 in. (25 mm)
indicated on project drawings
(610 mm)
or as specified1
d > 24 in. (610 mm) ±11⁄4 in. (32mm)

1In flexural members, the “d” dimension is the distance from the extreme compression face to the centroid of the tensile reinforcement.

5
 Horizontal reinforcement is usually placed in the
mortar joints as the work progresses or in bond beams
at the completion of the bond beam course. In partially
grouted walls, the bond beam should be grouted prior to
further construction of brick masonry on top of the
bond beam. For two-wythe, solid brick masonry walls,
the horizontal reinforcement may be placed in the
grouted collar joint. All horizontal bars should be on
the same side of the vertical reinforcement to facilitate
consolidation of the grout.
GROUTING
The most crucial aspect of constructing RBM ele-
ments is the grouting process. While grouting may
seem a simple matter of filling cavities or cells of ma-
sonry, it is the one aspect of RBM construction that can
cause the most problems. The most common problem
is the creation of voids in the grout space due to stiff
grout, excessive pour height, grout shrinkage, or
blocked grout spaces. To ensure proper grouting, four
sequential steps should be properly executed: prepara-
tion of the grout space, grout batching, grout placement Vertical Grout Barriers
and consolidation, and curing and protection. FIG. 5

Preparation of the Grout Space

The configuration and condition of the grout space
can vary considerably. Common grout spaces for RBM
elements are the cells of hollow brick, the collar joint
between multi-wythe brick walls, the core of columns
or pilasters and the depth of a beam.
For a multi-wythe brick wall with a grouted collar
joint, vertical grout barriers, or dams, should be built
across the grout space for the entire height of the wall at
intervals of not more than 25 ft (7.6 m). Grout barriers
control the horizontal flow of grout and reduce segrega-
tion. With hollow brick, mortar is placed on cross webs
to confine grout to certain vertical cells. Wire mesh is
installed beneath a bond beam to prevent the flow of
grout into the masonry below the bond beam. Exam-
ples of common grout barrier techniques are shown in
Fig. 5.
Grout spaces should be checked to see that all for-
eign materials and debris have been removed prior to
grouting. The reinforcement should be clean and prop-
erly positioned in the grout space. If cleanouts are used,
they should be sealed and braced if needed. All grout
barriers should be secured and braced, if necessary.
The absorption rate of brick masonry will vary con-
siderably with different units and weather conditions.
To make the absorption more consistent, the grout space
may be wetted prior to grouting. No free water should
be on the units when the grout is placed.
Grout Batching
The quantities of solid materials in the grout mix
should be determined by accurate volume measurement
at the time of placing in the mixer. All materials for
grout should be mixed in a mechanical mixer. Grout is
most often supplied in bulk by ready-mix trucks and
6
pumped into place because of the volume and speed of
placement required. Batching on site is more common
for smaller projects. When prepared on site, the grout
mix should be batched in multiples of a bag of portland
cement as a quality control measure. If less than a sin-
gle bag of portland cement is used, extreme care should
be used to accurately measure all parts.
Water, sand, aggregate and portland cement should be
mixed for a minimum of 2 minutes, then the hydrated
lime (if any) and additional water should be added and
mixed for an additional 5 to 10 minutes. Make and
maintain as high a flow as possible, consistent with good
workability. This means that the grout should be wet
enough to pour without segregation of the constituent
materials or excessive bleeding. Grout should be a plas-
tic mix that is suitable for pumping. The grout slump
should be tested in accordance with ASTM C 143 Test
Method for Slump of Hydraulic Cement Concrete and
should be between 8 and 11 in. (203 and 279 mm).
Grout Placement and Consolidation
Grout should be placed within 11⁄2 hours after the wa-
ter is first added to the mix and prior to the initial set.
Grout slump should be maintained during placement.
The grout pour should be done in one or more lifts and
the total height of each pour should be from the center
of one course to the center of another course of brick
m a s o n r y. When grouting is stopped for 1 hour or
longer, the grout pour should be stopped approximately
11⁄2 in. (38 mm) below the top of the masonry to create a
shear key.
Whenever possible, grouting should be done from the
unexposed face of the masonry element. Extreme care
should be expended to avoid grout staining on the ex-
posed face or faces of the masonry. If grout does con-
tact the face, it should be cleaned off immediately with
water and a bristle brush. Waiting until after curing has
occurred will make removal difficult.
Grout in contact with brick solidifies more rapidly
than that in the center of the grout space. It is, there-
fore, important to consolidate the grout immediately af-
ter pouring to completely fill all voids. The best proce-
dure is to have two people performing the operation
jointly; one to pour the grout and the other to consoli-
date it. A mechanical vibrator or puddling stick is used
for this purpose, depending on the construction method
used.
There are two methods of RBM construction: simul-
taneous brick construction and grouting, and grouting
after brick construction. These are sometimes referred
to as “low lift” and “high lift” grouted masonry. In the
first method, grout is placed in the masonry as the
courses are laid. The grout is consolidated with a pud-
dling stick or a mechanical vibrator. This method is
typically used with narrow grout spaces. In the second
method, the masonry is built to the story height or its
full height, after which grout is poured from a hopper or
pumped by mechanical means. The grout is consolidat-
ed with a low velocity vibrator with a 3⁄4 in. (19 mm)
head. When grouting between wythes, the vibrator
should be placed in the grout at points spaced 12 to 16
in. (305 to 406 mm) apart. The grout pour height re-
strictions given in Table 2 will limit the method of grout
placement permitted in some instances. The mason
contractor should give consideration to the advantages
and disadvantages of each method.
Simultaneous Brick Construction and Grouting.
The main benefits of simultaneous construction and
grouting are elimination of cleanouts, reduction of grout
pressures, and simplicity of construction. With this
method of grouting, the entire grout space can be kept
entirely clear of blockage and can be easily inspected pri-
or to grouting. Consolidation of the entire grout pour is
also easier and bracing may be lessened or eliminated.
For a multi-wythe brick wall with grouted collar
joint, one wythe should be built up not more than 16 in.
(406 mm) ahead of the other wythe. Typically, the
grout pour height will not exceed 12 in. (305 mm) for
such walls and a puddling stick may be used for consol-
idation purposes. If the grout is carried up too rapidly,
there is a chance blowout will occur. If a wythe does
move, even as little as 1⁄8 in. (3 mm) out-of-plumb, the
work should be torn down rebuilt. This is because the
bed joint bond has been broken and cannot be repaired
merely by shoving the wall back into plumb.
The grout should be placed to a uniform height be-
tween grout barriers and should be consolidated with a
mechanical vibrator or puddling stick immediately after
placement. Extreme care should be exercised during
grout placement and consolidation to avoid displace-
ment of the brick masonry.
Grouting After Brick Construction. Grouting after
7
construction of the masonry has become the industry
standard due to its speed and the fact that grout is often
supplied by ready-mix trucks. These trucks deliver
large quantities of grout, but cannot remain on site in-
definitely during construction. Grout delivery must be
coordinated with brick construction and preparation of
grout spaces. The grout spaces in RBM elements can
be very small and can become crowded with reinforcing
bars and wall ties. In addition, some contractors have
commented that the highly absorptive nature of some
brick masonry causes the grout to dry out and not flow
properly to the bottom of grout spaces if the lift height
is too great.
The first lift of grout should be placed to a uniform
height between the grout barriers or the surrounding
brick masonry, and should be mechanically vibrated to
fill all voids. This first vibration should be done within
10 minutes after pouring the grout, while the grout is
still plastic and before it has set. Grout pours in excess
of 12 in. (305 mm) should be reconsolidated by me-
chanical vibration after initial water loss and settlement
has occurred. The succeeding lift should be poured, vi-
brated and reconsolidated in a similar manner. In the
first vibration, the vibrator should extend 6 to 12 in.
(152 to 305 mm) into the preceding lift. This further re-
consolidates the first lift and closes any shrinkage
cracks or separations that may have formed. The work
should be planned for a single, continuous grout pour to
the top of the wall in 5 ft (1.5 m) lifts. Under normal
weather conditions, in the range of 40 to 90°F of (4 to
32°C), the waiting period between lifts should be be-
tween 30 and 60 minutes.
Curing and Protection
The masonry work, particularly the top of the grout
pour, should be kept covered and damp to prevent ex-
cessive drying. The newly grouted masonry should be
fog sprayed three times each day for a period of three
days following construction when the ambient tempera-
ture exceeds 100°F (38°C) or 90°F (32°C) with a wind
speed in excess of 8 mph (13 km/hr). The exposed
faces of brickwork should be cleaned prior to the fog
spraying. Cleaning will be much more difficult if it is
postponed until after this curing. The water from clean-
ing will also aid in the curing process. Refer to the in-
formation in Technical Notes 1 Revised for proper con-
struction and protection methods during excessive cold
or hot weather conditions.
For walls, columns and pilasters, at least 12 hours
should elapse after construction before application of
floor or roof members, except that 72 hours should
elapse prior to application of heavy, concentrated loads
such as truss, girder or beam members.
QUALITY ASSURANCE MEASURES
Not all masonry projects will involve testing or in-
spection. However, the MSJC Code states that, “A
quality assurance program shall be used to ensure that
the constructed masonry is in conformance with the
Contract Documents.” A quality assurance program
typically includes inspection of the work by an owner’s
representative and periodic sampling and testing of ma-
sonry materials.
Inspection
The masonry inspector’s job is to obtain good quality
masonry construction and workmanship according to
plans and specifications. The inspector should be able
to explain the reasons for the specified procedures and
know the important aspects of quality workmanship that
will produce RBM elements with the properties as-
sumed in the structural design. The inspector should
verify clean grout spaces prior to grouting. Type and
positioning of wall ties, bar positioners, joint reinforce-
ment, and reinforcement should be verified against the
project drawings and specifications. During the grout-
ing process, the inspector should verify that: the grout
is proportioned properly, the proper grouting technique
is used, and all grout spaces are completely filled with
grout. The inspector should look for darkening of the
masonry due to water absorption from the grout as evi-
dence of proper grout placement. Bracing and shoring
should be inspected for proper installation. Protection
measures such as covering the tops of uncompleted
work, heated enclosures, and insulation blankets should
be verified.
Testing
On some RBM projects, it may be necessary to con-
duct various quality control tests to ensure that the ma-
sonry has been constructed properly. The frequency of
testing should be stated in the project specifications.
Testing may be conducted prior to or during construc-
tion on the individual materials, e.g. brick, mortar, and
grout. This is the most common form of quality control
testing. Brick are typically tested for compressive
strength prior to construction. Mortar may be tested in
compression prior to construction in order to establish
proportions of ingredients to be measured at the jobsite.
The same is true for grout, which should also be tested
to verify the slump. Prism compression tests are one ex-
ample of such testing. The MSJC Specification stipu-
lates the type, method and frequency of material and as-
semblage quality control tests required for masonry ele-
ments. This document states that prisms and grout will
be tested for each 5000 sq. ft. (465 m2) of wall area or
8
portion thereof when testing is required. Finally, tests
of samples extracted from the constructed masonry may
be necessary to verify the strength of elements when
this is in question. A prism cut out of a masonry ele-
ment to be used for compression testing is an example
of such a test. For a review of the common quality con-
trol tests for brick masonry, refer to the Technical Notes
39 Series
Quality control tests can seem an onerous and un-
wanted expense, but they are provided for two very im-
portant reasons. First and foremost, tests can indicate
consistency during construction. Dramatic changes in
strength properties of elements as the work progresses
can indicate a problem and should be explained. The
second reason for testing is to monitor the strength gain
of the masonry elements upon curing. The strength gain
is monitored to indicate when shores or bracing can be
removed, when loads can be applied to an element, and
to verify that the strength assumed in the design has
been achieved by the constructed masonry
SUMMARY
Reinforced brick masonry is constructed in a manner
that is different in many ways from conventional brick
veneer construction. Proper materials and construction
practices as discussed in this Technical Notes should be
followed to ensure that RBM elements achieve ade-
quate strength and meet the applicable building code re-
quirements.
The information and suggestions contained in this
Technical Notes are based on the available data and the
experience of the engineering staff of the Brick Institute
of America. The information contained herein must be
used in conjunction with good technical judgment and a
basic understanding of the properties of brick masonry.
Final decisions on the use of the information contained
in this Technical Notes are not within the purview of the
Brick Institute of America and must rest with the pro-
ject architect, engineer and owner.
REFERENCES
1. Building Code Requirements for Masonry Struc-
tures (ACI 530/ASCE 5/TMS 402-95), Ameri-
can Society of Civil Engineers, New York, NY,
1996
2. Specification for Masonry Str u c t u re s ( A C I
530.1/ASCE 6/TMS 602-95), American Society
of Civil Engineers, New York, NY, 1996
 Technical Notes 17B
REVISED

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
March
1999

REINFORCED BRICK MASONRY

BEAMS
Abstract: Reinforced brick masonry (RBM) beams are an efficient and attractive means
of spanning building openings. The addition of steel reinforcement and grout permits brick
masonry to span considerable distances while maintaining continuity of the building facade.
Attractive brick soffits and elimination of steel support members are two of the advantages of
reinforced brick masonry beams. This Technical Notes addresses the design of reinforced
brick masonry beams. Building code requirements are reviewed and design aids are provided
to simplify the design process. Illustrations indicate the proper detailing and typical construc-
tion of reinforced brick masonry beams.

Key Words: beam, deflection, girder, lintel, reinforced brick masonry, reinforcement.

INTRODUCTION supported by the beam. While steel lintels are more

Reinforced brick masonry (RBM) beams are widely
used as flexural members. Common applications of
RBM beams include girders supporting floor and roof
systems, and arches and lintels spanning openings for
windows and doors. Girder is the term applied to a large
beam with a long span that usually supports smaller
framing members. A lintel is a beam over a wall open-
ing, typically simply supported with no framing mem-
bers. The main advantage of RBM beams is that the
structural element and the architectural finish are one
and the same. In some cases, however, they provide
economical solutions without considering the savings
due to a built-in finish. They are often built as an inte-
gral part of a masonry wall as illustrated in Figure 1.
RBM beams are designed to carry all superimposed
loads, including that portion of the wall weight above
FLASHING
GROUT AND
REINFORCEMENT
AS REQUIRED
BRICK
VENEER
WEEP
HOLE
RBM BEAM
TEMPORARY
WOOD SHORES
BRICK
VENEER
Typical RBM Beam in Brick Veneer Wall
FIG. 1
common, RBM beams provide distinct advantages over
steel lintels. Among the advantages are:
1. More efficient use of materials. The masonry serves
as a structural element with a relatively small amount
of steel reinforcement added.
2. Elimination of differential movement. This move-
ment is often the cause of cracks in masonry.
3. Inherent fire resistance.
4. Reduced maintenance. Periodic painting of exposed
steel is eliminated.
5. Lower cost.
This Technical Notes provides a review of the design of
RBM beams. Factors influencing design and performance
are reviewed. Design recommendations and aids are pro-
vided and their use illustrated with an example. For addi-
tional information about RBM beams and design calcula-
tions, refer to the Masonry Designers’ Guide (MDG) [2].
The MDG also provides an extensive review of the re-
quirements of the Building Code Requirements for Mason -
ry Structures (ACI 530/ASCE 5/TMS 402-95)[1], here-
after termed the MSJC Code. Other Technical Notes in this
series provide the history of RBM, material and construc-
tion requirements, and design of other RBM elements.
This Technical Notes does not address the design of
deep beams (wall beams) or bond beams. A deep beam
is one with a depth-to-span ratio exceeding 0.8. As-
sumptions made in this Technical Notes regarding the
distribution of stress in beams under flexure and the
loading conditions do not apply to deep beams. Bond
beams are formed by placing horizontal reinforcement
in a wall without an opening underneath.
NOTATION
Following are notations used in the text, figures, and
table in this Technical Notes.
Av Area of shear reinforcement, in.2 (mm2)
b Length of bearing plate, ft (m)
d Effective depth of beam, in. (mm) SHEAR WALL PIERS

db Nominal diameter of reinforcement, in. (mm)

Fs Allowable steel stress, psi (MPa)
f′m Specified compressive strength of masonry, psi
OUT-OF-
(MPa) PLANE WIND
H Height of beam, in. (mm) OR SEISMIC
LOAD
ld Embedment length of reinforcement, in. (mm) RBM BEAM
MG Design moment due to gravity loads, in.-lb (N-m)
Ms Design moment due to in-plane shear, in.-lb (N-m) MW
Mw Design moment due to out-of-plane wind or seismic IN-PLANE
load, in.-lb (N-m) SHEAR

P Design concentrated load, lb (kg)

s Spacing of shear reinforcement, in. (mm)
MG
V Design shear force, lb (kg) MS
W Width of beam, in. (mm)
wp Design uniform distributed load, lb/ft (kg/m)
y Distance from top of beam to bearing plate, ft (m)
DETERMINATION OF LOADING MG
The basic concept of a beam is as a pure flexural mem-
ber. A flexural member spans an opening and transfers a) MOMENT DUE TO GRAVITY
vertical gravity loads to its supports, as illustrated in
MG
Fig. 2(a). RBM beams act in this manner to support
their own weight and other applied gravity loads. How-
ever, it is also common for RBM beams to be part of a
masonry wall. As such, RBM beams are often subject- MW
ed to out-of-plane wind and seismic forces, as depicted
b) MOMENT DUE TO OUT-OF-PLANE
in Fig. 2(b). This causes bending of the RBM beam in WIND OR SEISMIC LOAD
the out-of-plane direction, which is often about the
weak axis of the beam. In addition, reinforced masonry MW
walls may be shear-resisting members, or “shear walls”, MS
which are part of the lateral load-resisting system of a
building. In such a structural system, RBM beams may
be used as connections between shear walls or piers, as c) MOMENT DUE TO IN-PLANE SHEAR
MS
illustrated in Fig. 2(c). Such beams are called coupling
beams because they “couple” the shear walls or piers.
If the relative sizes of the two piers being coupled are
similar, the RBM beam is subject to considerable load Moments on RBM Beam
when an in-plane shear force is applied to the wall. FIG. 2
This is why damage to masonry shear walls is often
concentrated at coupling beams following an earth-
quake or high-wind event. transferred to the wall elements on each side. This is
The designer should consider all aspects of loading the reason why sizable holes can be created in masonry
for an RBM beam. It is difficult to predict the loading walls without causing collapse. Arching action will oc-
condition that will produce the critical design condition. cur provided that the following conditions are met:
For example, a RBM beam that is part of a wall will be 1. An overlapping bond pattern is used in the masonry
subject to a combination of gravity loads and out-of- surrounding the opening.
plane wind or seismic loads. Many factors influence 2. The masonry above the apex of a 45 degree isosceles
the loading conditions for RBM beams. triangle above the beam exceeds 12 in. (300 mm).
3. There are no movement joints or adjacent wall open-
Arching Action ings that hinder the load path of arching action.
Arching action is a property of all masonry walls 4. The abutments are sufficiently strong and rigid to re-
which are laid in an overlapping bond pattern. Brick sist the horizontal thrust due to arching action.
masonry will span, in a step-like manner similar to a These concepts are illustrated in Fig. 3.
corbel, over a wall opening when laid in running bond Provided arching action occurs, the self weight of
pattern. Vertical gravity loads above the openings are masonry wall carried by the beam may be safely as-
2
 b = length of bearing plate, ft (m)
>12 in.
(305 mm)
LOAD PATH y = distance from top of beam to bearing plate, ft (m)
FOR ARCHING
ACTION This is approximately 0.866 times P divided by y.
45° Because the apex of the 45 degree triangle is above the
RBM top of the wall in this example, the RBM beam should
BEAM be designed assuming no arching action occurs.
The designer should check the stress condition at
bearing points for RBM beams. This applies to loads
(a) ARCHING ACTION WILL OCCUR.
DESIGN BEAM FOR TRAINGULAR LOADING.
on the beam and to the beam’s reaction on the wall.
The MSJC Code limits the bearing stress to 0.25 f′m,
where f′m is the specified compressive strength of ma-
sonry. A rule-of-thumb recommended for many years
VERTICAL is to provide a minimum of 4 in. (100 mm) of bearing
EXPANSION
45° JOINT length for masonry beams. The masonry directly be-
ADJACENT WALL neath a bearing point should be constructed with solid
OPENING
INTERRUPTS RBM brick or with solidly grouted hollow brick. Concentrat-
LOAD PATH BEAM
ed loads should not bear directly on ungrouted hollow
brick masonry because of the potential for localized
cracking or crushing of the face shells.
Construction Loads
When designing a RBM beam that is prefabricated or
built on the ground and lifted into place, it is important to
ABUTMENT
IS TOO consider the loads during transport and handling. To ad-
SLENDER TO dress these loads, the beam may require reinforcement at
45° 45° RESIST
THRUST both the top and bottom of the beam. Beams built in place
FROM are constructed on shores. These must be designed for the
RBM
BEAM ARCHING
ACTION dead weight of the beam plus any superimposed load prior
to adequate curing of the reinforced brickwork.
(b) ARCHING ACTION WILL NOT OCCUR. Movement Joints
DESIGN BEAM FOR ENTIRE WALL AREA.
Movement joints are a necessity in masonry walls to
Conditions for Arching Action accommodate differential movement and avoid crack-
FIG. 3
ing. It is common to place vertical expansion joints at
sumed as the weight within a triangular area above the or near the jamb of wall openings. In RBM buildings
beam formed by 45 degree angles, as shown in Fig. 3. there is a reduced need for expansion joints and such
The self weight of the wall must be added to the live joints may be spaced farther apart. Refer to Technical
and dead loads of floors and roofs which bear on the Notes 18 Series for a discussion of the placement of
wall above the opening. If a stack bond pattern is used, movement joints. The presence of a movement joint
the full area of brick masonry above the wall opening
should be considered in the RBM beam design with no
assumption of arching action. CONCENTRATED APEX OF 45°
LOAD, P, ON TRIANGLE
Concentrated Loads BEARING PLATE
FLOOR OR ROOF
Loads from beams, girders, trusses and other concen- ELEVATION
trated loads that frame into the wall must be applied to
the RBM beam in the appropriate manner. Concentrat- b
Y
ed loads may be assumed to be distributed over a wall wp
45°
length equal to the base of a trapezoid whose top is at 60°
the point of load application and whose sides make an
angle of 60 degrees with the horizontal. In Fig. 4, the RBM BEAM
portion of the concentrated load carried by the beam is
distributed over the length indicated as a uniform load.
The distributed load, wp, on the RBM beam is comput- WALL OPENING
ed by the following equation:
wp = P/(b + 2ytan 30) Eq. 1
where:
wp= design uniform distributed load, 1b/ft (kg/m) Loads on RBM Beam
P = design concentrated load, 1b (kg) FIG. 4

3
near a RBM beam will influence the loads and support
conditions for the beam. For example, a simple support
condition should be assumed since arching action will
not occur if a movement joint is at or near the jamb of
the opening. Furthermore, the beam will not act as a
coupling beam between shear walls. This is, in fact,
one means of simplifying the design and function of a
RBM beam by eliminating loads due to in-plane shear.
DESIGN OF RBM BEAMS
RBM beam design should not be relegated to “rule-
of-thumb” methods or arbitrary selection of beam con-
figuration and steel reinforcement. In any beam design,
a careful analysis of the loads to be carried and a calcu-
lation of the resultant stresses should be incorporated to
provide adequate strength and to prevent excessive
cracking and deflection.
In addition to adequate strength, it is preferred that
beams exhibit ductile behavior when overloaded. If the
beam is overloaded, it should deform (deflect) a consid-
erable amount prior to collapse. Deformation allows re-
distribution of loads to other members and provides vi-
sual indication that the beam is overloaded. Some
building codes stipulate a maximum reinforcement ratio
for RBM beams for this purpose.
Another aspect is the relation between the RBM
beam’s strength and its cracking moment. Failure of un-
reinforced masonry in flexure is brittle, exhibiting sud-
den cracking and often collapse. Consequently, a rein-
forced beam should provide a moment strength in ex-
cess of its cracking moment. The amount of this over-
strength is somewhat arbitrary, but a factor of 1.3 is re-
quired by the Uniform Building Code[3]. This means
that the moment strength of a cracked-section, RBM
beam should exceed 1.3 times the cracking moment of
the beam. This is not a requirement of the MSJC Code,
but is considered good engineering practice.
Beam Sizing
In the design of an RBM beam, the required cross-sec-
tional area of masonry is based primarily on the maximum
bending moment. However, there are other factors to con-
sider when sizing an RBM beam. For example, it is often
desirable to have the width of the RBM beam coincide with
the specified wall thickness. RBM beams are sometimes
formed with special U-shaped, hollow brick for this reason.
These brick may be manufactured specially for this purpose
or they may be cut from full-size units at the site. Manu-
factured special shapes may not be readily available in
many localities, so it is best to contact the brick manufac-
turer as early as possible before proceeding with a design
based on their use. The beam’s depth will be determined
by the appropriate number of courses of masonry units pre-
sent. The beam’s depth should be taken as only those
courses of solid brick or that are solidly grouted. The
beam’s depth may be limited by the height of the wall
above an opening. In such cases, compression steel may be
necessary when sufficient masonry area is not provided.
4
Lateral Bracing
With short spans and relatively deep beams, there is lit-
tle likelihood of excessive cracking, deflection or rota-
tion. This may not be the case, however, for beams that
are relatively long span, shallow or highly loaded.
Such beams may be vulnerable to lateral torsional buck-
ling. The designer should consider the lateral bracing
conditions to ensure that the beam is laterally braced.
The MSJC Code requires that the compression face of
beams be laterally supported at a maximum spacing of
32 times the beam thickness. A brick veneer wall is lat-
erally braced by wall ties to the backup system. A
RBM beam that is part of a load-bearing wall system
may not be laterally braced along its span length. In ad-
dition, movement joints at the jambs of a wall opening
may result in a lack of lateral bracing for the beam at its
supports. In such cases, attachment of the wall to the
floor or roof diaphragm is the common means of pro-
viding lateral bracing for the beam.
RBM Arches
Design of RBM arches should begin with an analysis
assuming the arch is unreinforced, in accordance with
Technical Notes 31A or the ARCH computer program
available from the Brick Industry Association. Such an
analysis will indicate the locations of highest moment
and shear, and the horizontal thrust at the abutments.
Should the analysis so indicate, the arch should be de-
signed as a reinforced beam. Further, if the conditions
shown in Fig. 3 are not met, or if movement joints are
provided at the abutments so that the arch may spread
under load, the arch should be designed as if it were a
straight, simply supported beam as a conservative mea-
sure. Alternately, a finite element analysis of the arch
may be conducted to determine design moment, shear,
and thrust values.
RBM arches cause both a vertical bearing stress and
a horizontal thrust on their abutments. The designer has
the option of resisting the horizontal thrust of the arch
by the abutments or providing room for movement as
the RBM arch deforms under load. Judicious place-
ment of vertical expansion joints and flashing will per-
mit horizontal movement and simplify the arch design.
This is recommended for longer span arches because
providing adequate thrust resistance is difficult and
movement joint spacing is limited. In this case, it is
very important to provide adequate bearing at the abut-
ments.
STEEL REINFORCEMENT AND TIES
The quantity of reinforcement required for an RBM
beam is typically determined by the applied loads.
However, the applicable building code may prescribe a
minimum amount of reinforcement and this may dictate
the amount of reinforcement required in a RBM beam.
For example, all building codes now stipulate a mini-
mum amount of reinforcement for masonry members in
areas prone to earthquakes. Some building codes re-
quire that reinforcement in masonry coupling beams be ment should always be terminated with a hook. Stan-
uniformly distributed throughout the beam’s height. dard hooks for principal reinforcement may be either a
This may require additional reinforcement and grouting 90 degree or 180 degree turn. Often, the designated
of the masonry above wall openings in RBM beams. space for grout and reinforcement in RBM beams is
Bond and Hooks very small. It can be difficult for a contractor to exe-
cute a reinforcement detail properly. Consider that a
Ty p i c a l l y, reinforcement is inserted in masonry 180 degree hook doubles the number of bars at a given
beams to resist tension. The tension must be transferred cross section. The designer should always consider the
from the masonry to the reinforcement. This is achieved reinforcement placement, tolerances, and cover restric-
through adequate bond between the steel reinforcement tions stated in the building codes. Technical Notes 17A
and the masonry. The bond stress along the length of Revised provides further information on bar sizes,
the reinforcement should not exceed an allowable bond
placement requirements and construction tolerances.
stress of 160 psi (1.1 MPa), according to the MSJC
Code Commentary. A minimum embedment length Shear Reinforcement
must be provided in order to not exceed this bond Where shear reinforcement is required, it should be
stress. Consequently, the MSJC Code stipulates a re- spaced so that every potential crack is crossed by shear re-
quired bond length for reinforcement in tension, called inforcement. Shear cracks are assumed to be oriented at a
the minimum embedment length. The minimum em- 45 degree angle to the longitudinal axis of the RBM beam.
bedment length is computed by the following equation: This restricts the spacing of shear reinforcement to one-
ld = 0.0015dbFs Eq. 2 half the beam’s effective depth, d. The spacing of shear re-
where: inforcement may be computed by the following equation:
ld = embedment length of reinforcement, in. (mm) s = AvFsd/V Eq. 3
db = nominal diameter of reinforcement, in. (mm) where:
Fs = allowable steel stress, psi (MPa) s = spacing of shear reinforcement, in. (mm)
Table 1 provides the minimum development lengths for Av= area of shear reinforcement, in.2 (mm2)
various bar and wire sizes, based on Grade 60 ksi (414 Fs = allowable stress for shear reinforcement, psi (MPa)
MPa) reinforcing bars and 70 ksi (483 MPa) steel wire. d = effective depth of beam, in. (mm)
The ends of reinforcing bars and wires may require a V = design shear force, 1b (kg)
standard hook to properly secure the reinforcement and When shear reinforcement is required, it should be
to achieve its strength. In simply-supported beams, the designed to resist the entire shear force. Shear rein-
peak moment is often at midspan. For this case, the re- forcement should always be placed parallel to the shear
inforcement in RBM beams can likely be developed by force. For RBM beams the shear reinforcement should
the bond between the bar or wire and the surrounding be placed vertically. It can be difficult to provide shear
masonry with no need for hooks at the ends of the reinforcement in RBM beams due to the limited size of
beam. However, a cantilever RBM beam may require a grout spaces. This is especially the case with hollow
hook at the support end. In addition, shear reinforce- brick units 6 in. (150 mm) or less in thickness and grout
spaces between wythes less than approximately 2 in.
TABLE 1 (50 mm) in width. Consequently, it may be advanta-
Minimum Development Lengths geous to increase the beam’s depth so that shear rein-
forcement is not necessary. In fact, this is often the
Reinforcement Minimum Development method used by designers to determine the minimum
Length, ld depth of a RBM beam required for a given loading.
Type No., in. (mm) in. (mm) Ties
There are two instances when it may be necessary to
Bars 3, 0.38 (09.5) 13.5 (343) include ties in reinforced brick beams. These instances
60 ksi 4, 0.50 (12.7) 18.0 (457) occur only when the beam is formed by grouting between
(414 5, 0.63 (15.9) 22.5 (572)
MPa) 6, 0.75 (19.1) 27.0 (686) wythes. If the beam has sufficient depth, ties may be re-
7, 0.88 (22.2) 31.5 (800) quired between the wythes. The grout exerts a hydrostatic
8, 1.00 (25.4) 36.0 (914) pressure that must be resisted during construction. The
9, 1.13 (28.7) 40.6 (1030)
10, 1.27 (32.3) 45.7 (1160) MSJC requires wall ties between wythes as follows:
11, 1.41 (35.8) 50.8 (1290) Wire size W1.7 (3.8 mm), one tie per 22⁄3 ft2 (0.25 m2)
Wire size W2.8 (4.8 mm), one tie per 41⁄2 ft2 (0.42 m2 )
Maximum spacing of 36 in. (914 mm) horizontally
Wires W1.1, 11 Gage (3.1) min. 6 (152) governs and 24 in. (610 mm) vertically
70 ksi W1.7, 9 Gage (3.8) 6.7 (170) Rectangular or Z ties may be used.
(483 W2.1, 8 Gage (4.1) 7.3 (185)
MPa) W2.8, 0.188 (4.8) 8.3 (214) In beams that form deep soffits (large beam widths) it
W4.9, 0.256 (6.4) 11.3 (286) may be advisable to tie the soffit brickwork to the grout.
Although the grout does bond to the brick, the metal ties
5
should provide additional capacity and safety. Such ties
are placed in the mortar joint and extend into the grout.
DEFLECTION
Deflection of RBM beams is considered a serviceabili-
ty issue. Excessive deflection might cause damage to in-
terior finishes, functional problems with doors or win-
dows, and cracking of masonry supported by the beam.
The MSJC Code requires that the deflection of RBM
beams that support unreinforced or empirically-designed
masonry should not exceed the lesser of 0.3 in. (7.6 mm)
or span length divided by 600. Deflection of RBM beams
may be computed based on uncracked or cracked section
properties. Use of uncracked sections results in underesti-
mating the deflection. Deflection based on cracked sec-
tions only are over-estimated and are more difficult to cal-
culate. Use of uncracked section is recommended.
Creep is a time-dependent property of brick masonry
that will cause the deflection of RBM beams to increase
over time. An accurate formula for the estimation of
long-term deflections of RBM beams due to creep, that is
applicable for all cases and easy to use, does not currently
exist. A rule-of-thumb is that the long-term deflection of
RBM beams due to creep will be approximately 50 per-
cent greater than their instantaneous deflection. This
means that a beam that deflects 1.0 in. (25 mm) when it is
fully loaded will creep over time such that its final deflec-
tion will be approximately 1.5 in. (38 mm).
DESIGN CURVES
Maximum efficiency and safety dictate the need for a
rational design of all RBM beams according to the appli-
cable building code. However, it is often helpful for the
designer to have design aids that can be used to quickly
develop a preliminary beam design. The design curves
in Figs. 5-9 are provided for that purpose. The size and
configuration of masonry and quantity of reinforcement
can be quickly determined from these curves based on
the span of the beam and the uniform gravity load sup-
ported by the beam, including the beam’s self-weight.
The curves are based on the following assumptions:
1. Compressive strength of masonry is not less than
2000 psi (14 MPa). For most brick masonry, this val-
ue will be exceeded. This value was chosen so that
beam capacity was not limited by the masonry’s
compressive strength.
2. Elastic modulus of masonry is not less than 1600 ksi
(11030 MPa).
3. The beam is simply supported and subject to uniform
gravity loads only.
4. No compression or shear reinforcement is provided.
5. Deflection is calculated on uncracked section proper-
ties. The deflection limit of span length divided by 600
does not govern for span lengths less than 14 ft. (4.3 m).
The effective depth, d, reflected in the design curves
is based on the beam height, H, minus a value for ma-
sonry cover. The cover value is based on a reasonable
6
approximation of brick, mortar and grout cover on the
underside of reinforcement for the beams shown. The
actual effective depth should always be checked for
each particular RBM beam configuration.
DESIGN EXAMPLE
To illustrate the use of the Design Curves, consider
the following example. A RBM beam is to span over a
garage door with a clear span of 9 ft (2.7 m). The beam
supports its own weight and the weight of the brick ma-
sonry wall above the beam, so that the uniform load on
the beam is 250 lbs/ft (372 kg/m) of span. The RBM
beam and the wall above the beam are nominal 6 in.
(150 mm) wide and constructed with hollow brick. De-
termine the beam depth and reinforcement required for
these conditions. From Figs. 5(b) and 5(e), one con-
cludes that a 4 in. (100 mm) or 8 in. (200 mm) high by
6 in. (150 mm) wide RBM beam is not adequate for the
given span and loading. Therefore, the applicable De-
sign Curve is Fig. 6(b), which is for a full unit depth,
RBM beam. For the given conditions, a minimum
depth of 12 in. (300 mm) and one No. 4 bar are re-
quired. At this point, any deflection criteria should be
considered and may require a greater beam depth.
SUMMARY
RBM beams are an attractive and efficient means of
spanning openings. Attention to detailing of reinforce-
ment and proper design are the key aspects addressed in
this Technical Notes. The most common RBM beam
configurations are shown with consideration of the in-
t e r-connection of beam and wall elements. Design
curves provided in this Technical Notes can be used to
develop preliminary beam designs for many different
applications and loading conditions.
The information and suggestions contained in this
Technical Notes are based on the available data and the
experience of the engineering staff of the Brick Industry
Association. The information contained herein must be
used in conjunction with good technical judgment and a
basic understanding of the properties of brick masonry.
Final decisions on the use of the information contained
in this Technical Notes are not within the purview of the
Brick Industry Association and must rest with the pro-
ject architect, engineer and owner.
REFERENCES
1. Building Code Requirements for Masonry Struc -
tures (ACI 530/ASCE 5/TMS 402-95), Ameri-
can Society of Civil Engineers, Reston, VA ,
1996.
2. Masonry Designers’ Guide, John Matthys, ed.,
The Masonry Society, Boulder, CO, 1993.
3. Uniform Building Code, 1997 Edition, Interna-
tional Conference of Building Officials,
Whittier, CA, 1997.
 140 160
120 #4 BAR 140 #4 BAR
100 120
#5 BAR #5 BAR
80 100
#6 BAR
60 #3 BAR 80 #6 BAR
#3 BAR
40 60
20 40
20
0
3 4 5 6 7 8 0
SPAN, FT 4 5 6 7 8 9
SPAN, FT
a) H = 4 in. (102 mm) b) H = 4 in. (102 mm)
W = 5 in. (127 mm) W = 6 in. (152 mm)

600 600
500 #4 BAR 500
#5 BAR #4 BAR
400
#6,7,8 BAR 400 #5 BAR
300 #6 BAR
#3 BAR 300
200 #3 BAR
200
100
100
0
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
SPAN, FT
SPAN, FT
c) H = 4 in. (102 mm) d) H = 8 in. (203 mm)
W = 8 in. (203 mm) W = 5 in. (127 mm)

1,000 1,000
900 #4 BAR
800 800 #5 BAR
700
#4 BAR #6 BAR
600 600
#5 BAR #7 BAR
500
#8 BAR
400 #6 BAR 400
#3 BAR 300
200 200
100 #3 BAR
0 0
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
SPAN, FT SPAN, FT
e) H = 8 in. (203 mm) f) H = 8 in. (203 mm)
W = 6 in. (152 mm) W = 8 in. (203 mm)

FILL ALL COURSES

WITH GROUT TO "H"
HEIGHT

REINFORCEMENT
AS REQUIRED

HALF OR THIRD SOLDIER

COURSE

Design Curves for Partial Soldier Course Beams

FIG. 5
7
 500 800
450 700
400 #3 BAR
600 #4 BAR
350
300 #4 BAR 500
#5 BAR
250 400 #6 BAR
200
300
150
100 200
50 100 #3 BAR
0
0
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
SPAN, FT SPAN, FT

a) H = 8 in. (203 mm) d) H = 10 in. (254 mm)

W = 4 in. (102 mm) W = 5 in. (127 mm)

450 1,200
400
1,000
350 #4 BAR
300 800
#4 BAR #5 BAR
250
600 #6 BAR
200
150 400
100 #3 BAR
200
50 #3 BAR
0 0
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
SPAN, FT
SPAN, FT

b) H = 12 in. (305 mm) e) H = 12 in. (305 mm)

W = 4 in. (102 mm) W = 6 in. (152 mm)

2,500
1,100
#8 BAR
1,000
2,000 #4 BAR #7 BAR
900
#3 BAR
800
1,500 #5 BAR
700
#4 BAR
600
#6 BAR
500 1,000
400
300
500
200
100 #3 BAR
0 0
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
SPAN, FT SPAN, FT

c) H = 16 in. (406 mm) f) H = 16 in. (406 mm)

W = 4 in. (102 mm) W = 8 in. (203 mm)

FULLY GROUTED
SOLDIER

REINFORCEMENT
AS REQUIRED

HOLLOW BRICK IN
SOLDIER POSITION
W

Design Curves for Soldier Course Beams

FIG. 6
8
700 1,800
600 1,600
1,400 #4 BAR
500 #4 BAR
1,200 #5 BAR
400 #5 BAR
1,000
300 #6 BAR #6 BAR
800
#3 BAR
200 600
100 #3 BAR
400
0 200
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
0
SPAN, FT 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
SPAN, FT

a) H = 8 in. (203 mm) b) H = 12 in. (305 mm)

3,000 3,500
3,000
2,500 #4 BAR
2,500
2,000 #4 BAR #5 BAR
#5 BAR 2,000 #6 BAR
1,500
#6 BAR 1,500
1,000 #3 BAR 1,000
#3 BAR
500 500
0 0
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
SPAN, FT SPAN, FT

c) H = 16 in. (406 mm) d) H = 20 in. (508 mm)

FILL CAVITY WITH GROUT

TO "H" HEIGHT

OPTIONAL METAL
TIES

BOTTOM BRICK
MUST BE 100% REINFORCEMENT AS
SOLID OR REQUIRED
ROWLOCK

Design Curves for 12 in. (305 mm) Wide Beams

FIG. 7
9
1,200 3,000

1,000 2,500
2-#4 BARS
2-#4 BARS
800 2-#5 BARS 2,000
2-#6 BARS 2-#5 BARS
600 1,500
2-#3 BARS 2-#6 BARS
400 2-#3 BARS
1,000
200
500
0 0
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
SPAN, FT SPAN, FT

a) H = 8 in. (203 mm) b) H = 12 in. (305 mm)

14,000
4,500
4,000 12,000
3,500 2-#4 BARS 10,000
3,000 2-#5 BARS
2,500 2-#6 BARS 8,000 2-#6 BARS
2,000 6,000 2-#5 BARS
1,500 2-#3 BARS 2-#4 BARS
4,000 2-#3 BARS
1,000
500 2,000
0 0
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 4
2 3 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
SPAN, FT SPAN, FT

c) H = 16 in. (406 mm) d) H = 24 in. (610 mm)

FILL CAVITY WITH GROUT

TO "H" HEIGHT

OPTIONAL TIES TO
SECURE SOFFIT

OPTIONAL
METAL TIES

BOTTOM BRICK
MUST BE 100% REINFORCEMENT
SOLID OR AS REQUIRED
ROWLOCK

Design Curves for 16 in. (406 mm) Wide Beams

FIG. 8
10
1,600 4,000
1,400 3-#4 BARS 3,500
3-#4 BARS
1,200 3-#5 BARS 3,000
3-#5 BARS
1,000 3-#6 BARS 2,500
800 3-#3 BARS 3-#6 BARS
2,000
600 1,500 3-#3 BARS
400 1,000
200
500
0
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 0
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

SPAN, FT SPAN, FT

a) H = 8 in. (203 mm) b) H = 12 in. (305 mm)

6,000
10,000
5,000 3-#4 BARS 3-#4 BARS
8,000 3-#5 BARS
3-#5 BARS
4,000 3-#6 BARS
3-#6 BARS 6,000
3,000 3-#3 BARS
4,000
2,000
2,000
1,000
3-#3 BARS 0
0 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
SPAN, FT SPAN, FT

c) H = 16 in. (406 mm) d) H = 24 in. (610 mm)

OPTIONAL
METAL TIES

OPTIONAL
TIES TO FILL CAVITY WITH GROUT
TO "H" HEIGHT
SECURE
SOFFIT

BOTTOM BRICK
MUST BE 100%
SOLID OR
ROWLOCK
REINFORCEMENT
AS REQUIRED

Design Curves for 24 in. (610 mm) Wide Beams

FIG. 9
11
 17 L
Technical Notes REVISED

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
Reissued*
September
1988

FOUR-INCH RBM CURTAIN AND PANEL WALLS

INTRODUCTION
Building Code Requirements for Engineered Brick
Masonry, SCPI (BIA), August, 1969 defines a curtain wall
as "an exterior non-loadbearing wall not wholly supported
at each story. Such walls may be anchored to columns,
spandrel beams, floors or bearing walls, but not necessar-
ily built between structural elements." It further defines a
panel wall as "an exterior non-loadbearing wall wholly
supported at each story". Curtain walls must be capable FIG. 1
of supporting their own weight for the height of the wall.
Panel walls are required to be self-supporting between
stories. Both walls resist lateral forces such as wind pres-
sures and must transfer these forces to adjacent structur-
al members. This Technical Notes presents the design
and construction of 4-in. brick masonry curtain and panel
walls which are considered to span horizontally in resist-
ing lateral forces.
Recent structural research and rational design meth-
ods have greatly aided the design of 4-in. brick walls.
However, exterior brick walls, 4 1/2 in. thick, were used
prior to 1900 in the Church of St. Jean de Montmarte,
Paris, France. Designed by M. A. deBoudot, these walls
were reinforced with vertical wires through holes in the
brick and horizontal wires in the mortar joints. One wall
has an unsupported length of 29 ft 6 in. for the full height
of 115 ft. Another wall is approximately 38 ft high with an
unsupported length of 65 ft. The walls discussed herein
differ from those designed by deBoudot in that they have
a nominal thickness of 4 in. and contain only horizontal FIG. 2
reinforcement.
In the United States, one of the first buildings to be Plant (Fig. 2). The Lakewood walls are 22 ft high and
constructed with 4-in. reinforced brick masonry walls was span continuously across steel and masonry composite
completed in June, 1932. This building, a compressor columns spaced 20 ft on centers. The horizontal rein-
house, was constructed at Wood River, Illinois, in the forcement varied from two No. 2 bars every second
refinery of the Standard Oil Company (Indiana). All the course at points of maximum moment to two No. 2 bars
walls and columns of this building were of reinforced brick every fourth course at points of minimum moment. The
masonry. The walls, with the exception of two bays, were Kistler Plant has similar spans, heights, and construction.
nominally 4 in. thick. The wall height was 18 ft 6 in. with a The application of the 4-in. wall in commercial and
(column) spacing of 15 ft 4 in. The horizontal mortar joint industrial buildings utilizes the many intrinsic properties
above the first course of brick was reinforced with two normally found in brick masonry. Brick presents a pleas-
3/8-in. round bars, placed about 1/2 in. from each face of ing appearance without the problem of maintenance.
the wall. Above this, the reinforcement was placed in Four-inch walls built with face brick exhibit the following
every third horizontal mortar joint, at a vertical spacing of physical properties without insulation or plastering:
about 9 5/8 in. 1. U value of 0.76 BTU per sq ft per hr per deg F.
Two more recent examples of the 4-in. curtain wall 2. Sound transmission class of 45.
located in the Denver, Colorado area are the Lakewood 3. Fire resistance rating of 1 hr.
Brick Company building (Fig. 1) and the Kistler Printing 4. Average weight of 40 psf.
*Originally published in Feb/Mar 1973, this Technical Notes has been reviewed and reissued with editorial changes.
 Structural properties of 4-in. brick walls without rein-
forcement may be found in Research Report No 9,
"Compressive, Transverse, and Racking Strength Tests of
Four-Inch Brick Walls," SCPI, August' 1965.
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Major factors to be considered in the design of 4-in.
curtain or panel walls are (1) Structural, (2) Moisture
Control, (3) Differential Movement, and (4) Special
Considerations. The walls presented herein are designed
in accordance with the SCPI Standard, Building Code
Requirements for Engineered Brick Masonry, August,
1969, and the materials used should conform to the
requirements for reinforced brick masonry as contained in
this Standard.
Structural. Since the 4-in. walls do not meet the
requirements specified in the SCPI Standard for rein-
forced walls, they are designed as "partially reinforced",
see Section 4.7.1 1. The horizontal reinforcement in the
wall resists the tensile stresses resulting from lateral pres-
sures as the wall spans horizontally between structural
elements such as columns, pilasters or cross walls.
Since the lateral load due to wind can be either pres-
sure or suction, the wall must be designed to resist the
assumed lateral load acting in either direction. The maxi-
mum moment in the wall is used to calculate the required
area of reinforcement, and to provide for stress reversals.
This area of reinforcement is required in each wall face. It
is recommended that the maximum area of reinforcement
be provided throughout the length of the wall. This
arrangement will provide more reinforcement than needed
in portions of the wall near supports where the moment is
less than maximum. However, the savings in fabrication
and placement time will, in most cases, offset the added
expense of the excess steel. Steel reinforcement should
be lapped a minimum of 16 in. to insure the development
of the tensile stresses without exceeding the allowable
bond stresses. Bond and shear stresses should also be
checked at points of maximum shear which would normal-
ly occur at the supports. However, due to the large span-
to-depth ratios employed, the bending stresses usually
govern.
Where openings such as windows or doors occur, the
effective section of the wall is, of course, reduced. This
reduced section will affect not only the required area of
reinforcement and strength of masonry but by reducing
the stiffness of the wall will also affect the distribution of
lateral loads in continuous walls. Since the tables con-
tained herein are based on solid walls, walls with open-
ings must be investigated by the designer.
Figure 3 shows a typical application of a 4-in. curtain
wall under construction. Care must be taken to assure
proper placement of the reinforcement during construc-
tion. The bars may be spread apart or pushed together
as successive brick are laid and pressed into position.
Ladder or truss-type joint reinforcement provides two lon-
gitudinal bars connected by cross wires, thus aiding prop-
er positioning and reducing the time and effort involved in
placement.
2
FIG. 3
Care should be taken by the mason to insure that the
reinforcement has mortar coverage both top and bottom
as well as proper horizontal placement within the wall.
The reinforcement should not be laid directly on top of the
brick. Proper vertical placement can be attained by sup-
porting reinforcement wires on small pads of mortar
placed prior to full bedjoint mortar placement.
The proposed usage of the building will determine the
permissible deflection for the 4-in. brick wall. For the
loads and spans presented in Table 2, the maximum cal-
culated horizontal deflection is on the order of L/200 for
simply supported walls. The actual maximum deflection
will generally be less due to the restraint which may exist
at the top and bottom of the wall.
The general formula for the maximum deflection due
to a uniformly distributed load on a simply supported
beam is:
4
∆ max = 5wL
384EI
The "Progress Report of the ASCE on Reinforced
Masonry Design and Practice", Journal of the Structural
Division, Proceedings of the ASCE, Vol. 87, No. ST8,
December, 1961, contains the following recommendation:
"When checking for deflection, it is recommended that the
moment of inertia of the masonry cross section be com-
puted neglecting the effect of the reinforcement, and then
use the standard deflection formulae for flexural
members."
Moisture Control. The control of moisture through the
4-in. wall should be considered by the designer. Heavy
rains driven by high winds may result in water penetrating
the wall. If this is objectionable, one method of handling the
problem is to provide drainage space on the inside of the
wall to permit the water to flow to the flashing at the base
and to be conducted back to the outside through weep
holes. Drainage wall types (Fig. 4) employ this principle. A
second method is to provide a water barrier (parging) to the
inside of the wall. Barrier wall types (Fig. 5) employ this
principle. It is recommended that, where a maximum resis-
tance to rain penetration is desired in areas of severe expo-
sure, drainage wall type designs be used. Barrier wall types
may be sufficient in areas of moderate exposure.
 walls differ in their reactions to moisture in the magnitude
of thermal movements. These and other causes for differ-
ential movement are discussed in greater detail in
Technical Notes 18.
No single recommendation on the positioning and
spacing of expansion joints can be applicable to all struc-
tures. Each building design should be analyzed to deter-
mine the potential movements and provisions should be
made to relieve excessive stress which might be expected
to result from such movement. Generally, expansion
joints may be located at or near corners, offsets, junctures
and openings. Since 4-in. walls are considered to span
horizontally, expansion joints where required must be
located at vertical supports. The maximum recommended
spacing for expansion joints for these 4-in. walls is 100 ft
for a straight wall without openings. However, conditions
may require expansion joints as close together as 40 ft.
Typical 4-in. wall details relating to expansion joints and
methods of anchoring are shown in Fig. 6. Table 1 pre-
sents the maximum vertical spacing of No. 6 gage, galva-
nized wire anchors at the wall-to-support connections.
The load distribution per anchor was assumed to be 600
lb. Maximum spacing was limited to 24 in.

FIG. 4
Drainage Type Wall TABLE 1
Maximum Vertical Spacing of Wall Anchors (Inch) (a)(b)(c)(d)

Wind
Horizontal Wall Span (ft)
Pressure
psf 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26

15 24 24 24 24 24 24 22 20 18

20 24 24 24 22 20 18 16 15

25 24 24 20 18 16 14

30 24 20 17 15 13

(a) No. 6 gage galvanized wire anchors.

(b) Load distribution assumed to be 600 lb per anchor
(c) Maximum vertical spacing limited to 24 in.
(d) Spacing is for an interior support of a continuous wall. Spacing
at an end support is 24 in.

Special Considerations. There are special design

FIG. 5
Barrier Type Wall
Differential Movement. When masonry walls are
used to enclose a structural frame building, consideration
must be given to the method of anchoring the walls to the
framing elements in a manner which will permit each to
move relative to the other. The frame and the enclosing
3
possibilities which the designer of structures incorporating
4-in. reinforced walls may desire to consider. One such
consideration is to design the wall as a plate supported on
three or four sides. Another consideration is to utilize the
loadbearing capabilities of the 4-in. wall. The SCPI
Standard may be used to design the wall to carry vertical
loads in addition to lateral loads.
The reinforced wall itself may be considered to act as
a lintel over openings in the wall such as provided for win-
dows and doors. The wall reinforcement should be
checked to determine if it is adequate for the particular
opening. Where the normal wall reinforcement is insuffi-
cient, supplemental steel should be added. Assuming a
lintel to carry only the dead load of the wall for a height
 FIG. 6
Typical Four-Inch Wall Details

4
equal to one-half the opening span, a 4-in. brick masonry
lintel, with an ultimate strength (f'm) of 2200 psi, an effec-
tive depth of 36 in. and two No 2 bars, will span an open-
ing of 12 ft 6 in. This is neglecting other reinforcement
which is in the wall above the opening. Therefore,
depending on the actual wall and opening layout, wider
openings may be spanned. Technical Notes 17A, 17H,
and 17J provide additional information on reinforced brick
masonry lintels.

DESIGN TABLES
Design Assumptions. As presented herein, the 4-in.
curtain wall is analogous to a one-way reinforced slab. In
preparing the tables, a width of cross section "b" of 12 in. FIG. 7
was selected. The effective depth "d" was assumed as 2 Section Through Four-Inch Brick Wall
3/4 in. (Fig. 7). This dimension is based on the minimum
thickness for a 4-in. nominal wall (3 1/2 in.) and the Table 3 gives the area of reinforcement as provided
requirement by the SCPI Standard for shut-in. mortar by various steel sizes and vertical spacings for one wall
coverage for bars or wire to in. or less in diameter embed- face. After the required area is selected from Table 2, the
ded in the horizontal mortar joints. bar size and spacing which provides an area of reinforce-
In order for the effective depth assumptions to remain ment equal to or greater than what is required may be
as stated, raked joints could not be used. If raked joints selected from Table 3.
are desired on 4-in. reinforced curtain walls, the effective In conjunction with the use of Table 2, a minimum
depth must be reduced by the amount of raking of the value of 2200 psi for the compressive strength of brick
joint and steel must be placed to maintain a minimum 5/8- masonry (f’m) is required. Lesser values of f’m may be
in. coverage. It is not recommended that raked joints be
used on 4-in. curtain walls for the above reason. employed if the designer calculates the actual strength of
Additional assumptions are as follows: masonry required by his design. Table 4 can be used in
1. For stresses due to wind, the allowable stresses selecting unit strength and mortar type as determined by
in brick masonry and reinforcing steel are increased the calculated stresses.
by 1/3.
2. A brick masonry compressive strength (f'm) of
2200 psi resulting in an allowable brick masonry
stress (fm) equal to 0.32 (f'm) (1.33) or 936 psi.
3. An allowable steel stress (fs) equal to 20,000
(1.33) or 26,600 psi.
4. Only type M or type S portland cement-lime mor-
tars are to be used.
5. Architectural or engineering inspection is provided
during construction. A 1/3 reduction in the allowable
stresses is required if this inspection is not provided.
6. In a simple span or two continuous spans, the
maximum shear is equal to 0.625 wL and the maxi-
2
mum moment is equal to 0.125 wL .
7. In three or more continuous spans, the maximum
shear is equal to 0.60 wL and the maximum moment
2
is equal to 0.10 wL .
8. Coursing is assumed to be three brick masonry
courses per 8 in. of wall height.
9. Four-inch walls are solid without openings.
Use of Tables. Table 2 provides the reinforcement
requirements for various support conditions, span lengths
and wind pressures. The steel areas tabulated are for
one face of the wall. An equal amount must be provided
in the opposite face. It should be noted that an expansion
joint interrupts the continuity of the wall. The condition at
the joint will therefore be one of simple support.
5
 TABLE 2
Required Area of Reinforcement Per Vertical Foot For
Each Face of Wall (Square Inch Per Foot)(a)

Support Condition

Span
(ft) Simple Span or Two Continuous Spans Three or More Continuous Spans
Wind Pressure (psf) Wind Pressure (psf)
15 20 25 30 15 20 25 30
10 0.035 0.047 0.059 0.070 0.028 0.038 0.047 0.056
12 0.051 0.068 0.084 0.101 0.041 0.054 0.068 0.081
14 0.069 0.092 0.115 0.138 0.055 0.074 0.092 0.110
16 0.090 0.120 0.150 0.180 0.072 0.096 0.120 0.144
18 0.114 0.152 0.190 0.091 0.122 0.152 0.182
20 0.141 0.188 0.113 0.150 0.188
22 0.170 0.136 0.182
24 0.203 0.162 0.216
26 0.190

(a) See Design Assumptions

TABLE 3
Area of Reinforcement Per Face of Wall
(Square Inches Per Vertical Foot) (a)

Spacing of Reinforcement
Reinforcement
Per Every Every Every Every Every Every Every Every
Face Course 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th
Course Course Course Course Course Course Course

1 - #2 bar 0.225 0.112 0.075 0.056 0.045 0.037 0.032 0.028

1 - 3/16-in. wire 0.124 0.062 0.041 0.031

1- #9 gage wire 0.077 0.039 0.026

(a) Based upon three brick courses per 8 in. of height.

6
 TABLE 4 Check masonry stress (f m):
Assumed Compressive Strength of Brick Masonry (a)
fm = 2M = 2(12,000)
2 2
jkbd 0.885(0.344)(12)(2.75)
Assumed Compressive Strength (b) = 870 psi < 936 psi, ok.
Compressive of Brick Masonry, f’m, psi
Strength of Check steel stress (f s):
Units, psi Type M Mortar Type S Mortar
fs = M = 12,000
14,000 plus 4600 3900 Asjd 0.225(0.885)(2.75)
= 22,000 psi < 26,600 psi, ok.
12,000 4000 3400

10,000 3400 2900 Check shear at interior support:

v = V = 300 = 9.1 psi < 33 (1.33) psi, ok.
8,000 2800 2400 bd 12(2.75)

6,000 2200 1900 Check bond:

∑o = 4 1/2 (0.786) = 3.54 in.
4,000 1600 1400
u = V = 300
2,000 1000 900 ∑ojd 3.54(0.885)(2.75)
= 35 psi < 80(1.33) psi, ok.

(a) Taken from Table 2, Building Code Requirements for Engineered Brick 2. Selection from Table 2:
Masonry, SCPI (BIA), August, 1969.
(b) See Design Assumptions.
2
As = 0.188 in. per face

Design Example Selection from Table 3:

Given: Three continuous 20-ft spans One No. 2 bar in each wall face every course.
Wind = 25 psf
f’m = 2200 psi
fm = 0.32(f’m)(1.33) = 936 psi
fs = 20,000(1.33) = 26,600 psi

vm = 0.70 √ f’m (1.33) = 44 psi

Required: As
1. Design by calculation:
V(max) 0.60 wL = 0.60(25)(20) = 300 lb
2 2
M(max) 0.10 wL = 0.10(25)(20) = 12,000 in. -lb
As = M = 12,000 = 0.1875 sq. in.
fsjd 26,600(7/8)(2.75)
Select one No. 2 bar (each face, every course):
As (each face) = 0.225 sq in. (Table 3)
p = As = 0.225 = 0.0068
bd 12(2.75)
6
Em = 1000 f’m = 2.2(10 ) psi
6
n = E s = 29(10 ) = 13.2
6
Em 2.2(10 )
2
k = - pn + √2pn +(pn)

= - 0.090 + √0.180 + 0.008

= - 0.090 + 0.434 = 0.344
j = 1 - k/3 = 1 - 0.115 = 0.885

7
 Technical Notes 17M

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
Reissued*
September
1988

REINFORCED BRICK MASONRY GIRDERS

EXAMPLES

INTRODUCTION
"Girder" is the name applied to a large size beam
which usually has smaller beams framing into it. A
Reinforced Brick Masonry (RBM) girder consists of brick
masonry in which steel reinforcement is embedded so
that the resulting horizontal member is capable of resist-
ing loads which produce compressive, tensile and shear-
ing stresses. The principles of design for RBM girders
and beams are the same as those commonly accepted for
the working stress design for reinforced concrete flexural
members, and similar formulae may be used. These for-
mulae may be found in Technical Notes 17A, “Reinforced
Brick Masonry Flexural Design", Technical Notes 17J,
"Design Tables For Reinforced Brick Masonry Flexural
Members,” may be consulted for design tables and illus- FIG. 1
trative examples. St. Hedwig’s Church
St. Louis, Missouri
APPLICATIONS
Where a design requires horizontal structural mem-
bers, the RBM girder or beam is most advantageous on
projects where (1) the structural medium is brick, (2) the
surrounding areas are brick, or (3) the appearance of
brick is desired. The main advantage of RBM girders is
that the structural finish and the architectural finish are
one and the same. In some cases, however, they provide
economical solutions without considering the savings due
to a built-in finish.
Additional advantages are that no forms are required
for the erection of a RBM girder except for a work scaffold
set at the bottom elevation of the girder. Brick girders are
inherently fire-resistant, weather-resistant and mainte-
nance-free. These properties, in addition to the high com-
pressive strength of brick masonry, constitute savings in
construction time and costs.
The examples of RBM girders presented in this
Technical Notes are representative of some uses for such
members. They are by no means exhaustive. FIG. 2
Plan of St. Hedwig’s Church
St. Hedwig's Church. Architect: J.T. Golabowski;
Structural Engineer: William A. Herrmann. The design of
were required that would have a brick finish on both
St. Hedwig's Church (Fig. 1 ) in St. Louis, Missouri, built in
sides, and carry the roof load from above and part of the
1957, incorporated a modified clerestory that extends the
loads from the side roofs.
length of the church from front to rear (Fig. 2). In order to
Three types of girders were considered:
keep the nave and sanctuary clear of interior columns, the
1. Prestressed concrete girders. These were elimi-
sidewalls of the clerestory were supported only at the
nated because, with masonry on both sides, they
ends. Exposed brick were used extensively both outside
would be too thick for the desired appearance.
and inside the church. Structural members, 65 ft long,
*Originally published in July 1968, this Technical Notes has been reviewed and reissued.

FIG. 3
Section of RBM Girder
St. Hedwig’s Church
FIG. 4
Soffit Brick in Place on Scaffold
St. Hedwig’s Church
2
2. Brick-encased steel plate girders. These would
have been end-supported on steel columns built into
the masonry walls.
3. RBM girders. These would be supported on RBM
columns built integrally with the front and rear mason-
ry walls.
At that time, contractors in the St. Louis area were not
familiar with RBM construction. Due to this, alternate bids
were taken on both the brick-encased plate girder and
RBM girder systems. All ten bidders indicated savings
would be made with the RBM system.
The church contractor, C. Rallo Contracting Company,
Inc., reported that the total cost of the two RBM girders
and supporting columns was only $8000; columns alone
cost $600. The bid figures show two steel plate girders
and four steel columns would have cost $8200 without the
brick encasing.
Figure 3 gives the overall dimensions of the RBM
girder. The depth was dictated by the clerestory propor-
tions. During the construction of the two girders, the only
form needed was a work scaffold set to the bottom eleva-
tion of the girder. Soffit brick were laid out first (Fig. 4)
with the bottom steel being placed next. Stirrups were
then added and tied near the tops for stability. After that,
it was just a matter of laying brick and placing grout in
increments of three or four courses (Fig. 5).
A building permit was issued for the job with the provi-
sion that one of the girders be successfully load-tested
after completion. The specification required a test load
equal to the design dead load plus twice the live load, in
accordance with Building Code Requirements For
Reinforced Concrete of the American Concrete Institute.
Test loads of 67,500 lb were applied at each third
point of the girder. This was in addition to the dead load
of both the girder and the concrete roofs it supports.
Pittsburgh Testing Laboratory performed the tests with
calibrated hydraulic jacks through a fulcrum system.
All deflection measurements checked out within the
allowable limits. After 24 hr under full load, the maximum
girder deflection was only half the amount allowed by the
test provisions. Recovery after load release was 94 per-
cent.
Maryland City Shopping Center. Architect: Anthony
F. Musolino & Associate; Structural Engineer: Lugi Iacono.
A project in Maryland City, Maryland which extensively
uses RBM girders is the Maryland City Shopping Center
now nearing completion. The architect is well pleased
with the use of RBM girders as handsome structural
facades (Fig. 6). Details of two girders are shown in Figs.
7 and 8. The RBM girder in Fig. 7 is supported on RBM
columns spaced 23 ft 4 in. on center. It carries half of the
arcade roof load transmitted to it by a beam located 6 ft 8
in. from one support. Other girders are loaded similarly
by beams at varying distances from the girder support.
Another girder is utilized above a store front which is
glazed for display purposes (Fig. 8). This girder supports
a roof area of 500 sq ft carried by bar joists 4 ft 2 in. on
center in addition to a 4-ft masonry parapet 8 in. thick.
The column spacing for the girder is 25 ft.

FIG. 6
RBM Girder as Structural Facade
Maryland City Shopping Center
FIG. 7
Section of RBM Girder
Maryland City Shopping Center
Mt. Vernon Shopping Center. Architect: Anthony F.
Musolino & Associate; Structural Engineer: Peter Dragan.
The architectural beauty of repeating arches with the
structural capability of RBM girders is displayed at the Mt.
Vernon Shopping Center, Alexandria, Virginia (Fig. 9).
The reinforced arches which form the bottom of the RBM
girders are not intended to be structural. The girders
transmit half the covered promenade roof load to their
3
FIG. 8
Section of RBM Girder
Maryland City Shopping Center
supporting solid brick masonry columns which are spaced
19 ft 9 in. on center (Figs. 10 and 11). The girders were
constructed of 8000 psi brick units and type M mortar.
FIG. 9
Mt. Vernon Shopping Center
Alexandria, VA
Alexander Art Center. Architect: Griffey and Stroll
Associates; Structural Engineer: William Blanton. The
designers of the Alexander Art Center at Athens, West
Virginia were confronted with the problem of spanning
over the main auditorium proscenium opening. A structur-
al member having a fire-resistant brick finish was desired
to support steel trusses which, in turn, support the roof
loads over a clear span of 39 ft and a monorail system
spaced 1 ft on center connected to the bottom chord of
the trusses. The monorails will provide a flexible system
for lighting and scenery movement. The designers felt
that deflections in a brick-encased steel girder may cause
cracking of the enclosing masonry. The encasing opera-
tion for the steel girder would require scaffolding similar to
that used in the construction of RBM girders. Also, RBM
 FIG. 10
Elevation of RBM Girder and Arches
Mt. Vernon Shopping Center

FIG. 11
Sections of RBM Girder and Arch
Mt. Vernon Shopping Center

was being utilized on the project in retaining walls and in

loadbearing walls. These factors resulted in the final
selection of a RBM girder spanning 50 ft 8 in. to solid
brick masonry columns on either side of the proscenium.
The girder section detailed in Fig. 12 is to be constructed FIG. 12
of 8000 psi brick units and type M mortar. The total Section of RBM Girder
Alexander Art Center
design load is 5820 lb per 1in ft of girder.
The Art Center will also include a studio theater in
which the 24-ft stage will be spanned by a RBM girder of
the dimensions shown in Fig. 13. The loading was the
same as for the larger girder plus an additional load of a
prestressed concrete roof which spans 46 ft 6 in. This
results in a total design load of 7064 lb per 1in ft. Figure
14 shows this girder.

4
 FIG. 14
Completed RBM Girder
Alexander Art Center

FIG. 13
Section of RBM Girder
Alexander Art Center

5
 18
Technical Notes REVISED

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
January
1991

MOVEMENT
VOLUME CHANGES AND EFFECT OF MOVEMENT
PART I
Abstract: This Technical Notes describes the various movements that occur within buildings.
Movement induced by changes in temperature, moisture, elastic deformations, creep, and other
factors develop stresses if the brickwork is restrained. Restraint of these movements may result in
cracking of the masonry. Typical crack patterns are shown and their causes identified.
Key Words: brick, corrosion, cracks, differential movement, expansion

INTRODUCTION
The various materials and elements that are used to
construct a building are in a constant state of motion. All
building materials change in volume due to internal or
external stimuli. These stimuli may be changes in tem-
perature, moisture, elastic deformations due to loads,
creep, or other factors. Restraint of these movements
may cause stresses within the building elements which in
turn may result in cracks.
To avoid cracks, the design should minimize volume
change, prevent movement or accommodate differential
movement between materials and assemblies. A system
of movement joints can eliminate cracks and the problems
they cause. Movement joints can be designed by estimat-
ing the magnitude of the several types of movements
which may occur in masonry and other building materials.
This Technical Notes describes the various volume
changes in brick masonry and other building materials. It
also describes the effects of volume change when the mate-
rials are restrained. Other Technical Notes in this series
address the design and detailing of movement joints and the
types of anchorage which permit movement.
Temperature Movements
All building materials expand and contract with varia-
tions in temperature. For unrestrained conditions, these
movements are theoretically reversible. Table 2 indicates
the coefficients of thermal expansion for various building
materials.
Unrestrained thermal movement is the product of tem-
perature change, the coefficient of thermal expansion, and
the length of the element. The stresses developed by
restrained thermal movements are equal to the change in
temperature multiplied by the coefficient of thermal expan-
sion and the modulus of elasticity of the material. The
temperature change used for estimating thermal move-
ments should be based on mean wall temperatures. For
solid walls, temperatures at the center of the wall should
be used. In cavity walls and veneers, the temperature at
TABLE 1
Types of Movement of Building Materials
Elastic
Building Reversible Irreversible Defor-
Material Thermal Moisture Moisture mation Creep

MOVEMENTS OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS Brick X -- X X X

The design and construction of most buildings does Masonry
not allow precise prediction of movements of building ele-
Concrete X X -- X X
ments. Volume changes are dependent on material prop- Masonry
erties and are highly variable. Age of material and tem-
perature at installation also influence expected movement. Concrete X X -- X X
When mean values of material properties are used in
Steel X -- -- X --
design, the actual movement may be underestimated or
overestimated. The designer should use discretion when Wood X X -- X X
selecting the applicable values. The types of movement
experienced by various building materials are indicated in
Table 1.
 TABLE 2 Moisture Movements
Thermal Expansion With the notable exception of metals, many building
materials tend to expand with an increase in moisture
Material Average Coefficient of content and contract with a loss of water. For some build-
Lineal Thermal Expansion, ing materials these movements are reversible; while for
-6
x 10 / ˚F others they are irreversible or only partially reversible.
Clay Products. Brick units expand slowly over time
Clay Masonry upon exposure to water or humid air. This expansion is
Clay or shale brick 3.6 not reversible by drying at atmospheric temperatures. A
Fire clay brick or tile 2.5 brick unit is smallest in size when it cools after coming
Clay or shale tile 3.3
from the kiln. The unit will increase in size due to mois-
Concrete Masonry ture expansion from that time. Most of the expansion
Dense aggregate 5.2 takes place quickly over the first few weeks, but expan-
Lightweight aggregate 4.3 sion will continue at a much lower rate for several years
(see Figure 1). The moisture expansion behavior of brick
Stone
Granite 4.7 depends primarily on the raw materials and secondarily
Limestone 4.4 on the firing temperatures. Brick made from the same
Marble 7.3 raw materials that are fired at lower temperatures will
expand more than those fired at higher temperatures.
Concrete
Gravel aggregate 6.0 Moisture expansion of individual brick or brick mason-
Lightweight, structural 4.5 ry can be measured for a given length of time. Predicting
the total moisture expansion of brick is much more diffi-
Metal cult. At present there are no standard tests to predict
Aluminum 12.8
Bronze 10.1 moisture expansion or measure moisture expansion which
Stainless Steel 9.9 occurs in service. Based on past research, long term
Structural Steel 6.5 moisture expansion of brick can be estimated at between
0.0002 and 0.0009. A design value of 0.0003 should be
Wood, Parallel to Fiber
Fir 2.1 used when designing composite masonry walls. A design
Oak 2.7 value of 0.0005 should be used in veneer walls where an
Pine 3.0 upper bound of movement is estimated.
Wood, Perpendicular to Fiber Concrete Masonry. Concrete masonry units experi-
Fir 32.0 ence shrinkage as a result of moisture loss and carbona-
Oak 30.0 tion. Shrinkage of concrete masonry is affected by
Pine 19.0
method of curing, aggregate type, change in moisture
Plaster content, cement content, and wetting and drying cycles.
Gypsum aggregate 7.6 Total shrinkage is determined by ASTM C 425 Test
Perlite aggregate 5.2 Method for Drying Shrinkage of Concrete Block which
Vermiculite aggregate 5.9 measures shrinkage from a saturated condition to a 17%
moisture condition. Typical total linear shrinkage values
the center of each wythe or component should be used. range between 0.0002 to 0.0007. Type I concrete mason-
In discontinuous construction, the wythes will have differ- ry units must conform to moisture content requirements
ent temperatures due to the separation of the wythes by found in the material specifications which limits wall
an air space. shrinkage.
Surface temperatures of brick walls may be much
higher than the ambient air temperature. Wall orientation,
wall type and color are governing factors. It is possible
for a dark, south facing wall to reach surface tempera-
tures as high as 140˚F (60˚C), while the ambient air tem-
perature is well below 100˚F (37.7˚C). The mean wall
temperature of a 4 in. (100 mm) thick insulated brick
veneer wall is very close to the surface temperature of the
brick. A thicker or non-insulated wall may experience a
smaller temperature difference between the outside and
inside surfaces.
Other materials such as metals or wood will expand
and contract at rates different from that of brick masonry. Projected Moisture Expansion of Fired Brick vs. TIme
These differences are important in applications such as FIG. 1
window frames, railings, or copings which are attached to
brick masonry. Distress may occur in either material.
2
 Concrete. Concrete shrinks as it cures and swells as
it becomes wet. Shrinkage of concrete is influenced by
the water cement ratio, composition of the cement, type of
aggregate, size of concrete member, curing conditions,
and amount and distribution of reinforcing steel. Values of
final shrinkage for ordinary concretes are generally of the
order of 0.0002 to 0.0007 depending on the factors listed.
Wood. Wood will shrink during the natural seasoning
process as the moisture content drops from the fiber satu-
ration point (28 to 30%) until it reaches equilibrium mois-
ture content with local atmospheric conditions. Shrinkage
occurs differently in the tangential, radial and longitudinal
dimensions of the member. Table 3 indicates the range of
shrinkage values for commonly used woods. Moisture
expansion and contraction continues with changes in
moisture content.
TABLE 3
1,2
Shrinkage of Wood
Species Radial Tangential Volumetric
Shrinkage, % Shrinkage, % Shrinkage, %
Douglas Fir 3.8-4.8 6.9-7.6 10.7-12.4
Red Oak 4.0-5.0 8.6-11.3 13.7-19.0
Southern Pine 4.6-5.4 7.4-7.7 12.1-12.3
Spruce 3.8-4.3 6.8-7.8 11.0-11.8
1
Adapted from Reference 10
2
Dried from 30% moisture content to 0%
Elastic Deformation
In the structural design of a building, the designer
must consider all forces imposed on the structure. These
include dead loads, live loads, snow loads, and such
external lateral forces as wind, soil, earthquake and blast.
All of these forces create stresses in the building materi-
als resulting in deflections of the building elements.
All materials, when subjected to a force, respond to
stress with an associated strain. The stress-strain rela-
tionship for masonry materials is approximately linear and
is defined by the modulus of elasticity. Axial deformation
is determined by dividing the stress by the modulus of
elasticity and multiplying the quotient by the length under
load. The deflections of horizontal elements, lateral
deflections of walls and columns, and reductions in
lengths of axially loaded structural elements due to design
loads must be considered.
Creep
Creep, or plastic flow, is the continuing deformation of
materials under load or stress. The magnitude of move-
ment due to creep in masonry and concrete depends on
the stress level, material age, duration of stress, material
quality, and environmental factors.
Brick. Creep in brick masonry primarily occurs in the
mortar joints and is negligible. The ACI 530/ASCE 5
"Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures"
3
-7
suggests 0.7 x 10 in./in. per psi of load.
Concrete Masonry. Concrete masonry exhibits more
creep than brick masonry because of the cement content
in the units. The ACI 530/ASCE 5 code suggests a value
-7
of 2.5 x 10 in./in. per psi of load.
Concrete. Creep is most significant in concrete
frame structures. Creep in concrete begins after load is
applied and proceeds at a decreasing rate. High-strength
concretes show less creep than low-strength concretes.
Creep is slightly greater in lightweight aggregate con-
cretes than normal-weight concretes. In high-rise build-
ings, the total elastic and inelastic shortening of columns
and walls due to gravity loads and shrinkage may be as
high as 1 in. (25.4 mm) for every 80 ft (24.4 m) of height.
Corrosion of Steel
Corrosion of steel embedded in masonry can cause
cracking or spalling of masonry. The volume of rust is
greater than that of the steel from which it is formed. This
volume increase causes pressure on the surrounding
masonry. Metals embedded in grout, such as reinforcing
bars, are less susceptible to corrosion than ties and joint
reinforcement embedded in mortar joints since they are
protected by the grout and not exposed. Other items in
masonry susceptible to corrosion are steel lintels, steel
shelf angles, joint reinforcement, anchor bolts and other
metal fasteners in masonry. To minimize corrosion, do not
use additives in mortar, such as calcium chloride, which
would accelerate corrosion. See Technical Notes 44B for
more on corrosion resistance of metal wall ties.
Other Causes of Movement
There are other causes of movement in building ele-
ments which may occur under given conditions. These
include freezing expansion, carbonation of concrete and
mortars, drift of the building frame, deflection of building
elements, and the action of unstable soils. It is beyond
the scope of this Technical Notes to discuss these items
in detail. However, the designer should recognize and
consider these factors.
Masonry materials exhibit expansion due to freezing
when saturated. Freezing expansion has a small effect
on total expansion of masonry. Based on limited data, the
-4
freezing expansion for brick ranges from 0 to 10.3 x 10
-4
in./in. A design value for brick masonry of 2 x 10 in./in. is
recommended. The expansion occurs when saturated
brick are subjected to temperatures at or below 14˚F
(-10˚C).
Carbonation is the chemical combination of hydrated
portland cement with carbon dioxide present in air.
Although it is known that materials containing portland
cement shrink upon carbonation, little is known about the
extent of the carbonation or the resulting shrinkage.
The drift or side-sway of a structural frame may cause
distress to brick masonry used as in-fill walls or exterior
cladding. Wind or earthquake loads will be transferred to
the more rigid brickwork if attached rigidly to the frame.
The same is true for deflection of floor slabs or spandrel
beams. Masonry built up in contact with these elements
will be loaded due to the deflection of the member.
Masonry intended to be non-loadbearing may become
loadbearing.
Foundation movements and differential settlement
often cause cracking in masonry walls supported on foun-
dations. Unstable soils or expansive soils are of special
concern. Proper foundation design should be performed
to ensure a stable support or allow uniform settlement.
EFFECTS OF MOVEMENT
Changes in building design have affected the design
and behavior of many building components, including
masonry walls. The most significant change for brick
masonry is the shift from loadbearing masonry walls to
skeleton frame construction. Other factors include the
use of thinner walls, composite walls and insulated walls.
The increased use of portland cement mortars and the
tendency to specify high compressive strength mortars
have become common. Although stronger units and mor-
tars increase the compressive strength of the masonry,
they do so at the expense of other important properties.
Thus, masonry walls are thinner and more brittle than
their massive ancestors. These thinner walls are more
susceptible to cracking and spalling if provisions for differ-
ential movement are not accounted for properly.
Cracking and Spalling
Cracking is probably the distress which occurs most often
in masonry walls. Cracks result from many different sources,
but there are typical shapes and patterns of cracks. Often the
type and magnitude of cracking will indicate the cause.
Expansion of Long Wall
FIG. 2
4
It is more beneficial to show what can happen if
movement is not considered in design than to show a
properly designed and detailed project. Following are
some typical locations where cracks occur in masonry
walls and the major cause of each. Technical Notes 18A
will describe ways to avoid these problems.
Long Walls. Long walls or walls with large distances
between expansion joints may cause distress within the
wall. The expansion of the brickwork may force sealant
material out of the expansion joint or crack the brickwork
between expansion joints (see Fig. 2). Diagonal cracks
often occur in piers between window or door openings.
Such cracks usually extend from the head or sill at the
jamb of the opening, depending upon the direction of
movement and the path of least resistance.
Corners. An insufficient amount or improper location
of expansion joints in walls can lead to cracking at the
corners. Perpendicular walls will expand in the direction
of the corner causing rotation and cracking near the cor-
ner. This typically occurs at the first head joint from either
side of the corner (see Fig. 3).
Offsets and Setbacks. Vertical cracks are quite
common at wall setbacks or offsets if movement is not
accommodated. When parallel walls expand towards the
offset, the movement produces rotation of the offset caus-
ing vertical cracks (see Figs. 4 and 5).
Shortening of Structural Frames. In frame struc-
tures, predominately concrete frame buildings, vertical
shortening due to creep or shrinkage of the structural
Crack at Corner
FIG. 3
 concrete frame. Over time the concrete frame has shrunk
and caused the steel shelf angle to bear on the masonry
below. Because a horizontal expansion joint was not pro-
vided, stresses became concentrated on the mortar joint
directly below the angle causing crushing of the masonry
below. This phenomena can also cause bowing of brick-
work between floors, if the brickwork is not adequately
attached to the backing, or the backing is not sufficiently
rigid.
Parapet Walls. Parapets exposed on three sides are
subjected to extremes of moisture and temperature which
may be substantially different from those in the wall below.
Also, parapets lack the dead load of masonry above to help
resist movement. Expansion can cause parapets to bow if
restrained at both corners or move away from corners if
restrained only at one end (see Fig. 7).
Foundations. Masonry walls above grade built on
concrete foundations will expand while the concrete foun-
Crack at Offset dation will shrink. This differential movement will cause
FIG. 4 shear at the foundation interface if bonded together.
Movement of the brick away from the corner or cracking
of the concrete often results (see Fig. 8).

Rotation at Offset
FIG. 5 Bowing of Parapet Due to Expansion
FIG. 7

Spalling Due to Shortening of Structural Frame

FIG. 6

frame may impose high stresses on the masonry. These

stresses may develop at window heads, shelf angles, and
other points where stresses are concentrated. Fig. 6 Crack at Foundation Corner
shows brick veneer supported by a steel shelf angle on a FIG. 8

5
 Deflection and Settlement. Deflection and settle-
ment cracks are identified by a tapering shape. Fig. 9
shows a deflection crack due to insufficient support of the
brickwork on a lintel. The crack is wider at the steel angle
and tapers to nothing. Technical Notes 31B Revised,
Structural Steel Lintels, details the proper design of steel
lintels supporting masonry. Deflection cracks may also
occur at steel shelf angles attached to spandrel beams
that deflect.
Crack Due to Deflection
FIG. 9
Crack Due to Differential Settlement
FIG. 10
6
Fig. 10 shows a crack due to differential settlement of
the foundation. If all settlement is equal, then little harm
is done. Cracking occurs when one portion of a structure
settles more than an adjacent part.
Encased Columns. Where structural elements are
rigidly encased in masonry, any movement of the column
is transferred to the masonry, causing cracks. These
movements may be due to drift of the building frame or
lateral expansion from creep. These cracks occur on the
exterior as well as the interior of the building (see Fig. 11).
Encased Column
FIG. 11
Curling of Concrete. If a concrete slab is cool and
dry on top and warm and moist on the bottom, the top
may become shorter than the bottom causing the slab to
curl upward. Cast-in-place concrete slabs also curl up at
the corners due to deflection when the forms are removed
and loads applied. This curling can lift masonry attached
to or laid on the concrete slab (see Fig. 12).
Embedded Items. Items embedded in or attached to
masonry may cause spalling or cracking when they move
or expand. Joint reinforcement that is continuous across
an expansion joint may buckle, pushing out adjacent mor-
tar (see Fig. 13). Corrosion of metal elements within
masonry causes volume increases of such a magnitude
as to crack or spall the masonry.
SUMMARY
This Technical Notes describes the various move-
ments that occur within all building materials and con-
structions. It also explains the effects of these move-
ments. Cracking in brickwork can be eliminated if all fac-
tors are taken into consideration and the anticipated
movement is accommodated.
The information and suggestions contained in this
Technical Notes are based on the available data and the
 experience of the engineering staff of the Brick Institute of
America. The information contained herein must be used
in conjunction with good technical judgment and a basic
understanding of the properties of brick masonry. Final
decisions on the use of the information contained in this
Technical Notes are not within the purview of the Brick
Institute of America and must rest with the project archi-
tect, engineer, owner or all.

REFERENCES
More detailed information on subjects discussed here
can be found in the following publications:
1. "Building Code Requirements for Masonry
Structures (ACI 530/ASCE 5)", American Concrete
Institute, Detroit, MI, 1988.
2. "Building Movements and Joints", Portland
Cement Association, 1982.
3. Fintel, M., Ghosh, S.K., Iyengar, H., "Column
Shortening in Tall Structures--Prediction and
Compensation", Portland Cement Association, 1987.
4. Grimm, C.T., "Masonry Cracks: A Review of the
Literature," Masonry: Materials, Design, Construction,
and Maintenance, ASTM STP 992, H.A. Harris, Ed.,
ASTM, Philadelphia, PA, 1988, pp. 257-280.
5. Grimm, C.T., "Probablistic Design of Expansion
Joints in Brick Cladding", Proceedings of the 4th
Canadian Masonry Symposium, University of New
Brunswick, Canada, 1986, pp. 553-568.
Crack Due to Curling of Concrete Slab
FIG. 12 6. Robinson, G.C., "The Reversibility of Moisture
Expansion", American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol.
64, 1985, pp.712-715.
7. Scheffler, M.J., Chin, I.R., Slaton, D., "Moisture
Expansion of Fired Bricks", Fifth North American
Masonry Conference, June 1990, pp. 549-562.
8. "Shrinkage Characteristics of Concrete Masonry
Walls", Housing Research Paper No. 34, Housing and
Home Finance Agency, April 1954.
9. Winter, G. and Nilson, A.H., "Design of Concrete
Structures", McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1979.
10. "Wood Handbook: Wood as an Engineering
Material", Agricultural Handbook 72, U.S. Department
of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., 1987.
11. Young, J.E., and Brownell, W.E., "Moisture
Expansion of Clay Products", Journal of the American
Ceramic Society, Vol. 42, No. 12, 1959, pp. 571-581.

Spalling Due to Buckling of Joint Reinforcement

FIG. 13

7
 18A
Technical Notes REVISED

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
December
1991

MOVEMENT
DESIGN AND DETAILING OF MOVEMENT JOINTS
PART II
Abstract: Expansion joints are used in brick masonry to allow for movement and avoid cracking. This Technical
Notes defines the different types of movement joints used in building construction. Equations are given to deter-
mine the proper size and spacing of brick expansion joints. Examples show the proper placement of expansion
joints to avoid cracking of brick masonry. Information is also included on bond breaks, bond beams and flexible
anchorage.
Key Words: brick, differential movement, expansion joint, flexible anchorage, sealants.

the structural integrity of the concrete masonry is not

INTRODUCTION affected.
Because all materials in a building experience A building expansion (isolation) joint is used to sepa -
changes in volume, a system of movement joints is nec- rate a building into discrete sections so that stresses
essary to allow these movements to occur. Failure to per- developed in one section will not affect the integrity of the
mit these movements may result in cracks in brickwork as entire structure. The isolation joint is a through-the-build-
discussed in Technical Notes 18. The type, size and ing joint.
placement of movement joints is critical to the proper per- A construction joint (cold joint) is used primarily in
formance of the building. This Technical Notes defines the concrete construction where construction work is inter-
different types of movement joints and discusses the rupted. Construction joints are located where they will
proper design of expansion joints within brick masonry least impair the strength of the structure.
buildings. Details of expansion joints are provided for Expansion Joints
loadbearing and non-loadbearing applications. Although the primary purpose of expansion joints is to
accommodate movement, the joint must also resist water
MOVEMENT JOINTS penetration and air infiltration. Figure 1 shows various
There are various types of movement joints in build- ways of forming vertical expansion joints. A copper water-
ings: expansion joints, control joints, building expansion stop, a premolded foam pad or a neoprene pad may be
joints, and construction joints. Each type of movement included as a barrier to keep mortar or other debris from
joint is designed to perform a specific task, and they
should not be used interchangeably.
An expansion joint is used to separate brick masonry
into segments to prevent cracking due to changes in tem-
perature, moisture expansion, elastic deformation due to
loads, and creep. Expansion joints may be horizontal or
vertical. The joints are formed of highly elastic materials
placed in a continuous, unobstructed opening through the
brick wythe. This allows the joints to close as a result of
an increase in size of the brickwork. Expansion joints
must be located so that the structural integrity of the brick
masonry is not compromised.
A control joint is used in concrete or concrete mason-
ry to create a plane of weakness which, used in conjunc-
tion with reinforcement or joint reinforcement, controls the
location of cracks due to volume changes resulting from
shrinkage and creep. A control joint is usually a vertical
opening through the concrete masonry wythe and may be
formed of inelastic materials. A control joint will open Vertical Expansion Joints
rather than close. Control joints must be located so that FIG. 1
clogging the joint and aids in resisting water penetration.
Fiberboard and other similar materials are not suitable for
this purpose because they are not highly compressible
and, after being compressed, they will not expand to their
original size.
When placing expansion joints in brick, materials such
as mortar or joint reinforcement should not bridge the
expansion joint. If this occurs, movement will be restricted
and the expansion joint will not perform as intended.
Expansion joints should be formed as the wall is built, as
shown in Fig. 2.
Expansion Joint Construction
FIG. 2
Sealants are used on the exterior side of the expan-
sion joint to act as a seal against water and air penetra-
tion. Many different types of sealants are available,
although those which exhibit the highest movement capa-
bilities are best. Elastomeric sealants must be highly elas-
tic, resistant to weathering (ultraviolet light) and have high
bond to adjacent materials. These elastomeric sealants
are classified by three generic types: urethanes, silicones
and polysulfides. Sealant manufacturers should be con-
sulted for the applicability of their sealants as expansion
joint materials. The sealant should conform to ASTM C
920 Specification for Elastomeric Joint Sealants. Many
sealants require a primer to be applied to the masonry
surface to ensure adequate bond. Compatibility of the
sealant with adjacent materials such as flashings, metals,
etc. must be taken into consideration.
A backer rod, which is a circular foam rod, is used
behind the sealant to keep the sealant at a constant depth
and provide a surface to tool the sealant against. The
sealant must not adhere to the backer rod. The depth of
the sealant should be approximately one-half the width of
the expansion joint, with a minimum sealant depth of 1/4
in. (6 mm). Increased resistance to water and air infiltra-
tion can be achieved by designing a two-stage joint as
shown in Fig. 3. A two-stage joint is often used in a rain
2
screen wall providing a vented or pressure-equalized joint.
The space between the sealants must be vented to allow
drainage. This is achieved by leaving a hole or gap in the
sealant at the top and bottom of the joint.
Two-Stage Expansion Joint
FIG. 3
Vertical Expansion Joints
Spacing of Vertical Expansion Joints. No single
recommendation on the positioning and spacing of expan-
sion joints can be applicable to all structures. Each build-
ing should be analyzed to determine the extent of move-
ments expected within that particular structure. Provisions
should be made to accommodate these movements and
their associated stresses by a series of expansion joints.
Generally, spacing of expansion joints is determined by
considering the amount of expected wall movement and
the size of compressibility of the expansion joint and
expansion joint materials.
Unrestrained expansion of the brickwork may be esti-
mated by the following formula:
mu = (ke + kf + k t∆T) L Eq. 1
where:
mu = total unrestrained movement of the brickwork,in.
ke = coefficient of moisture expansion, in./in.
kf = coefficient of freezing expansion, in./in.
kt = coefficient of thermal expansion, in./in./˚F
∆T= temperature change in brickwork, ˚F.
L = length of wall, in.
The design value of the coefficient of moisture expan-
sion for clay masonry is usually 0.0005 in./in. The coeffi-
cient for thermal expansion is 0.000004 in./in./˚F. The
coefficient of freezing expansion is taken as 0.0002 in./in.
Freezing expansion does not occur until wall tempera-
tures go below 14˚F ( -10˚C). Further, the units must be
saturated when frozen to cause expansion. Local condi-
tions must be considered to determine if freezing expan-
sion will occur, but is usually considered negligible.
Equation 1 provides an estimate of the amount of
movement occurring in a wan system. In addition to the
amount of movement, there are other variables which
may affect the size and spacing of expansion joints. exposure. In most instances it is desirable to be conserva-
These include wall restraint, elastic deformation due to tive, but it may be economically desirable to exceed the
loads, shrinkage and creep of mortar, construction toler- maximum spacing as a calculated risk. An example would
ances and wall orientation. be when calculations show a need for expansion joints
The following equation relates spacing between every 18 ft (5.5 m) but the expansion joint spacing is set
expansion joints to total unrestrained movement of the at 20 ft (6.1 m) to match the spacing of the structural
brick work and the expansion joint width. columns. Generally, vertical expansion joints should not
exceed 30 ft (9.1 m) in walls without openings.
Se = wjej Eq.2 Placement of Vertical Expansion Joints
(ke + k f + kt∆T)100 The actual location of vertical expansion joints in a
where: structure is dependent upon the configuration of the struc-
Se = spacing between expansion joints, in. ture as well as the expected amount of movement. In
addition to adequately placing expansion joints within long
wj = width of expansion joint, in.
walls, consideration should be given to placement of
ej = extensibility of expansion joint material, % expansion joints at: corners, offsets, openings, wall inter-
sections, changes in wall heights and parapets.
The expansion joint is typically sized to resemble a Corners. Walls perpendicular to one another will
mortar joint, usually 3/8 in. (10 mm) to 1/2 in. (13 mm). expand towards their juncture, typically causing distress at
The maximum size of the expansion joint may depend on the first head joint on either side of the corner (Fig. 4a).
the sealant capabilities. Extensibility of highly elastic Expansion joints should be placed near corners to allevi-
expansion joint materials are typically in the range of 25 ate this stress. It is often not aesthetically pleasing to
% to 50%. Compressibility of backing materials can range place expansion joints at the corner, although this is the
up to 75%. best location. In such instances, an expansion joint should
The temperature change in brickwork used in Eqs. 1 be placed within 10 ft (3.0 m) of the corner in either wall,
and 2 is based on mean wall temperatures. The theoreti- but not necessarily both. The spacing of expansion joints
cal change in temperature is equal to the maximum or
minimum mean wall temperature minus the mean wall
temperature at the time of installation. Although this theo-
retical temperature difference is precise, it is difficult to
accurately predict the temperature at the time of installa-
tion, and the minimum and maximum temperatures.
Therefore, it is conservative to calculate the temperature
variation based on the difference between the maximum
and minimum mean wall temperature.
Maximum mean wall temperatures vary from the max-
imum ambient air temperature to as high as 140˚F (60˚C)
depending on wad orientation, location of insulation, color
and density of the wan. Minimum mean wan temperatures
will typically be close to the winter design temperature.
Therefore, wan temperature differences, ∆T, can vary
from less than 50˚F (10˚C) to about 160˚F (71˚C).
As an example of the use of Eq. 2, consider a brick
veneer wall which is facing south. The color of the brick is
a light red and the desired size of the expansion joint is
3/8 in. (10 mm). The extensibility of the sealant is 50%.
Assuming appropriate values and no freezing expansion,
Eq. 2 would give the following expansion joint spacing:

Se = (0.375 in.) (50)

[(0.0005 + 0.000004 (100˚F)]100
= 208 in. or 17 ft-4 in. (5.3 m)

Therefore, the maximum spacing for vertical expan-

sion joints in a straight wall would be 17ft-4 in. (5.3 m).
This spacing does not take into account window open-
ings, corners or other material properties that may reduce
the spacing of the expansion joints. The extent to which
Expansion Joints at Corners
precautions should be taken to prevent masonry cracking FIG. 4
will depend upon the intended use of the structure and its
3
around a corner should not exceed the spacing of expan-
sion joints in a straight wall (Fig. 4b). For example, if the
spacing between vertical expansion joints on a straight
wall is 25 ft (7.6 m), then the spacing of expansion joints
around a corner could be 10 ft (3.0 m) on one side of the
corner and 15 ft (4.6 m) on the other side. Joint reinforce-
ment may be added around wall corners to provide added
tensile strength to the corner. Joint reinforcement should
not bridge the expansion joint.
Offsets and Setbacks. Parallel walls expand towards
the offset rotating the short masonry leg, or causing
cracks within the offset (Fig. 5a). Expansion joints should
be placed at the offset to allow the parallel walls to
expand (Fig. 5b).
Expansion Joints at Offsets
FIG. 5
Openings. Cracks often appear at window and door
openings when the spacing between expansion joints is
too large. In structures containing punched windows and
door openings, more movement occurs above or below
the openings. Less movement occurs along the line of
windows since there is less masonry. This differential
movement may cause cracks which emanate from the
corners of the opening as in Fig. 6. This pattern of crack-
ing does not exist in ribbon window structures.
Window and door openings weaken the wall yet act
as "natural" expansion joints. It is often desirable to locate
vertical expansion joints along the edge or jamb of the
opening. In cases where the masonry above an opening
is supported by shelf angles attached to the structure, a
vertical expansion joint can be placed alongside the open-
ing, continuing through the horizontal support.
In cases where the masonry above the opening is
supported by loose lintels (unattached to the structure),
special detailing and construction is required. If the
expansion joint runs along side the opening as shown in
Fig. 7a, the loose steel lintel must be allowed to expand
independently of the masonry. To accomplish this a slip
plane is formed with flashing placed above and below the
angle. A backer rod and sealant is placed in front of the
4
Cracking in Structure with “Punched” Windows
FIG. 6
toe of the angle, and space left at the end of the angle.
Thus, a pocket will be formed which will allow movement
of the steel angle within the brickwork. If the joint cannot
be built in this manner, then the vertical expansion joint
should not be placed alongside the opening. An alterna-
tive may be to place it halfway between the windows.
Location of the expansion joint alongside the window will
influence the dead weight of the masonry bearing on the
lintel. Instead of the usual triangular loading, the full
weight of the masonry above the angle should be
assumed to bear on the lintel. See Technical Notes 31B
for more information on steel lintel design.
Intersections and Junctions. Expansion joints
should be located at intersections of masonry walls and
walls which serve different functions. If the masonry is not
required to be bonded at the intersection, an expansion
joint should be incorporated. Walls which intersect at
other than right angles are also vulnerable to cracking at
the intersection. It may be necessary to separate adjacent
walls of different heights to avoid differential movement.
This is especially true if the difference is very large.
Examples are shown in Fig. 8.
Parapets. Parapets are exposed on three sides to
extremes of moisture and temperature which may cause
substantially different movement from that of the wall
below. Parapets also lack the dead load of masonry
above to help resist movement. Therefore, all vertical
expansion joints should be carried through the parapets.
Additional expansion joints may be necessary halfway
between those running full height, unless the parapet is
reinforced. These additional expansion joints must contin-
ue down to a horizontal expansion joint, or continue to the
base of the wall.
Aesthetic Effects. Expansion joints are usually
noticeable on flat walls of masonry buildings. There are
ways to reduce the obvious demarcation. The use of a
colored sealant which matches the brick helps to hide the
joint. Also, mason's sand can be rubbed into new sealant
to remove the sheen, making the joint blend in more.
Some projects have used toothed expansion joints where
the expansion joint follows the bond pattern. This type of
 Expansion Joint at Loose Lintel
FIG. 7

joint is not suggested because it is more difficult to keep

debris out of the joint during construction which could
interfere with movement. Further, most sealants do not
perform well when subjected to both shear and tension.
Conversely, it may be desirable to accentuate the
expansion joint instead of trying to hide it. This is possible
by recessing the brickwork at the expansion joint, or using
special-shaped brick units as shown in Fig. 9.
Architectural features such as quoins, recessed panels of
brickwork or a change in bond pattern reduce the visual
impact of vertical expansion joints. Also, expansion joints
are less noticeable when located at reentrant corners.
Symmetrical placement of expansion joints on the ele-
vation of buildings is usually most aesthetically pleasing.
Further, placing the expansion joints such that wall areas
and openings between expansion joints are symmetrical
will reduce the likelihood of cracking. Accentuated Expansion Joint
Other Considerations. Location of vertical expansion FIG. 9
joints will be influenced by additional factors. Spandrel
movement. An expansion joint should separate wall areas
sections of brickwork supported by a beam or floor may
with different exposures. Thus, an exterior wall which con-
crack due to deflection of the support. Reduced spacing
tinues past a glass curtainwall perpendicular to the wall
of expansion joints will permit deflection to occur without
should have an expansion joint at the curtainwall intersec-
cracking the brickwork. Wall segments which have differ-
tion.
ent climatic exposure conditions will respond with different
Movement joints must be provided in multi-wythe brick
and concrete masonry walls. Expansion joints must be
placed in the brick wythe and control joints must be
placed in the concrete masonry, although they do not nec-
essarily have to be aligned.

Horizontal Expansion Joints

Horizontal expansion joints may be required when
brickwork is a non-loadbearing element. Horizontal expan-
sion joints are needed if the brick wythe is supported on a
shelf angle outside the frame or used as an infill wall with-
in the frame. Horizontal expansion joints are located at
steel shelf angles by providing space beneath the angle
for movement to occur. In low-rise masonry buildings
(below three stories) and buildings with shear walls it is
Expansion Joints at Junctions not necessary to provide horizontal relief, but differential
FIG. 8
movement should be accounted for in the tie system, win-
5
dow details, and at the top of the wall. High-rise frame
structures typically have horizontal expansion joints locat-
ed at every floor level or every other floor level. Figure 10
is a typical detail of a horizontal expansion joint on a brick
veneer building. Notice that a clear space or highly com-
pressible material is placed beneath the angle, and that a
backer rod and sealant are used at the toe of the angle to
seal the joint.
Expansion Joint at Shelf Angle
FIG. 10
The size of the horizontal expansion joint should take
into account movements of the brickwork and movements
of the frame. These frame movements include both mater-
ial and load induced movements, including deflection of
the shelf angle. In some instances, the size of the expan-
sion joint may get rather large and not aesthetically pleas-
ing. An alternate detail shown in Fig. 11 allows more room
for movement while providing a smaller-appearing joint.
The special-shaped brick unit could also be placed below
the steel angle and turned upside down.
Horizontal expansion joints are suggested when brick
is used as an in still material within the frame of the struc-
ture. Expansion joints must be provided between the top
course of masonry and the member above. Deflections of
the frame should be considered when sizing the expan-
sion joint.
Shelf angles are required by model building codes in
most locations especially those areas of high seismic risk.
They are advisable in buildings with a flexible structural
frame and are recommended when the backing is steel
studs.
Alternate Expansion Joint Detail
FIG. 11
6
BOND BREAKS
Concrete and concrete masonry have moisture and
thermal movements which are considerably different than
those of brick masonry. Also, floor slabs and foundations
are usually under different states of stress due to loading
than are walls. Therefore, it may be important to separate
these elements by bond breaks such as building paper or
flashing. With bond breaks between foundations and
walls; between slabs and walls; and between concrete
and clay masonry, each element will be able to move
somewhat independently while still providing the neces-
sary support. Typical methods of breaking bond between
walls and slabs, and walls and foundations are shown in
Fig. 12.
When bands of clay brick are used in concrete
masonry walls, or when bands of concrete masonry are
used in clay brick walls, joint cracking may result due to
the difference in material properties. It may be prudent to
have the bond broken between the two materials with
building paper or flashing, or to provide additional move-
ment joints to eliminate this cracking.
Breaking bond does not affect the compressive
strength of the wall and generally does not affect the sta-
bility of veneer wythes. The weight of the masonry,
anchorage and the frictional properties at the interface
provide for stability.
When it is necessary to anchor a masonry wall to the
foundation and to the roof, it is still possible to detail the
walls in a manner which allows some differential move-
ment. Such anchorage will be required for loadbearing
walls subjected to high winds or seismic forces (Fig. 13).
Bond Breaks in Loadbearing Cavity Wall
FIG. 12

Bond Break at Foundation
FIG. 13
LOADBEARING MASONRY
The potential for cracking in loadbearing masonry
members is less than in non-loadbearing masonry mem-
bers since compressive stresses resulting from dead and
live loads help offset the effects of expansive movement.
Adding reinforcement at critical sections such as para-
pets, points of load application and around openings to
accommodate or distribute high stresses will also help
control the effects of movement. Reinforcement may be
placed in bed joints or in reinforced bond beams (Fig. 14).
It should be noted that historically, old loadbearing struc-
tures did not have expansion joints, and did not crack.
However, the walls were thicker and made of homoge-
neous materials as compared to structures built today.
Bond Beams
FIG. 14
NON-LOADBEARING MASONRY
Non-loadbearing walls are usually thinner than load-
bearing walls. The exterior wythe is often thermally isolat-
ed from the building by insulation and therefore is subject-
ed to more differential movement. For these reasons, a
series of vertical and horizontal expansion joints should
be designed to permit differential movement.
Brick veneer can be self-supporting up to a maximum
7
height of 100 ft (30.5 m) provided the building has shear
walls or rigid structural frames with stiff backing materials.
For such a system, the structural frame provides the walls
with lateral support and carries all other vertical loads.
The wall is tied to the frame by flexible anchors or
adjustable ties which permit differential movement.
Allowance for differential movement between the exterior
brickwork and the structure is provided at any openings
and at the tops of walls. Vertical expansion joints as dis-
cussed earlier must be incorporated.
Flexible Anchorage
Where anchors tie walls to the structural frame or the
backing to provide lateral support, the anchors and ties
should be flexible; i.e. resist movement perpendicular to
the plane of the wall (tension and compression) but not
parallel to the wall (shear). This flexibility permits differen-
tial movements between the structure and the wall. Figure
15 shows typical methods for anchoring masonry walls to
columns and beams. Details of anchoring brick to the
backing are shown in Technical Notes 44B.
Flexible Anchorage to Beams and Columns
FIG. 15
The size and spacing of anchors and ties are based
on tensile and compressive loads induced by lateral loads
on the walls. Technical Notes 44B lists recommended tie
spacing based on application. Anchors and ties must be
able to accommodate the expected movement without
obstruction and without becoming disengaged.
SUMMARY
This Technical Notes defines the types of movement
joints used in building construction. Details of expansion
joints used in brickwork are shown. The recommended
size, spacing and location of expansion joints are given.
By using the suggestions in this Technical Notes, the pos-
sibility of cracks in brickwork can be reduced.
Expansion joints are used in brick masonry to allow
for the movement generated by materials as they react to
their own properties, environmental conditions and loads.
In general, vertical expansion joints should be used to
break the brickwork into rectangular elements which have
the same support conditions, the same climatic exposure
and the same through-wall construction. The maximum
spacing for vertical expansion joints is 30 ft (9.1 m).
Horizontal expansion joints must be placed at shelf angles
supporting brick masonry.
The information and suggestions contained in this
Technical Notes are based on the available data and the
experience of the engineering staff of the Brick Institute of
America. The information contained herein must be used
in conjunction with good technical judgment and a basic
understanding of the properties of brick masonry. Final
decisions on the use of the information contained in this
Technical Notes are not within the purview of the Brick
Institute of America, and must rest with the project archi-
tect, engineer, owner, or all.

REFERENCES
1. ASTM C 920-86, Standard Guide for Use of
Elastomeric Joint Sealants, Annual Book of
Standards, Vol. 04.07.
2. Beall, C., "Sealant Joint Design", Water on
Exterior Building Walls: Problems and Solutions,
ASTM STP 1107, T.A. Schwartz, Ed., ASTM, Phila.,
1991.
3. "Building Movements and Joints", Portland
Cement Association, 1982.
4. Rainger, P., "Movement Control in the Fabric of
Buildings", Nichols Publishing Co., New York, 1983.
5. Szoke, S.S., Carrier, G.J., "Accommodating
Movement in Brickwork", Applications and
Performance of Structural Materials and Exterior
Facades, ASCE Convention, Boston, MA, October 27,
1986.

8
 19
Technical Notes REVISED

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
January
1993

RESIDENTIAL FIREPLACE DESIGN

Abstract: This Technical Notes covers the components, design and dimensions of residential wood-burning
fireplaces. The recommendations are limited to single-face fireplaces. Concepts for increased energy efficiency
as a supplemental heating unit are also addressed. Recommendations for the selection of materials as they
relate to the construction of fireplaces are included.
Key Words: brick, building codes, damper, design, energy efficiency, fireplace, heating, masonry, mortar.

INTRODUCTION
In past years, fireplaces were mostly decorative and
seldom used for heating residences. Recently, there has
been a revival of the use of fireplaces as a supplemental
heating source. This use requires that fireplaces be built
as a more functional unit.
The combustion process, the variety of firebox config-
urations and the varying rates at which fuel is consumed
are complex. Development of test methods to take into
consideration the many variables affecting fireplace per-
formance has been conducted for several years.
However, the comparative performance of different fire-
place configurations is not yet well documented. Thus the
design suggestions in this Technical Notes are based on
past proven performance. Although governed by the laws
of thermodynamics, fireplace design is not an exact sci-
ence, instead it is an empirical art to be applied with
knowledge of basic principles and good judgment.
Successful concepts that were discarded when fire-
places became mostly decorative are now finding new rel-
evance. In addition, several new concepts have been
developed which can increase the energy efficiency of
conventional fireplaces.
The purpose of this Technical Notes is to provide
basic information for the design of successful, single-face,
wood-burning fireplaces and to introduce concepts that
can increase their energy efficiency. Other Technical
Notes in this series discuss design, detailing and con-
struction of other styles of residential fireplaces and the
design of residential chimneys and masonry heaters.
TYPES OF FIREPLACES
There are several distinct types of fireplaces currently
in use for residential applications. There are many individ-
ual variations within each general type, but most of the
functional principles are similar.
Single-Face
Single-face fireplaces have been in use since early
recorded history with developments in design through
most of the major architectural periods. Most of the avail-
able information on the proper opening sizes, dampers,
and flue sizing is based on empirical developments.
Single-face fireplaces can provide relatively efficient
room heating. The amount of radiated and reflected heat
produced increases with the amount of brick masonry sur-
rounding the fire. The amount of brick masonry surface
area exposed to the fire, its distance from the fire and the
size of the fire determine the amount of reflected and radi-
ated heat. Also, the mass of the fireplace assembly stores
heat and radiates the heat into the room after the fire is
extinguished. Key elements of a single-face fireplace are
shown in Figures 1a through 1c.
Rumford Fireplaces. The Rumford fireplace is a sin-
gle-face fireplace with a firebox which features widely
splayed sides, a shallow depth and a high opening. These
features increase energy efficiency. Performance tests
indicate that the radiated and reflected heat output from a
Rumford fireplace is higher than that from a conventional
fireplace. Information on the design and construction of
Rumford fireplaces is provided in Technical Notes 19C
Revised.
Rosin Fireplaces. The Rosin fireplace is a single-
face fireplace with a specially curved back to the firebox,
designed to increase energy efficiency. The Rosin has a
cast refractory firebox with widely splayed sides which
increases radiation and heat storage. The Rosin firebox
can be retrofitted into an existing masonry fireplace or
built into a new fireplace.
Air-Circulating Fireplaces. Air-circulating fireplaces
are so named because they circulate room air behind the
combustion chamber through a series of brick baffles or
steel plates. As a result, additional heat output can be dis-
tributed to the room or other areas of the residence by
convection.
 Typical Single-Face Fireplace (See Table 1 for Dimensions)
FIG. 1
Examples of this type of single-face fireplace are the
Heatilator and the Brick-O-Lator [7]. This type of fireplace
can be used as a supplemental heat source. Brick has the
advantage of radiating the heat stored in the mass of the
fireplace after the fire is out. Additional heat can be dis-
tributed to the room by continuing to circulate air long
after the fire is out.
Multi-Face
Multi-face fireplaces have adjacent, opposite or all
faces open to the room. Although generally associated
with contemporary design, the multi-face fireplace is also
of ancient origin. For example, the so-called corner fire-
place which provides two adjacent open sides has been in
use for several hundred years in Europe. Some multi-face
fireplaces have unique design requirements which have to
be met before satisfactory performance can be reached.
These fireplace configurations are less energy efficient
2
than single-face fireplaces. This is due to the lack of radi-
ating surfaces and increased use of room air. Multi-face
fireplaces are usually selected for aesthetics rather than
energy efficiency. Multi-face fireplaces are discussed in
Technical Notes 19C Revised.
FIREPLACE DESIGN
The performance of a fireplace is primarily governed
by three factors: fuel combustion, air pressure differential
between the firebox and the top of the chimney and tem-
perature differential between air in the room of the fire and
that at the top of the chimney. All must be considered in
order to achieve successful combustion and exhaust per-
formance. All fireplaces include the same four basic com-
ponents. These are the base, firebox, smoke chamber
and the chimney. Of these, all but the base influence
burning performance.
Base
The base consists of the foundation and hearth sup-
port, as shown in Figs. 1a and 2. It is not necessary that
all of the components shown be present. For slab-on-
grade construction, the slab can provide both the founda-
tion and the hearth support, providing it is adequately
designed to support the weight of the fireplace assembly.
Typical Base Assembly
FIG. 2
Foundation. Masonry fireplaces must be supported
with an adequate foundation. The foundation consists of
either footings which support foundation walls or a struc-
tural slab. Local building codes should be reviewed for
design soil pressures for foundations. The minimum
requirements contained in most building codes for the
foundation components are included in the following dis-
cussion. The foundation must be designed to carry the
weight of the fireplace without excessive or differential
settlement.
Footings---Footings should be made of masonry or
concrete and at least 12 in. (300 mm) thick, and extend at
least 6 in. (150 mm) beyond the fireplace walls on all
sides. The footings should penetrate below frost line
unless they are located within a space maintained above
freezing. Footings should be placed on undisturbed or
properly prepared soils.
Foundation Walls---Foundation walls raise the fire-
place to the desired level and should be constructed of
masonry or concrete with a minimum thickness of 8 in.
(200 mm). There should be no voids except for the ash pit
and external combustion air ducts formed in the base
assembly, as shown in Figs. 1a and 2. Typically the shape
of foundation walls matches the perimeter of the fireplace
structure above.
Structural Slab---The structural slab must be proper-
ly designed to support the weight of the fireplace assem-
bly. When the fireplace is constructed on a slab-on-grade
it is usually necessary to thicken the slab under the fire-
place to support the loads from the fireplace and chimney.
Hearth Support. Support for the hearth can be pro-
vided in a number of ways. These include the use of cor-
beled brickwork, a structural concrete slab or cantilevered
3
reinforced brick masonry. The maximum projection of
each brick in a corbel should not exceed one-half the
height of the unit nor one-third its thickness. When corbel-
ing from walls, the overall horizontal projection should be
limited to one-half of the wall thickness unless the corbel
is reinforced. These maximum horizontal individual and
overall projections are consistent with current model build-
ing code requirements. Hearth support featuring corbeled
brickwork and a structural slab are shown in Figs. 1a and 2.
A structural concrete slab or reinforced brick masonry
is used to span the foundation walls and may cantilever to
support the hearth extension.
Firebox
The firebox consists of the hearth, fireplace opening,
combustion chamber, throat and often a smoke shelf as
shown in Figs. 1 and 3. The thicknesses of the firebox
walls are set by the model building codes. When refracto-
ry brick or firebrick are used to line the walls the total
thickness may be reduced.
Hearth. The hearth consists of two basic parts, the
inner hearth and the extended hearth. The hearth can be
raised or flush with the floor surface. A fireplace hearth
flush with the floor is shown in Figs. 1a and 3.
Inner Hearth---The inner hearth is within the firebox
area and forms the floor of the combustion chamber. All
model building codes require that the inner hearth and the
hearth support be noncombustible and a minimum of 4 in.
(100 mm) thick.
Extended Hearth---The extended hearth is that por-
tion of the hearth that projects out into the room beyond
the face of the fireplace and must be noncombustible.
Model building codes require the extended hearth to be
supported by noncombustible materials with no com-
bustible material against the underside. Wooden forms or
centers used to construct the hearth extension must be
removed when construction is completed. The extended
hearth may be a reinforced brick masonry cantilever.
Typical Firebox Assembly
FIG. 3
 Model building codes also require that the hearth of conventional fireplace openings appropriate for various
extend a minimum of 8 in. (200 mm) on each side of the room sizes. For example, a room with 300 ft (28 m ) of
2 2

fireplace opening and 16 in. (400 mm) in front of the fire-
place opening. If the fireplace opening is greater than 6
2 2
ft (0.55 m ), building codes require hearth extensions of
12 in. (300 mm) on either side of the opening and 20 in.
(500 mm) in front of the fireplace opening.
Fireplace Opening. The fireplace opening is a very
important element in fireplace design. The configuration
and dimensions of most other components of the fireplace
and chimney are based primarily on the dimensions of the
fireplace opening selected. Figure 1 shows details and
Table 1 provides the widths and heights of fireplace open-
ings found to be the most satisfactory for appearance and
successful operation. These dimensions may be varied
slightly to allow for brick coursing.
Proper Sizing---Firebox dimensions should be select-
ed so that the fire fills the combustion chamber during
operation. This provides greater heating efficiency. Careful
consideration should be given to size of the fireplace
opening best suited for the room in which it is to be locat-
ed. Location and size are important not only from the
standpoint of appearance, but also of operation. If the fire-
place opening is too small, it may function properly but
will not produce enough heat to warm the room. If the
opening is too large, a fire that would fill the combustion
chamber may overwhelm the room. In such a case, the
firebox opening would require a larger flue area and con-
sume larger amounts of interior air even if exterior com-
bustion air is provided. Table 2 provides suggested widths
floor area is best served by a fireplace with an opening 30
in. (750 mm) to 36 in. (900 mm) wide.
The shape of the fireplace opening is important aes-
thetically and functionally. Higher openings increase the
radiant heating, increase the demand for room air and
require taller chimneys.
Support Above Fireplace Opening---The brickwork
above the fireplace opening must be adequately support-
ed. There are several alternatives for support. These
include brick arches, reinforced brick masonry lintels,
stone, precast concrete and loose angle lintels.
Brick arches usually require no steel reinforcement
and are an attractive option. When determining the height
of a fireplace opening which incorporates an arch use the
maximum height to the arch soffit. Information on arch
design may be found in Technical Notes 31 Series.
Reinforced brick masonry (RBM) lintels may be built
in place or prefabricated. The advantages of using RBM
lintels are numerous, but include more efficient use of
materials and exposed brick rather than steel at the top of
the opening. RBM lintel design procedures are given in
Technical Notes 17H. Loose steel angle lintels are the
most prevalent means of support. For this reason, Table 1
gives recommended steel angle dimensions. If opening
sizes other than those listed in Table 1 are used, informa-
tion found in Technical Notes 31B Revised can be used
for design of the loose steel angle lintel.

TABLE 1
a b
Single-Face Fireplace Dimensions , Inches

c d
Finished Fireplace Opening Rough Brick Work Steel Angle

A B C D E F G H I J K N

24 24 16 11 14 18 8 3/4 32 21 19 10 A-36
26 24 16 13 14 18 8 3/4 34 21 21 11 A-36
28 24 16 15 14 18 8 3/4 36 21 21 12 A-36

30 29 16 17 14 23 8 3/4 38 21 24 13 A-42
32 29 16 19 14 23 8 3/4 40 21 24 14 A-42
36 29 16 23 14 23 8 3/4 44 21 27 16 A-48

40 29 16 27 14 23 8 3/4 48 21 29 16 A-48
42 32 16 29 16 24 8 3/4 50 21 32 17 B-54
48 32 18 33 16 24 8 3/4 56 23 37 20 B-60

54 37 20 37 16 29 13 68 25 45 26 B-66
60 37 22 42 16 29 13 72 27 45 26 B-72
60 40 22 42 18 30 13 72 27 45 26 B-72
72 40 22 54 18 30 13 84 27 56 32 C-84

a
Adapted from Book of Successful Fireplaces, 20th Edition.
b
SI conversion: mm = in. x 25.4.
c
L and M are shown in Fig. 1 and are equal to outside dimensions of flue lining plus at least 1 in. (25 mm). Determine flue lining dimensions from Fig. 5. Lis greater than or
equal to M.
d
Angle sizes: A--3 x 3 x 1/4 in., B--3 1/2 x 3 x 1/4 in., C--5 x 3 1/2 x 5/16 in.

4
 TABLE 2
Suggested Width of Fireplace Openings
a,b
Appropriate to Size of Room
Size of Room Width of Fireplace Opening in Inches
in Feet
In Short Wall
10 x 14 24
12 x 16 28 to 36
12 x 20 32 to 36
12 x 24 32 to 36
14 x 28 32 to 40
16 x 30 36 to 40
20 x 36 40 to 48
a
Reprinted with permission of Structures Publishing Company from Book of
Successful Fireplaces, 20th Edition.
b
SI conversions: mm = ft. x 0.305; mm = in. x 25.4.
General recommendations are: the steel angles should be
at least 1/4 in. (6.4 mm) thick; the horizontal leg should be
at least 3-1/2 in. (89 mm) for use with nominal 4 in. (100
mm) thick brick and 3 in. (75 mm) for use with nominal 3
in. (75 mm) thick brick. The minimum required bearing
length on each end of the fireplace opening is 4 in. (100
mm). Steel angle lintels should have a space at their ends
to permit thermal expansion.
Combustion Chamber. The shape and depth of the
combustion chamber will greatly influence draft, combus-
tion air requirements and the amount of heat reflected and
radiated into the room. Figure 1 illustrates the shape and
Table 1 provides recommended dimensions for the com-
bustion chamber. These dimensions may be varied slight-
ly, but the information given is based on successful
designs. Significant changes should not be made without
consulting a fireplace design consultant.
The sides and lower portion of the back of the com-
bustion chamber should be vertical. Above the vertical
portion of the back, the brick should be sloped forward
towards the fireplace opening to support the metal
damper and the clay flue lining. For the maximum amount
of reflected heat into the room, the sloped portion of the
back should be plane rather than concave. If it is con-
cave, more heat will be reflected back into the fire rather
than into the room. Greater splay of the sides also
increases the amount of heat reflected into the room.
The combustion chamber should be constructed of
nominal 4 in. (100 mm) thick brick. When refractory brick
or firebrick are used, model building codes permit the total
wall thickness to be reduced. Thin mortar joints, not more
than 1/4 in.(6.4 mm), should be specified. A 1 in. (25 mm)
air space should be provided between the combustion
chamber wall and the backup wall, although not required
by building codes. This air space provides for thermal
expansion of the combustion chamber. A noncombustible,
compressible, fibrous insulation or similar material should
be wrapped around the combustion chamber to ensure
that this air space is maintained. The backup wall should
be no less than 4 in. (100 mm) in thickness around the
back of the combustion chamber to support the loads
from the smoke chamber and chimney above.
Throat. The throat is a slot-like opening directly
above the top of the firebox through which flames, smoke
and combustion gases pass into the smoke chamber and
upward through the chimney. Because of its effect on
In Long Wall
draft, the throat of the fireplace should be carefully
designed. It should be a minimum of 8 in. (200 mm)
24 to 32 above the highest point of the fireplace opening. The
32 to 36 throat is illustrated in Fig. 1a and appropriate dimensions
36 to 40
are found in Table 1.
36 to 48
40 to 48
Cast refractory and formed clay throats are available,
built to certain angles and dimensions to fit most conven-
48 to 60
48 to 72 tional fireplace dimensions. These elements are posi-
tioned on top of the firebox walls and eliminate the need
of constructing brick courses to form the throat. Once in
place, brick masonry can be built around the throat to give
the appearance of conventionally built throats in the
breastwork of the fireplace.
Damper---The damper closes the fireplace opening to
exterior air infiltration and can be used to control the burn-
ing rate of the fireplace. A metal damper may be placed in
the throat, extending the full width of the throat opening,
or at the top of the chimney.
A throat damper should have an open area of approx-
imately twice the area of the flue. The damper should
have a valve plate which opens toward the back of the
fireplace. Such a plate when opened, forms a barrier to
deflect any down draft which may occur. Many different
damper shapes are available. A high formed damper is
recommended because it extends the throat with its con-
struction and forms a critical portion of the smoke cham-
ber. This damper type reduces the possibility of masonry
blocking the valve plate of the damper. The damper
should be spot bedded in mortar for a good fit and sup-
port, but not mortared in solidly at the ends because
expansion could cause cracking in masonry. A noncom-
bustible, compressible, fibrous insulation or similar materi-
al should be placed between the damper ends and adja-
cent masonry to allow differential movement.
A chimney top damper is an alternative to the damper
installed at the top of the throat. The damper is operated
by a control chain which extends down into the firebox.
This type of damper permits the chimney and flue to be
heated when the fireplace is not in use and may help
reduce water penetration into the flue. Chimney top
dampers must be weighted or spring loaded to be in the
open position if the operating mechanism fails. This is
necessary so the damper remains open during operation
of the fireplace.
Smoke Shelf. The origin of and need for a smoke
shelf is not clear. Some say its purpose is to provide a
location for chimney sweeps to work from when cleaning
large chimneys. Others contend it deflects down drafts
and prevents direct access of water entering the top of
the flue to the firebox. It also serves as a depository for
ash which does not clear the chimney. The smoke shelf, if
used, should be designed so that a uniform air flow
results. The smoke shelf should be directly under the flue,
be level across the face and in plane with the base of the
5
damper. The smoke shelf should also extend the full width
of the throat. It can be flat, extending back to and perpen-
dicular to the rear wall of the smoke chamber, or curved
to blend with the rear wall of the smoke chamber. Refer to
Figs. 1a and 3 for details and Table 1 for recommended
dimensions.
Some designs, such as Rumford fireplaces, do not
include a smoke shelf. These types of fireplace designs
are often referred to as having "the streamline effect". In
this instance, the flue tile is vertically aligned with the top
of the last course of brick at the back of the firebox wall.
Such a design provides a clear vertical passageway from
the firebox to the top of the last chimney flue liner.
Smoke Chamber
The smoke chamber forms the chimney flue support,
as shown in Figs. 1a, 1b and 4, and conveys by-products
of the combustion process up to the chimney. The back
wall of the chamber is built vertically and the side walls
are sloped uniformly toward the center. The front wall
above the throat is also sloped to meet and provide sup-
port for the bottom of the clay flue liner. Flue liners should
be supported on all sides. The front wall above the throat
should be supported by reinforced brick masonry or a
steel angle, not by the damper.
Typical Smoke Chamber Assembly
FIG. 4
The slope of the smoke chamber should be smooth,
with each course of brick corbeled to achieve the required
angle. The inside of the smoke chamber should be
parged with refractory mortar to reduce friction and pre-
vent smoke leakage. Figures 1a and 4 show the shape of
the smoke chamber and Table 1 gives recommended
dimensions.
There are alternative means of building the inside sur-
face of the smoke chamber. Cast refractory materials or cut
pieces of clay flue liner may be used. Dimensional coordina-
tion is important so that all components are correctly fitted
without cracks or leaks of combustion products.
Chimney Flue
Draft of the fireplace is affected by the dimensions of
the firebox opening, the shape and cross-sectional area of
the flue and the height of the chimney. Figure 5 provides
6
a graphical determination of the appropriate flue size for
fireplace opening area and overall height [3]. For purpos-
es of Fig. 5, the height is defined as the distance from the
combustion chamber floor to the top of the last chimney
flue liner. When using Fig. 5 it is normally best to use the
smaller flue size when the opening and height selected
intersect between standard flue sizes. Taller chimneys
have a better draw than shorter chimneys with the same
flue size.
For fireplace openings greater than those given in
Table 1 and Fig. 5, the area of the flue and height of the
chimney can be determined by methods in Technical
Notes 19B Revised. Chimney design and construction
are also covered in Technical Notes 19B Revised.
Structural Considerations
Masonry fireplaces must withstand wind and seismic
loads resulting from local conditions. In areas of high wind
and seismic activity, vertical and horizontal reinforcement
may be required. Vertical reinforcement is located at least
at each corner of the fireplace. Such reinforcement must
be anchored to the foundation and properly lapped to be
continuous for the entire chimney height. The size and
spacing of reinforcement depends on design loads, over-
all dimensions of the fireplace and chimney, location of
the reinforcement and means of attachment to the struc-
ture. Fireplaces and chimneys are typically attached to
the structure by steel straps located at each floor or ceil-
ing line. Consult the local building code for design loads
and prescriptive requirements. For more information on
chimney design see Technical Notes 19B Revised.
Aesthetic Considerations
The appearance of the fireplace has evolved through
the centuries from the elaborately carved mantels of the
Georgian Period to the smaller, streamlined fireplaces
found in contemporary style homes. The aesthetic design
of a fireplace is often based on the style of the house or
room. The fireplace may project from adjacent walls to
add emphasis to the fireplace or may be flush with its sur-
roundings. The effect of a fireplace can be simple, just a
rectangular opening with a brick surround in an otherwise
blank wall. Conversely, a focal point can be created with
an ornate brick area filling an entire wall. Functional
aspects such as wood storage areas or seating can be
incorporated. Brickwork can be combined with materials in
other locations.
The most prominent features of the fireplace are the
fireplace surround, the mantel, and the hearth. Although
certain aspects of these features must conform to building
code requirements, the resulting appearance is limitless.
Mantel. The mantel is a shelf or facing ornament
above the fireplace opening. Depending on the architec-
tural style of the room, the mantel may be recessed into
the wall or may project out from the wall. Mantels may be
built integrally with the fireplace or may be anchored to it.
Specially carved mantels are sometimes used to surround
the fireplace. Projecting mantels are usually made of cor-
beled masonry, wood, stone or other materials. All com-
bustible materials used for the mantel must be at least 6
in. (150 mm) away from the fireplace opening.
 8 x 16
Flue Size Nomograph
FIG. 5
Combustible materials projecting out more than 1-1/2 in.
(38 mm) must be 12 in. (300 mm) away from the top of
the fireplace opening. Corbeled masonry must conform to
the corbeling limitations listed in the Hearth Support sec-
tion. All mantels should be securely attached to the
masonry. The wall above the mantel is an area which is
often integrated with the fireplace design. This may
include patterned brickwork, brick sculptures or art work.
Figure 6 is an example of a mantel and the possibilities
above the mantel.
Fireplace Surround. The fireplace surround is the
area immediately surrounding the fireplace opening. The
first 6 in. (150 mm) adjacent to the fireplace opening must
be noncombustible material. The fireplace surround may
be integral with the mantel in the case of decorative tile,
marble or other noncombustible material placed on either
side of the opening. Alternately, a wooden surround may
be combined with the mantel. The lintel forms the top of
the fireplace opening and may also be made of various
7
noncombustible materials. The shape of the lintel can be
modified to add a certain look to the fireplace. A semi-circu-
lar arch is one simple way of dressing up the fireplace. An
example is shown in Fig. 7. Other options include using a
contrasting material such as cast stone for the lintel.
Hearth Extension. The hearth extension is necessary
for the safe operation of a fireplace and may also be a
focal point of the fireplace. The hearth extension may be
flush with the floor or may be raised. The extended hearth
may be made of brickwork, slate or any other noncom-
bustible material. The hearth extension may be only as
small as allowed by the building code or may extend
along the entire front face of the wall. The raised hearth
may serve as additional seating for the room. A raised
hearth brings the level of the fireplace up to eye level
when seated. Raised hearths are shown in Figs. 6 and 7.

FIG. 6
ENERGY EFFICIENCY WITH FIREPLACES
Energy efficient fireplaces may be used for supple-
mental heating and to decrease the consumption of non
renewable resources. Several modifications to conven-
tional fireplace design make them more energy efficient.
The modifications discussed here are appropriate to most
conventional fireplace designs. Other energy efficient
modifications to the shape and size of the firebox are the
Rosin and Rumford fireplace designs.
Location
For maximum thermal benefit, the fireplace should be
located entirely within the structure. This enables the
mass of the fireplace to store heat within the residence.
Heat stored in the brickwork is then radiated into the room
long after the fire is extinguished.
By choosing a central location, a more even heating
of the living area results. Fireplace walls can be exposed
8
FIG. 7
in several rooms. Cold spots in areas away from the fire
are kept to a minimum and, if the fireplace is an air-circu-
lating type, heat can be vented into adjacent rooms more
efficiently.
Outside Air
One way to increase the efficiency of a fireplace is to
use air from outside the structure for combustion and
draft. Conventional fireplaces draw air from the room, air
that has already been heated to some extent. The drop in
room air pressure, caused by this air loss, may result in
increased infiltration from other areas of the structure. In
very tightly built houses less air is available for proper
combustion, so outside air must be intentionally provided.
Even when outside air is provided, some interior room air
is always necessary for proper combustion.
There are many ways in which outside air can be
brought into the firebox area. Each method requires three
basic parts: the intake, the air passageway and the inlet.
One example is shown in Figs. 1 and 2. Tight-fitting inlet
dampers and tight-closing intake louvers are recommend-
ed to keep the fireplace from becoming a source of air
infiltration when not in use.
Intake. The intake should be located on an outside
wall or on the back of the fireplace. A screen-backed,
closeable louver is required. Preferably, this will be a type
that can be operated from inside the structure. Many
building codes will not permit the intake to be located
within a garage because of the presence of fuel fumes.
Other possible locations for the intake are in a crawl
space, attic or other unheated spaces. It is advisable to
check local building code regulations for the appropriate-
ness of other intake locations.
Passageway. A passageway or duct connects the
intake to the inlet. It must be formed of noncombustible
material. Ducts with cross-sectional area ranging from 6
2 2 2
in. (3870 mm to 55 sq in. (35500 mm ) have been used
successfully. The passageway can be built integral with
the fireplace base assembly or channeled between floor
joists. It can also enter through inlets located in the sides
of the firebox. In any case, the passageway is usually
insulated to reduce heat loss.
Inlet. The inlet brings the outside air into the firebox.
A damper is required to control the volume and direction
of the air flow. This is necessary because cold outside air
channeled into the fireplace expands and could possibly
result in more air than is needed for draft and combustion.
This can create a spill over effect into the room prior to
the air being warmed. The inlet can be located in the
sides or the floor of the combustion chamber, preferably in
front of the grate for best performance. If the inlet is locat-
ed toward the back of the combustion chamber, ashes
may be blown into the room by drafts from the inlet. As an
option, the inlet can be located on or near the floor within
24 in. (600 mm) of the firebox opening. Any inlet should
be closeable and designed to prevent burning material
from dropping into concealed combustible spaces.
A potential problem due to increased velocity of the
air coming through the inlet is that the temperature within
the combustion chamber can increase significantly. This
can result in grates and inlet dampers being destroyed or
distorted by the higher temperatures. To help decrease
the velocity of the air through the inlet, a space before the
inlet should be constructed as a stilling chamber, as
shown in Figs. 1a and 2.
Glass Fireplace Screens
Glass screens can be used on both conventional fire-
places and fireplaces with an outside air supply. These
screens should be sealed around the edges and have
tight-fitting doors and vents so that the fireplace is not a
source of air infiltration or heat loss when not in use. The
screens are normally closed when the fireplace is not
being used.
During a fire, glass screens provide a barrier which
reduces the amount of heated air being channeled up the
chimney, but still permit smoke and combustion gases to
escape. The screens should be kept closed until it is safe
to close the damper.
Caution is necessary when fireplaces are operated
with the glass screens in a closed position. Increased
temperatures due to higher air velocities through intakes
can warp grates or metal in conjunction with the glass
doors, cause expansion of the glass doors and the steel
lintel above the fireplace opening and lead to early disin-
tegration of the firebox mortar joints.
SELECTION OF MATERIALS
The proper selection of quality materials is essential
to the successful performance of the fireplace and chim-
9
ney. No amount of design, detailing and construction can
compensate for the improper selection of materials.
Brick
Building codes require that solid masonry units, i.e.
cored up to 25 percent, be used for fireplace construction.
Brick should conform to ASTM C 216 or C 62 for facing
brick and building brick, respectively. In areas of high
seismic activity, the option exists to use hollow brick con-
forming to ASTM C 652 which can be vertically reinforced
and fully grouted. Grade SW should be specified for dura-
bility since the fireplace assembly is usually subject to
severe exposure conditions.
For the firebox, the use of refractory brick or firebrick
which conform to ASTM C 27, low duty, permit a reduced
wall thickness. Refractories are more resistant to high
temperatures and thermal shock. Grade SW building brick
or facing brick may be used as an alternative when expo-
sure to wood-burning fires is anticipated. Currently, ASTM
Committee C-15 is working on a standard specification for
firebox brick which will replace the discontinued ASTM C
64 previously used in most model building codes.
Salvaged brick should not be used because they may
not provide the strength and durability necessary for satis-
factory performance. The use of salvaged brick is dis-
cussed in Technical Notes 15 Revised.
Mortar
Combustion Chamber, Smoke Chamber and Flue.
Mortars used in these locations are subject to high sur-
face temperatures and possibly corrosive effects from
combustion gases. The mortar joints at the top of the
chimney flue may be subjected to periodic wetting and
freeze-thaw cycling. The mortar must withstand these
conditions while providing adequate support and a barrier
to combustion gases. Mortars used for these three parts
of the fireplace can be a refractory mortar or a conven-
tional mortar.
Refractory mortar should conform to ASTM C 199,
medium duty, and may be one of several types. The prop-
erties of each should be evaluated for the intended use
and exposure. Fireclay is the primary ingredient of refrac-
tory mortars, often mixed with calcium aluminate or sodi-
um silicate as a binder. Refractory mortars must be used
with thin joints.
High-lime mortars, such as ASTM C 270 Type O port-
land cement-lime mortar, have been found to be more
resistant to heat in the combustion chamber than high
portland cement content mortars. The joint size also
effects the performance of the mortar. In any case, mortar
joints in the combustion chamber should be no greater
than 1/4 in. (6.4 mm) thick to protect against the effects of
cracking or deterioration through fireplace use.
Conventional Brickwork. It is often more convenient
and economical to use only one type of mortar for all
components of the fireplace and chimney. Type N portland
cement-lime mortar and Type S masonry cement mortar
conforming to ASTM C 270 are good all-purpose mortars
for most residential fireplaces and chimneys. Chimney
wind loads in excess of 25 psf (1.2 kPa) may require Type
S portland cement-lime mortar. Masonry in contact with
earth should be laid with a Type M mortar. understanding of the properties of brick masonry. Final
Clay Flue Liners decisions on the use of the information contained in this
Flue liners should conform to ASTM C 315. They Technical Notes are not within the purview of the Brick
should be free from cracks or other damage that might Institute of America and must rest with the project archi-
contribute to smoke or gas leakage. Clay flue liners come tect, engineer and owner.
in rectangular, round and oval shapes. Rectangular flue
liners are either modular or nonmodular in cross-sectional REFERENCES
dimensions. Sizes stated in ASTM C 315 for rectangular 1. Chimneys, Fireplaces, Vents and Solid Fuel
and oval liners are outside dimensions. Modular sizes Burning Appliances, NFiPA211, National Fire Protection
start at 3.5 in. (90 mm) and increase in 4 in. (100 mm) Association, Quincy, MA, 1992.
modules and may be specified by nominal dimensions. 2. Lytle, R.J. and Lytle, M.J., Book of Successful
Round clay flue liners are specified as nominal inside Fireplaces -How to Build, Decorate and Use Them, 20th
diameter. See Technical Notes 19B Revised for a list of Edition, Structures Publishing Co., Farmington, MI, 1977.
clay flue liner sizes. 3. Morstead, H. and Knudsen, O., Fireplace Report,
a Guide for the Design and Construction of Fireplaces
Steel Lintels and Chimneys, Alberta Masonry Institute, Calgary, Alberta,
Steel conforming to ASTM A 36 should be used for Canada.
lintels supporting brick masonry in fireplace construction. 4. Orten, V., The Forgotten Art of Building a Good
Ties and Reinforcement Fireplace, Yankee, Dublin, NH, 1974.
Corrugated Metal Ties. Corrugated metal ties may 5. Residential Masonry Fireplace and Chimney
be used to tie brick of the fireplace walls and the exterior Handbook, Masonry Institute of America, Los Angeles,
brickwork to wood frame backups. Ties should be corro - CA, 1989.
sion resistant, at least 22 gage, 7/8 in. (22 mm) wide, and 6. Shelton, J.W., The Measured Performance of
long enough to be embedded at least half-way into each Fireplaces and Fireplace Accessories, Williamstown, MA,
wythe thickness. 1978.
Wire Ties. Wire ties are recommended for tying brick 7. The Brick-O-Lator, Brick Association of North
construction together. They should be at least wire size Carolina, Greensboro, NC, 1979.
W1.7 (9 gage) and corrosion resistant. Ties should be fab-
ricated from wire which conforms to ASTM A 82 or A 185.
Prefabricated Joint Reinforcement. Prefabricated
joint reinforcement should be corrosion resistant and fabri-
cated from wire which conforms to ASTM A 82 or A 185.
Bar Reinforcement. Reinforcement should conform
to any of the following applicable standards: ASTM A 615,
A 616 or A 617.
Corrosion Resistance. Corrosion resistance is usual-
ly provided by zinc coatings or by using stainless steel. To
ensure adequate resistance to corrosion, coatings or
materials should conform to any of the following applica-
ble standards:
Zinc-Coating of Flat Metal---ASTM A 153, Class B-2
Zinc-Coating of Wire---ASTM A 641, Class 3
Copper-Coated Wire---ASTM B 227, Grade 30 HS
Stainless Steel---ASTM A 167, Type 304

SUMMARY
This Technical Notes describes the components of
masonry fireplaces and covers design and material selec-
tion. Dimensions recommended for components of single-
faced fireplaces are based on empirical data from field
performance of fireplaces and the expertise of the techni-
cal staff of the Brick Institute of America. The recommen-
dations contained herein will produce a functional and
durable fireplace.
The information and suggestions contained in this
Technical Notes are based on available data and the
experience of the engineering staff of the Brick Institute of
America. The information contained herein must be used
in conjunction with good technical judgment and a basic

10
 Technical Notes
on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
RESIDENTIAL FIREPLACES
DETAILS AND CONSTRUCTION
Abstract: Brick masonry residential fireplaces can be made more energy efficient by providing a source of
combustion and draft air drawn from the exterior of the structure. Proper detailing and construction can also
contribute to the overall performance of the fireplace regarding both energy efficiency and structural integrity.
Building code requirements often control the configuration of the fireplace as well as component sizes.
Key Words: Bricks, combustion chamber, energy efficiency, firebrick, fireclay, fireplaces, hearths,
masonry, mortar.
INTRODUCTION
This Technical Notes contains recommended details
and construction techniques which, when used to execute
a proper design, will yield a functional, energy-efficient
fireplace. These same recommendations are applicable
to conventional fireplace construction when the provisions
for the exterior air supply system are omitted.
This is the second in a series of Technical Notes deal-
ing with the design and construction of fireplaces and
chimneys. Technical Notes 19 Revised contains a com-
prehensive discussion of fireplace design and materials
selection. Other Technical Notes in this series address
design and construction of both residential and industrial
chimneys.
RECOMMENDATIONS
General
Energy-efficient fireplaces vary only slightly from con-
ventional fireplaces. The recommendations to construct
an energy-efficient fireplace include properly sizing and
locating an exterior air supply for combustion and draft air,
and tight-fitting dampers. Operation of the fireplace and
other devices, such as glass screens, may also substan-
tially affect the performance of the fireplace. They are
not, however, addressed in this Technical Notes.
Regardless of how much care is taken in the design and
detailing process, workmanship remains a critical factor to
the performance of fireplaces. The designer should,
therefore, be familiar with the fireplace construction tech-
niques of the locality in which the fireplace is to be built.
No matter which fireplace configuration is selected by
the designer, there are several common features that
should be considered. Fireplaces, as discussed in this
Technical Notes, are for burning wood and are not specifi-
cally designed or constructed for fuels that generate tem-
peratures in excess of those generated by combusting
wood. The primary function of the fireplace is to contain a
*Originally published in May 1980 this Technical Notes has been reviewed and reissued.
19A
REVISED
Reissued*
January
1988
fire safely and deliver heat to habitable spaces.
The fireplace assembly must be isolated from com-
bustible materials. General requirements incorporated
into many building codes are: (1) All spaces between
masonry fireplaces and wood or other combustible materi-
al should be firestopped by placing 1 in. (25 mm) of non-
combustible material in such spaces. (2) In the plane par-
allel to the front wall of the fireplace, combustible material
should not be placed within 6 in. (150 mm) of a fireplace
opening. (3) Combustible material within 12 in. (300 mm)
of the fireplace opening should not project more than 1/8
in. (3.2 mm) for each inch distance from the opening. A
more specific discussion of these requirements or varia-
tions may be provided by local building codes.
All void areas within the body of the fireplace from the
foundation through the chimney should be solidly filled
with masonry mortared in place. The only exceptions are
the air passageway, the ashpit, the 1-in. (25 mm) airspace
between the combustion chamber and the brickwork sur-
rounding it, and the functional voids of the fireplace, such
as the smoke chamber.
Solidly filling the nonfunctional voids in the fireplace
assembly increases its overall performance and durability
as well as its structural integrity and resistance to rain
penetration. All exposed mortar joints should be properly
tooled. Concave jointing is preferred.
For a graphic definition of fireplace components and a
section through an energy-efficient fireplace, refer to Fig. 1.
FIREPLACE BASE ASSEMBLY
Foundation
The foundation supports the fireplace base and thus
the entire fireplace and chimney assembly. It must, there-
fore, be designed to carry these loads. However, most
building codes disallow using the fireplace and chimney
assemblage as a structural element to support other
building components. When designing the foundation,
care should be taken to account for soil condition and

SIngle-Face Fireplace Section
FIG. 1
type. Undisturbed or well-compacted soil will generally be
sufficient, however, some types of soil or the condition of
the soil may require additional analysis.
Building codes generally require that the foundation
be at least 12 in. (300 mm) thick and, in plan view, extend
a minimum of 6 in. ( 150 mm) beyond every face of the
masonry bearing on it. It should also penetrate the frost
line to reduce the possible "heaving" of the foundation,
when the ground is frozen.
Exterior Air Supply System and Ashpit
There are many options to the construction methods
and layout of the air passageway and ashpit discussed in
this section. When varying from the suggested details,
keep in mind the function which these components serve,
as well as the manufacturer's recommendations for a spe-
cific device's installation.
The exterior air supply system is the component that
is intended to increase the overall efficiency of the fire-
place by diminishing the amount of heated air drawn from
the structure for combustion and draft. As discussed ear-
lier in this Technical Notes this provision may be deleted
resulting in a conventional fireplace design.
The exterior air for combustion and draft may be
drawn directly from the exterior or from unheated areas of
the building, such as crawl spaces. Local building codes
2
may restrict the location of the air intake. For example,
many do not allow air from a garage to be vented into
habitable spaces. This decreases the possibility of intro-
ducing noxious gases from automobile exhausts into the
house. When the fireplace configuration does not lend
itself to practical incorporation of the air passageway in
the base, the intake may be located on any exterior wall.
No matter where the intake is located, it should be a
screen-backed, closeable louver, preferably one that is
operable from the interior of the building.
The air passageway is generally incorporated into the
base assembly. When this is not practical due to fireplace
configuration or the level of the exterior grade at the fire-
place, the fireplace may be changed by raising the hearth
or the passageway may be formed of ductwork and
attached to or incorporated into the floor system. In many
locations, the perimeter of the air passageway should be
insulated, especially when the ductwork is adjacent to or
passing through heated areas. Many air passageway
areas have been used successfully, usually varying from 6
2
to 60 sq in. (3870 to 38,700 mm ). The smaller areas
may, however, yield high velocity air flow and more rapid
combustion, generally resulting in higher temperatures,
which may produce negative results such as fireplace
grate or combustion chamber deterioration. Larger areas
may also present a potential difficulty by delivering air in
excess of the combustion and draft requirements. The
excess air, usually below room temperature, may be
forced into the room containing the fireplace. The volu-
metric expansion of this air due to the exterior to interior
temperature differential generally compounds the prob-
lem.
Combustion Chamber Plan
FIG. 2
The air inlet should be located in the base or side-
walls of the combustion chamber. Inlets have performed
successfully, even when located in the rear wall of the
combustion chamber. Care should be exercised when
locating the inlet in the combustion chamber walls since
an air surge may force smoke and gases into the room.
The air inlet should be equipped with both directional and
volume controls, so that the fire burns evenly and toward
the rear of the combustion chamber. Thus, the best perfor-
mance is generally achieved when the inlet is located near
the front of the fireplace within the combustion chamber.
 The air inlet damper assembly area, as shown in Fig.
2, generally ranges from 6 to 60 sq in. (3870 to 38,700
2 When construction reaches the stage shown in Fig. 4,
mm ) depending on the other components in the exterior
air supply system. The critical factor affecting the perfor-
mance of the fireplace is the proper operation of the air
inlet damper. Opening the damper to a position that pro-
2 nent part of the fireplace. In slab-on-grade construction,
duces an area of from 2 to 16 sq in. (1300 to 10,300 mm )
has proven to perform successfully in most areas.
If corbeling is necessary to achieve proper size or
location of the air inlet, it should be limited to a maximum
horizontal projection of one-half (1/2) the distance from
the ashpit face to the exterior of the fireplace assembly,
see Fig. 3.
The maximum projection for an individual unit should
not exceed either one-half (1/2) the height of the unit, or
one-third (1/3) the bed depth.
The ash drop and ashpit are often not incorporated
into the design due to either a configuration difficulty, such
as slab-on-grade construction, or the absence of a desire
by the designer or owner to have such a component
included in the fireplace.
Figure 4 shows a plan view of an air passageway and
ashpit. The ashpit cleanout door may be oriented toward
the interior of the building if sufficient space for cleanout
exists. The ashpit cleanout door should be metal and fit
tightly to reduce air infiltration.
Corbeling Limitations
FIG. 3
Air Passageway and Ashpit Plan
FIG. 4
3
Hearth Support
sturdy, noncombustible forming, such as metal, is set in
place to contain the slab pour. This is required since this
forming is inaccessible for removal and is thus a perma-
this requirement is not necessary unless a raised hearth
is used. The blackouts that form the opening in the slab
for the ash drop and air inlet should be set so that they
extend approximately 1 in. (25 mm) above the top of the
finished slab. This will facilitate removal of the forms.
The slab should be properly reinforced when it cantilevers
from the fireplace wall to the floor system or spans across
the air passageway and ashpit, as shown in Fig. 1. This
reinforcement is also beneficial in resisting the stresses
induced by the high temperatures the slab will be subject-
ed to. Care should be taken to keep the top of the slab
as nearly level as possible to reduce the difficulty of laying
the combustion chamber base.
Similar results may be obtained by eliminating the
concrete slab and supporting the hearth on masonry. This
is accomplished by solidly filling the base assembly with
masonry mortared in place. The ash dump and air pas-
sageway are formed by the judicious use of corbeling.
FIREBOX ASSEMBLY
Combustion Chamber and Firebox
Combustion chamber layout is critical since the cham-
ber must be contained within the firebox assembly yet iso-
lated from it. Figure 2 shows one method of properly
locating the combustion chamber. Once desired dimen-
sions have been selected from Table 1, in Technical Notes
19 Revised, the front wall (facing) of the fireplace is locat-
ed and line A-A struck at the inside face position. Next,
locate Point I on this line. Point I corresponds to the cen-
terline of the combustion chamber in the direction perpen-
dicular to the existing line. Squaring from Point I into the
combustion chamber for the chamber's depth, defines
Point II. Striking a line connecting Points I and II results
in Line B-B. From Point II, squaring perpendiculars to line
B-B in each direction for a distance of one-half (1/2) the
rear chamber wall dimension, thus locates Points c and d.
On line A-A, measuring from Point I one-half (1/2) the fire-
place opening dimension in each direction, thereby
defines points a and b. Connecting these four points (a,
b, c and d) gives the outline of the inside face of the com-
bustion chamber.
Preferable combustion chamber construction consists
of firebrick, in accordance with ASTM C 64 and fireclay
mortar, in accordance with ASTM C 105. Fireclay mortar
joints should be 1/16 to 3/16 in. (1.6 to 4.8 mm) thick to
reduce thermal movements and mortar joint deterioration.
When using fireclay mortar, extremely thin mortar joints
may be obtained by using the ''Pick and Dip'' method.
This consists of dipping the unit into a soupy mix of fire-
clay mortar and immediately placing it in its final position.
The mortar joints need be only thick enough to provide for
dimensional irregularities in the unit being laid.
 Acceptable construction includes the use of Grade bear on the brick masonry at least 4 in. (100 mm) at each
SW brick, in accordance with ASTM C 62 or ASTM C 216, end.
and Type N or Type O. portland cement-lime mortar, in Damper
accordance with ASTM C 270 or BIA Designation M1-72.
Type N or Type O, portland cement-lime mortar may also The damper is then seated using the same mortar
be used with the firebrick option. Mortar joints should be that was used in the combustion chamber. This is accom-
limited to 1/2 in. (12.7 mm) maximum and be properly plished by spreading a mortar bed, just thick enough to
tooled, resulting in a concave profile when using the port- ensure a level set of the damper and a seal that will pre-
land cement-lime mortar. vent gas and smoke leakage. The damper should not be
The brickwork surrounding the combustion chamber embedded in mortar, but merely seated on the thin setting
may be brought up, either at the same time as the com- bed.
bustion chamber, or after it has been completed. In any The damper assembly should only be in contact with
case, there should be a full course of masonry surround- masonry, on which it bears. To ensure this, once the
ing the combustion chamber, to allow for solidly filling the damper assembly is seated, it should be wrapped with a
void created and maintaining a minimum 1-in. (25 mm) compressible, noncombustible material, such as fibrous
airspace between the firebrick and surrounding brickwork, insulation, see Fig. 5. This material provides space for
see Fig. 2. This airspace may be filled with a compress- thermal expansion and movement of the damper during
ible, noncombustible material, such as a fibrous insula- fireplace operation.
tion. The purpose of this material is to keep the space
clear of obstructions. Either the airspace or the com-
pressible, noncombustible material reduces the stress
from thermal movements by isolating the combustion
chamber.
The wall behind the firebrick at the rear of the firebox
should be at least 8 in. (200 mm) thick. A greater thick-
ness may be required to support higher chimneys.
With the exception of the combustion chamber walls,
wall ties should be used at all intersections where the wall
is not masonry bonded. These ties should be spaced a
maximum of 16 in. (400 mm) vertically, and embedded at
least 2 in. (50 mm) into bed joints of the brick masonry.
Horizontal joint reinforcement may also be beneficial,
most especially at the corners of adjacent wythes and in
the wythe surrounding the combustion chamber walls.
This precaution should help reduce cracking at these
areas. Combustion Chamber and Smoke Chamber
The combustion chamber walls should be firebrick. FIG. 5
Firebrick may be laid with any face exposed, but they are
preferred as a stretcher course. However, if Grade SW
brick are used, they should only be laid as a stretcher
course since they may not be as durable as the firebrick.
No fires should be built in the combustion chamber for
thirty (30) days after construction. Fires before this time
period drive off the moisture necessary for proper curing
of the mortar.
Lintels
When placing the lintel above the fireplace opening
and the lintel above the damper, a compressible, non-
combustible material, such as insulation of a fibrous
nature, should be placed at the end of the lintel where it is
embedded in masonry. This precaution is a means of
dealing with the dissimilar expansion characteristics of
Optional Smoke Shelf Configuration
masonry and steel, which tend to induce stresses in the FIG. 5a
masonry, causing cracking.
The use of a lintel above the damper is highly recom- SMOKE CHAMBER ASSEMBLY
mended. his lintel is provided so that the masonry does
Beginning at the level of the smoke shelf, the front
not bear directly on the metal damper which is subjected
and sides of the smoke chamber are corbeled in and the
to extremely high temperatures, and high magnitude ther-
rear wall is constructed vertically. This ensures total
mal movements. All lintels used in the fireplace should
4
perimeter support for the flue liner. Corbeling limitations Company, Farmington, Michigan, 1977.
for this component are determined by the fireplace config- 3. How to Install A Fireplace, by Donald R. Brann,
uration itself. The maximum corbel for each unit is the Direction Simplified, Inc., Briarcliff Manor, New York.
horizontal distance to be corbeled divided by the number 1976.
of courses from the bottom of the flue liner to the first cor-
beled course. The usual limitations for corbeling walls are
not applicable in this area of the fireplace since the cor-
bels are continuously laterally supported by adjacent
masonry. The last two courses before the flue liner
should be laid as headers. These headers should be cut
to a length that provides total perimeter support of the flue
liner, without obstructing the flue liner opening.
The smoke shelf may be a flat surface or curved, to
assist flow through the smoke chamber, see Fig. 5a. The
entire smoke chamber should be parged. Care should be
taken to ensure that the smoke shelf is kept free of mortar
tailings and debris for the same flow considerations. This
may be accomplished by placing a material such as an
empty cement bag or plastic film on the smoke shelf dur-
ing construction. When construction is completed, it can
be removed through the damper throat, bringing any for-
eign material with it.
SUMMARY
This Technical Notes has given suggested details and
construction techniques for single-face residential fire-
places. Other Technical Notes in this series address fire-
place design, as well as residential and industrial chimney
design and construction. Emphasis has been placed on
workmanship and proper construction methods.
It should be noted that all fireplace designs, no matter
how sophisticated, are empirical and based on past per-
formance of specific configurations. Any variation from
these configurations produces an "experimental" design.
While small deviations from the dimensions and propor-
tions given may have little or no effect on performance,
larger magnitude changes should be carefully considered
since they may have serious negative effects on the func-
tion of the fireplace.
The information and suggestions contained in this
Technical Notes are based on the available data and the
experience of the Brick Institute of America's technical
staff.
This information should be recognized as recommen-
dations and suggestions for consideration by the design-
ers, specifiers, and owners of buildings when anticipating
the design, detailing and construction of single-face resi-
dential fireplaces. The final decision to use or not to use
these recommendations and types of products in brick
masonry fireplaces is not within the purview of the Brick
Institute of America and must rest with the project design-
er or owner.
REFERENCES
1. One and Two Family Dwelling Code, published by
Interstate Printers and Publishers, Danville, Illinois,
1975
2. Book of Successful Fireplaces, How to Build,
Decorate and Use Them, 20th Edition, by R. J. Lytle
and Marie-Jeanne Lytle, Structures Publishing

5
 19B
Technical Notes REVISED

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
Reissued*
April
1998

RESIDENTIAL CHIMNEYS
DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

Abstract: All residential chimneys. both for fireplaces and appliances, are designed and constructed to serve
the same basic functions. They must provide fire protection and safely convey combustion by-products to the
exterior of the structure at a rate that does not adversely affect the combustion process. Design, materials selec-
tion, construction, and building code requirements all have a significant impact on the chimney's potential to fulfill
these functions. Chimney height and flue area are the two most critical factors in chimney desire.
Key Words: bricks, building codes, chimneys, draft, flashing, flues, masonry, mortar.

accepted nearly everywhere. They include:

INTRODUCTION
This Technical Notes addresses the design and con-
struction of residential chimneys. Other Technical Notes
in this Series deal with residential fireplaces and commer-
cial chimneys. The design of residential chimneys is
empirical and based on successful prototypes. The func-
tion of residential chimneys is to allow combustion by-
products to be conducted away from the structure safely.
GENERAL
Residential chimneys generally fall into two cate-
gories: 1) chimneys serving fireplaces, and 2) chimneys
serving appliances. While there are dissimilarities
between the two types, they both serve the same basic
functions. It is worthwhile, therefore, to consider their
similarities. Both are constructed of similar materials and
must meet the same building code requirements. Even
though they may convey different combustion by-products
at different velocities, they both must be designed and
constructed to discharge these by-products at a rate that
does not adversely affect the combustion process and to
release the discharged material at a height and location
that provides fire safety.
Flues may slope to join with other flues so as to dis-
charge through a common flue, or to achieve the desired
location of the chimney. The maximum allowable slope is
30 deg from vertical. When combining flues the main dis-
charge flue should be sized for the maximum combined
flow from the smaller flues. Combining flues of dissimilar
systems or fuels. i.e., appliances and fireplaces, is not
allowed by many building codes. Separate flues may be
incorporated into one chimney so long as minimum wall
thickness requirements are met and a full wythe of brick is
laid between them and bonded to the chimney walls.
1. Chimney wall thickness should be a nominal 4 in.
(100 mm) unless no flue liner is used, in which case a
nominal 8 in. (200 mm) is required.
2. Neither chimney nor flue liner may change size or
shape within 6 in. (150 mm) of either floor compo-
nents, ceiling components or rafters.
3. The minimum chimney height for fire safety is the
greater of 3 ft (1.0 m) above the highest point where the
chimney penetrates the roofline, or 2 ft (600 mm) higher
than any portion of the structure or adjoining structures
within 10 ft (3.0 m) of the chimney, see Fig. 1.
4. Chimney clearance from combustible material is a
minimum of 2 in. (50 mm) except where the chimney
is located entirely outside the structure, in which case
1 in. (25 mm) is acceptable.
5. The spaces between a chimney and combustible
material should be firestopped using a minimum of 1-
in. (25 mm) thick noncombustible material.
6. All exterior spaces between the chimney and adja-
cent components should be sealed. This is most
commonly accomplished by flashing and caulking.
7. Masonry chimneys should not be corbeled more
than 6 in. (150 mm) from a wall or foundation nor

Building Code Requirements

Building code requirements for chimneys may vary on Building Code Dimension Requirements
a local basis. There are, however, several that are FIG. 1

*Originally published in June 1980, this Technical Notes has been reviewed and reissued.
 should a chimney be corbeled from a wall or founda-
tion which is less than 12 in. (300 mm) in thickness
unless it projects equally on each side of the wall,
except that on the second story of two-story dwellings
corbeling of chimneys or the exterior of the enclosing
walls may equal the wall thickness. Corbeling may
not exceed 1-in. (25 mm) projection for each course
of brick protected.

Recommendations
In many situations it may be desirable to use the
chimney as a structural element. This may be accom-
plished within most building codes by maintaining the
chimney wall thickness and adding a structural wall
around the chimney. This structural wall may be built inte-
grally with the chimney wall. Most building codes require
a minimum of 4 in. (100 mm) of bearing. Considering all
the building code dimensional requirements, the minimum
wall thickness of a lined chimney to be used as a structur-
al component is 10 in. (250 mm) consisting of: 1) 4-in.
(100 mm) chimney wall (brick), 2) 2-in. (50 mm) of non-
combustible material (brick), and 3) 4-in. (100 mm) bear-
ing length (brick). An unlined chimney's minimum wall
thickness is 14-in. (350 mm) consisting of the same ele-
ments as the lined chimney except that the chimney wall
must be 8-in. (200 mm), see Fig. 2.
MATERIALS
Brick
The chimney, by the nature of its function, is at least
partially exposed to weathering. The brick should con-
form to ASTM C 216, Grade SW, or ASTM C 62, Grade
SW, to assure sufficient durability. Paving brick should
conform to ASTM C 902, Class SX.
Mortar
To allow for both weathering and thermal considera-
tions, Type N portland cement-lime mortar is recommend-
ed for the chimney. Type S portland cement-lime mortar
is acceptable, and may be necessary when the chimney
is subjected to high lateral forces such as wind loads in
excess of 25 psf (1.2 kPa) or seismic loads. Where the
chimney is in contact with earth, Type M portland cement-
lime mortar is recommended. The mortar used to bed the
flue liners should be able to perform well under high tem-
peratures. Therefore, fireclay mortars are highly recom-
mended. Type N portland cement-lime mortar is an
acceptable substitute. For a comprehensive discussion of
portland cement-lime mortar types and uses, see
Technical Notes 8 Series.
Flue Liners
Flue liners should conform to ASTM C 315. They
should be thoroughly inspected just prior to installation for
cracks or other damage that might contribute to smoke
and flue gas leakage.
Flashing
Corrosion-resistant sheet metal flashing is required by
most building codes. Quality materials should be speci-
fied since replacement may be expensive and trouble-
2
Chimney Used as Structural Support
FIG. 2
some. See Technical Notes 7A Revised for selection of
flashing materials.
Chimney Caps
A prefabricated chimney cap similar to the one shown
in Fig. 3 should be used. This type cap provides better
durability and is more easily made water-resistant than a
cast-in-place cap. When a cast-in-place cap is used, it
should incorporate the same shape as the prefabricated.
The thickened sides and overhangs will reduce the poten-
tial for water penetration.
Rain Caps
Rain caps vary from sophisticated turbine type metal
caps to simple slabs set above the termination point of
the flue liner. When specifying a manufactured rain cap,
information regarding its effect on the gas flow through
the chimney should be obtained from the manufacturer. If
the cap is metal, it should be corrosion-resistant.
Sealants
Caulking is frequently considered a means of correct-
ing or hiding poor workmanship, rather than as an integral
part of construction. It should be detailed and installed
with the same care as the other elements of the structure.
In all cases, the use of a good grade, polysulfide, butyl, or
silicone rubber sealant is recommended. Oil-based
sealants should not be used. Regardless of the sealant
used, proper priming and backing rope, are a must.
Chimney Cap Detail
FIG. 3
Ties and Reinforcement
Ties used in chimney construction should be corro-
sion-resistant metal ties. For a general discussion of ties
and their placement, refer to Technical Notes 28 Revised.
 Reinforcing steel should conform to one of the follow-
ing ASTM Standards: Procedure
1. Welded Wire-ASTM A 185 Step 1. From Table 1 in Technical Notes 19 Revised
2. Steel Bar-ASTM A 615, ASTM A 616 or ASTM A select fireplace opening dimensions A and B and the cor-
617 responding flue liner size, L and M. Using Equation 1 cal-
3. Wire-ASTM A 82 culate the Fireplace Opening Area, Ao. From Table 1
determine the Minimum Flue Area, AF, using L and M.
DESIGN
Design of fireplace and appliance chimneys is limited Ao = A in. x B in. (1)
to the determination of height requirements that when 2 2
used in conjunction with proper flue sizes, detailing and 144 in. / ft
construction will provide adequate draft. Building code
requirements for minimum chimney height remain in effect Step 2. The Flue Friction Coefficient, K T must now be
and must be met or exceeded. determined. The friction loss due to the acceleration of
Fireplace Chimneys ambient air to Flue Gas Velocity, K1 is always equal to 1.0
The design of residential fireplace chimneys is directly in residential applications.
related to: 1) the area of the fireplace opening, 2) the area Based on the size of the flue selected, a preliminary
of the flue liner, and 3) the height of the chimney. In most damper size must be assumed. At this point in the design
situations, the area of the fireplace opening is controlled process, it is only necessary to decide if the damper
by considerations other than the performance of the sys- throat area to be used will be equal to or twice the flue
tem, such as aesthetics. The other components of the area. Once this decision has been made the Inlet Loss
system are usually designed based upon the desired fire- Coefficient, K2, may be determined. If the damper throat
place opening. area is equal to the flue area, K2 is equal to 2.5. If the
A frontal face velocity of 0.80 ft per second (0.245
m/sec) at the fireplace opening has been accepted by the damper throat is twice the flue area, K2 is equal to 1.0.
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air- At this time decisions concerning general fireplace
Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) to be sufficient to pre- configuration must be made. The designer must deter-
vent smoke and gases from being discharged into habit- mine whether or not to use a rain cap and if so, at what
able spaces. This is a minimum velocity and usually only distance above the chimney termination point it will be
encountered while starting a fire. Flue liner size as a placed.
function of fireplace opening size may be obtained from The Termination Coefficient, K 3, may be selected
Technical Notes 19 Revised, Table 1. using this information. If no rain cap is used K3 equals
0.0. If a rain cap is set at a distance of D/2 (see Table 1
TABLE 1 for equivalent diameter, D) above the termination point of
Typical Flue Liner Dimensions the flue liner, K 3 may vary from 0.0 to 4.0. This informa-
tion may be obtained from the manufacturer.
Having determined K 1, K2, and K 3, the Flue Friction
Nominal Inside Equivalent Minimum
Coefficient, KT, may be calculated using Equation 2.
Size Perimeter,P1 Diameter, D Area, AF
in. ft in. sq ft
KT = K 1 + K 2 + K 3 (2)
8 x 12 2.7 9 0.42
12 x 12 3.0 10 0.56
12 x 16 12
Step 3. From Table 1 determine the Inside Perimeter,
3.6 0.78
16 x 16 4.2 14 1.08 PI, of the flue liner previously selected and using Equation
16 x 20 4.8 16 1.38 3 calculate the Hydraulic Radius, RH.
20 x 20 5.3 18 1.78
20 x 24 5.9 20 2.16 RH = AF (3)
24 x 24 6.5 22 2.64
PI

With the opening and flue sizes known, Equation 4 may
be used to calculate the minimum chimney height to provide
adequate draft in a properly designed, detailed and con-
structed assembly. The height calculated using Equation 4
is measured from the top of the fireplace opening, and is the
minimum required to produce an adequate draft. Building
code requirements previously discussed for minimum chim-
ney heights are based solely on fire safety considerations
and must always be met or exceeded.
3
Step 4. The general design equation for chimneys
with rectangular flues (Equation 4) may now be used to
calculate the Minimum Height, H, to produce adequate
draft.
This is the height of the chimney from the lintel above
the fireplace opening. To obtain the height from the com-
bustion chamber floor, add the opening height. Building
code requirements for minimum chimney heights remain
in effect. The greater of the values obtained from calcula-
tions and building code requirements should be used.

H = KT (4)

( )
2
5AF - 0.0083
AO RH

Example
Step 1. From Table 1 in Technical Notes 19 Revised
fireplace opening dimensions of 30 in. x 29 in. and a cor-
responding flue liner size of 12 in. x 12 in. were selected.
Using Equation 1 calculate Ao.

2
AO = 30 in. x 29 in. = 6.04 ft (1)
2 2
144 in. / ft

From Table 1
2
AF = 0.56 ft

Step 2. Assuming that there is no rain cap and that

the damper throat area is twice the flue area, Equation 2
may be utilized.

KT = 1.0 + 1.0 + 0.0 = 2.0 (2) Masonry Chimney Serving a Single Appliance
(See Table 2)
Step 3. From Table 1 determine P I and solve FIG. 4

Equation 3 for the Hydraulic Radius.

Fireplace Chimneys
2
RH = 0.56 ft = 0.19 ft (3) General. The chimney of a fireplace is considered to
3.0 ft be that portion of the fireplace from the base of the first
flue liner to the top of the last flue liner, or any rain cap
Step 4. Substitute these values into Equation 4 and above it.
calculate the Minimum Height, H, to provide adequate Single-wythe chimneys should be attached to the
draft. structure. This is generally accomplished by using corro-
sion-resistant metal ties spaced at a maximum of 24 in.
H = 2.0 = 11.68 ft (4) (600 mm) on center. Multi-wythe chimneys that are not
2
masonry bonded should be bonded together using metal
(
5(0.56)
6.04 ) - 0.0083
0.19 wire ties.
Racking. Chimneys are generally not as wide as the
Appliance Chimneys body of the fireplace below. When racking back to
Appliance chimneys are divided into two types those achieve the desired dimensions or location of the chimney
venting one appliance, see Fig. 4, and those venting two care must be exercised to insure that, since there is no
or more appliances, see Fig. 5. The two variables that limitation on the distance each unit may be racked, cores
are most commonly known to the designer are the input of the units are not exposed. Preferred construction con-
rating and configuration of the system. Typical design cri- sists of a setting bed over the racked face with uncored or
teria are shown in Tables 2 and 3. Building code require- paving brick set to provide a weather resistant surface.
ments for chimney heights should be considered as mini- Mortar washes may also be used. They may not, howev-
mum heights for fire safety and should be strictly adhered er, be as durable. When using a mortar wash it should
to. not bridge over the rack, but should fill each step individu-
CONSTRUCTION AND DETAILS ally. Both methods of racking are shown in Fig. 6.
General Flue Liners. The first flue liner should be supported
Since both fireplace and appliance chimneys have an along its entire perimeter by masonry. The liner should be
identical function, their construction methods and materi- bedded in mortar with the joints cut flush and smoothed on
als are similar. Building code requirements insofar as the interior and the exterior joint area parged. The flue liners
construction is concerned are identical. should be set one section ahead of the chimney brickwork.

4
 TABLE 2

Capacity of Masonry Chimneys

a
Serving a Single Appliance

(Maximum Appliance Input Rating, Thousands of Btu/h)

Height Lateral Minimum Internal Area of

H, L, Chimney, A, Square Feet
Feet Feet
0.26 0.35 0.47 0.66 0.92

2 130 180 247 400 580

6
5 118 164 230 375 560
2 145 197 265 445 650
5 133 182 246 422 638
8
10 123 169 233 400 598
2 161 220 297 490 722
5 147 203 276 465 710
10
10 137 189 261 441 665
15 125 175 246 421 634 Masonry Chimney Serving Two or More Appliances
2 178 249 335 560 840 (See Table 3)
5 163 230 312 531 825 FIG. 5
10 151 214 294 504 774
15
15 138 198 278 481 738 TABLE 3
20 128 184 261 459 706 Capacity of a Masonry Chimney Serving Two or More
2 200 273 374 625 950 a

5 183 252 348 594 930

Appliances
20 (Combined Appliance Input Rating, Thousands of Btu/h)
10 170 235 330 562 875
15 156 217 311 536 835
20 144 202 292 510 800
2 215 302 420 715 1110 Total Vent Minimum Internal Area Chimney, A,
5 196 279 391 680 1090 Height H, Square Feet
10 182 260 370 644 1020 Feet
30 0.26 0.35 0.54 0.79
15 168 240 349 615 975
20 155 223 327 585 932
30 NRb 182 281 544 865 6 102 142 245 NR
2 250 350 475 810 1240 8 118 162 277 405
5 228 321 442 770 1220 10 129 175 300 450
10 212 301 420 728 1140 15 150 210 360 540
50 20 170 240 415 640
15 195 278 395 695 1090
20 180 258 370 660 1040 30 195 275 490 740
30 NRb NR b 318 610 970 50 NRb 325 600 910
6 7 8 10 12
SIngle-Wall Vent Connector a
SI conversions: W= Btu/h x 0.293; m = ft x 0.3048; mm = in. x 25.4.
Diameter, D, Inches b
Not recommended.
a
SI conversions: W = Btu/h x 0.293; m = ft x 0.3048; mm = in. x 25.4;
2 2
mm = in. x 645 whose dimension parallel to the ridgeline is greater than
b
Not recommended. 30 in. (750 mm) and do not intersect the ridgeline, it
Flashing. Base flashing and counter flashing are should be constructed similar to the one shown in Fig. 8.
installed at the chimney/roof interface, see Fig. 7. The The dimensions of the cricket are based on the chimney
base flashing is installed first on the faces of the chimney measurements parallel to the ridgeline. The intersection
perpendicular to the ridgeline with tabs at each corner. of the cricket and the chimney should be flashed and
The flashing should extend a minimum of 4 in. (100 mm) counter flashed in the same manner as a normal chimney
up the face of the chimney and along the roof. Counter roof intersection. The flashing at the roofline should
flashing is then installed over the base flashing. It is extend to at least 4 in. (100 mm) under the roofing materi-
inserted into a mortar joint for 3/4 to 1 in. (19.1 mm to 25
mm) and mortared solidly into the joint. The counter
flashing should lap the base flashing by at least 3 in. (75
mm). If the flashing is installed in sections, the flashing
higher up the roofline should lap over the lower flashing a
minimum of 2 in. (50 mm). All joints in the base flashing
and counter flashing should be thoroughly sealed. The
unexposed side of any bends in the flashing should also
be sealed. Racking
FIG. 6
Cricket. If a cricket is desired, usually for chimneys

5

Typical Section and Flashing Detail
FIG. 7
al. For dimensions and construction details, see Table 4,
and Fig. 9.
Chimney Caps. There are, as discussed in the
materials section, two options regarding chimney caps:
1) prefabricated, and 2) cast-in-place. Prefabricated caps
generally provide superior performance as compared to
the cast-in-place type. Regardless of which type cap is
used, it should be thoroughly primed, backed, and sealed
at the cap and flue liner interface to reduce the potential
for water penetration.
Prefabricated caps are set in place on a mortar bed.
Typical Flashing Detail
FIG. 8
There should be a bond break between the brickwork and
the setting bed to allow the cap to respond to the differen-
tial movement it will encounter without distressing the
brickwork. Figure 3 depicts a typical prefabricated cap.
From this figure, general configurations and waterproofing
methods may be obtained.
Cast-in-place caps should conform to the shape and
minimum dimensions shown in Fig. 3. Feathering the cap
to the edge should be avoided since this substantially
reduces the thickness at the edge and therefore the
6
Typical Chimney Cricket Framing
FIG. 9
TABLE 4
Cricket Dimensions
Roof Pitch Ratio H
1 to 1 1/2 of W
2 to 3 1/3 of W
1 to 2 1/4 of W
1 to 3 1/6 of W
1 to 4 1/8 of W
potential for deterioration is increased. Waterproofing
requirements are different since shrinkage of the concrete
as it cures is a certainty. Flashing is highly recommended
for cast-in-place caps. The flashing may also be consid-
ered as the bond break material. Adequate reinforcement
should be placed in the cap to help control cracking due
to shrinkage and thermal movements. Additional rein-
forcement may be necessary in the portion of the cap that
overhangs the face of the chimney. Figure 3 shows one
method of forming a cast-in-place chimney cap.
When using a chimney cap that does not overhang the
face of the chimney, the last two courses of the chimney
brickwork should be corbeled out to form a drip to help
reduce the amount of water allowed to run down the face of
the chimney. The flue liner should extend a minimum of 2
in. (50 mm) above the top of the cap, see Fig. 3.
Appliance Chimneys
General. Fireplace and appliance chimneys have few
dissimilarities. The general recommendations for the con-
struction of fireplace chimneys and the proper considera-
tion of three additional components should produce a
functional appliance chimney. The three components,
either not present in fireplace chimneys or incorporated
into the body of the fireplace are: 1) the foundation, 2) the
cleanout door, and 3) the thimble.
Foundation. The foundation supports the chimney
and must be sized to carry all superimposed loads.
However, most building codes disallow using the chimney
walls as structural elements to support other building
components. When designing the foundation, care should
be taken to account for soil conditions and type.
Undisturbed or well-compacted soil will generally be suffi-
cient, however, some types of soil conditions may require
additional analysis.
 Building codes generally require that the foundation
be at least 12 in. (300 mm) thick, and, in plan view,
extend a minimum of 6 in. (150 mm) beyond each face of
the masonry bearing on it. It should also penetrate the
frost line to reduce the possibility of "heaving" of the foun-
dation while the ground is freezing.
Cleanout Door. A cleanout door may not be neces-
sary when venting appliances that use clean burning fuels
such as natural gas, however other fuels may produce
combustion by-products that will accumulate at the bottom
of the chimney and require periodic removal. The
cleanout door should be of ferrous metal and set to pro-
vide as airtight a seal as possible. If desired, the cleanout
door may be oriented toward the interior of the structure,
however. the prime consideration in sizing and locating
the door is the ease with which it can be used.
Thimble. A thimble is the lined opening through the
chimney wall that receives the smoke pipe connector, as
shown in Fig. 10. A thimble should be set in the chimney
at the location of the entrance of the pipe connector. It
should be built integrally with the chimney and made as
airtight as possible, by using either boiler putty or
asbestos cement. The thimble should be set flush with
the interior face of the flue liners, and at least 18 in. (460
mm) below the ceiling. The thimble should have a mini-
mum of 8 in. (200 mm) of flue liner extending below its
lowest point, see Fig. 10.
detailing and construction of residential chimneys. The
final decision to use or not to use these recommendations
and materials in brick masonry chimneys is not within the
purview of the Brick Institute of America. and must rest
with the project designer, or owner.
REFERENCES
1. One and Two Family Dwelling Code, published by
Building Officials and Code Administrators, Inc.,
Homewood, Illinois; International Conference of
Building Officials, Whittier, California; and Southern
Building Code Congress, International, Inc.,
Birmingham, Alabama.
2. Book of Successful Fireplaces, How to Build,
Decorate and Use Them, 20th Edition, by R. J. Lytle
and Marie-Jeanne Lytle, Structures Publishing
Company, Farmington, Michigan, 1977.
3. How to Install a Fireplace, by Donald R. Brann,
Direction Simplified, Inc., Briarcliff Manor, New York,
1976.
4. 1979 Equipment Volume, ASHRAE Handbook
and Product Directory, by American Society of
Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers,
Inc., New York, New York, 1979.

SUMMARY
This Technical Notes has given suggested design and
construction methods for residential chimneys. Although
there are differences. both appliance and fireplace chim-
neys use similar construction techniques and materials.
Since the prime function of a chimney is fire safety both
quality workmanship and materials should be used.
The information and suggestions contained in this
Technical Notes are based on the available data and the
experience of the Brick Institute of America’s technical

Thimble Detail
FIG. 10

staff. The recommendations and suggestions are offered

as a guide for consideration by the designers, specifiers,
and owners of buildings when anticipating the design,
7
 19C
Technical Notes REVISED

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
April
1988

CONTEMPORARY BRICK MASONRY FIREPLACES

ABSTRACT: Considerations and recommendations necessary for the successful design of fireplaces are
addressed. Design and construction recommendations are included for Rumford fireplaces, air-circulating
fireplaces and multi-face fireplaces. Concepts for increased energy efficiency are also provided.

KEY WORDS: brick, dampers, design, energy efficiency, fireplace, heating, masonry.

Contemporary Brick Masonry Fireplace Contemporary Brick Masonry Fireplace

FIG. 1 FIG.2

INTRODUCTION places, to add mass to the inside of the building for ther-
There are many types of fireplaces available for resi- mal storage. Other Technical Notes in this series provide
dential applications. Conventional single-face fireplaces information on masonry heaters, often referred to as
are discussed in Technical Notes 19 Revised and 19A Finnish or Russian Stoves, and residential chimneys.
Revised. These Technical Notes also provide information
about the many energy-efficient features which may be INCREASED ENERGY EFFICIENCY
applied to single-face fireplaces. This Technical Notes
General
discusses fireplaces other than the conventional single-
Increasing the energy efficiency of fireplaces has
face fireplace. See Figures 1 and 2. Information is pro-
been a goal since fireplaces were first used for heating
vided to design Rumford fireplaces, air-circulating fire-
buildings. There are two types of energy efficiency which
places and multi-face fireplaces. Rumford air-circulating
are of importance: 1) combustion of the wood, and 2)
fireplaces are usually selected to provide a more energy-
heating of the building or room.
efficient fireplace. Multi-face fireplaces usually have lower
Any wood-burning appliance that does not have con-
energy efficiencies. They may be incorporated into a resi-
trolled intake of air for draft or combustion does not usual-
dential building for aesthetics and, as is true with all fire
ly result in efficient combustion of the wood. Early fire-
places, although not designed or constructed much differ-
ently than fireplaces built today, had a higher efficiency in
heating a building because they were the sole source of
heat. The number of fireplaces per building and the com-
fort levels achieved greatly affect this efficiency. Today's
fireplaces are typically used to provide supplemental heat
to reduce the heating load on the mechanical heating sys-
tem. Efficiency today is lower because fireplaces are
used while interior temperatures are already comfortable.
The major portion of heat obtained from a brick masonry
fireplace is radiant heat from the fire and the re-radiated
heat from the massive brick masonry. The masonry mass
gradually warms from the fire and continues to provide
heat to the building long after the fire is extinguished.
Most of the recently constructed fireplaces are located on
exterior walls. Unfortunately, this results in a substantial
portion of the heat absorbed by the masonry mass being
lost to the exterior. Thus, fireplaces, especially when
being considered to provide supplemental heating, should
not be located on exterior walls because this significantly
reduces the heating efficiency. The fireplace should be
centrally located on the interior of the building to maximize
the performance of the fireplace as a source for supple-
mental heating. This central location also increases the
safety of the fireplace because all chimney surfaces main-
tain higher temperatures which help to eliminate the prob-
lem of creosote build-up and possible chimney fires.
The concepts for increasing energy efficiency in fire-
places, discussed here and in Technical Notes 19
Revised, are not new concepts. As early as the Fifth
Century, metal doors were installed over fireplace open-
ings to reduce air infiltration when the fireplace was not
being used. Today, glass screens are used for this pur-
pose. The metal doors provided both radiation to the
room and a method to control the amount of combustion
air to the fire. Openings in the firebox to introduce outside
air for combustion and draft were commonly used in the
1700's. Air-circulating fireplaces were introduced in the
1600's, and in the 1700's the Rumford fireplace, a fire-
place with obliquely flared sides which increase the
amount of heat radiated to the room, was in common use.
Adding energy-efficient features to a conventional fire-
place should be carefully considered before attempting
special fireplace designs. Conventional fireplaces with
energy-efficient features are usually the most economical,
easiest to construct and have the best track record for
operational performance, i.e., proper draft and reduced
smoking. In addition, operation has a significant effect on
fireplace energy efficiency. Regardless of all the energy-
efficient features incorporated into a fireplace, efficiency
can only be achieved with proper operation. One opera-
tional feature, which is all too frequently overlooked, is the
damper. The fireplace damper is usually designed so that
its opening may be adjusted. The damper should be
completely open when starting the fire, but during opera-
tion, the damper opening should be reduced to maximize
the heat provided to the room while open sufficiently to
discharge all of the smoke. The operation of the damper
is usually easiest and safest when a rotary-controlled
damper is used. Such dampers are controlled from the
2
face of the fireplace and the operator does not have to
reach into the firebox to adjust the damper as is neces-
sary with most poker or chain-controlled dampers. Typical
rotary and poker controls are shown in Fig. 3. The instal-
lation and proper operation of a rotary controlled damper
could greatly increase the energy efficiency of any new or
existing fireplaces.
Rumford Fireplaces
Most of the heat obtained from a brick masonry fire-
place is radiant heat. Conventional fireplaces are typically
deep, with only slightly flared sides. In this type of fire-
place, most of the heat absorbed by the brick is radiated
back to the fire or other portions of the firebox. This
results in a hotter-burning fire, but does not allow much of
the radiant heat to enter and warm the room. By decreas-
ing the depth and flaring the sides of the firebox, a greater
amount of radiant heat may be directed into the room.
This configuration results in what is commonly referred to
as a "Rumford fireplace".
Typical dimensions for Rumford fireplaces are provid-
ed in Fig. 4 and Table 1. However, these dimensions are
not precise dimensions, but are dimensions based upon
successful performance of constructed Rumford fire-
places. Rumford fireplaces have a reputation for allowing
a small amount of smoke to enter the room while the fire-
place is cold because of the narrow depth of the firebox.
In addition to the concern of smoking, several of the fire-
place dimensions in Fig. 4 may be in violation of local
building codes, i.e., the narrow, 16 in. (400 mm) firebox
hearth.
The Rumford fireplace usually requires either a flat plate
throat damper or a chimney top damper, as shown in Fig. 3.
The flat plate throat damper may not be commercially avail-
able, and a special damper may have to be manufactured to
meet the dimensions of the fireplace design selected. The flat
plate damper is simply two pieces of 1/4 in. (6 mm) plate
steel, fastened together with hinges, and provided with a stop
so that when in the open position the damper is opened
slightly more than 90 deg. This type of damper requires a
poker control, which should have at least one catch so that
the damper cannot be blown shut by downdrafts. The flat
plate damper is preferred for the Rumford-style fireplace, but
fabrication costs may make its selection uneconomical.
Chimney top dampers may be used in lieu of flat plate
dampers. However, the chimney top damper should be
spring-loaded so that it will be in the open position if the con-
trolling mechanism ever fails. The Rumford fireplace design
is such that cold air flows down the chimney through the rear
half of the flue. As this air flows downward, it is warmed and
reverses its flow upward from the throat through the front half
of the flue. If chimney top dampers are used, they must be
properly selected so that they do not impair this air flow in the
chimney, because it provides suction to increase the drafting
of smoke and gases from the firebox. In addition to the flat
plate and chimney top dampers, conventional dampers have
been successfully used in Rumford fireplaces with only slight
modifications in the design of the firebox and smoke chamber.
 Typical Fireplace Dampers and Damper Controls
FIG. 3

Another difference between a traditional Rumford fire-
place and a conventional fireplace is the chimney. The
original Rumford fireplaces had brick-lined chimneys.
Thus, the dimensions for the Rumford fireplace provided
in Table 1 have been slightly modified to accommodate
modular clay flue liners. The result is a wider smoke shelf
which may decrease the drafting capability of the assem-
bly.
The effect of the performance of the Rumford fire-
place by using dampers other than the flat plate damper,
or using clay flue liners and a wider smoke shelf is not
well documented. These modifications should be careful-
ly considered and further modifications may be recom-
mended by an experienced fireplace contractor.
Rumford fireplaces greatly increase the amount of
radiant heat obtained from the fireplace. The energy effi-
ciency of the Rumford fireplace may be increased through
the use of other energy-efficient features, such as supply-
ing outside air and using glass screens which should be
closed when the fireplace is not in operation.

3
 Rumford Fireplace with Clay Flue Liner
FIG. 4
Air-Circulating Fireplaces
In addition to increasing the amount of radiant heat
from a fireplace by altering its shape, increased energy
efficiency can also be achieved by using an air-circulating
fireplace. An illustration of an air-circulating fireplace is
shown in Technical Notes 19 Revised. Air-circulating fire-
places may either provide natural air circulation or forced
air circulation. The forced air circulation is typically
accomplished by the use of low horsepower fans to
reverse the natural air flow. With either system, interior
air is drawn through baffles immediately behind the fire-
box where the air is heated and exhausted to warm the
living areas of the building.
4
With conventional fireplaces and Rumford fireplaces,
the principal means of supplying heat is by radiation. In
addition to radiation, there is a thermal convective loop
which occurs between the fireplace and cooler interior
surfaces of the building. This phenomena may cause
some discomfort to the occupants of the building because
it results in a flow of cool air close to the floor. Depending
on natural air circulation, cool air entering the baffles from
near the floor and warm air being exhausted at the ceiling
may aggravate this situation. For this reason, it is prefer-
able to reverse the natural air flow with low horsepower
fans. The result is to intake air near the ceiling and force
the heated air to be exhausted to the room near the floor.
 TABLE 1
a,b
Rumford Fireplace Dimensions

Throat and
Finished Fireplace Opening Rough Brick Work Flue Angle Smoke Shelf

A B C D E Fc G H Ic J K Lx M N O P R

36 32 16 16 16 28 4 44 19 1/2 27 14 12 x 16 A-48 4 12 10
40 32 16 16 16 28 4 48 19 1/2 29 16 16 x 16 A-48 4 12 14
40 37 16 16 16 33 4 48 19 1/2 29 16 16 x 16 A-48 4 12 14
40 40 20 20 20 32 4 48 23 1/2 29 16 16 x 16 A-48 4 12 14
48 37 16 16 16 33 4 56 19 1/2 36 18 16 x 20 B-60 4 12 14
48 40 20 20 20 32 4 56 23 1/2 36 18 16 x 20 B-60 4 12 14
48 48 20 20 20 40 4 56 23 1/2 36 18 20 x 20 B-60 4 12 16
54 40 20 20 20 32 4 66 23 1/2 45 23 20 x 20 B-72 4 12 16
54 48 20 20 20 40 4 66 23 1/2 45 23 20 x 20 B-72 4 12 16
54 54 20 20 20 46 4 66 23 1/2 42 21 20 x 24 B-72 4 12 16
60 48 20 20 20 40 4 72 23 1/2 45 24 20 x 24 B-72 4 12 16
a
These are approximate dimensions based on historical data of Rumford fireplace construction. As is true with all fireplaces, successful performance is experimental.
b
These dimensions have been developed from the following formulas. These formulas may also be used for opening dimensions other than those listed. Minimum
dimensions are taken from the CABO One and Two-Family Dwelling Code, 1986 Edition.

NOTES TO TABLE 1

A = Fireplace opening width, in. N = A = 3 X 3 X 3/16 in. angle (number denotes length, in.)
B = Fireplace opening height, in. where: 2/3 A < B≤ A B = 3 1/2 X 3 X 1/4 in. angle
C = D = E where: 1/3 B ≤ C ≤ 1/2 B O = Nominal brick thickness
F = B - E + P where P =12 in. minimum P = 12 in. minimum
2
G = 4 in. Q = 8 in. minimum when A X B< 864 in. ; 12 in. minimum when
2
H = A + 8 in. for A ≤ 48 in.; A + 12 in. for A > 48 in. A X B ≥ 864 in.
I = C + 3 1/2 in. minimum when fire brick are laid as shiners R = Smoke shelf width (flue opening, in.)
or C + 5 1/2 in. when fire brick or common brick are laid S = 8 in. minimum when fire brick lining is used; 10 in. minimum
as stretchers. when common brick lining is used.
2
J = K/u, where: 0.50 ≤ u ≤ 0.58 T = 16 in. minimum when A X B < 864 in. ; 20 in. minimum when
2
K = 1/2 (H-M) A X B ≥ 864 in.
L X M > 0.16 (AX B)

c
Minimum dimensions

This provides a means for making the occupants of the
room more comfortable. In addition to the comfort benefit,
the forced air circulation provides safety. The baffles in
which the air is warmed are usually located immediately
behind the firebox. By the use of fans to provide forced
air circulation, the air in the baffles is pressurized and if
there are any leaks or cracks in the firebox, toxic gases
remain in the firebox until they are discharged up the
chimney. The combustion gases in the firebox would not
be drawn through the circulating system and exhausted
into the room as might occur with a natural air-circulating
fireplace system.
The energy efficiency of an air-circulating fireplace
may be increased by installing and properly operating an
external combustion and draft air system, by the use of
glass screens, or by combining both. One such forced
air-circulating fireplace is the Brick-O-Lator (The Brick-O-
LatorÆ, a registered trademark, by the Brick Association
of North Carolina, P.O. Box 13290, Greensboro, NC
27415-3290, General Information Plans and Details;
Brick-O-Lator, Brick Institute of America, Region 9, 5885
Glenridge Dr., Atlanta, GA 30328, General and
Construction Information), as shown in Fig. 5.
5
Maximized radiant heating is provided by the Rumford
fireplace, maximized convective heating is provided by the
air-circulating fireplace. Masonry heaters, which are dis-
cussed elsewhere in this Technical Notes series, combine
these two basic concepts. The masonry heater has baffles
through which flue gases are circulated, warming a large
portion of the fireplace, which in turn radiates heat to the
surroundings and building occupants.
MULTI-FACE FIREPLACES
General
Multi-face fireplaces are usually not as energy effi-
cient as single-face fireplaces, simply because there is
less mass surrounding the fire to hold and radiate heat to
the room. However, such fireplaces are usually located
on the interior of buildings, and a large portion of the
stored heat is not lost to the exterior. As is true with all
fireplaces, their efficiency can be increased with the prop-
er installation and operation of glass screens and external
combustion and draft air. Because of the diversity of the
systems, the installation and operation of these energy-
efficient features should be in accordance with the recom-
mendations of the manufacturers of the glass screens and
external air supply systems.
 Air-Circulating Fireplace (Brick-O-Lator)
FIG. 5

place. The open side of this fireplace should have a short

Projected Corner Fireplaces
The projected corner fireplace, shown in Fig. 6, is similar
to a conventional, single-face fireplace with one side
removed. Steel angles, supported on a noncombustible post,
support the masonry above the opening. The only significant
difference between this fireplace design and the conventional
single-face fireplace is the shape of the damper. Instead of
using a damper with tapered ends, a square-end damper, as
shown in Fig. 3, should be used for the projected corner fire-
wall to help stop the escape of combustion gases when
cross-drafts occur. This protection may be increased by cor-
beling the top of the short wall. The flanges of the damper
should be fully supported on masonry as protection against
intense heat. But, as is true with all metal dampers and lintels
in any fireplaces, they should not be solidly embedded in the
masonry. Otherwise, there will not be any freedom for ther-
mal expansion. Dimensions for typical projected corner fire-
places are provided in Fig. 6.

6
 Air-Circulating Fireplace (Brick-O-Lator)
FIG. 5 (continued)

Three-Face Fireplaces Narrow Face. The three-face fireplace with a narrow

Wide Face. The three-face fireplace with a wide front
face is very similar to the projected corner fireplace, and
also uses a square-end damper. The three-face fireplace
is shown in Fig. 7, along with a table of typical dimen-
sions. The width of the opening on the front face of this
fireplace may range from 28 to 60 in. (700 to 1,500 mm).
The sides of the fireplace are partially enclosed by short
walls which help to eliminate smoking when there are
cross-drafts.
front face is almost identical to the three-face fireplace
with a wide front face. An illustration and table of dimen-
sions for this type of fireplace are provided in Fig. 8. The
width of the opening on the front face of this fireplace is
maintained at 27 in. (675 mm). There is one major dis-
similarity between the wide and narrow three-face fire-
places. The narrow, three-face fireplace requires two
square-end dampers because of its narrowness and the
distance it projects into the room. Welded angles or a

7
 a
Projected Corner Fireplace Dimensions, Inches

A B C E F H J K L M Nb,c Od P

28 26 1/2 16 14 20 36 29 1/2 12 12 12 A-36 11x16 16

32 26 1/2 16 14 20 40 32 12 12 16 A-42 11x16 16
36 26 1/2 16 14 20 44 35 14 12 16 A-48 11x16 16
40 30 16 14 20 48 35 16 16 16 B-54 11x16 16
48 30 20 14 24 56 43 20 16 16 B-60 11x16 20
54 30 20 14 23 62 45 23 16 16 B-72 11X16 20
60 30 20 14 23 68 51 24 16 20 B-78 11X16 20

a b c d
SI Conversion: mm = in. X 25.4 Two required Angle sizes A = 3x3x3/16 in. B = 3 1/2x3x1/4 in. Plate lintel

Projected Corner Fireplace

FIG. 6

steel tee are needed to support the dampers at the centerline Double-Face Fireplaces
of the fireplace. To allow for expansion, the dampers should The multi-face fireplaces discussed so far can be
not be solidly embedded in mortar nor mechanically fastened used at projecting corners of a room to bring the fireplace
to the supporting centerline tee or welded angles. closer to the center of the room, or to provide a partial

8
 a
Three-Opening Fireplace, Wide Face, Dimensions, Inches

A B C E F H J K L M Nb,c O b,d P

28 26 1/2 20 14 18 36 27 12 12 16 A-42 11x16 20

32 26 1/2 20 14 18 40 32 12 16 16 A-48 11x16 20
36 26 1/2 20 14 18 44 32 14 16 16 A-48 11x16 20
40 30 20 14 21 48 35 16 16 16 B-54 11x16 20
48 30 20 14 21 56 40 18 16 20 B-60 11x16 20
54 30 20 14 23 62 45 21 16 20 B-72 11X16 20
60 30 20 14 23 68 51 24 16 20 B-78 11X16 20

a b c d
SI Conversion: mm = in. X 25.4 Two required Steel Angle sizes A = 3x3x3/16 in. B = 3 1/2x3x1/4 in. Plate lintels

Three-Front Fireplace, Wide Front Face

FIG. 7

9
 a
Three-Opening Fireplace, Narrow Face, Dimensions, Inches
b,c b,d b,d
A B E H J K L M N O R

28 27 1/2 32 36 24 8 16 20 A-34 A-36 A-35

32 27 1/2 32 40 27 10 20 20 A-34 A-40 A-39
36 27 1/2 32 44 32 12 20 20 A-34 A-44 A-43
40 27 1/2 32 48 35 14 20 20 A-34 A-48 B-47
48 27 1/2 32 56 35 16 20 24 A-34 B-56 B-55

a b c d
SI Conversion: mm = in. X 25.4 Angle sizes A = 3x3x3/16 in. B = 3 1/2x3x1/4 in. Two angles welded together or steel tee Two required

Three-Face Fireplace, Narrow Face

FIG. 8

divider in a room. The double-face fireplace can be used
as a room divider, or may even separate two rooms. The
double-face fireplace is very similar to the narrow, three-
face fireplace. It requires two square-end dampers and
fireplace centerline steel tee, or welded steel angles, to
support the dampers. The steel tee, or welded angles,
10
should be supported on masonry at both ends, but must
be free to move. The dampers are supported on the steel
tee or welded angles and the masonry, and must be per-
mitted to move independently of all their supporting mem-
bers. The double-opening fireplace is shown with a table
of dimensions in Fig. 9.
 a
Double Opening, Dimensions, Inches
b,c b,d
A B E H J K L M N O

28 24 30 36 19 10 12 16 A-36 A-35
32 30 35 40 21 12 16 16 A-40 A-39
36 30 35 44 21 12 16 20 A-42 A-43
40 30 35 48 27 14 16 20 A-48 A-47
48 30 37 56 32 16 20 20 A-54 B-55

a
SI Conversion: mm = in. X 25.4 bSteel angle size A = 3x3x3/16 in. B = 3 1/2x3x1/4 in.
c
Two required d Two angles welded together or steel tee

Two-Face Fireplace
FIG. 9

SUMMARY from actual performance of fireplaces and the experience

The basic concepts of detailing and construction pro-
vided in Technical Notes 19 Revised and 19A Revised are
applicable to all of the fireplaces discussed in this
Technical Notes. The information and suggestions con-
tained in this Technical Notes are based on empirical data
of the technical staff of the Brick Institute of America. The
information and recommendations contained herein
should produce a functional and energy-efficient fireplace
if followed with the use of good technical judgment. Final
decisions on the design and use of the dimensions dis-

11
cussed are not within the purview of the Brick Institute of
America, and must rest with the project designer, owner
or both.

REFERENCES
1. "The Forgotten Art of Building A Good Fireplace",
Vrest Orton, published by YANKEE magazine, Dublin,
New Hampshire, 1974.
2. Book of Successful Fireplaces-How to Build,
Decorate and Use Them, 20th Edition, R. J. and
Marie-Jeanne Lytle, published by Structures
Publishing Company, Farmington, Michigan, 1977.
3. The Brick-O-Lator®, Brick Association of North
Carolina, Greensboro, North Carolina.
4. Book of Successful Fireplaces-How to Build
Them, 18th Edition, The Donley Brothers Company,
Cleveland, Ohio, 1965.

12
 Technical Notes 19D

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
Reissued*
June
1987

BRICK MASONRY FIREPLACES

PART I - RUSSIAN STYLE HEATERS

Abstract: Brick masonry heaters may be used instead of conventional fireplaces to provide efficient supple-
mental heating for residential buildings. The design, detailing and construction of brick masonry fireplaces with
baffle systems for combustion gases are discussed. Information regarding building code compliance, operation
and the accessories required is presented with the basic principles by which these heaters provide supplemental
heat for buildings.
Key Words: brick, buildings (codes), design, energy, fireplace, heating, masonry, mortar.

fle system. Other Technical Notes in this Series address

INTRODUCTION
There are many ways of improving the energy effi-
ciency of fireplaces. Fireplace energy efficiency may be
increased by providing glass screens or exterior air for
draft and combustion; altering the shape of the firebox for
increased radiant heating; incorporating baffles within the
mass of the fireplace through which room air may be cir-
culated for increased convective heating; or combinations
of these features. These features, along with the proper
design, construction and operation are discussed in
Technical Notes 19 Revised, 19A Revised, and 19C, and
are used to increase the efficiency of the wood-burning
fireplace for heating the building or room. By altering the
design of the fireplace to change the firebox shape and to
replace the smoke chamber with a baffle system, greater
heating and wood combustion efficiencies may be
achieved. These alterations in the fireplace design result
in a baffled brick masonry fireplace or brick masonry
heater.
The brick masonry heater is a concept that has been
used for centuries in Northern and Eastern Europe.
Various styles of brick masonry heaters are often referred
to as "Finnish" or "Russian" stoves, although they are
used in many other countries such as Belgium, Germany,
Switzerland, Sweden, The Netherlands and Norway. The
basic principles used to obtain the high heating and com-
bustion efficiencies are: 1) controlled air intake to the
combustion chamber or firebox; and 2) a baffle system
through which hot combustion gases are circulated. The
combustion gases circulated through the baffle system
heat the walls of the heater, which in turn heat the room.
The basic concepts of design, construction and operation
are simple, but there are several concerns which must be
addressed to insure safety and durability. Two basic
designs of brick masonry heaters are discussed in this
Technical Notes: the "Russian Stove" with a horizontal
baffle system, and the "Russian Stove" with a vertical baf -
the "Finnish" or "Fountain Style" brick masonry heater and
modifications which may be applied to result in contempo-
rary designs of brick masonry heaters.
These heaters are often referred to as stoves
because as originally designed and built, they had provi-
sions which permitted portions of the heater to be used
for baking and cooking. This was done by circulating the
hot combustion gases through baffles surrounding a brick
oven and under exposed metal plates which were used
for cooking. Such provisions are not practical for modern
lifestyles because of the difficulty in controlling tempera-
tures, thus the baking and cooking features are not
addressed in this Technical Notes. However, the cooking
features may be a consideration for designing and con-
struction of an outside barbecue or cookstove. (See
Reference 5).
GENERAL
Operation
Operation of a brick masonry heater is simple. The
firebox is loaded with about 20 lb (9.1 kg) of wood. The
fire is ignited. Once good combustion of the wood begins,
the firebox door is closed and the air intakes are adjusted
to the proper setting so that good combustion is main-
tained. The combustion gases exhaust from the rear of
the firebox, circulated through the baffle system, warm the
entire mass of the brick masonry heater and then are
exhausted to the exterior of the building through a con-
ventional chimney constructed on top of the heater. The
fire usually burns about 30 min when properly seasoned
wood is used, and thus the firebox should be reloaded
with 20 lb (9.1 kg) of wood four times in a 2-hr period for
maximum heating. This procedure usually results in the
brick masonry heater being sufficiently heated to keep a
3 3
room, about 2400 ft (68 m ) warm for 8 to 12 hr. The
operation will vary slightly, depending upon the size of the

*Originally published in 1983, this Technical Notes has been reviewed and reissued with editorial changes.
heater, the size of the room and the amount of heat need-
ed to be comfortable. During the coldest months in severe
climates such as those of Scandinavia, the heater usually
needs to be operated twice a day, once in the morning
and once in the evening. During the more moderate sea-
sons, or in moderate climates, the heater may need to be
operated only once, usually in the early evening, to sup-
plement the heating requirements to maintain comfortable
temperatures throughout the night. Other variations in
operation, such as the number of loadings or the amount
of wood used per loading during each firing, may also
result in increased comfort. The operator should experi-
ment with several variations of operation to determine the
best performance for various seasons.
Properly operated, these brick masonry heaters are
very effective in supplying radiant heat to the area of the
building surrounding the heater. These heaters are not
only good sources of heat, but have wood-burning effi-
ciencies of 80 to 90 percent. (See Reference 3).
Building Code Requirements
There are no major model building code requirements
which specifically address brick masonry heaters. For the
most part, the building code requirements for fireplaces
and chimneys are applicable to brick masonry heaters
except for those requirements which address the dimen-
Brick Masonry Heater with Vertical Baffles
FIG. 1
2
sioning of the firebox and smoke chamber. All building
code chimney requirements and clearances for com-
bustibles are applicable.
There are, however, two concerns regarding safety
which apply to the brick masonry heaters that are not
presently listed in the major model building codes. The
first concern is the integrity of the heater's enclosing
walls. The walls forming the shell of the brick masonry
heater should be at least two wythes of brick thick so that
major cracks do not occur in the brick masonry heater. It
is advisable to provide a nominal 1-in. (25 mm) air space
between the two wythes. This will prevent cracks from
penetrating through the interior to the exterior of the
heater. Filling this 1-in. (25 mm) air space with compress-
ible, non-combustible material, such as fiberglass insula-
tion, will insure this separation. The two wythes should be
tied together with corrosion-resistant metal ties. The insu-
lation used to maintain a compressible space between the
two wythes of brick should not affect the overall thermal
performance of the brick masonry heater. To add to the
integrity of the exterior wythe of the brick masonry heater,
horizontal joint reinforcement should be placed in about
every sixth course. Horizontal joint reinforcement should
not be used on the interior wythe because the extreme
differential thermal movements may deteriorate the mortar
joints.
The second concern is the temperature of the exterior
 Brick Masonry Heater with Vertical Baffles
FIG. 2
surfaces of the brick masonry heater walls. The highest
surface temperatures of the walls are normally between
100˚F (38˚C) and 130˚F (54˚C), but temperatures as high
as 190˚F (88˚C) have been reported. Although these tem-
peratures are much lower than those achieved with metal
wood-burning stoves, sufficient clearances to com-
bustibles should be maintained. A minimum 36-in. (900
mm) clearance is usually required between metal wood-
burning stoves and combustibles. A minimum 12-in. (300
mm) clearance is recommended between the sides and
back of the brick masonry heater and combustibles. At
the floor line, this may be achieved by providing a 12-in.
(300 mm) extended hearth. In front of the heater, a 20-in.
(500 mm) extended hearth should be used. This is easily
achieved when the heater is properly positioned in the
room for maximum heating. This position is in the center
of the room so that all four walls of the heater are provid-
ing radiant heat to the room. The brick masonry heater
may also be installed against interior brick masonry walls.
DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
General
The brick masonry heater should always be posi-
tioned entirely inside the building. It should never be
located on an exterior wall. When incorporated into an
3
exterior wall, much of the radiant heat being supplied will
be lost to the exterior. In addition, the location on an
exterior wall will usually result in at least one cold surface
on which a considerable amount of creosote may form. A
creosote fire can reach temperatures which could result in
cracks within the heater that may become too large to
allow safe operation because combustion gases may leak
into the room.
The actual dimensions of the masonry heater are lim-
ited by the available firebox door sizes, the number of baf-
fles, and the height of the heater. For best performance,
the heaters should not be more than one story in height,
nor should they contain more than five baffle chambers.
This is because the increased distances that the hot com-
bustion gases must flow will result in a cooling of the
gases. This causes a reduction in their heating capacity
and could result in increased creosote deposits which
may lead to potential fires.
There are two types of Russian-style brick masonry
heaters: the vertically baffled heater shown in Figures 1
and 2, and the horizontally baffled heater shown in
Figures 3 and 4. Many of the features are similar for
both.
The most critical factors for the proper performance of
brick masonry heaters are the gas flow through the baffle
system and the draft of the chimney. All openings
 Brick Masonry Heater with Horizontal Baffles
FIG. 3
between the baffles and the area enclosed by the baffles
2
should be at least 64 sq in. (40,000 mm ). The chimney
should be constructed with clay flue liners with two wythes
of brick surrounding the flue liners in such a way as to
maintain a nominal 1-in. (25 mm) air space between the
flue liners and the interior wythe of brick.
Clearances between the brick masonry heater exterior
walls and any combustible materials should be at least 12
in. (300 mm). This will require the masonry heater to be
either centrally located within a room, or located adjacent
to a brick masonry or other non-combustible interior wall
with at least a 1-hr fire rating. To ensure clearances, it
may be beneficial to provide an extended hearth around
the entire masonry heater. Construction using the proper
clearances also maximizes the use of the warmed brick
masonry surface as radiant heat sources.
Base Assembly
The base assembly includes the foundation, extended
hearth, and ash drop. These features are the same for
both the vertically and horizontally baffled Russian-style
heaters.
Foundation. The foundation must be adequate to
support the mass of the brick masonry heater and the
masonry chimney. When designing the foundation, care
4
should be taken to account for soil types and foundation
conditions. Undisturbed or well-compacted soil will gener-
ally be sufficient, however, some types of soil or founda-
tion conditions may require additional analysis, which may
result in the need for special soil treatment or a unique
foundation design.
Building codes generally require that the foundation
be at least 12 in. (300 mm) thick, and in plan view, extend
a minimum of 6 in. (150 mm) beyond each face of the
masonry heater. The foundation should be positioned so
that the bottom of the footing is below the frost line to
reduce the possibility of "heaving."
Unless the foundation is a thickened slab in a newly
constructed slab-on-grade structure, masonry is usually
used to construct the base assembly to the height of the
hearth support. The hearth support may be solid masonry
construction carried up from the foundation to support the
entire hearth area. To conserve materials, the masonry is
usually brought up only equal to the dimensions of the
masonry heater itself and the brick masonry of the base
assembly is corbeled out to form the support for the
extended hearth. See Figures 1 through 4. An individual
corbel should not exceed one-half the unit height nor one-
third of the unit thickness. The total projections of the cor-
bel should not exceed one-half the thickness of the base
assembly, nor one-half of the thickness of the solid
masonry wall forming the base assembly. A further dis-
cussion of corbeling is provided in Technical Notes 19A
Revised.
Extended Hearth. The extended hearth may be
formed by placing a reinforced concrete slab on top of the
corbeled base assembly. Non-combustible or removable
forming should be placed so that it spans from the cor-
beled masonry assembly to the floor joists forming the
opening for the brick masonry heater. Double joists
should be used around the entire perimeter of the opening
with a nailer to support the edge of the non-combustible
extended hearth, as discussed in Technical Notes 19A
Revised, except that the extended hearth for the brick
masonry heater should be at least 20 in. (500 mm) in front
of the firebox and 12 in. (300 mm) around the remaining
perimeter of the heater. However, the extended hearth
may be eliminated on one side, or the back of the heater
if it is positioned against a non-combustible wall with a
minimum fire rating of 1 hr. Once the reinforced concrete
slab is installed, it may be finished with brick masonry
pavers. If removable forming is used, the concrete slab
used to support the extended hearth must be designed as
a cantilever.
Ashpit. Once the extended hearth is installed, the
brick masonry heater is laid out. The dimensions of the
Brick Masonry Heater with Horizontal Baffles
FIG. 4
5
brick masonry heater are determined by the size of the
available firebox doors and the number of baffles used in
the masonry heater. The masonry heater, because of its
efficient combustion of wood, does not require a large
ashpit. The ashpit is usually formed by providing an
opening, usually three courses of brick in height, and as
wide as the firebox. This results in an ashpit which may
be accessed from the front face of the brick masonry
heater. The ashpit may be modified so that it is accessed
from either side, or even from the rear of the masonry
heater. Directly above the ashpit will be the base for the
brick masonry heater firebox. Thus, the ashpit should be
formed with corbeled brick masonry which will support the
firebox base or a reinforced concrete slab may be used to
serve as the top of the ashpit and the support for the fire-
box base. Using the reinforced concrete slab requires a
formed opening in the slab for the ash drop.
Firebox Assembly
The dimensions of the firebox will depend on the size of
the firebox doors, and either the length of the baffle cham-
bers in the horizontally baffled masonry heater or the num-
ber of baffle chambers in the vertically baffled masonry
heater. Thus, the baffle chambers need to be sized prior to
laying out the masonry heater dimensions of the firebox.
There are several alternatives for constructing the fire-
box. The firebox base, sides and back should be lined
with refractory units to obtain a thickness of at least 2 1/2
in. (63 mm). The refractory units on the rear wall of the
firebox should extend to the top of the first baffle, as
shown in Figures 1 and 2.
The top of the firebox may be formed either by using
a precast reinforced refractory concrete slab, or by using
refractory units which will span the width of the firebox.
Both options require slabs or units wide enough to bear at
least 2 in. (50 mm) on the side walls of the firebox liner.
Another alternative is to form the top of the firebox with a
masonry arch constructed of refractory brick units. This
method of forming the top of the firebox is compatible with
using several types of Dutch oven doors for the front of
the fireplace.
Vertically Baffled. The baffle system for the vertical-
ly baffled Russian-style brick masonry heater is the easi-
est baffle system to build. There should be at least three
vertical baffle chambers and usually no more than five,
although successful systems have been built with up to
nine. The greater the number of baffles, the longer the
masonry heater needs to be fired to warm the entire mass
of brickwork. This may decrease the efficiency of the sys-
tem for both heating and combustion of the wood. It will
also result in much hotter fires, which may augment the
deterioration of the masonry heater. Another problem with
using more baffles is that those portions of the heater
which remain cooler invite creosote problems.
The baffles should be formed by using a single wythe
of brick masonry to separate the baffle chambers, which
are usually 64 to 144 sq in. (40,000-90,000 mm2) in
cross-sectional area. These single wythe brick baffles
should be masonry bonded to the interior wythe of the
enclosing 8-in. (200 mm) brick masonry. Thus, thermal
expansion of the baffles will impose a lateral load on the
enclosing brick masonry which should be considered in
the design. Major cracks in the heater should be avoided
by keeping the wythes of the 8-in. (200 mm) thick enclos-
ing brick masonry walls separated by a nominal 1-in. (25
mm) air space. To help insure that thermal expansion is
provided for, this space may be filled with a compressible,
noncombustible material. If a filler material is used, it may
be easiest to construct the interior wythe with properly
spaced ties, then wrap the heater with the compressible,
non-combustible material, prior to constructing the exterior
wythe.
Another problem is that thermal movement may sepa-
rate the baffles from the interior wythe and allow lateral
movement of the baffles. Thus, in addition to the masonry
bond to the interior wythe of the enclosing walls, metal
ties should also be installed every 8 in. (200 mm) vertical-
ly. These metal ties should be the only metal inside the
interior wythe of the enclosing walls of the brick masonry
heater, except for reinforcement in concrete slabs. The
top of the openings through the baffles may be formed by
corbeling brick units, as shown in Figures 2 and 4. Other
alternatives for forming the baffle openings are shown in
Figure 5. There should be at least 12 in. (300 mm) of
brick masonry covering the top of the baffle chambers.
Baffles with openings at the bottom are again single-
6
wythe brick masonry walls. The openings in the bottom of
baffles may be formed by using corbeled brick masonry,
brick masonry arches, or by masonry units, or reinforced,
precast concrete long enough to span the width of the
baffle chamber and bear a minimum of 2 in. (50 mm) on
each side of the interior wythe of brick masonry. At the
front face of the masonry heater, near the bottom of the
baffle chamber, a clean-out door is recommended so that
any ash buildup may be removed from the baffle cham-
ber.
The last upward baffle chamber in the baffle system,
i.e., the chamber at the front face of the heater, becomes
the support for the conventional flue liner. By corbeling
the top course of the last baffle chamber, the support for a
conventional clay flue liner is obtained.
Horizontally Baffled. The baffles for the horizontally
baffled Russian-style brick masonry heater may be
formed by using corbeled brick masonry, arches, a pre-
cast, reinforced concrete slab, or clay flue liners. When
the slab is used, it should be sufficiently wide to span
across the width of the baffle chamber and bear at least 2
in. (50 mm) on the interior wythe of each side wall of the
baffle chamber. Arches or corbels used to form the air
passageway may be started from the interior wythe of the
baffle chamber wall. These are shown in Figures 3 and 5.
The horizontal baffle system requires a clean-out at the
bottom of each baffled area. The side and either the front
or rear baffle chamber walls (depending on the number of
horizontal baffles) and the top of the last baffle should be
used to support the conventional flue liner for the chim-
ney. There should be at least a 12-in. (300 mm) thickness
of brick masonry forming the top of the last horizontal baf-
fle.
Clean-Outs. Clean-outs for the baffle chamber of
either Russian-style brick masonry heater are optional.
Usually, when properly seasoned wood is used under
adequate air intake conditions, and at high temperature,
creosote should not form in large quantities. In addition,
because of the baffles, most soot and ash remain in the
firebox. However, the installation of clean-outs is recom-
mended to observe any buildup. If a buildup is occurring,
the operation of the stove should be modified, so that the
buildup no longer occurs. This may be accomplished by
increasing the amount of combustion air being supplied
through the firebox doors.
Crown. The crown of the Russian-style brick mason-
ry heater should terminate at least 12 in. (300 mm) below
the ceiling of the room. Multi-story heaters are not recom-
mended because the distance the combustion gases must
flow, from the firebox through the baffles to the chimney,
cools the gases and decreases performance. Typically,
the distance from the firebox through the baffle chambers
to the chimney should be limited to no more than 16 ft
(4.9 m). The crown should be at least 12 in. (300 mm)
thick, starting from the highest point of the baffle chamber.
The crown may be flat, but is often constructed as an arch
for esthetics.
 Typical Vertical and Horizontal Baffle Constructions
FIG. 5

Chimney. The chimney for the Russian-style brick
masonry heater is similar to those used for fireplaces.
The chimney should be constructed with clay flue liners
and 8 in. (200 mm) of brick masonry surrounding the flue
liner in such a way that a nominal 1-in. (25 mm) air space
is maintained between the flue liner and the surrounding
brick masonry. The 8-in. (200 mm) chimney wall is rec-
ommended to help keep the chimney at a higher tempera-
ture to increase performance. Additional information on
chimney design and construction is provided in Technical
Notes 19B Revised.
The chimney height required for draft is usually higher
than that necessary for conventional fireplaces, but following
the building code requirements for fire safety will usually result
in a sufficiently high chimney. Most codes require that the
chimney terminate at least 3 ft (1 m) above the roof at the
highest point of exit and at least 2 ft (600 mm) above any por-
tion of the building or any adjacent structure within 10 ft (3 m)
of the chimney. If the draft is determined to be inadequate by
a smoke test, the chimney height should be increased to pro-
vide adequate draft.
The chimney for the Russian-style masonry heater must
be free to move vertically to allow for the vertical thermal
expansion of the masonry heater supporting it. This requires
properly sealed flashing and counter-flashing where the chim-
ney penetrates the roof line.

7
Firebox and Clean-Out Doors
FIG. 6

8
Firebox and Clean-Out Doors
FIG.6

9
 back of the firebox should extend to the top of the first
Esthetics baffle chamber. These areas are exposed to the greatest
An additional consideration in the design of a brick amount of heat and the refractory units are more resistant
masonry heater is the esthetics. Figures 1 through 4 to heat and thermal shock.
show the basic heater design for function. This results in Salvaged or used brick should not be used because
a rectangular mass of brick within the building, which may they usually will not bond well with the mortar and lack the
or may not be esthetically pleasing. Incorporating arches, durability necessary for satisfactory performance. The
corbels, racks and mantels into the design may greatly use of salvaged brick is discussed in Technical Notes 15.
increase the esthetic value.
Mortar and Grout
SELECTION OF MATERIALS It is most convenient and economical to use only one
General type of mortar for the entire brick masonry heater and
chimney construction. This becomes difficult when con-
The design and construction of a brick masonry
structing a brick masonry heater because of the specific
heater using products available in the United States is
requirements of each component. The portions of the
slightly different than the construction of the heater in
heater consisting of building, face or hollow brick should
Europe. European heaters are usually constructed using
be constructed using a Type N, portland cement-lime mor-
a single wythe of 5-in. (125 mm) thick brick for the exterior
tar, conforming to the proportion specifications of ASTM C
shell. The exterior brick is then often covered with glazed
270 or BIA M 1-72. The same mortar should be used for
ceramic tiles, set in high temperature-resistant epoxy
the chimney brickwork except when wind loads exceed 25
grout. Using a single wythe around the firebox and baf-
psf (1.2 kPa). Where high wind loads exist, a Type S,
fles may result in cracking. The positive draft through the
portland cement-lime mortar should be used. It may be
firebox and baffle chambers results in little danger of toxic
desirable to use high temperature-resistant mortars, such
gases escaping into the occupied areas of the building.
as calcium aluminate mortars, for the interior wythes and
By using multiple wythes for the exterior shell, the poten-
baffles of the brick masonry heater. Such mortars will
tial for a crack penetrating completely through the heater
increase the durability of the heater.
is substantially reduced. Single-wythe construction of
The firebox and all other components constructed of
masonry heaters is therefore not recommended.
refractory units should be set using a fireclay mortar, con-
In addition to the construction differences of the exte-
forming to ASTM C 105, medium duty. Other refractory
rior shell, the accessories used in Europe are not usually
mortars have also been successfully used, and thus any
available in North America. There are methods to modify
high temperature-resistant mortars that have performed
the design and construction so that products readily avail-
well may be used. It is not within the purview of the Brick
able in North America may be used in the brick masonry
Institute of America to recommend proprietary products.
heater. The options also exist to either import the acces-
The selection of the proper mortars should be determined
sories or to fabricate accessories similar to those used in
by an experienced fireplace expert for the specific design
Europe. However, these options are usually uneconomi-
being considered.
cal. Additional information regarding accessories may be
For reinforced brick masonry, all cores of hollow brick
obtained from the cited references.
masonry construction and the grout space of hollow wall
Brick construction must be fully grouted. The grout should con-
Most building codes require that solid masonry units form to ASTM C 476.
be used for fireplace construction. Solid brick should con- Flue Liners
form to ASTM C 216 or C 62 for facing brick or building Clay flue liners used for the chimney or to form the
brick, respectively. Hollow brick conforming to ASTM C baffle chambers should conform to ASTM C 315. They
652 may be used if vertical reinforcement is required. should be thoroughly inspected just prior to installation for
If vertical reinforcement is to be used to provide resis- cracks or other damage which might contribute to smoke
tance to cracking, the brick masonry heater may be construct- or flue gas leakage. All flue liners should be set in fireclay
ed using a single wythe of reinforced, grouted hollow brick. mortar.
Reinforced hollow brick masonry should be constructed using
Steel Lintels and Dampers
at least nominal 8-in. (200 mm) thick hollow brick units. The
Steel lintels should not be used inside the exterior 4-
shell of the heater may also be constructed of a vertically and
in. (100 mm) wythe of the brick masonry heaters because
horizontally reinforced, fully grouted, multi-wythe brick mason-
of the high temperatures involved. The difference in ther-
ry wall. The grout core should be at least 2 in. (50 mm) thick
mal expansion characteristics could cause cracking of the
and the brick wythes must be properly tied.
brick masonry heater. For the same reason, metal
When face brick or building brick is used, the walls of the
dampers are not used within the Russian-style fireplace.
heater should be at least two wythes thick, using nominal 4-
Lintels of corrosion-resistant steel, conforming to ASTM A
in. (100 mm) or 3-in. (75 mm) thick brick. Grade SW brick
36, should be used over the firebox door and clean-out
should be used because of its greater durability.
door openings.
Refractory brick, conforming to ASTM C 64, medium
duty, should be used for the firebox. The lining for the
10

Ties and Reinforcement
Corrugated Metal Ties. Corrugated metal ties may
be used to attach the baffles to the interior wythe of the
heater walls and to tie the two wythes of the exterior walls
of the heater together. Ties should be corrosion-resistant,
and at least 22 ga, 7/8 in. (22.2 mm) wide, and 6 in. (150
mm) long.
Wire Ties. Wire ties are preferred for tying the brick
masonry together. Wire ties should be at least 9 ga and
corrosion-resistant. The ties should be fabricated from
wire conforming to ASTM A 82 or ASTM A 185.
Prefabricated Joint Reinforcement. Prefabricated
joint reinforcement should be used for the exterior wythe
of the heater walls. The joint reinforcement should be
fabricated from wire which complies with ASTM A 82 or
ASTM A 185, and should be corrosion-resistant.
Reinforcement. Reinforcement should conform to any
of the following applicable standards:
Standard Specifications for Deformed and Plain Billet-
Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement---ASTM A 615.
Standard Specifications for Rail-Steel Deformed and
Plain Bars for Concrete Reinforcement---ASTM A 616
Standard Specifications for Axle-Steel Deformed and
Plain Bars for Concrete Reinforcement---ASTM A 617
Corrosion Resistance. Corrosion resistance is usu-
ally provided by a copper or zinc coating, or by using
stainless steel. To ensure adequate resistance to corro-
sion, coatings or materials should conform to any of the
following applicable standards:
Clean-Out Door Backed with Firebrick
FIG. 7
11
Zinc-Coating of Flat Metal---ASTM A153, Class
B-l, B-2, or B-3
Zinc-Coating of Wire---ASTM A116, Class 3
Copper Coated Wire---ASTM B 227, Grade 30 HS
Stainless Steel---ASTM A 167, Type 304
Firebox Doors. The doors for the firebox opening may
be fabricated locally, ordered from Europe or may be con-
ventional metal Dutch oven doors, which are the most eco-
nomical. The brick masonry heater is not designed for air-
tight combustion and thus the doors need to be equipped
with operable vents to control air intake into the firebox.
The size of the firebox door is a major consideration
in the design of the brick masonry heater. The height and
width of the firebox and the width of the baffle chambers
are usually the same as, or just slightly larger than, the
firebox door. Other alternatives exist for the firebox
design and firebox doors, and are discussed in other
Technical Notes in this Series. The typical European-style
door is shown in Figure 6.
Clean-out Doors. Clean-out doors used in Europe
for the baffle system are tight-fitting doors which have
tapered latches to ensure tightness of fit. These doors
are shown in Figure 6. Conventional clean-out doors may
be used, but to ensure tightness, refractory units should
be placed within the door opening with a compressible,
non-combustible material or set in a sand-lime mortar.
This is shown in Figure 7. The refractory units increase
the resistance to combustion gas leaks, provide protection
to the metal door from high temperatures, and may easily
be removed and replaced when cleaning, if necessary.
Clean-out doors for the ash drop may be conventional
clean-out doors, installed in the conventional manner.
SUMMARY
The information and suggestions contained in this
Technical Notes are an accumulation of the available
information within the Brick Institute of America on
Russian-style fireplaces and brick masonry heaters. The
information is based on empirical data from actual perfor-
mance of such heaters here in North America and in
Europe. The information and recommendations are pro-
vided for use with good technical judgment for the design
and construction of a functional brick masonry heater.
Final decisions on the design and use of materials as dis-
cussed in this Technical Notes are not within the purview
of the Brick Institute of America, and must rest with the
project designer, owner, or both.

REFERENCES
1. "Complete Plans and Instructions for Construction
and Operation of a Masonry Stove, Finnish, or Russian
Fireplace," by Basilio Lepuschinko, Richmond, Maine,
1980.
2. "How to Build a Russian Fireplace," by Jay Jarpe,
Los Lunas, New Mexico, 1980.
3. "A Russian-Type Fireplace Demonstration and
Workshop, " New Mexico Energy Institute, The University
of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico, 1981.
4. "On Building Masonry Firestoves," by J. Patrick
Manley, Farmstead Magazine, Fall Issue 1980, No. 34.
5. "What's So Hot About A Russian Fireplace?" by
M. R. Allan, Yankee Magazine, Dublin, New Hampshire,
February 1978.

12
 Technical Notes 19E

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
Reissued*
February
1998

BRICK MASONRY FIREPLACES -- PART II

FOUNTAIN AND CONTEMPORARY SYTLE HEATERS

Abstract: Brick masonry heaters may be used instead of conventional fireplaces to provide efficient supple-
mental heating for residential buildings. The design, detailing and construction of brick masonry fireplaces with
baffle systems through which combustion gases are circulated are discussed. Information regarding building
code compliance, operation and accessories is presented, along with the basic heating principles.
Key Words: brick, buildings (codes), design, energy, fireplaces, heating, masonry, mortar.

Typically, the combustion chamber or firebox is loaded

INTRODUCTION
The basic concepts of a fireplace designed with a baf-
fle system replacing the conventional smoke chamber are
discussed in Technical Notes 19D. Such fireplaces are
often referred to as Russian-style fireplaces. These fire-
places, or brick masonry heaters, although capable of
providing efficient heat, tend to eliminate the esthetic
value of the fireplace because the firebox is typically deep
within a small opening. An alternate approach to the fire-
place designed to include a baffle system through which
combustion gases are circulated is the Finnish or foun -
tain-style heater. This Technical Notes provides the infor-
mation necessary to properly design and construct a foun-
tain-style brick masonry heater or to modify conventional
fireplace designs to incorporate baffle systems to allow
the circulation of combustion gases.
The basic principles by which high efficiencies are
obtained for heating the building interior and for the combus-
tion of wood are the same as for the Russian-style brick
masonry heater. Hot combustion gases circulating through
the massive brick masonry heater, combined with properly
controlled air intake for combustion, result in high efficien-
cies. The hot combustion gases are circulated through baf-
fle chambers within the heater. The massive brick masonry
is warmed and retains the heat. This warmed brick mason-
ry radiates the heat long after the fire is extinguished. The
basic concepts of design, construction and operation are
simple, but there are several concerns which must be
addressed to insure safety and durability.
GENERAL
Operation
The operation of both the fountain-style brick masonry
heater and the contemporary-style heaters is quite similar.
Both systems have unique operational advantages which
are directly related to their design and the way in which
combustion gases are circulated through the massive
brick masonry assembly.
with 10 lb (4.5 kg) to 20 lb (9.1 kg) of wood, after a fire
with kindling is ignited. Once good combustion starts, the
firebox doors or glass screens are closed and the air
intakes adjusted to the proper setting so that good com-
bustion continues. Unlike the Russian-style brick mason-
ry heater, because of the design of the firebox, glass
screens may be used on the fountain-style heater and the
modified conventional fireplace. The glass screens or
firebox doors used should be equipped with operable air
inlets so that the air intake to the combustion chamber
can be controlled. The metal firebox doors or glass
screens selected for the firebox opening should be capa-
ble of withstanding the high temperatures in the combus-
tion chamber. Temperatures of combusting wood will usu-
ally range from 1000˚F (540˚C) to 1500˚F (820˚C), and
the temperature of the combustion gases near the fire
usually ranges from about 800˚F (430˚C) to 1200˚F
(650˚C). (See Reference 10). Thus, all components of
the firebox should be capable of withstanding these tem-
peratures.
The 10 lb (4.5 kg) to 20 lb (9.1 kg) of wood loaded in
the firebox will burn for about 30 min when properly sea-
soned wood is used with adequate draft and combustion
air. For maximum heating, the firebox should be reloaded
with about 10 lb (4.5 kg) to 20 lb (9.1 kg) of wood every
30 min for a 2-hr period. This procedure usually results in
enough heat being supplied by the brick masonry heater
3
to keep a 2400 ft 3 (68 m ) room warm for a period of 8 to
12 hr during the coldest months in severe climates, such
as in Scandinavia. Under these severe climate condi-
tions, the heater is usually operated for a 2-hr period
twice a day, once in the morning and once in the evening.
During the more moderate seasons, or in the more mod-
erate climates, operating the heater once in the evening
may be adequate to supplement the mechanical heating
system to maintain comfortable interior temperatures
throughout the night. Other variations in operation, such

*Originally published in 1983, this Technical Notes has been reviewed and reissued with editorial changes.
 Fig. 1
Fountain-Style Brick Masonry Heater, Isometric

2
as the number of loadings and the amount of wood used
for each firing may also result in increased comfort. The
operator should experiment with several operations to
determine how to achieve the best performance for the
various seasons.
This method of operation may be used with any prop-
erly designed and constructed brick masonry heater.
Because of the variations in the design of the fountain
style heater and the modified conventional fireplace, the
actual method of operation should be modified for the
specific design. The contemporary-style brick masonry
heater is usually operated the same as a conventional
fireplace.
Fountain-Style Heater. The fountain-style heater is
shown in Figures 1 through 3. It consists of a relatively
conventional fireplace firebox. The smoke chamber is
rectangular and the baffle chambers for circulating the
combustion are located on the sides of the smoke and
combustion chambers. The baffle chambers meet under
the combustion chamber where combustion gases are
vented to the chimney.
The heating output of the fountain-style heater may
be increased by using a specially designed air supply sys-
tem from the firebox doors to the smoke chamber.
Providing the smoke chamber with this additional air
ignites the combustion gases in the smoke chamber. The
combustion gases burn at temperatures of about 1800˚F
(1100˚C) to 2100˚F (1150˚C). This method of operation,
because of the higher temperatures of the circulating
combustion gases, greatly increases the heating capabili-
ty of the heater. This second combustion within the
heater also results in a very clean and complete combus-
tion of the wood and its by-products. This nearly com-
plete combustion maximizes the efficiency of the wood
fuel and considerably reduces any creosote buildup within
the brick masonry heater and chimney.
Contemporary-Style Heater. The contemporary-
style heater, shown in Figs. 4 through 7, although much
more efficient than a conventional fireplace, will not
achieve the high efficiency normally obtained in the foun-
tain-style heater. The fountain-style heater achieves effi-
ciencies of about 80 to 95 percent and the contemporary-
style heater provides a heating efficiency of about 70 to
80 percents. (See Reference 8). The contemporary-style
heater is designed with a rectangular firebox with the
throat located at the rear of the firebox. Combustion
gases are circulated through baffle chambers within the
smoke chamber and exhausted to a conventional fire-
place chimney located on top of the smoke chamber.
Although this type of heater does not provide as much
heat, it is usually preferred because it provides the esthet-
ic appearance similar to a conventional fireplace.
Building Code Compliance
There are no major model building code requirements
which specifically address brick masonry heaters or their
baffle chambers. For the most part, the building code
requirements for fireplaces and chimneys are applicable
to the brick masonry heater except for those requirements
3
which address the firebox and smoke chamber dimen-
sions. All building code requirements for chimneys and
clearances for combustibles are applicable. Because the
temperatures normally achieved in the brick masonry
heater are much higher than those obtained in conven-
tional fireplaces, additional consideration should be given
to safety and durability.
The exterior walls of the brick masonry heater should
consist of at least two wythes of brick masonry when con-
structed of solid units. The two wythes should be separat-
ed by a nominal 1-in. (25 mm) air space. This separation
prevents any cracks from penetrating the interior wythe
through the exterior wythe of the heater. Filling this 1-in.
(25 mm) air space with a compressible, non-combustible
material will insure that a separation is provided. The two
wythes should be tied to each other with corrosion-resis-
tant metal ties, placed 16 in. (400 mm) o.c. vertically and
a maximum of 24 in. (600 mm) o.c., horizontally. The
exterior wythe should contain horizontal joint reinforce-
ment every 16 in. (400 mm) vertically to add to the integri-
ty of the heater. The ties and joint reinforcement should
not occur in the same course. These provisions should
prevent problems due to thermal expansion and differen-
tial movement without affecting the overall thermal perfor-
mance of the brick masonry heater.
When reinforced brick masonry construction is
required, the enclosing walls or shell of the heater may be
constructed of fully grouted hollow wall construction or
fully grouted hollow brick units. If the fully grouted hollow
wall construction is to be used, the minimum 2 in. (50
mm) grout core must be fully grouted and contain suffi-
cient horizontal and vertical reinforcement to resist struc-
tural and thermal stresses. The two wythes must also be
adequately tied together with corrosion-resistant metal
ties. If grouted hollow brick masonry is used, the cores
must be fully grouted and sufficiently reinforced to resist
structural and thermal stresses. Horizontal joint reinforce-
ment should have proper mortar coverage in the bed
joints and the units should not be less than 8 in. (200 mm)
in thickness. For additional information on reinforced
brick masonry construction and hollow brick, see
Technical Notes 17 and 41.
In addition to the thermal movements, the exterior
surface temperatures of the brick masonry heater also
need to be considered. These surface temperatures nor-
mally range between 100˚F (38˚C) and 130˚F (54˚C).
Temperatures as high as 190˚F (88˚C) have been report-
ed on certain styles of brick masonry heaters and are typi-
cal when fountain-style heaters are operated with gas
combustion occurring in the smoke chamber.
A minimum 16-in. (400 mm) clearance is recommend-
ed between the sides and the back of the brick masonry
heater and combustibles. At the floor line, this may be
achieved by providing a 16-in. (400 mm) extended hearth.
In the front of the heater, a minimum 20-in. (500 mm)
extended hearth should be used. This is easily achieved
when the heater is properly positioned in the room for
maximum heating. This position is in the center of the
room so that all four brick walls of the heater are providing
radiant heat to the room.
 Fig. 2
Fountain-Style Brick Masonry Heater

The brick masonry heater should always be posi-
tioned entirely inside the building. It should never be
incorporated into an exterior wall, because much of the
radiant heat would be lost to the exterior. In addition to
this heat loss, the location on the exterior wall will usually
result in at least one cold surface on which a considerable
amount of creosote may form. A creosote fire may well
result in sufficient damage to the heater so that it is no
longer safe to operate.
FOUNTAIN-STYLE HEATER
and construction of the fountain-style heater. The foun-
tain-style heater, often referred to as a Finnish stove or
vertical contra-flow masonry stove, is believed by most
experts to be the most efficient brick masonry heater. For
proper combustion, the air intake to the combustion
chamber should be approximately 0.80 cfm/lb (0.00083
m3/sec/kg) of wood being burned in the combustion
chamber. This requirement is for the typical size fountain-
style heater, which is usually loaded with 10 lb (4.5 kg) to
20 lb (9.1 kg) every 30 min for a 2-hr period.

General Base Assembly

A typical design of a fountain-style heater is shown in In the fountain-style heater, the baffle system provides
Figs. 1 and 2. There are many variations to the design for the circulation of combustion gases under the hearth

4
 Fig. 3
Fountain-Style Brick Masonry Heater

of the firebox where they are vented to the chimney.
Thus, when designing and constructing this style heater,
the baffle system and chimney support must be incorpo-
rated into the base assembly.
Foundation. The foundation system must be ade-
quate to support the mass of the brick masonry heater
and the masonry chimney. When designing the founda-
tion, care should be taken to account for soil types and
foundation conditions. Undisturbed or well-compacted
soil will generally be sufficient. However, some types of
soils or foundation conditions may require special analy-
sis. This could result in the need for special soil treat-
ments or a unique foundation design.
5
Building codes generally require that the footing be at
least 12 in. (300 mm) thick, and in plan view extend a
minimum of 6 in. (150 mm) beyond each face of the
masonry heater and chimney assembly. The footing
should be positioned so that its base is below the frost
line to reduce the possibility of "heaving."
Hearth Support. The brick masonry used to form the
hearth support is constructed directly on the foundation
system. Even with a thickened slab in a newly construct-
ed slab-on-grade structure, masonry is usually used to
construct the base assembly to the height of the hearth
support because to properly construct a fountain-style
heater, a raised hearth is usually required. The hearth
 Fig. 4
Modified Conventional Fireplace
support may be solid masonry carried up from the footing
to support the entire hearth area. To conserve materials,
the base assembly is usually constructed of masonry
which has the same dimensions in plan as the masonry
heater and chimney assembly itself. The base assembly
is corbeled to form the support for the extended hearth.
A soot pocket should be formed at the base of the
chimney assembly, approximately 20 in. (500 mm) to 24
in. (600 mm) below the firebox hearth. These dimensions
will provide a soot pocket that is, approximately 8 in. (200
mm) in height, which will accommodate a standard size
clean-out door. The baffle chamber is started at the top of
6
the soot pocket. The baffle chamber should be at least 5
in. (125 mm) (about two courses of standard size brick)
high. The last course of brick forming the soot pocket
should be corbeled to provide the support for the chimney
liner. The first chimney liner should be cut so that the
entire front of the liner, for the height of the base baffle
chamber, is removed. This opening is used to exhaust
the combustion gases to the chimney. The baffle system
needs to be designed so that the vertical baffle chamber,
at least 3 in. (75 mm) wide and 16 in. (400 mm) long, may
be continued up along the sides of the firebox. The
remaining portion of the baffle chamber should be con-
 Fig. 5
Modified Conventional Fireplace
structed so that the combustion gases will be directed to
the rear of the base assembly and vented to the chimney.
At the base of the baffle chamber, clean-out doors should
be installed so that soot and ash deposits may be removed.
The shell of the fountain-style heater is also started at the
base of the baffle system. This shell should be constructed
of two wythes of brick masonry separated by a nominal 1-in.
(25 mm) air space and tied with metal ties. The exterior
wythe should contain horizontal joint reinforcement.
Because these vertical baffle chambers must extend up
along the sides of the firebox, the size of the base is directly
7
dependent upon the firebox dimensions.
Extended Hearth. As the base assembly is con-
structed, the support for the extended hearth is usually
formed so that the top of the extended hearth may be
constructed at or slightly below the clean-outs. The
extended hearth is usually formed by placing a reinforced
concrete slab on top of the corbeled base assembly, as
shown in Fig. 1. Non-combustible, or removable, forming
should be placed so that it spans from the corbeled
masonry to the floor joists forming the opening for the
heater. Double joists should be used around the entire
perimeter of the opening with a nailer attached to the
joists to support the edge of the forming material. This
type of construction is discussed in more detail in
Technical Notes 19A Revised. To decrease the number of
concrete slabs occurring within the heater assembly, the
extended hearths may be formed by using trimmer arch-
es, as shown in Fig. 3.
The extended hearth should be at least 20 in. (500
mm) in front of the firebox opening and 16 in. (400 mm)
around the remaining perimeter of the heater. The
extended hearth may be eliminated on the back of the
heater if it is positioned against a non-combustible wall
with a minimum fire rating of 1 hr. Once the reinforced
slab is installed, the extended hearth may be finished with
brick pavers and at least one course of brick masonry
should be placed to form the base of the fountain-style
heater baffle chamber. If removable forming is used, the
concrete slab used to support the extended hearth must
be designed as a cantilever.
Ash Pit. The masonry heater, because of its efficient
combustion of wood, does not require an ash pit. If an
ash pit is desired, it should be positioned so that the ash
drop occurs in the center of the firebox width, toward the
front of the firebox. This location results in the ash pit
being formed by brick masonry used to construct the por-
tion of the baffle system in the base assembly. The ash
drop should extend through the firebox hearth and hearth
support. If an exterior combustion air system is desired,
the optional ash pit should be eliminated and replaced
with the vertical air passageway which forms the exterior
combustion air inlet to the firebox.
Firebox Assembly
The firebox assembly is constructed on a reinforced
concrete slab, which spans from the front to the rear of
the heater. The reinforced concrete slab should be at
least 2 1/2 in. (63 mm) thick and must be thick enough to
satisfy the structural and reinforcement coverage require-
ments. The slab should bear at least 2 in. (50 mm) on the
interior wythe of the shell of the brick masonry heater.
The width of the slab must be limited to the outside
dimensions of the firebox width so that the baffle chamber
may be continuous to the base assembly.
The typical dimensions of the firebox opening are: 12
in. (300 mm) to 18 in. (450 mm) wide, by 24 in. (600 mm)
in height. The firebox is usually 18 in. (450 mm) to 24 in.
(600 mm) deep, and about as wide as the firebox open-
ing. The shape of the firebox is similar to that of a con-
ventional fireplace without flared sides. The back wall of
the firebox is sloped forward to form the throat. This
slope usually begins at about 12 in. (300 mm) from the
firebox hearth and should form a 4-in. (100 mm) throat
that is as wide as the combustion chamber.
The combustion chamber should be constructed of
refractory brick units to obtain a thickness of at least 2 1/2
in. (63 mm). A sliding damper may be installed at the throat.
The throat damper is usually installed so that it may be
operated from the face of the fireplace. If a throat damper is
used, sufficient provisions are necessary to allow for the
thermal expansion so that the damper does not bind or
8
crack the surrounding brick masonry. Whenever possible, a
throat damper should not be used.
If air is to be provided to the smoke chamber, provi-
sions must be made in the face of the heater to form an
air passageway. The air inlet is usually through specially
fabricated firebox doors and placed so that the air enters
the smoke chamber at the throat where the velocity of the
combustion gases is the greatest. A specially designed
firebox door is usually required to provide combustion air
to the smoke chamber.
Smoke Chamber Assembly
The smoke chamber assembly should be constructed
of refractory brick units. The base of the smoke chamber
should be constructed of fire brick. The front and rear
walls of the smoke chamber should be 12 in. (300 mm) to
16 in. (400 mm) high. The side walls should be 8 in. (200
mm) to 12 in. (300 mm) high to provide an opening for the
combustion gases to enter the vertical baffle chambers.
The top of the smoke chamber should be constructed of a
2 1/2 in. (63 mm) to 4 in. (100 mm) thick reinforced refrac-
tory-concrete slab. The slab thickness must be adequate
for structural and reinforcement coverage requirements.
The rear of the slab should bear at least 2 in. (50 mm) on
the wythe of brick immediately behind the fire brick wall of
the smoke chamber. The front and sides should bear at
least 2 in. (50 mm) on the interior wythe of the shell of the
heater. The distance from the bottom of this slab to the
bottom of the baffle chamber should not exceed 5 ft (1.5
m), thus controlling the distance combustion gases are
circulated and the height of the heater.
The smoke chamber is often constructed with an
opening directly into the chimney. This opening is
installed to provide a by-pass for when little or no heating
is required. It should be equipped with a rotating damper.
This by-pass is shown in Figs. 1 through 3.
Crown
The crown of the fountain-style heater should be at
least 12 in. (300 mm) thick, including the refractory slab
forming the top of the smoke chamber. The crown should
terminate at least 12 in. (300 mm) below the ceiling of the
room. This may require that the baffle chambers be
extended below the floor line of the room.
Chimney
The chimney for the fountain-style heater is similar to
those used for residential appliances. The chimney
should be constructed of fireclay flue liners and 8 in. (200
mm) of brick masonry surrounding the liner in such a way
as to maintain a nominal 1 in. (25 mm) space between the
flue liner and the brick chimney walls. Additional informa-
tion on chimney design and construction is provided in
Technical Notes 19B Revised.
The chimney height required for draft is usually higher
than that necessary for a conventional fireplace, but fol-
lowing building code requirements for fire safety will usu-
ally result in a sufficiently high chimney. The major model
building codes require that chimneys must terminate at
least 3 ft (1 m) above the roof at the highest point of exit
and at least 2 ft (600 mm) above any portion of the build-
ing or adjacent structures within 10 ft (3 m) of the chim-
ney. If draft is determined to be inadequate by a smoke Smoke Chamber Assembly
test, the chimney height should be increased to provide The conventional smoke chamber is replaced by a
adequate draft. baffle system as shown in Figs. 4 and 5. The baffle sys-
CONTEMPORARY-STYLE HEATERS tem begins at the top of the rear of the firebox. The baffle
General chambers should be about 7 1/2 in. (188 mm) by 7 1/2 in.
(188 mm) square. Immediately above the first horizontal
The brick masonry heater formed by modifying a con- baffle are three horizontal baffle chambers, each separat-
ventional fireplace, as shown in Figs. 4 through 7, is one ed by 5 in. (125 mm) of face or building brick. The baffle
of the easiest brick masonry heaters to construct and also system is separated vertically into right and left chambers
retains most of the esthetic value of a conventional fire- by 4 in. (100 mm) to 8 in. (200 mm) of brickwork. The
place. This style of heater has the baffle system, through second horizontal baffle above the firebox should be
which combustion gases are circulated, incorporated sole- equipped with a clean-out so that any soot or ash
ly in the smoke chamber assembly. Variations in the deposits may be removed.
smoke chamber and the firebox are the only major differ-
ences from a conventional fireplace. The front and side
sections of the contemporary-style heater are shown in
Figs. 4 and 5, respectively. The heater under construction
is shown in Fig. 6, and Fig. 7 shows a completed contem-
porary-style heater.
Base Assembly
The requirements for the base assembly are essen-
tially the same as for the other brick masonry heaters and
conventional fireplaces. The foundation system require-
ments discussed for fountain-style heaters are also applic-
able to the modified conventional fireplace.
The hearth support is similar to that of a conventional
fireplace, as discussed in Technical Notes 19 Revised and
19A Revised. The hearth support is usually constructed
of a reinforced concrete slab, as previously discussed.
For this style heater, it is necessary to have only a 20-in.
(500 mm) extended hearth at the front face of the heater.
The thickness of the side and rear walls at the floor line
usually provides adequate fire protection. However,
Fig. 6
because the higher portions of this heater are much hot- Contemporary-Style Brick Masonry Heater Under Construction
ter, a minimum 12-in. (300 mm) clearance should be
maintained between the back and sides of the heater and
any combustible materials.
If an ash pit is desired, it may be constructed the
same as for a conventional fireplace. External combus-
tion and draft air systems used with conventional fire-
places may also be incorporated into this style heater.
Additional information is provided in Technical Notes 19
Revised and 19A Revised.
Firebox Assembly
The firebox is constructed as a rectangular box that is
usually about 20 in. (500 mm) deep and 30 in. (750 mm)
wide. The opening of the firebox is usually about 27 in.
(675 mm) high. Immediately behind the top of the firebox
opening, which is constructed of face or building brick on
a steel lintel, is the top of the firebox. The top of the fire-
box is formed as a brick masonry arch, extending from
the inside face of the heater and terminating about 6 in.
(150 mm) to 8 in. (200 mm) from the rear wall of the fire-
box. At the crown of the arch, above the opening, the first Fig. 7
horizontal baffle is constructed. This baffle extends about Contemporary-Style Brick Masonry Heater Under Construction
8 in. (200 mm) to 12 in. (300 mm) on either side of the
firebox, and is constructed of refractory units.

9

Crown
The crown of this modified conventional fireplace
should be at least 12 in. (300 mm) thick, and terminate at
least 12 in. (300 mm) from the ceiling of the room. A
rotating damper should be installed at the center of the
heater width.
Chimney
The chimney should be constructed as a lined chim-
ney with 8 in. (200 mm) of brick masonry surrounding the
flue liner in such a way that a nominal 1-in. (25 mm) air
space is maintained between the flue liner and the brick.
The flue liner support should be formed by the last course
of brick masonry in the crown. The termination require-
ments as previously discussed apply and additional infor-
mation regarding chimney design is provided in Technical
Notes 19B Revised.
SELECTION OF MATERIALS
General
The accessories used in Europe are not usually avail-
able in the United States. The design and construction of
the brick masonry heater using products available in
North America are slightly different from the construction
of the heater in Europe. There are methods to modify the
design and construction so that products readily available
in the United States may be used with the brick masonry
heater. The option also exists to import the accessories
or to fabricate accessories similar to those used in
Europe. However, these options are usually uneconomi-
cal. Additional information regarding accessories may be
obtained from the cited references.
Brick
Most building codes require that solid masonry units
be used for fireplace construction. Solid brick should be
nominal 3 in. (75 mm) or 4 in. (100 mm) thick, conforming
to ASTM C 216 or C 62, for facing brick or building brick,
respectively. If a single wythe of reinforced, grouted hol-
low brick is used, the hollow brick should be at least 8 in.
(200 mm) wide and should conform to ASTM C 652.
Grade SW brick should be used because of its greater
durability.
Refractory brick, conforming to ASTM C 64, medium
duty, should be used for the firebox. The lining for the
first baffle chamber of the contemporary-style heater and
the smoke chamber of the fountain-style heater should
also be constructed of refractory units because these
areas are exposed to the greatest amounts of heat. The
refractory units are more resistant to heat and thermal
shock.
Salvaged or used brick should not be used, because
they usually will not bond well with the mortar and lack the
durability necessary for satisfactory performance. The
use of salvaged brick is discussed in Technical Notes 15.
Flue Liners
Flue liners should conform to ASTM C 315. They
should be thoroughly inspected just prior to installation for
10
cracks or other damage that might contribute to smoke
and flue gas leakage.
Mortar and Grout
It is most convenient and economical to use only one
type of mortar for the entire brick masonry heater and
chimney assembly. This becomes difficult when con-
structing a brick masonry heater because of the specific
requirements of each component. The portions of the
heater consisting of building, face or hollow brick should
be constructed using a Type N, portland cement-lime mor-
tar, conforming to the proportion specifications of ASTM C
270 or BIA M1-72. The same mortar should be used for
the chimney brickwork except when wind loads exceed 25
psf (1.2 kPa). Where high wind loads exist, a Type S,
portland cement-lime mortar, conforming to the proportion
specifications of ASTM C 270 or BIA M1-72, should be
used. It may be desirable to use high temperature-resis-
tant mortars, such as calcium aluminate mortars, for the
interior wythes and baffles of the brick masonry heater.
Such mortars will increase the durability of the heater.
The firebox and all other components constructed of
refractory units should be placed using a fireclay mortar
conforming to ASTM C 105, medium duty. Other refracto -
ry mortars have also been used successfully, and thus
any high temperature-resistant mortars that have per-
formed well may be used. It is not within the purview of
the Brick Institute of America to recommend proprietary
products. The selection of the proper mortars should be
determined by an experienced fireplace expert for the
specific design being considered.
Grout is required for reinforced hollow walls and rein-
forced hollow brick construction. Such assemblies must
be fully grouted. The grout should conform to ASTM C
476.
Steel Lintels and Dampers
Steel lintels should be used only above the firebox
opening because of the high temperatures occurring with-
in the heater. The thermal expansion characteristics of
the different materials could cause cracking of the brick
masonry heater. Lintels of corrosion-resistant steel, con-
forming to ASTM A 36, should be used to span over the
firebox door openings. Non-combustible, compressible
material should be placed at the ends of all lintels to pro-
vide for differential thermal movements.
Ties and Reinforcement
Corrugated Metal Ties. Corrugated metal ties may be
used to anchor the baffles to the interior wythe of the heater
walls and to tie the two wythes of the exterior walls of the
heater. Ties should be corrosion-resistant, approximately 22
ga, 7/8 in. (22.2 mm) wide, and 6 in. (150 mm) long. Stiffer
ties should not be used, as they may transfer stresses due to
thermal expansion of the interior wythe to the exterior wythe
of the brick masonry heater.
Prefabricated Joint Reinforcement. Prefabricated joint
reinforcement should be used only in the exterior wythe of the
heater walls. The joint reinforcement should be fabricated
from wire which complies with ASTM A82 or ASTM A 185,
and must be corrosion-resistant.

Reinforcement. Reinforcement should conform to any
of the following applicable standards:
Standard Specifications for Deformed Billet-Steel Bars
for Concrete Reinforcement-ASTM A 615
Standard Specifications for Rail-Steel Deformed Bars
for Concrete Reinforcement-ASTM A 616
Standard Specifications for Axle-Steel Deformed Bars
for Concrete Reinforcement-ASTM A 617
Corrosion Resistance. Corrosion resistance is usu-
ally provided by a copper or zinc coating, or by using
stainless steel. To ensure adequate resistance to corro-
sion, coatings or materials should conform to any of the
following applicable standards:
Zinc-Coating of Flat Metal-ASTM A 153, Class B-1, B-
2, or B-3
Zinc-Coating of Wire-ASTM A 641, Class 3
Copper Coated Wire-ASTM B 227, Grade 30 HS
Stainless Steel-ASTM A 167, Type 304
Firebox Doors
The doors for the firebox opening may be fabricated
locally, ordered from Europe, or may be conventional,
metal Dutch oven doors, which are the most economical.
The brick masonry heater is not designed for airtight com-
bustion and thus the doors need to be equipped with
operable vents to control air intake into the firebox. The
size of the firebox opening is determined by the size of
the firebox door used. Other alternatives which exist for
the firebox design and firebox doors are discussed in
other Technical Notes in this Series. Glass screens may
be used, but they must be capable of withstanding the
high temperatures and severe exposure occurring within
the firebox.
Clean-Out Doors
Conventional clean-out doors may be used, but to
ensure tightness, refractory units should be placed within
the door opening with a compressible material or set in a
sand-lime mortar. The refractory units increase the resis-
tance to combustion gas leaks, provide protection to the
metal door from high temperatures, and may easily be
removed and replaced when cleaning. This is shown in
Technical Notes 19D. Clean-out doors for the ash drop
may be conventional clean-out doors, installed in the con-
ventional manner.
SUMMARY
The information and suggestions contained in this
Technical Notes are an accumulation of the available
information within the Brick Institute of America on brick
masonry heaters. The information is based on empirical
data from actual performance of such heaters here in
North America and in Europe. The information provided
in this Technical Notes and Technical Notes 19D does not
address all of the possible variations, or alterations, which
may be incorporated into a brick masonry heater by
design or construction requirements. The information and
recommendations provided in this Technical Notes dis-
11
cuss the basic principles and guidelines by which fire-
place experts using good technical judgment may design
and construct a functional brick masonry heater.
Final decisions on the design and use of materials, as
discussed in this Technical Notes, are not within the
purview of the Brick Institute of America and must rest
with the project designer, owner, or both.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The assistance provided by Mira Wisniewska, of
Technical Translation International, Limited, 500 Fifth
Avenue, Suite 200, New York, New York, 10036, who
translated the articles listed in References 1 through 5, is
greatly appreciated. The information provided by Heikki
Hyytiainen to the members of the BIA Technical and
Manpower Development Staff at the ''Masonry Stoves
Workshop,'' held by Albie Barden in Camden, Maine, July
12-15, 1981, was most helpful, and is greatly appreciated.
REFERENCES
1. "Tulisija-ja hormirakenteet.'' by Kari Måkelå, Tekn.
Iis. Tiilikeskus Oy, Iso Roobertinkatu 20,00120
Helsinki 12, Finland, 1980 Rakennustaito. (Fireplaces
and Flue Structures)
2. ''Tiilessa" on inhimillinen jålki,
Keskusuuni,''Tiilikeskus Oy, Iso Roobertinkatu 20,
00120 Helsinki 12, Finland, 1980. (Brick Bears Traces
of Human Touch).
3. ''Tiilessa" on inhimillinen jålki. Låmmittåvå Ja
Lampoavaraava Takka,'' Tiilikeskus Oy, Iso
Roobertinkatu 20,00120 Helsinki 12, Finland,
(Fireplaces for Heating and Heat Storage, List of
Materials and Supplies and Drawings).
4. ''Tarvitaanko uuneja jalleen'' by Professor Olavi
Vuorelainen, Tiili, March 1978. (Are Stoves Again
Required'?)
5. ''Tilisijan suunnittelu" by Heikki Hyytiainen,
Architect, Tiili, March 1978. (Fireplace Design).
6. ''The Russian Fireplace,'' Colorado Masonry
Institute, Suite 301, 3003 East Third Avenue at
Milwaukee, Denver, Colorado, 80206, 1982.
7. ''Complete plans and Instruction for Construction
and Operation of a Masonry Stove, Finnish or
Russian Fireplace," by Basilio Lepuschinko,
Richmond, Maine, 1980.
8. "A Russian-Type Fireplace Demonstration and
Workshop,'' New Mexico Energy Institute, The
University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico,
May 1981.
9. Summit Pressed Brick and Tile Company,
Thirteenth and Erie, Pueblo, Colorado, 81002.
10. The Woodburners Encyclopedia, Section One, by
Jay Shelton, Vermont Crossroads Press, Waitsfield,
Vermont, 05672, February 1978.
 20
Technical Notes REVISED II

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
November
1990

CLEANING BRICK MASONRY

Abstract: This Technical Notes addresses cleaning new buildings, removal of green (vanadium) and brown
(manganese) stains, removal of stains from external sources and cleaning existing and historic buildings.
Procedures included, if followed with good judgment, should result in successful applications of cleaning brick
masonry.
Key Words: brick, cleaning, efflorescence, existing masonry, historic structures, new masonry, stains.

inspection of the sample test area after a period of not

INTRODUCTION
The final appearance of a brick masonry wall depends
primarily on the attention given to masonry surfaces dur-
ing construction and the cleaning process. Many of the
problems of brick masonry, brought to the attention of the
Brick Institute of America over the past years, have result-
ed from improper cleaning methods. Some walls have
been irreparably damaged as a result of a lack of atten-
tion to cleaning details and procedures.
Cleaning failures generally fall into one of three cate-
gories:
1. Failure to thoroughly saturate the brick masonry
surface with water before and after application of
chemical or detergent cleaning solutions. Dry mason-
ry permits absorption of the cleaning solution and may
result in "mortar smear", "white scum", or the develop-
ment of efflorescence or "green stain". Saturation of
the surface prior to cleaning reduces the absorption
rate, permitting the cleaning solution to stay on the
surface rather than be absorbed.
2. Failure to properly use chemical cleaning solutions.
Improperly mixed or overly concentrated acid solu-
tions can etch or wash out cementitious materials
from the mortar joints. They have a tendency to dis-
color masonry units, particularly lighter shades, pro-
ducing an appearance frequently termed "acid burn"
and can also promote the development of "green" and
"brown" stains.
3. Failure to protect windows, doors, and trim. Many
cleaning agents, particularly acid solutions, have a
corrosive effect on metal. If permitted to come in con-
tact with metal frames, the solutions may cause pitting
of the metal or staining of the masonry surface and
trim materials, such as limestone and cast stone.
GENERAL
Before the actual cleaning of a project begins, all
cleaning procedures and solutions should be applied to a
2
sample test area of approximately 20 sq. ft. (1.9 m ). The
effectiveness of the cleaning agent should be judged by
less than one week after application. The size of the test
area may be larger, depending upon the cleaning proce-
dure. The indiscriminate use of muriatic acid or the wrong
proprietary compound can cause unsightly, difficult-to-
remove stains. Reactions of brick and cleaning solutions
are not always predictable and thus it is safer to use a
trial-and-error method on a small test area before commit-
ting the entire project to a set procedure. Minute quanti-
ties of certain minerals found in some fired clay masonry
units and materials, such as manganese, added to color
brick may react with some solutions and cause staining.
Sample testing should be performed under conditions of
temperature and humidity that will closely approximate the
conditions under which the brickwork will be cleaned.
Chemical cleaning solutions are generally more effective
when the outdoor temperature is 50˚F (10 ˚C) or above.
It is always advisable for the mason to keep the brick-
work as free from mortar smears as possible. However,
in modern construction, where speed is important, even
the most skilled of bricklayers may find this difficult.
Some general precautions that can be taken to promote a
cleaner wall are as follows:
1. Protect the base of the wall from rain-splashed mud
and mortar splatter. Use straw, sand, sawdust, or
plastic sheeting spread out on the ground, extending
3 to 4 ft. (0.9 to 1.2 m) from the wall surface and 2 to
3 ft. (0.6 to 0.9 m) up the wall.
2. Scaffold boards near the wall should be turned on
edge at the end of the day to prevent possible rainfall
from splashing mortar and dirt directly on the complet-
ed masonry.
3. Cover walls with a waterproof membrane at the end
of the workday to prevent mortar joint wash out and
entry of water into the completed masonry.
4. Protect site stored brick from mud. Store brick off
the ground under protective covering.
5. Careful workmanship should be practiced to pre-
vent excessive mortar droppings. Excess mortar
should be cut off with the trowel as the brick are laid.
 TABLE 1
Cleaning Guide for New Masonry

Brick Category Cleaning Method Remarks

Red and Red Flashed Bucket and Brush Proprietary compounds, hydrochloric acid solutions, and emulsifying agents may be used.
Hand Cleaning
Smooth Texture: Mortar stains and smears are generally easier to remove: less surface area
Pressurized Water exposed; easier to presoak and rinse; unbroken surface, thus more likely to display poor rinsing,
Sandblasting acid staining, poor removal of mortar smears.
Rough Texture: Mortar and dirt tend to penetrate deep into textures: additional area for water
and acid absorption; essential to use pressurized water during rinsing.

Red Body with Sand Bucket and Brush Clean with plain water and scrub brush using light pressure. Excessive mortar stains may
Finish or Surface Hand Cleaning require use of cleaning solutions. Sandblasting is not recommended. Cleaning may affect
Coating appearance.

Light Colored Units, Bucket and Brush Do not use muriatic acid!! Clean with plain water, detergents, emulsifying agents, or suitable pro-
White, Tan, Buff, Hand Cleaning prietary compounds. Manganese colored brick units tend to react to muriatic acid solutions and
Gray, Specks, Pink, Pressurized Water stains. Light colored brick are more susceptible to “acid burn” and stains, compared to darker
Brown and Black units.
Sandblasting

Light Colored Units Bucket and Brush See notes for Red Body with Sand Finish or Surface Coating and Light Colored Units: etc.,
With Sand Finish or Hand Cleaning Sandblasting is not recommended.
Surface Coating

Glazed Brick Bucket and Brush Wipe glazed surface with soft cloth within a few minutes of laying units. Use of soft sponge or
Hand Cleaning brush plus ample water supply for final washing. Use detergents where necessary and acid solu-
Pressurized Water tions only for very difficult mortar stain. Do not use acid on salt glazed or metallic glazed brick.
Do not use abrasive powders. Do not use metal cleaning tools or brushes.

Colored Mortars Method is generally Many manufacturers of colored mortars do not recommend chemical cleaning solutions. Most
controlled by the brick acids tend to bleach colored mortars. Mild detergent solutions are generally recommended.
unit

Joints should be tooled when "thumbprint" hard. After
tooling, excess mortar and dust should be brushed
from the surface. Avoid any motion that will result in
rubbing or pressing mortar particles into the brick
faces. A medium soft bristle brush is preferable.
CLEANING NEW MASONRY
General
Table 1 should be referred to as a general cleaning
guide for new masonry. Present cleaning methods for
new masonry may be classified into three categories: 1)
Bucket and Brush Hand Cleaning, 2) Pressurized Water
Cleaning, and 3) Sandblasting. Some chemicals or
chemical compounds used to clean brickwork and the
resulting fumes may be harmful. Protective clothing and
accessories, proper ventilation and safe handling proce-
dures must be exercised. The use and disposal of some
chemicals or chemical compounds are regulated by feder-
al, state or local laws and should be researched before
use. Manufacturer's material and handling requirements
should be strictly observed.
Bucket and Brush Hand Cleaning
This is probably the most popular but most misunder-
stood of all the methods used for cleaning brick masonry.
Its popularity is due to the simplicity of execution and the
ready availability of proprietary cleaning compounds. A
recommended general procedure using proprietary com-
pounds, detergents or acid solutions is as follows:
1. Select the proper solution.
a. For proprietary compounds, make sure that the
one selected is suitable for the brick and follow the
cleaning compound manufacturer's recommended
dilution instructions. Many proprietary cleaning solu-
tions perform in a satisfactory manner for their intend-
ed cleaning jobs. However, their formulae are not
generally disclosed and may be subject to change. It
is suggested, therefore, that each product being con-
sidered be sample tested on a panel or inconspicuous
wall area and judged on a trial basis before being
used.
b. Detergent or soap solutions may be used to
remove mud, dirt and soil accumulated during con-
struction. A suggested solution is 1/2 cup dry mea-
sure (0.14 L) of trisodium phosphate and 1/2 cup dry
measure (0.14 L) of laundry detergent dissolved in
one gallon (3.9 L) of clean water.
c. For acid solutions, mix a 10% solution of muriatic
acid (9 parts clean water to 1 part acid) in a non-metallic
container. Pour acid into water. Do not permit metal
tools to contact the acid solution. There is the tempta-
tion to mix acid solutions stronger than recommended in
order to clean stubborn stains. The indiscriminate use
of any acid solution may tend to cause further stains.

2
 2. Schedule cleaning at least seven days after the
brick masonry is completed. Mortar must be thor-
oughly set and cured. Prolonged time periods
between the completion of the masonry work and the
actual cleaning should be avoided when possible.
Mortar smears and splatters left over a long period of
time (6 months to 1 year) can cure on the wall surface
and become very difficult to remove.
3. Remove larger mortar particles by hand with wood-
en paddles and non-metallic scrape hoes or chisels.
4. Protect metal, glass, wood, limestone and cast
stone surfaces. Mask or otherwise protect windows,
doors, and ornamental trim from cleaning solutions.
5. Presoak or saturate the area to be cleaned. Flush
with water, from the top down. Saturated brick
masonry will not absorb the cleaning solution or dis-
solved mortar particles. Areas below should also be
saturated in order to prevent absorption of the run-off
from above.
6. Starting at the top, apply the cleaning solution.
Use a long handled stiff fiber brush or other type as
recommended by the cleaning solution manufacturer.
Allow the solution to remain on the brickwork 5 to 10
minutes. For proprietary compounds follow the manu-
facturer's instructions for application and scrubbing.
Wooden paddles or other non-metallic tools may be
used to remove stubborn particles. Do not use metal
scrapers or chisels. Metal marks will oxidize and
cause staining.
7. Heat, direct sunlight, warm masonry and drying
winds will affect the drying time and reaction rate of
cleaning solutions. Ideally, the cleaning crew should
be working on shaded areas to avoid rapid evapora-
tion.
8. Rinse thoroughly!! Flush walls with large amounts
of clean water from top to bottom before they can dry.
Failure to completely flush the wall of cleaning solu-
tion and dissolve matter from top to bottom may result
in the formation of "white scum".
9. Work on a small area. The size of the "wash
down" area should be determined after a trial run.
This will permit the cleaning crew to examine work for
initial results.
Pressurized Water Cleaning
To cut labor costs, many cleaning contractors utilize
pressurized water. Some pressure systems feature a
pressure gun and nozzle equipped with a control switch.
This setup permits the operator to apply solutions to a
wall over 100 ft. (30.5 m) from the base unit. Other sys-
tems have two separate hoses - one with plain water and
the other with a cleaning solution. Low pressure has
been defined as 100 to 300 psi (700 to 2100 kPa), medi-
um pressure as 300 to 700 psi (2100 to 4850 kPa) and
high pressure as 700 psi (4850 kPa) or greater. A sand
finish or a surface coating may be removed by pressur-
ized water cleaning, resulting in a different appearance.
Nozzle pressure in excess of 700 psi (4850 kPa) may
damage brick units and erode mortar joints.
Equipment should be as portable as possible. Units
3
may be on wheels, skids, trailers, or pick-up truck beds.
More elaborate systems include pumps, engines, acid
containers, and water storage tanks fixed on truck beds.
Cleaning compounds used with this method should be
compatible with the equipment. Some equipment manu-
facturers are careful to recommend that only specific
cleaning compounds be pumped through their equipment.
Others build pumps that will resist hydrochloric acid solu-
tions for reasonable lengths of time.
The following procedure is suggested:
1. Select and test the cleaning solution on a sample
area. Check the equipment for cleaning solution com-
patibility. For proprietary compounds, mix in accor-
dance with the manufacturer's instructions.
2. - 5. Presoak wall. Same as steps 2 through 5 of
Bucket and Brush Hand Cleaning method.
6. Application of cleaning solutions may be by a low
pressure sprayer, 30 to 50 psi (200 to 350 kPa), or
through the high pressure cleaning unit.
7. Permit the cleaning solution to remain on the wall
for approximately 5 minutes.
8. Starting at the top, flush the wall down, as in the
previous procedure.
9. Caution: It is possible for solutions to be driven
into the masonry when applied under high pressure,
and become the source of future staining. However, if
the walls are sufficiently saturated with water before
the solutions are applied, the risk of penetration is
reduced. Experience has shown that this cleaning
method has a high probability of changing the appear -
ance of sand molded brick, sand- faced extruded
brick, and brick with glazed coatings or slurries
applied to the finished faces. The brick manufacturer
should be consulted on the use of high pressure
water cleaning of such brick.
Sandblasting
Dry sandblasting has been around for many years
and is one method that may be used to clean brick
masonry. However, there is also the possibility that,
through improper execution, the face of brick units and
mortar joints may be scarred. This method is sometimes
preferred over conventional wet cleaning since it elimi-
nates the problem of chemical reaction with vanadium
salts and other materials used in manufacturing brick.
Light and heavily sanded, coated, glazed and slurry fin-
ished brick should not be cleaned by sandblasting.
Sandblasting by a qualified operator, in conjunction
with proper specifications and job inspection, can be sat-
isfactory. Basically, it involves a portable air compressor,
blasting tank, blasting hose, nozzle, and protective cloth-
ing and hood for the operator. The air compressor should
be capable of producing 60 to 100 psi (400 to 700 kPa) at
3
a minimum air flow capacity of 125 cu ft. (3.5 m ) per
minute. The inside orifice or bore of the nozzle may vary
from 3/16 to 5/16 in. (4.8 to 7.9 mm) in diameter. The
sandblast machine (tank) should be equipped with con-
trols to regulate the flow of abrasive materials to the noz-
zle at a minimum rate of 300 lb/h (0.04 kg/s). Should the brickwork have been cleaned with an acid
There are various degrees of cutting or cleaning solution and "green staining" appears, the following proce-
desired and consequently many types of abrasive materi- dure may be followed to neutralize the acid:
als. They may be of mined silica sand, crushed quartz, 1. Immediately following the acid wash, flush brick-
granite, white urn sand (round particles), crushed nut work with water.
shells, and other softer abrasives. Mined silica sands and 2. Wash or spray the brickwork with a solution of
crushed quartz should have a hardness of approximately potassium or sodium hydroxide, consisting of 1/2 lb
6 on Moh's Scale and be a Type "A" or "B" gradation. See (0.23 kg) hydroxide to 1 qt (0.95 L) water or 2 lb (0.91
Table 2. kg) per gal (3.79 L). Allow this to remain for two or
A suggested procedure for sandblasting is as follows: three days.
1. Select sandblast materials that are clean, dust free
and abrasive. TABLE 2
Typical Screen Analysis for Sandblasting Sand Abrasives a
2. Brick masonry should be dry and well cured.
3. Remove all large mortar particles, as in previous
methods. Type Gradation U.S. Seive Size Percent Passing
4. Protect non-masonry surfaces adjacent to cleaning
areas. Use plastic sheeting, duct tape or other cover- Type “A” 30 Mesh 98-100
ing materials. Fine Texturing
b
40 Mesh 75-85
5. Test clean several areas at varying distances from 50 Mesh 44-55
the wall and several angles that afford the best clean- 100 Mesh 0-15
ing job without damaging brick and mortar joints. 200 Mesh 0
Workmen should be instructed to direct abrasive at Type “B” 16 Mesh 87-100
Medium 18 Mesh 75-95
the units and not on the mortar joints.
c 30 Mesh 20-50
Texturing
40 Mesh 0-15
REMOVING EFFLORESCENCE 50 Mesh 0-15
The removal of efflorescent salts is relatively easy
compared to some other stains. Efflorescent salts are
a
water soluble and generally will disappear of their own The screen analysis listed above is suggested primarily for mined silica sands
and crushed quartz. Reference source: “Good Practice for Cleaning New
accord with normal weathering. This is particularly true of Brickwork,” produced by the Brick Association of North Carolina, 822 N. Elm St.,
"new-building bloom". White efflorescent salts can be Greensboro, NC 27401.
b
removed by dry brushing or with clear water and a stiff Type “A” gradation is suggested for very lightly soiled brick masonry or where
very light, fine texturing of the masonry surface is permitted.
brush. Heavy accumulation or stubborn deposits of white c
Type “B” gradation is suggested for heavy mortar stains, or where a medium tex-
efflorescent salts may be removed with a proprietary turing of the masonry surface is permitted.
cleaner. It is imperative that the wall be saturated before
and after the solution is applied. Refer to Technical Notes 3. Use a hose to wash off the white salt remaining on
23 Series for more information on the cause and preven- the brickwork from the hydroxide.
tion of efflorescence. Various proprietary cleaning compounds have been
developed to remove "green stain". Their effectiveness
REMOVING "GREEN STAIN" (VANADIUM SALTS) on a particular wall can only be determined by test.
Brick units can develop yellow or green stains result-
ing from vanadium salts. These stains can be found on REMOVING "BROWN STAIN"
red, buff or white brick. The vanadium salts responsible (MANGANESE STAIN)
for these stains originate in the raw material used to man- Under certain special conditions this stain may occur
ufacture certain brick units. on mortar joints of brickwork containing manganese col-
As water travels through the brick, it dissolves the ored units. It appears as a tan, brown, nearly black, or
vanadium oxide and sulfates. Chloride salts of vanadium sometimes gray colored stain. The "brown stain" has an
require highly acidic leaching solutions and are usually oily appearance and may streak down over the face of the
the result of washing brick masonry with acid solutions. brick. It appears to be running down from the brick-mor-
Thus, the problem incurred with "green staining" often tar interface and is the result of manganese used in some
does not exist until the brickwork is washed down with an brick as a coloring agent. When the solution reaches the
acid solution. For further information on "green stain" mortar joints, the salts are deposited upon neutralization
refer to Technical Notes 23 Series. by the cement or lime. See Technical Notes 23 Series.
To minimize the occurrence of green stain: During firing in the manufacturing process of some
1. Store brick off the ground under protective cover- brick, manganese coloring agents experience several
ing. chemical changes. This results in compounds that are
2. Do not use acid solutions to clean light colored not soluble in water, but are soluble in weak acid solu-
brick. tions. Since brick can take up acid by absorption, such
3. Follow the recommendations of the brick manufac- weak acid solutions can prevail in brick washed with
turer for the proper cleaning compounds and proce- hydrochloric acid. Rainwater may also be acidic in some
dures. industrialized areas.
4
 To minimize this problem, do not use any acidic solu-
tions on tan, brown, black or gray brick. There are special
proprietary cleaning compounds available for cleaning
brick containing manganese. These may be tested for
effectiveness. The advice of the brick manufacturer
should be requested and followed.
The permanent removal of manganese stain may be
difficult. After initial removal it often returns. The follow-
ing method has been effective in removing "brown stain"
and preventing its return.
1. Carefully mix a solution of acetic acid (80% or
stronger), hydrogen peroxide (30-35%) and water in
the following proportions by volume: 1 part acetic
acid, 1 part hydrogen peroxide, and 6 parts water.
Caution: Although this solution is very effective, it is a
dangerous solution to mix and use. Acetic acid-
hydrogen peroxide may also be available in a pre -
mixed form known as peracetic acid. This acid, a tex -
tile chemical, is also dangerous and may be difficult to
purchase.
2. After wetting the brickwork, brush or spray on the
solution. Do not scrub. The reaction is usually very
rapid and the stain quickly disappears. After the reac-
tion is complete, rinse the wall thoroughly with water.
An alternate solution suggested for new and light col-
ored "brown stains" is oxalic acid crystals and water. Mix
1 lb of crystals (0.45 kg) to 1 gal (3.79 L) of water. There
are also proprietary compounds formulated to remove
"brown stains". Their effectiveness should be judged only
after testing.
Proprietary compounds have been used and some-
times found to be effective in keeping the stain from re-
appearing. Consult the recommendations and directions
of the cleaning solution or brick manufacturer when apply-
ing proprietary solutions to remove manganese stains.
REMOVAL OF EXTERNALLY CAUSED STAINS
General
These are stains caused by external materials being
spilled, splattered on, and absorbed by the brick. Each is
an individual case and must be treated accordingly.
A large number of external stains can be removed by
scrubbing with kitchen cleanser. Others can frequently be
removed by bleaching with a household bleach. A combi-
nation, such as is found in some kitchen cleansers, may
prove most effective. Table 3 lists sources of some mate-
rials suggested for this use.
Poultice
The use of a poultice is included in some of the rec-
ommendations that follow. A poultice is a paste, made
with a solvent or reagent and an inert material. It works
by dissolving the stain and leaching or pulling the solution
into the poultice. The powdery substance is simply
brushed off when dry. Repeated applications may be nec-
essary. Poultices tend to prevent the stain from spreading
during treatment and to pull the stain out of the pores of
the brick. Poultices are normally used only for small stain
spots.
5
The inert material may be talc, whiting, fuller's earth,
diatomaceous earth, bentonite or other clay. The solution
or solvent used will depend upon the nature of the stain to
be removed. Enough of the solution or solvent is added
to a small quantity of the inert material to make a smooth
paste. The paste is smeared onto the stained area with a
trowel or spatula and allowed to dry. When dried, the
remaining powder is scraped, brushed or washed off.
If the solvent used in preparing a poultice is an acid,
do not use whiting as the inert material. Whiting is a car-
bonate which reacts with acids to give off carbon dioxide.
While this is not dangerous, it will make a foamy mess
and destroy the power of the acid.
Paint Stains
For fresh paint, apply a commercial paint remover, or
a solution of trisodium phosphate in water at the rate of 2
lb. (0.91 kg) of trisodium phosphate in 1 gal (3.79 L) of
water. Allow to remain and soften the paint. Remove with
a scraper and a stiff bristle brush. Wash with clear water.
There are also commercial paint removers in the form of a
gel solvent. These should be applied on a small test area
on a trial basis. For very old dried paint, organic solvents
similar to the above may not be effective, in which case
the paint must be removed by sandblasting or scrubbing
with steel wool.
Iron Stains
Iron stains are quite common and, in some cases,
cover large areas. These stains are easily removed by
spraying or brushing with a strong solution 1 lb (0.45 kg)
of oxalic acid crystals per gal (3.79 L) of water.
Ammonium biflouride added to the solution 1/2 lb (0.23
kg) per gal (3.79 L) will speed up the reaction. The
ammonium biflouride generates hydroflouric acid, a very
dangerous material, which can etch the brick and glass.
Etching will be evident on very smooth brick. Therefore,
use this solution only with caution.
Alternate Method. Mix 7 parts lime-free glycerine
with a solution of 1 part sodium citrate in 6 parts luke-
warm water, and mix with whiting or diatomaceous earth
to make a poultice. Apply a thick paste on stain with trow-
el. Scrape off when dry. Repeat until stain has disap-
peared and wash thoroughly with clear water. A poultice
made from a solution of sodium thiosulfate and an inert
powder (talc) has also been used for the removal of iron
rust stain.
Copper or Bronze Stains
Mix together in dry form 1 part ammonium chloride
(sal ammoniac) and 4 parts powdered talc. Add ammonia
water and stir until a thick paste is obtained. Place this
over the stain and leave until dry. When working on
glazed brick use a wooden paddle to remove the paste.
An old stain of this kind may require several applications.
Aluminum chloride is sometimes used in the above proce-
dure instead of the sal ammoniac.
Welding Splatter TABLE 3
a
A problem related to iron staining is welding splatter. Sources of Cleaning and Masking Agents
When metal is welded too close to a pile of brick or com- Supply Source
pleted brickwork, some of the molten metal may splash Agent
onto the brick and melt into the surface. The oxalic acid-
Commercial and scientific chemical
ammonium biflouride mixture, recommended for iron Acetic Acid (80%)
supply firms.
stains, is particularly effective in removing welding splat-
Aluminum Chloride Pharmacist.
ters.
Scrape as much of the metal as possible from the Supermarket, Household ammonia
Ammonia Water
water.
brick. Apply the solution in a poultice. Remove the poul-
tice when it is dried. If the stain has not disappeared, use Ammonium Bifluoride Commercial and scientific chemical
supply firms; Crystal form.
sandpaper to remove as much as possible and apply a
fresh poultice. For stubborn stains, several applications Ammonium Chloride Pharmacist, Salt-like substance.
may be necessary. Ammonium Sulfamate
Nursery and garden stores; Past use
was as a base for weed killers. Not
now readily available. Substitute
Smoke any brand weed killer solution.
Smoke is a difficult stain to remove. Scrub with
Diatomaceous Earth Commercial, scientific chemical and
scouring powder (particularly one containing bleach) and
swimming pool supply firms;
a stiff bristle brush. Some alkali detergents and commer- Kieselguhr.
cial emulsifying agents, brush or spray applied, given suf-
Hydrochloric Acid Hardware stores; Muriatic acid is
ficient time to work, also perform well. They should be generally available in 18˚ and 20˚
tested on a small area, before use on a large area. They Baume´ solutions.
have the added advantage that they can be used in Hydrogen Peroxide Supermarkets or drugstores.
steam cleaners. For small, stubborn stains, a poultice (30-35%)
using trichloroethylene will pull the stain from the pores. Lime-free glycerine Drug stores; Used as a hand lotion
base.
Exercise caution when using trichloroethylene in confined
spaces. Ventilate the fumes. Linseed Oil Hardware and paint stores.
Naphtha (Mineral Spirits) Hardware stores.
Oil and Tar Stains Oxalic Acid Hardware stores; Crystals.
Oil and tar stains may be effectively removed by com- Paraffin Oil Hardware stores.
mercial emulsifying agents. For heavy tar stains, mix the
Peracetic Acid Commercial and scientific chemical
agents with kerosene to remove the tar, and then water to
supply firms.
remove the kerosene. After application, they can be
Potassium Hydroxide Commercial and scientific chemical
hosed off. When used in a steam cleaning apparatus,
supply firms.
they have been known to remove tar without the use of
kerosene. Sodium Citrate Pharmacist; Appears like enlarged
salt granules.
Where the area to be cleaned is small, or where a
mess cannot be tolerated, a poultice using naphtha or Sodium Hydroxide Supermarket.
trichloroethylene is most effective in removing oil stains. (Caustic Soda)
Pharmacist or photographic stores;
Also, dry ice or compressed CO2 may be applied to Sodium Thiosulfate
White salt or “hypo” of photographic
make tar brittle. Light tapping with a small hammer and fixing agent.
prying with a putty knife generally will be enough to Talc
Drug stores; Inert powder available
remove thick tar splatters. as “purified talc,” Bathroom talcum
powder may be substituted.
Dirt Trichloroethylene Commercial/scientific chemical sup-
Dirt is sometimes difficult to remove, particularly from ply firms and possibly some service
a textured brick. Scouring powder and a stiff bristle brush stations or supermarkets; Highly
refined solvent for dry cleaning pur-
are effective if the texture is not too rough. Scrubbing poses.
with an oxalic acid-ammonium biflouride solution, recom- Trisodium Phosphate Paint stores, some hardware stores,
mended for iron stains, has proven effective on some supermarkets; Strong base type
moderately rough textures. For very rough textures, pres- powdered cleaning material sold
surized water cleaning appears to be a most effective under brand names.
method. Varsol
Service stations; Refined solvent.
Whiting
Paint manufacturers, possibly some
Straw and Paper Stains large paint stores; Powdered chalk.
Straw and paper stains sometimes result from wet Substitute kitchen flour, if purchase
packing materials. Not all packing materials stain brick, is difficult.
but those that do can produce very stubborn stains. Such
a
Warning: Some chemicals and resulting fumes may be harmful. Protective clothing and acces-
sories, proper ventilation and safe handling procedures must be exercised. The use and dispos-
stains can be removed by applying household bleach. al of some chemicals are regulated by federal, state or local laws and should be researched
before use.
Allow time to dry. Several applications may be required
6
before the stains disappear. The solution of oxalic acid-
ammonium biflouride, recommended for iron stain, cleans
the stain much more rapidly.
Plant Growth
Occasionally an exterior masonry surface, not
exposed to sunlight, remains in a constantly damp condi-
tion, thus exhibiting signs of plant growth, i.e., moss.
Application of ammonium sulfamate or weed killer, in
accordance with directions furnished with the compound,
has been used successfully for the removal of such
growths.
Ivy
Avoid pulling the vines away from the masonry since
this may damage the brick or mortar. Carefully cut away
a few square feet of vine in an inconspicuous area and
examine how much they have rooted into the brickwork.
Inspect the exposed area for condition and appearance.
There will be some deposits left on the masonry. These
are the "suckers" that attached and held the vines. Do
not use acids or chemicals to remove the suckers. Leave
in place until they dry and turn dark. Remove with a stiff
bristle brush and detergent.
Egg Splatter
Brick walls vandalized with raw eggs have been suc-
cessfully cleaned with a saturated solution of oxalic acid
crystals dissolved in water. Mix in a non-metallic contain-
er and apply with a brush after saturating the surface with
water.
White Scum
White scum is a grayish-white haze on the face of
brick. It is sometimes mistaken for efflorescence, but
technically is silicic acid scum. This condition results from
the failure to saturate the wall before application or thor-
oughly rinsing acid solutions after cleaning. Generally, it
is a film of material that is insoluble in acid solutions
except for hydroflouric acid, which is very dangerous and
not generally recommended for this use. Proprietary
compounds formulated to remove this condition may be
tested and their effectiveness judged.
If removal is too difficult, masking of the haze may be
considered. In time, weathering will remove both the
masking solution and white scum.
Masking solutions may consist of paraffin oil and
Varsol, or linseed oil and Varsol, applied by brush to the
affected brick units. Linseed oil and Varsol (10-25% lin-
seed oil) or paraffin oil and Varsol (2 to 50% paraffin oil)
will darken light colored brick. Several batches of solu-
tions with various concentrations should be mixed and
tested. Generally, solutions of 2 to 25% paraffin oil will be
satisfactory. Allow 4 to 5 days of warm drying weather to
pass, preferably at 70 ˚F (21 ˚C) minimum, before a judg-
ment is made on the effectiveness of the solutions.
Stains of Unknown Origin
Stains of unknown origin can be a real challenge.
Laboratory tests of unknown stains maybe necessary to
7
determine their composition. Then the appropriate
method may be implemented to clean the brickwork. The
indiscriminate use of any cleaning agent may aggravate
the initial stain and cause further staining. The application
of a cleaning agent without identifying the initial stain may
result in other stains which are difficult to remove.
However, appearance of the stain may be the first clue.
Rust-colored stains may actually be rust. Such stains
are quite common and have been known to come from
mortar ingredients, wall ties or joint reinforcement with
inadequate cover, welding splatter on the brick, or some-
thing placed on the pile of brick prior to being laid in the
wall.
"Green stains" may be grass, moss or vanadium efflo-
rescence. "Brown stains" may also be vanadium efflores-
cence, or possibly manganese staining.
One test useful in narrowing down the list of possible
causes of a stain involves a substance ordinarily not
placed on brick masonry. Concentrated sulfuric acid in
contact with an organic material, will turn it black. This is
a quick and easy way to identify stains originating from
such a material. Organic stains can usually be removed
with household bleach or oxalic acid.
CLEANING EXISTING MASONRY
The paper, "Cleaning Masonry - A Review of the
Literature", by Clayford T. Grimm, lists various methods of
cleaning exterior masonry walls. They are: high-pressure
steam, sandblasting, hand washing, pressurized water
and chemicals with steam.
High-Pressure Steam
This method lends itself readily and satisfactorily to
various types of masonry and is generally not injurious to
most masonry surfaces. Buildings with smooth hard brick
or brick with glazed surfaces should always be cleaned
with steam. The more impervious a brick unit, the easier
it should clean. Steam cleaning without chemical addi-
tives is usually at pressures less than 60 psi (400 kPa).
In most cases, buildings may be cleaned satisfactorily
with plain high-pressure steam. For stains it is sometimes
necessary to use a chemical or detergent solution.
Sandblasting
The dry method of sandblasting should be employed
only when brick will not be damaged and when certain
types of brick cannot be successfully cleaned with high-
pressure steam. See the section on Sandblasting under
Cleaning New Masonry.
Wet Sand Cleaning
The wet sand cleaning method is used on hard brick
and depends on a water-cushioned abrasive action for its
effectiveness. It is suggested for removal of paint or other
surface coatings, where abrasion of the surface is permis-
sible. Wet sand cleaning employs water in the cleaning
action to eliminate dust.

Wet Aggregate Cleaning
The wet aggregate cleaning method is a special
process for use on soft brick and soft stone materials, and
is particularly effective on surfaces with flutings, carvings
and other ornamentation. It is a gentle but thorough
process, employing a mixture of water and a friable
aggregate free from silica, delivered at low pressure
through a special nozzle with a "scouring" action which
cleans effectively without damage to the surface.
Hand Washing
Many buildings of smaller size have been cleaned
successfully by hand washing. It is a bit slower method
and does not give the added advantage of heat as in
high-pressure steam. Usually this work is done by using
soap or detergent with cold water. The method is gener-
ally more costly because it is slower, does not lend itself
to a job of any size, and may need to be repeated more
often. See the section on Bucket and Brush Hand
Cleaning.
High-Pressure Cold Water
This method usually results in a satisfactory job. An
ample water supply is necessary. However, disposing of
large volumes of water used is sometimes a problem.
On hard burned brickwork, water at very high pres-
sure can be effective but requires careful application by
experienced operators. Pressure should not exceed that
which would damage the brickwork being cleaned.
Nozzle pressure in excess of 700 psi (4850 kPa) can
damage brick and mortar joints.
tions of temperature and humidity that will closely approxi-
mate those conditions under which the brick masonry will
be cleaned. Cleaning compounds recommended by the
brick or cleaning agent manufacturer should also be trial
tested before being committed to the entire project.
If general suggestions and recommendations con-
tained in this Technical Notes are followed with good judg-
ment and common sense, successful cleaning of brick
masonry should be possible and practical. Due to the
diverse nature of cleaning solutions, procedures and prob-
lems, the Brick Institute of America cannot accept respon-
sibility for the final success or effectiveness of these pro-
cedures.
In conclusion, nothing is quite as effective as careful
attention exercised during construction to keep brick walls
relatively clean. If this is successful, it will eliminate the
need for costly cleaning procedures.
REFERENCES
More detailed information on subjects discussed here
can be found in the following publications:
1. Grimm, C.T., "Cleaning Masonry - A Review of the
Literature", Construction Research Center, University
of Texas at Arlington, 1988.
2. Mack, R.C., "The Cleaning and Waterproof
Coating of Masonry Buildings", Preservation Briefs
No. 1, National Park Service, Washington, D.C., 1975.

Chemicals and Steam

Mr. Grimm points out that chemicals and high-pres-
sure steam are used primarily to remove applied coatings
to masonry, such as paint. This is a highly specialized
field and frequently the proper cleaning agent can be
determined only after an analysis of the various factors
involved in a particular project.

CLEANING HISTORIC STRUCTURES

This type of cleaning endeavor should be referred to
a restoration specialist. There are comprehensive papers
and publications available on the subject of restoration.
Before an old structure is to be cleaned, several questions
should be asked before making a final decision, such as:
(1) Why clean?, (2) What is the dirt? and (3) What is the
construction of the building?
The query "Why Clean?" is posed in the publication
"The Cleaning and Waterproof Coating of Masonry
Buildings" - Preservation Briefs No. 1, by Robert C. Mack,
AIA.

SUMMARY
Cleaning brick masonry still remains, for the most
part, a trial-and-error procedure. Therefore, it is strongly
suggested that any cleaning procedure and chemical
cleaning solution be tested as suggested in this Technical
Notes. Such testing should be performed under condi-
8
 Technical Notes 21
REVISED

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
August
1998

BRICK MASONRY CAVITY WALLS

INTRODUCTION
Abstract: This Technical Notes covers brick masonry cavity walls. Description of the
properties of cavity walls, including structural properties, water penetration resistance, fire re-
sistance, and thermal and sound transmission properties are included. Theories for structural
design are introduced. Recommendations for cavities, flashing, expansion joints, ties and oth-
er related subjects are covered.

Key Words: brick, cavity wall, design, expansion joints, fire resistance, flashing, struc-
tural, thermal resistance, ties, veneer.

INTRODUCTION face of the cavity wall may be left exposed or finished

Brick masonry cavity walls consist of two wythes of in conventional ways.
masonry separated by an air space connected by corro- Cavity walls, long common in Europe, were first
sion-resistant metal ties (see Fig.1). The exterior ma- built in the United States as early as 1850. However, it
sonry wythe can be solid or hollow brick, while the in- was not until 1937 that this type of construction gained
terior masonry wythe can be solid brick, hollow brick, official acceptance by any building code or construction
structural clay tile, or hollow or solid concrete masonry agency in the U.S. Since then, interest in and use of
units. The selection for each wythe depends on the re- cavity walls in this country has increased rapidly. Ex-
quired wall properties and features. A cavity of 2 to 4 tensive testing and research and empirical evidence of
1
⁄2 in. (50 to 114 mm) between the two wythes may be existing cavity wall construction has been used to deter-
either insulated or left as an air space. The interior sur- mine cavity wall properties and performance. Cavity
walls are often regarded as the premier masonry wall
system.
The early use of cavity walls in this country was lim-
1” (25 mm) MIN. ited primarily to exterior load-bearing walls, one and
CLEARANCE two-stories in height. In the 1940’s, designers of high-
RIGID BOARD rise buildings began to recognize the advantages of cav-
INSULATION
ity walls and used them as curtain and panel walls in
structural frame buildings. Today, masonry cavity walls
are used extensively throughout the United States in all
types of buildings. See Fig. 2. The primary reasons for
their popularity are: excellent rain penetration resis-
tance, fire resistance, thermal capabilities and sound
transmission resistance.
A brick cavity wall is differentiated from a brick ve-
neer with masonry backing by how the designer consid-
ers load resistance by the exterior wythe. The exterior
wythe of a cavity wall is designed to resist loads by
FLASHING
stresses developed in that wythe. Further, both wythes
WEEP HOLES resist out-of-plane loads by stresses in each wythe.
These stresses, whether axial, flexural or shear, must be
2” (50 mm) less than the corresponding allowable stresses. The ex-
MINIMUM
AIR SPACE terior wythe of a brick veneer wall transfers out-of
plane loads to the backing and is not subject to limita-
Typical Cavity Wall tions of the allowable stress values. No axial loads are
FIG. 1 applied to the veneer wythe. Out-of plane lateral loads

Carnegie Hall Tower, New York City
FIG. 2
are transferred by metal ties to the backing which is de-
signed for the full load. Shear stresses generated by the
veneer’s weight are ignored. Other design issues, such
as water penetration resistance, fire resistance, thermal,
and sound transmission, are the same for either brick
masonry cavity walls or brick veneer over a masonry
backing; therefore, such information in this Technical
Notes is appropriate for both types of wall systems.
Some parts of the country use the term “reinforced
cavity walls” to denote a multi-wythe masonry wall
with grout placed between the wythes. This should ac-
tually be considered a multiwythe grouted masonry
wall. Since the definition of a cavity wall includes an
air space, this type of wall is not truly a cavity wall.
This Technical Notes discusses the properties of cavi-
ty walls, and the proper design to achieve these proper-
ties. Other issues in this Technical Notes series deal
with materials, detailing and proper construction prac-
tices for cavity walls.
PROPERTIES OF CAVITY WALLS
Structural Properties
Properly designed, detailed and constructed cavity
walls may be used in any building requiring load-bear-
ing or non-loadbearing walls. The increased flexibility
by the separation of the wythes and the use of metal ties
permits more freedom from differential movement be-
tween the wythes. This is extremely important in to-
day’s construction which makes use of many combina-
tions of dissimilar materials.
The structural behavior of cavity walls is complex
because of the interaction of the wythes, ties and sup-
port conditions. Typically, the inner wythe of a cavity
wall is designed to support the weight of floors, roofs
2
and live loads. The outer wythe is mainly non-load-
bearing. Out-of plane loads are shared by the wythes in
proportion to their stiffnesses and the stiffness of the
connecting ties. Walls tied together by brick headers
(masonry bonded hollow walls or utility walls) behave
differently from walls tied together by metal ties.
Therefore, this Technical Notes addresses only metal-
tied walls. Information on masonry bonded hollow
walls (utility walls) can be found in other technical lit-
erature [1].
Resistance to Moisture Penetration
One of the major functions of an exterior wall is to
resist moisture penetration. A brick masonry cavity
wall, properly designed and built, is virtually resistant
to water penetration through the entire wall assembly.
The outside wythe may permit some moisture penetra-
tion, but the overall design of the cavity wall assembly
accommodates this expected infiltration. It should be
assumed that wind-driven rain will penetrate the exteri-
or wythe of brick masonry. A cavity wall is designed as
a drainage wall system, so that any moisture which does
penetrate the exterior wythe will run down the back
face of the exterior wythe to the bottom of the cavity
where it is diverted to the outside by flashing and weep
holes. For further discussion of moisture penetration,
refer to the Technical Notes 7 Series.
Rain Screen Walls. Cavity walls can also be de-
signed as pressure-equalized rain screen walls. This
wall system provides compartmented air spaces with
vents at the top and bottom of the cavity allowing wind
pressures to equalize between the cavity and the exteri-
or. In theory, the outer wythe is essentially an open rain
screen that eliminates water penetration due to air pres-
sure differences. Although pressure-equalized rain
screen walls can provide increased resistance to water
penetration, they are more difficult to design, detail and
construct. They are typically used in projects located in
areas which receive high volumes of wind-driven rain
and when resistance to water penetration is of prime
concern. Refer to Technical Notes 27 for more informa-
tion on pressure-equalized rain screen walls.
Condensation. Although moisture penetration due
to wind-driven rain may be a major concern, condensa-
tion may also be a problem in certain climates and oc-
cupancies. Differences in humidity between inside and
outside air will cause vapor flow within the wall and,
unless controlled, this vapor may condense within the
wall under certain temperature conditions. This con-
densation may contribute to efflorescence when soluble
salts are present, corrosion of metal ties or disintegra-
tion of the masonry units. A condensation analysis, as
described in Technical Notes 7D, will help determine
the points in a wall system where condensation may oc-
cur. Information found in the Air Barriers and Vapor
Retarders section of this Technical Notes and Techni-
cal Notes 7C should be used for the design against con-
densation.
Thermal Properties
Heat losses and heat gains through masonry walls
can be minimized by the use of cavity wall construc-
tion. The separation of the exterior and interior wythes
by the cavity eliminates or reduces thermal bridging
and allows a large amount of heat to be absorbed and
dissipated in the outer wythe and cavity before reaching
the inner wythe and the building interior. The cavity
provides an excellent location to incorporate insulation
in the wall assembly. Insulation can be placed in the air
space by using a rigid board attached to the backing or
by completely filling the air space with granular fill or
foam. Insulation may also be placed in the cores of the
backing wythe, such as granular fill in concrete block.
Finally, the interior side of the cavity wall may be fin-
ished with insulation and gypsum board.
Steady-state U-values can range from 0.33 BTU/ (hr
• oF •ft2) [1.9 W / m2 • K ] for an 8-in. (200 mm) uninsu-
lated cavity wall to 0.06 BTU/ (hr • oF • ft2) [0.34 W /
m2 • K) for a 16 in. (400 mm) cavity wall with 2-in. (50
mm) polyisocyanurate board insulation. Table 1 lists R-
values for typical cavity walls. Table 2 lists R-values of
the materials used in brick masonry cavity walls. Table
3 lists thermal properties of interior finishes used in
combination with cavity walls. For example, using
Table 3, combine a 12 in. (300 mm) brick and block
cavity wall with extruded polystyrene in the cavity (R-
value of 9.5), with 11⁄2 in. (38 mm) extruded polystyrene
insulation between metal furring strips at 16 in. (400
mm) o.c. (R-value of 4.6) resulting in a total R-value of
14.1. Thermal properties are further enhanced when
considering the mass effect of masonry. Thus, consid-
erable energy savings can be realized by the use of cav-
ity walls. Refer to Technical Notes 4 Series for U-val-
ues of materials and assemblies.

TABLE 1
R-Values of Typical Cavity Walls1,9

Insulation Type (see footnotes)

Wall
System 1″ (25 mm) 1″ (25 mm) 1″ (25 mm)
None Perlite
MEPS2 XEPS3 polyiso4

8 in. (200 mm) brick & brick cavity wall; 3 in.

3.0 6.9 8.1 12.4 5.35
(75 mm) brick, 2 in. (50 mm) air space

10 in. (250 mm) brick & brick cavity wall; 4 in.

3.2 7.1 8.3 12.6 5.55
(100 mm) brick, 2 in. (50 mm) air space

10 in. (250 mm) brick & block cavity wall;

4 in. (100 mm) brick, 4 in. (100 mm) 3.6 7.5 8.6 12.9 5.95
normal weight block, 2 in. (50 mm) air space

12 in. (300 mm) brick & block cavity wall; 4 in.

(100 mm) brick, 6 in. (150 mm) lightweight block, 4.5 8.3 9.5 13.8 6.95
2 in. (50 mm) air space

14 in. (356 mm) brick & block cavity wall; 4 in.

(100 mm) brick, 6 in. (150 mm) lightweight block, 4.5 12.26 14.56 20.66 6.97
4 in. (100 mm) air space

14 in. (356 mm) brick & block cavity wall;

4 in. (100 mm) brick, 8 in. (200 mm) 3.7 7.6 8.7 13.0 4.77
normal weight block, 2 in. (50 mm) air space

14 in. (356 mm) brick & block cavity wall; 4 in.

(100 mm) brick, 8 in. (200 mm) lightweight block, 5.2 9.1 10.2 14.5 6.28
2 in. (50 mm) air space

16 in. (400 mm) brick & block cavity wall;

4 in. (100 mm) brick, 8 in. (200 mm) 3.7 11.46 13.76 19.96 4.77
normal weight block, 4 in. (100 mm) air space

16 in. (400 mm) brick & block cavity wall; 4 in.

(100 mm) brick, 8 in. (200 mm) lightweight block, 5.2 12.96 15.26 19.36 6.28
4 in. (100 mm) air space

1Based on values from Ref. 6 62 in. (50 mm) insulation

2MEPS = molded extruded polystyrene (beadboard) 7CMU cells filled with perlite
3XEPS = extruded expanded polystyrene 8CMU cells filled with EPS inserts
4polyiso = foil-faced polyisocyanurate 91 (hr•°F•ft2)/BTU = 0.176 (m2•K)/W
5Perlite = cavity filled with perlite

3
 TABLE 2 Thermal Mass. Brick masonry exhibits superior ther-
R-Values of Typical Cavity Walls 1,9 mal mass, that is, the ability to store and slowly release
heat at a later time. These properties help shift the peak
Material R-Value, hr•°F•ft2/BTU (m2•K/W) heating or cooling loads to off-peak times and reduce the
peak temperatures. Current energy codes take thermal
Interior Air Film 0.17 (0.03)
Exterior Air film 0.68 (0.12) mass into account by requiring a lower R-value for mass
walls, such as brick cavity walls (see Technical Notes 4B).
Brick 0.16 per inch (0.011 per cm) Passive solar design can be used in conjunction with
3 inch (75 mm) 0.48 (0.08) cavity wall construction to take full advantage of mason-
35⁄8 inch (92 mm) 0.58 (0.10)
ry’s thermal mass properties. Solar design techniques,
Air space such as the use of building orientation, daylighting and
1 inch (25 mm) 1.25 (0.220) thermal mass, can provide both comfort and energy sav-
2 inch (50 mm) 1.23 (0.216)
4 inch (100 mm) 1.23 (0.216) ings for the owner and occupants. It is best to incorporate
passive solar techniques in a building during the prelimi-
Insulation nary design phase. Technical Notes 43 Series has infor-
molded extruded polystyrene 3.85 per inch (0.267 per cm)
extruded expanded polystyrene 5.0 per inch (0.346 per cm) mation on passive solar design techniques. Other refer-
polyisocyanurate 7.04 per inch (0.488 per cm) ences are available to assist in design [4, 8].
Concrete Masonry Units Fire Resistance
4 inch (100 mm) 0.92 (0.16)
6 inch light weight (150 mm) 1.80 (0.32) The results of fire resistance tests clearly show that
8 inch normal weight (200 mm) 1.04 (0.18) brick masonry cavity walls have excellent fire resis-
8 inch light weight (200 mm) 2.55 (0.45)
tance. Fire resistance ratings of brick masonry cavity

TABLE 3
Thermal Properties for Interior Finishes1,2

R-Value, hr•°F•ft2/BTU

Insulation Between Furring Strips Over

Furring Strips Continuous Insulation

Interior Finish

Wood furring, rigid insulation and 1⁄2 in. 16 in. 24 in. 16 in. 24 in.
(13 mm) gypsum board (400 mm) o.c. (600 mm) o.c. (400 mm) o.c. (600 mm) o.c.

3
⁄4 in. (19 mm) extruded polystyrene 3.6 3.8 5.4 5.4
3
⁄4 in. (19 mm) polyisocyanurate 4.6 5.0 6.9 6.9

11⁄2 in. (38 mm) extruded polystyrene 5.9 6.5 9.2 9.2

11⁄2 in. (38 mm) polyisocyanurate 7.3 8.2 12.2 12.2

Metal furring, rigid insulation and 1⁄2 in.

(13 mm) gypsum board

1 in. (25 mm) extruded polystyrene 3.8 4.2 6.6 6.6

1 in. (25 mm) polyisocyanurate 4.5 5.1 8.6 8.6

11⁄2 in. (38 mm) extruded polystyrene 4.6 5.4 9.1 9.1

1 ⁄2 in. (38 mm) polyisocyanurate

1
5.4 6.4 12.1 12.1

1The values in this table can be added to those in Table 1 to achieve the total R-value of the wall.
21 (hr•°F•ft2)/BTU = 0.176 (m2•K)/W

4
 TABLE 4
Typical Fire Ratings of Cavity Walls
Wall Assembly
10 in. (250 mm) brick cavity wall (solid brick), 2 in. (50 mm) air space,
walls filled solid at combustible framing members
8 in. (200 mm) brick cavity wall (solid brick), 2 in. (50 mm) air space
10 in. (250 mm) brick cavity wall (solid brick), 2 in. (50 mm) air space,
no combustible members framed in
9 in. (230 mm) solid brick and concrete block, 1 in. (25 mm) air space,
UL Design No. U902
walls range from 2 to 4 hr, depending upon the wall
thickness and other factors (see Table 4). Due to their
high fire resistance properties, brick walls make excellent
fire walls or building separation walls for compartmenta-
tion in buildings. By using compartmentation, the spread
of fire can be halted. Technical Notes 16 Series describes
fire ratings and applicable design conditions.
An alternative way of determining the fire resistance
of a cavity wall assembly is by using the calculated fire
resistance method. This approach is approved by the
model building codes for determining fire ratings of
walls that are not physically tested by ASTM E 119
Test Methods for Fire Tests of Building Construction
and Materials. The fire rating of cavity walls can be
calculated using Technical Notes 16B.
Sound Transmission
Resistance to transmission of sound in masonry con-
struction is accomplished in two ways: the use of heavy
massive walls or the use of discontinuous construction.
The cavity wall employs both techniques, i.e., the mas-
siveness of the two masonry wythes plus the partial dis-
continuity of the cavity.
In cavity wall construction, the air space provides a
partial isolation of the two wythes. Sound on one side
of a cavity wall causes vibration of a wythe. Because
of the separation and cushioning effect of the air space
and the massiveness of the masonry, the vibration is
dampened and greatly reduced. A 10-in. (250 mm)
brick cavity wall with brick backing has a Sound Trans-
mission Class (STC) rating of 50, which is usually suf-
ficient for substantially reducing typical outside noises
entering the building through the wall. For more infor-
mation on sound transmission, see Technical Notes 5A.
DESIGN OF CAVITY WALLS
The successful design of cavity walls depends on
proper attention to four elements: appropriate design,
proper detailing, selection of quality materials and exe-
cution of good workmanship. All four elements must
be satisfied to produce a successful cavity wall.
Structural Design
There are many various design procedures for cavity
5
Fire Ratings, Hours
2
3
4
4
walls. Both rational and empirical design methods are
used. Rational design methods currently use working
stress analysis. Limit states or strength design methods
are now being written. Other methods such as a modi-
fied yield line approach, fracture line approach and
elastic performance of cracked panels have been pro-
posed for the design of unreinforced walls. However,
insufficient data and lack of recognition by model
building codes relegate these methods to use as special
systems for design.
The structural design of cavity walls should follow
either rational or empirical methods. The rational de-
sign method is based on the properties of the wall mate-
rials and engineering analysis. This method may be
used for any structure where high loads are likely or
where tall walls are a necessity. The empirical method
is generally satisfactory for one and two-story buildings
consisting of light construction with limited floor spans
and wall heights; and for multistory buildings where
unsupported wall heights are not excessive.
Rational Design. The design of cavity walls is gov-
erned by model building codes. Most of these reference
the ACI 530/ASCE 5/TMS 402 Building Code Require-
ments for Masonry Structures, also known as the Mason-
ry Standards Joint Committee (MSJC) Code [2]. The
Uniform Building Code incorporates similar design re-
quirements for cavity walls [9]. Seismic design require-
ments are also stipulated in these building codes based on
site location. A detailed design of cavity walls is not
covered in this Technical Notes. For design aids and ex-
amples of design procedures, several books listed in the
REFERENCES section should be consulted [5, 7].
The MSJC Code requirements differentiate between
multiwythe walls as those with composite or non-com-
posite action. Composite action requires a transfer of
shear stress between wythes so that the wythes act as a
single element in resisting loads. The wythes must be
bonded with a filled collar joint and metal ties or with ma-
sonry headers. Therefore, all cavity walls are classified as
non-composite walls and must be designed using those re-
quirements. When non-composite action occurs, each
wythe is designed to individually resist the effects of im-
posed loads. In order for both wythes to carry part of the
vertical load, the floor or roof system must bear on both
wythes or on a spreader beam bearing on both wythes.
Typically, the wythe closest to the center of the span of
horizontal members resists the resulting vertical load and
the associated shear forces. Out-of plane loads are appor-
tioned to wythes based upon their relative stiffnesses.
The rational design method used in the MSJC Code
is allowable stress design. Individual wythes may be
either reinforced or unreinforced. See the Technical
Notes 3 Series for more information on the MSJC Code.
Empirical Design. Chapter 9 of the MSJC Code
presents empirical requirements for masonry structures.
These requirements are based on past proven perfor-
mance and pre-dates rational design methods. Accord-
ing to the 1995 edition of the MSJC Code, the empirical
requirements in Chapter 9 may be applied to the follow-
ing masonry elements:
1. The main lateral force resisting system for build-
ings in Seismic Performance Category (SPC) A
and all other masonry elements for buildings in
SPC A, B and C.
2. Buildings subject to a wind velocity pressure not
exceeding 25 psf (1.2 kPa).
3. Buildings not exceeding 35 ft (10.7 m) in height
when the masonry walls are part of the main later-
al load resisting system.
The empirical requirements may not be applied to
structures resisting horizontal loads other than those due
to wind or seismic events.
The MSJC Code contains limits on the ratios of wall
thickness to distance between lateral supports. These lim-
its provide controls on the flexural tensile stresses within
the wall and limit possible buckling under axial loads.
Maximum h/t or 1/t ratios and minimum thicknesses used
for determining distances between lateral supports are
consistent with past masonry standards. Definitions for
height (h), length (1) and thickness (t) for use in the lateral
support ratios for cavity walls are as follows:
h = the vertical distance or height between lateral
supports;
1 = the horizontal distance or length between lateral
supports; and
t = the sum of the nominal thicknesses of the inner
and outer wythes.
Further information on empirical design of brick ma-
sonry is provided in Technical Notes 42 Revised.
Seismic Issues. As with other loading, the seismic
loads from other elements applied to the wythes are re-
sisted by the loaded wythes. This requires each loaded
wythe to meet prescriptive seismic reinforcement re-
quirements. For seismic loading due to wall weight, if
the tie spacing and stiffnesses are adequate, the wythes
will share the out-of-plane load in proportion to their
relative rigidities. In such instances, the seismic force
can be resisted by just one wythe. In many cases, the
inner wythe is reinforced according to the minimum re-
inforcement requirements prescribed by the code and
6
UNDER COPINGS
AT SHELF
ANGLES
GS
ENIN
AT ROOF/WALL R OP
OVE
INTERSECTIONS
AT SILLS
AT WALL BASE
Flashing Locations
FIG. 3
the brick exterior wythe is treated as a veneer. Proper
ties, reinforcement or isolation joints may be required in
specific seismic performance categories (zones).
Architectural Design
Cavity. The cavity or air space between wythes should
be between 2 in. (50 mm) and 41⁄2 in. (114 mm). Air
spaces less than 2 in. (50 mm) can not practically be kept
free from mortar bridging. Air spaces greater than 41⁄2 in.
(114 mm) do not allow the normally prescribed ties to
properly transfer lateral loads. Air spaces different from
these can be used, but care in design and construction
would be required. If larger air spaces are used additional
ties and/or thicker ties may be necessary. When rigid
board insulation is placed in the air space, the clear dis-
tance from the back side of the brick to the exterior side
of the insulation must be no less than 1 in. (25 mm). This
allows the mason to lay the brick properly and for the
wall to still function as a drainage wall. Mortar protru-
sions should not contact the insulation as this is a direct
path for water. These air space requirements also allow
for tolerances in construction.
Since it is assumed that water never crosses the air
space, parging of the cavity face of either wythe is nei-
ther necessary, nor recommended. In cases where mor-
tar could bridge the cavity, where mortar droppings fill
the bottom of the cavity due to poor workmanship, or
when a pressure-equalized rain screen wall is designed,
a coating or membrane on the exterior face of the ma-
sonry backing may be prudent. To be effective, the
coating or membrane must be continuous over the back-
ing and be sealed at interfaces with other elements or
materials. Consideration must be given to the effects of
movement on the coating or membrane.
Flashing and Weep Holes. Flashing and weep holes
collect water that enters a wall and directs it back to the
exterior. Flashing should be provided at the base of the
wall, above and below all wall openings, at the tops of
walls, beneath copings, and any other discontinuities in
the air space, such as recessed courses or shelf angles.
Fig. 3 shows typical flashing locations.
 Since flashing is a bond break, the tensile strength of
the wall at that location is assumed to be zero. The
shear stress will also be reduced. The structural design
of the building should address these issues appropriate-
ly.
Flashing and weep holes should be located above
grade level. If the wall continues below the flashing at
the base of the wall, the space between the exterior
wythe and the interior wythe should be filled with mor-
tar or grout to the elevation of the flashing.
Flashing should be securely fastened to the interior
wythe and extend through the face of the exterior brick
wythe. The flashing should be turned up at least 8 in.
(200 mm) and embedded in the inner wythe. Flashing
should be carefully installed with no punctures or tears.
Where flashing is required to be lapped, the ends of the
flashing should be overlapped a minimum of 6 in. (150
mm) and the laps properly sealed to avoid water run-
ning between the sections. Where the flashing is not
continuous, such as over and under openings in the
wall, the ends of the flashing should be turned up ap-
proximately 1 in. (25 mm) into a head joint in the exte-
rior wythe to form an end dam. Prefabricated flashing
pieces may be available to help form the detail. Typical
flashing details are shown in Technical Notes 21B Re-
vised and 7 Revised.
Weep holes must be located immediately above all
flashing. Open head joint or vent weep holes should be
spaced no more than 24 in. (600 mm) o.c. Weep holes
formed with wick materials or with round tubes should
be spaced at a maximum of 16 in. (400 mm) o.c.
Drainage materials, such as pea gravel or plastic
mesh, can be used at the base of the cavity when mortar
droppings are a high probability. Although these
drainage materials are not always necessary, they may
help keep the cavity and the weep holes from being to-
tally blocked by mortar. However, the use of these ma-
terials does not negate the importance of good work-
manship and keeping the cavity clean from mortar
droppings. When pea gravel is used, its depth should
not exceed 2 to 3 in. (50 to 75 mm). Consideration
should be given to the weight of the gravel on the flash-
ing, the presence of salts in the gravel and the size of
the pea gravel to keep it from flowing out of open weep
holes. These types of materials may interfere with
walls that are designed for air circulation in the cavity.
Ties. Wall ties provide a connection between the in-
ner and outer wythes of a cavity wall, and may accom-
modate differential movements between the wythes.
Tie spacing requirements for cavity walls differ slightly
from those of brick veneer with masonry backing.
Non-composite walls (cavity walls) designed in accor-
dance with the MSJC Code permit a maximum spacing
of 36 in. (910 mm) o.c. horizontally and 24 in. (610
mm) o.c. vertically. In addition, the spacing for W1.7
size ties must be no more than one tie for every 2.67 ft2
(0.25 m2); and for W2.8 size ties, no more than one tie
for every 4.5 ft2 (0.42 m2). Adjustable ties must be
7
spaced at no more than 16 in. (400 mm) o.c. in each di-
rection and no more than one tie for every 1.77 ft2 (0.16
m2).
When designing the exterior wythe as a veneer, the
tie spacing depends on the type of tie. For adjustable
two-piece ties and ties with a wire size of W 1.7, the
spacing should be no more than one tie for every 2.67
ft2 (0.25 m2); and for all other ties, no more that one tie
for every 3.5 ft2 (0.33 m2). The maximum spacing for
ties in a brick veneer are 32 in. (810 mm) o.c. horizon-
tally and 18 in. (460 mm) o.c. vertically. Drips in the
ties reduce the strength of the tie, therefore, the wall
area per tie must be reduced by 50 percent. More infor-
mation on ties can be found in Technical Notes 44B.
Foundations. Foundations of brick, concrete mason-
ry or concrete are used to support brick masonry cavity
walls. It is recommended that the thickness of the foun-
dation or foundation wall supporting the cavity wall be
at least equal to the total thickness of the cavity wall
less 2 in. (50 mm). The brick exterior wythe may be
corbeled out over the top of the foundation; however,
the overhang may not be more than one-third of the
brick’s thickness nor more than one-half its height per
course.
A bond break is recommended between the exterior
brick wythe and the foundation. Differential movement
between the brick and concrete or concrete masonry
foundation and cracks emanating from the foundation
can be avoided by placing a bond break, such as a flash-
ing material, on top of the foundation. However, it
must also be remembered that the flashing or bond
break changes the end condition of the wall. The
wythes separated from the foundation by flashing
should be designed as a simply-supported or pinned end
walls, not as a fixed end condition. If the exterior brick
wythe is designed as a veneer then this is not a concern.
The exterior brick wythe should start above grade.
Brick used below grade must be properly waterproofed
with a waterproof membrane or coating. Weep holes
should not be placed below grade.
Shelf Angles. Shelf angles are used in buildings to
accommodate vertical movement by allowing an expan-
sion joint to be placed beneath the angle. Shelf angles
must be accompanied with horizontal expansion (soft)
joints, as shown in Fig. 4. The need for shelf angles in
a building depends on the type of structure, height of
building, location of windows, window size and other
factors. The decision to use shelf angles should be
based on the effects of differential movement, type of
tie system and connection of the exterior brick wythe to
other building components. The MSJC Code gives no
limits for the placement of shelf angles in cavity walls
or in brick veneer with backings of concrete or concrete
masonry. For low-rise structures, less than 30 ft (9.1
m), it is advisable to have the brick wythe bear on the
foundation wall. For multi-story structures the effects
of differential movement should be considered. The lo-

1 IN. (25 mm) MIN.
CLEAREANCE
ADJUSTABLE
ANCHOR
FLASHING
BACKER ROD
AND SEALANT CLIP ANGLE WITH
STIFFENER
OPTIONAL
COMPRESSIBLE
PAD
LADDER TYPE JOINT
Shelf Angle on a Steel Frame Building
FIG. 4
cal building code may dictate the placement of shelf an-
gles and their required height from the foundation.
Care should be taken to ensure proper anchorage and
shimming of the angles to prevent excessive deflection
or rotation. These movements may create problems in
construction and induce concentrated loads in the ma-
sonry below. The maximum deflection and rotation
should be no more than the size of the space below the
angle.
Shelf angles should not be installed as one continu-
ous member. Spaces should be provided at intervals to
permit thermal expansion and contraction of the steel to
occur without causing distress to the masonry. Shelf
angles must provide continuous support around corners.
As at the foundation, at least 2/3 of the brick wythe
thickness must bear on the shelf angle.
Expansion Joints. All building materials change di-
mension with changes in temperature. Most building
materials, with the exception of glass and metals,
change dimension with changes in their moisture con-
tent. Brick undergoes a permanent moisture expansion.
All materials will deform when subjected to loads.
And, some materials, notably those with cement matri-
ces, will deform plastically (creep) when loaded.
Building frames are subject to movements from applied
vertical and horizontal loads. Concrete and concrete
masonry frames and members, in addition to the above,
are subject to drying shrinkage. Since many cavity
walls are built of dissimilar materials, there will be dif-
ferential movement between these materials. All of
these movements must be considered in the design and
construction of the wall system. Problems, such as
cracking, can arise if these movements are not recog-
nized and accommodated.
In order to prevent distress in the masonry, vertical
and horizontal expansion joints are used to accommo-
8
date movements. No single recommendation for the
positioning and spacing of vertical and horizontal ex-
pansion joints can be applicable to all structures. Each
building must be analyzed to determine the potential
movements, and provisions must be made to permit
such movement or to resist stresses resulting from such
movements. Expansion joints must also be designed,
located and constructed so not to impair the integrity of
the wall. The movement of the exterior brick wythe
due to thermal and moisture expansion may be greater
than the movement in solid or composite walls exposed
to the same environment. This is due to the greater
temperature differences between wythes and the ab-
sence of vertical loads. For further information, see
Technical Notes 18 Series.
A distinction should be made between the use of the
terms expansion joint and control joint. An expansion
joint is used to separate brick masonry into segments to
prevent cracking due to an increase in size. The joints
are formed of highly elastic materials placed in a con-
tinuous, unobstructed opening through the brick wythe,
see Fig. 5. This allows the joints to close as a result of
an increase in size of the brickwork. A control joint is
used in concrete or concrete masonry to create a plane
of weakness which, used in conjunction with reinforce-
ment or joint reinforcement, controls the location of
cracks due to a reduction in volume resulting from
shrinkage and creep. A control joint is usually a verti-
cal opening through the concrete masonry wythe and
may be formed of inelastic materials. A control joint
will open rather than close. This distinction is made so
that the wrong type of joint is not used in either materi-
al. These vertical movement joints do not have to be
placed at the same location in a wall.
Horizontal Expansion Joints - If the brick is sup-
ported on shelf angles attached to the structural frame,
horizontal expansion (soft) joints should be placed im-
CONTROL JOINT JOINT REINFORCEMENT
DISCONTINOUS AT BOTH
JOINTS
CONCRETE
BLOCK
BRICK EXPANSION JOINT
WITH COMPRESSIBLE
FILLER AND SEALANT
Movement Joints in a Cavity Wall
FIG. 5
mediately beneath each angle. This is particularly im-
portant in reinforced concrete frame buildings because
of frame shortening. Horizontal expansion joints may
be constructed by leaving an air space or by placing a
compressible material under the shelf angle. Using a
compressible pad, such as a preformed foam pad may
assist in keeping debris out of that space. Mortar
should never be placed in this space. In either case, the
joint must be sealed at the exterior face with a suitable
elastic sealant and backer rod.
Parapets. Of all the masonry elements used in
buildings, probably the most difficult to adequately de-
tail is the parapet wall. Designers have tried many dif-
ferent ways to design parapets to minimize cracking,
leaking and displacement. Some experts believe that
the only sure way to avoid parapet problems is to elimi-
nate the parapet altogether. However, they are frequent-
ly required by building codes or for architectural or fire
safety considerations.
The detail shown in Fig. 6 is suggested as one
method of building a parapet. For cavity wall construc-
tion, it is recommended that the cavity continue up
through the parapet, thereby maintaining the separation
between the outside wythe and the inner wythe. In ad-
METAL COPING
SEALANT
STEEL
REINFORCEMENT
1” (25 mm) MINIMUM
CLEARANCE
COUNTER-FLASHING
Cavity Wall Parapet
FIG. 6
9
dition, the backing wall of the parapet may be need to
be reinforced and attached to the structural frame. Ex-
pansion joints should extend up through the parapet.
Expansion joints should also be placed near corners to
avoid displacement of the parapet.
Parapet copings should provide a drip on at least one
side of the wall. Metal, stone, and fired clay copings of
various designs usually provide this feature. The back
side of the parapet should be constructed of durable ma-
terials, preferably the same material that is used in the
front side of the parapet. They should not be painted or
coated, but must be left free to “breathe.” Unless cop-
ings are impervious with watertight joints, place
through-wall flashing in the mortar bed immediately be-
neath them and firmly attach the coping to the wall be-
low with mechanical anchors. The joints between pre-
cast concrete and stone copings should be raked out to
two times the width of the joint and filled with a backer
rod and sealant.
Thermal Design
Since energy costs to heat and cool a building over
its life are greater than the initial construction cost of
the building, good energy design is important. Local
climate and building codes may dictate the level of ther-
mal performance necessary for a particular building.
Depending on these requirements, insulation may need
to be included in the cavity wall. Heavy-weight walls,
such as cavity walls, have good thermal mass proper-
ties; therefore, required R-values are less than those re-
quired for lighter-weight walls.
When insulation is necessary in brick masonry cavity
walls, several locations can be used. Insulation can be
placed: 1) in the cavity; 2) in the cells of hollow unit
backing; or 3) on the inside of the interior wythe using
studs or furring strips. The location of the insulation in-
fluences the energy performance of the building and the
drainability and constructability of the wall.
Newer types of insulation strategies, such as foam-
filled cavities, drainage mats attached to insulation and
drainable mineral fiber insulation used in the air space
should have a good track record of in-place perfor-
mance before they are considered. Manufacturer’s
technical data should be carefully reviewed.
Thermal Bridges. A thermal bridge is a component
or assembly through which heat (or cold) is transferred
at a substantially higher rate than through the surround-
ing wall. A thermal bridge can degrade a wall’s thermal
performance or allow condensation to occur more easi-
ly. Examples of thermal bridges in cavity wall con-
struction are slab edge details, corner columns and roof
parapets (see Fig. 7). Metal ties can be considered a
thermal bridge; however, the effect of ties are negligi-
ble. Insulation placement is usually the easiest way to
avoid thermal bridging.
Air Barriers and Vapor Retarders. Air leakage
through the building envelope can severely degrade the
thermal performance of a wall, and increase space con-

a) THERMAL BRIDGES b) THERMAL BRIDGES
CORRECTED
Thermal Bridges in Cavity Walls
FIG. 6
ditioning loads and the chance for condensation. Air
leakage carries heat and moisture between the inside
and outside of the building. Infiltrating air is not fil-
tered or conditioned, and its rate can not be controlled.
The control of air leakage is important to the thermal
performance of the building. The need for air barriers
and vapor retarders is dependent upon climate, building
use and the construction assembly. What works in one
situation may not be appropriate for another. Therefore,
each building must be examined on a case-by-case ba-
sis. Typically, extreme climates that have very cold
winters or very humid summers are candidates for air
retarders and vapor barriers. Moderate climates are less
likely to require these membranes. In many cases, an
air barrier may be more effective than a vapor retarder
since air leakage can carry several hundred times more
water vapor than vapor movement.
10
Air barriers must provide continuity, airtightness,
structural integrity and durability. Since the placement
of an air barrier is usually not critical, it is often located
on the exterior face of the inner wythe. This allows for
a solid surface on which to attach (adhere) the air barri-
er, although there may be discontinuities at the struc-
tural frame or penetrations through the wall. For walls
with insulation placed in the air space, the insulation
protects the air barrier from temperature extremes.
Continuity of the air barrier is of utmost importance.
The air barrier must be kept free from punctures and
tears, and it must be continuous over the entire wall as-
sembly by sealing any penetrations. Materials include
parging, elastomeric membranes or insulation. More in-
formation on materials is found in Technical Notes 21A
Revised.
Vapor retarders are used to slow or stop the rate of
water vapor transmission through a wall. An effective
vapor retarder decreases the potential for condensation
in a wall. A low vapor permeance classifies the materi-
al as a vapor barrier. Although this value is usually tak-
en as less than 1 perm (57 ng/Pa • s • m2), the perm rat-
ing should be based on the entire wall design and the
vapor pressure difference across the wall. A vapor re-
tarder should have the same characteristics as an air
barrier, i.e. continuity, low permeance, structural in-
tegrity and durability. The preferred location of the va-
por retarder is on the high vapor pressure side of the
wall. Most people know the saying “on the warm side
of the wall.” In climates dominated by heating, the va-
por retarder would be located on the inside of the wall
and in cooling climates near the exterior. These rules
are often too simplistic and do not cover many parts of
the country. Therefore, it is suggested that a condensa-
tion analysis be run on the wall in question based on the
local climate. This will provide an accurate depiction
of any potential problem. Technical Notes 7C and 7D
discuss condensation and analysis procedures.
A potential problem can occur where the construc-
tion materials and their location may create a double va-
por retarder. This may trap water between the two bar-
riers with no chance for evaporation. When specifying
materials, such as interior wall coverings, make sure the
permeance is high enough to avoid the entrapment of
vapor. A membrane may serve as both an air barrier
and vapor retarder. This is true of many elastomeric
coatings used in cavity wall construction. In this case,
use the more critical design requirement and apply that
to that material.
SUMMARY
This Technical Notes provides an introduction to
brick masonry cavity walls and discusses their various
properties. Information is provided for the proper de-
sign of cavity walls. Cavity wall use will continue and
recommendations found in this Technical Notes will im-
prove building performance.
The information and suggestions contained in this
Technical Notes are based on the available data and the
experience of the engineering staff of the Brick Industry
Association. The information contained herein must be
used in conjunction with good technical judgment and a
basic understanding of the properties of brick masonry.
Final decisions on the use of the information contained
in this Technical Notes are not within the purview of the
Brick Industry Association and must rest with the pro-
ject architect, engineer and owner.
REFERENCES
1. An Inside Look at the Utility Brick Wall, Brick
Association of the Carolinas, Charlotte, NC.
2. Building Code Requirements for Masonry Struc-
tures (ACI 530/ASCE 5/TMS 402), The Mason-
ry Society, Boulder, CO, 1995.
3. Catalog of Thermal Bridges in Commercial and
Multi-Family Residential Construction, Oak
Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, De-
cember 1989.
11
4. Designing Low-Energy Buildings: Passive Solar
Strategies & Energy 10 Software, Passive Solar
Industries Council, Washington, D.C., June
1996.
5. Drysdale, R.G., Hamid, A.A., Baker, L.R., Ma-
sonry Structures: Behavior and Design, Prentice
Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1994.
6. Handbook of Fundamentals, American Society
of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning
Engineers, Inc., Atlanta, GA, 1997.
7. Masonry Designer’s Guide, The Masonry Soci-
ety, Boulder, CO, 1993.
8. Thermal Mass Handbook, Concrete and Mason-
ry Design Provisions Using ASHRAE/IES 90.1-
1989, Eley Associates, San Francisco, CA, 1994.
9. Uniform Building Code, International Council of
Building Officials, Whittier, CA, 1997.
 Technical Notes 21A
REVISED

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
February
1999

BRICK MASONRY CAVITY WALLS

SELECTION OF MATERIALS
Abstract: The selection of quality materials is essential to the successful performance of
brick masonry cavity walls. Careful evaluation of materials is required in order to obtain the
high performance level associated with these wall systems. This Technical Notes addresses
selection of appropriate materials, referencing ASTM standards when applicable.

Key Words: air retarder, brick, cavity wall, expansion joint, flashing, insulation, materi-
als, mortar, ties, vapor retarder, weep holes.

INTRODUCTION may be necessary to choose a level in the project speci-

Brick masonry cavity walls have always been a pop-
ular choice with structural frames and as bearing walls,
particularly for use in commercial construction. These
wall types are selected for their superior in-service per-
formance resulting from such properties as excellent
moisture penetration resistance, thermal capabilities,
sound transmission resistance and fire resistance.
All of these qualities of brick masonry cavity walls
depend on four key elements: design, material selection,
detailing and construction. Proper design will not com-
pensate for inadequate material selection or detailing.
Conversely, superior design, material selection, or de-
tailing will not compensate for poor construction prac-
tices. The use of quality materials in the construction of
brick masonry cavity walls is of prime importance. The
selection of materials is even more critical now that ma-
sonry design standards and model codes put greater em-
phasis on material properties for design requirements.
This Technical Notes addresses proper material selec-
tion. Properties of brick masonry cavity walls, ade-
quate detailing and construction are addressed in other
Technical Notes in this series.
GENERAL
The standards of choice for quality construction ma-
terials are those developed by the American Society for
Testing and Materials (ASTM). ASTM has developed
standard specifications for virtually all construction-re-
lated building materials. These specifications are based
on laboratory tests, field experience and, in the case of
brick masonry units, are the result of the legacy of ma-
sonry’s long successful performance. ASTM standards
are consensus documents that set minimum acceptable
requirements for materials of construction. ASTM
standards allow for different performance levels and it
fications to meet the particular requirements for an indi-
vidual project. ASTM standards should be reviewed
and understood before they are incorporated into a pro-
ject specification. It must also be understood that the
use of ASTM standards does not guarantee the desired
performance, even though all materials may meet the
specifications.
There are additional materials available that are not
addressed in this Technical Notes that would accom-
plish the goal of providing proper material selection.
Lack of specific reference to a material does not pre-
clude its use for brick masonry cavity walls.
MASONRY UNITS
The exterior wythe of a brick masonry cavity wall
may be of solid or hollow brick. The interior wythe can
be solid brick, hollow brick, structural clay tile or hol-
low or solid concrete masonry units.
Brick
Solid brick units should meet the requirements of
ASTM C 216 Specification for Facing Brick when ap-
pearance is a factor or C 62 Specification for Building
Brick when appearance is not important. Hollow brick
units should meet the requirements of ASTM C 652
Specification for Hollow Brick. For these specifica-
tions, Grade SW should be specified for all exterior ex-
posures in areas that experience freeze/thaw cycling.
Grade MW units may be used for the interior wythe.
Ceramic glazed solid brick used for both the exterior
and interior wythe of cavity walls should meet the re-
quirements of ASTM C 1405 Specification for Glazed
Brick (Single Fired, Solid Brick). Other ceramic glazed
units should conform to ASTM C 126 Specification for
Ceramic Glazed Structural Clay Facing Tile, Facing
Brick and Solid Masonry Units. Information on classi-
fication and selection of brick can be found in Technical
Notes 9A and 9B, respectively. Further information on
brick masonry material selection for adequate strength
and compliance with the Masonry Standards Joint Com-
mittee (MSJC) Code and Specification can be found in
Technical Notes 3 Series.
Concrete Masonry Units
Concrete masonry units are usually used for the inte-
rior wythe of a cavity wall in combination with a brick
masonry exterior. They may also be used as accent
bands in the exterior brick wythe. Hollow or solid con-
crete masonry units should conform to ASTM C 55
Specification for Concrete Building Brick, ASTM C 90
Specification for Loadbearing Concrete Masonry Units
or ASTM C 129 Specification for Non-Loadbearing
Concrete Masonry Units. Non load-bearing concrete
masonry units are usually specified for the interior
wythe when the brick and block cavity wall is used as
infill walls for concrete or steel frame structural sys-
tems if shear loads are not transmitted to that wythe.
Structural Clay Tile
Structural clay tile has been used as a backing material
for cavity wall construction. Structural clay tile for this
purpose should conform to ASTM C 126, ASTM C 34
Specification for Structural Clay Load-Bearing Wall Tile
or ASTM C 212 for Structural Clay Facing Tile. Clay
tile units under ASTM C 126 and ASTM C 212 are com-
monly used for the interior wythe of a cavity wall when
left exposed for architectural appearance reasons.
MORTAR
The strength and moisture penetration resistance of a
brick masonry cavity wall are affected by the mortar se-
lection and compatibility with the brick units. Portland
cement-lime, mortar cement, or masonry cement mor-
tars can be used. However, mortars with an air content
less than 12 percent are recommended for their superior
bond strength and resistance to moisture penetration.
The MSJC Code requires that the allowable flexural
tensile stresses be reduced by approximately 50 percent
for assemblies constructed with masonry cement mor-
tars or portland cement-lime mortars that have air en-
trainment. In addition, some building codes prohibit
the use of masonry cement mortars and all Type N mor-
tars in Seismic Performance Categories D and E (for-
merly Seismic Zones 3 and 4).
Mortar should meet the proportion requirements of
ASTM C 270 Specification for Mortar for Unit Mason-
ry as shown in Table 1. Mortar type selection should be
based on project requirements, such as strength and
compatibility with a particular brick unit. Types N or S
mortars are typically used in brick masonry cavity
walls. See Technical Notes 8 Series for more detailed
information on mortar types and selection.
WALL TIES
Wall ties must provide two important functions: 1)
distribute lateral loads between wythes; and 2) accom-
modate differential movement between wythes. For a
wall tie system to provide these functions, it must:
1) be securely attached and embedded in the masonry
wythes;
2) be placed at the appropriate spacing;
3)have sufficient strength to transfer lateral loads
with minimal deformations;
4) have a minimal amount of mechanical play, if an
adjustable tie;
5)have sufficient corrosion resistance;

TABLE 1
Mortar Proportion Requirements

Mortar Type Portland Masonry Cement or Hydrated Lime Aggregate Ratio

Cement or Mortar Cement or Lime Putty (measured in Damp,
Blended Loose Conditions
Cements M S N

M 1 — — — 1
⁄4

S 1 — — — over ⁄4 to 1⁄2
1

Cement-Lime
N 1 — — — over 1 ⁄2 to 1 1⁄4

O 1 — — — over 11⁄ 4 to 2 1⁄2

Not less than 21⁄4
M 1 — — 1 — and not more than 3
times the sum of the
M — 1 — — — separate volumes of
Masonry cementitious materials
Cement S 1
⁄2 — — ⁄2
1
—
or
Mortar S — — 1 — —
Cement
N — — — 1 —

O — — — 1 —

2
 9 gage, (0.148 in.) (3.8 mm)] or W2.8 [3/16 in. (4.8 mm)]
diameter wire. Cross wires are W1.7 or W2.8 diameter
wire and should be spaced at a maximum of 16 in. (400
mm) on center horizontally. Cross wires without drips
should be used. The total thickness of the wires should
not exceed one-half the joint thickness. Horizontal joint
reinforcement configurations available are the ladder,
truss and tab types as shown in Fig. 2.
(a) RECTANGULAR TIE Tests indicate that brick masonry cavity walls tied by
the use of horizontal joint reinforcement perform simi-
lar to that of the same wall systems tied together with
metal unit ties. These tests also indicate that truss-type
joint reinforcement used in brick cavity wall construc-
tion helped to develop a degree of composite action in
(b)“Z” TIE
the horizontal span, but did not contribute to any com-
posite action in the vertical span. This restraint in the
horizontal direction will reduce the amount of in-plane
movement and possibly result in bowing of the masonry
Unit Ties walls. Thus, truss-type joint reinforcement is not rec-
FIG. 1
ommended for brick and block cavity walls.
Adjustable Ties
6) be easily installed without damage to the tie sys-
tem or other wall components; and Use of adjustable ties has increased for several rea-
7)not compromise expected wall performance. sons: 1) the structure can be enclosed faster since the
Although cost of the wall tie should be considered, exterior brick wythe can be erected later in the con-
this should not be the controlling factor since the cost of struction process; 2) adjustable ties compensate for the
the wall tie system is small as compared to the total cost height differences between wythes and construction tol-
of the wall assembly.
There are many different wall tie types available for
use in brick masonry cavity walls. These include unit
ties, horizontal joint reinforcement and adjustable ties.
Unit Ties
Unit ties can be rectangular ties or “Z” ties as shown (a) LADDER TYPE
in Figure 1. These tie types are usually fabricated from
cold-drawn steel wire in accordance with ASTM A 82
Specification for Steel Wire, Plain, for Concrete Rein-
forcement. They can also be fabricated from stainless
steel conforming to ASTM A 167 Specification for (b) 3-WIRE LADDER TYPE
Stainless and Heat-Resisting Steel Plate, Sheet and
Strip for use in more corrosive environments. Corru-
gated sheet metal ties are not recommended for brick
masonry cavity walls because they do not usually trans-
fer loads properly between wythes. Wall ties with drips (c) TRUSS TYPE
should not be used since they reduce the capacity of the
ties significantly.
Metal “Z” ties should only be used between wythes
of solid masonry units in brick masonry cavity walls.
Rectangular ties can be used for all brick masonry cavi- (d) 3-WIRE TRUSS TYPE
ty walls are therefore recommended instead. Wire ties
should be either wire size W1.7, [No. 9 gage, (0.148
in.) (3.8 mm)] or W2.8, [3/16 in. (4.8 mm)] in diameter.
Horizontal Joint Reinforcement (e) TAB TYPE
Continuous horizontal joint reinforcement should
meet the requirements of ASTM A 951 Specification
for Masonry Joint Reinforcements. Horizontal joint re-
inforcement is typically produced in 10 to 12 ft (3 to 4 Joint Reinforcement
m) lengths. Longitudinal wires are typically W1.7 [No. FIG. 2

3

Adjustable Unit Ties
FIG. 3
erances; and 3) they can accommodate larger differen-
tial movement between wythes.
When specifying adjustable ties, there are certain
conditions which must be considered. The model
building codes limit the vertical offset between the eye
and pintle components to 11/4 in. (31.8 mm). Maximum
play within the connecting pieces is limited to 3/16 in.
(1.6 mm). Once engaged, the pieces should not be able
to separate. The strength and stiffness of adjustable ties
are generally less than that of unit ties or horizontal
joint reinforcement. Thus, more ties are required.
Adjustable Unit Ties. Such ties available for brick
masonry cavity walls are shown in Fig. 3. These ties
typically have two-pieces consisting of a double eye
and pintle configuration. Adjustable unit ties should be
at least W2.8 [ 3/16 in. (4.8 mm)] in diameter and meet
the conditions previously stated.
Adjustable Joint Reinforcement Assemblies. Ad-
justable ties with ladder- and truss- type joint reinforce-
ment are also produced. This type of tie consists of
rectangular tie extensions connected to standard joint
reinforcement, see Fig. 4.
Corrosion Resistance
Corrosion potential can be affected by the function of
the structure, geographic location, presence of insula-
tion or vapor retarders (alters the dew point within the
wall), compatibility of construction materials, design
and detailing of the wall system and workmanship used
in construction. Resistance to corrosion can be provid-
ed by control of environmental factors or by selection
of the tie material.
There are three types of materials used for corrosion
protection of wall ties: galvanizing (zinc coatings),
stainless steel and epoxy coatings. Galvanizing pro-

(a) LADDER TYPE (b) TRUSS TYPE

Adjustable Joint Reinforcement

FIG. 4

4
vides resistance to corrosion in two ways. First, the
zinc coating acts as a barrier to corrosion by shielding
the underlying metal. Second, the zinc coating acts as a
sacrificial element that is consumed by the corrosive
environment before the base metal is attacked. Gener-
ally, as the thickness of the zinc coating increases, the
period of protection increases.
Two methods of galvanizing are available: mill gal-
vanizing and hot-dip galvanizing. Mill galvanizing
takes place after the steel wire has been drawn, but prior
to fabrication of the tie. Therefore, the cut end of the
tie will not be protected. Hot-dip galvanizing is per-
formed by dipping the completed assembly into molten
zinc until a specified amount of zinc is bonded to the
base metal. Hot-dip coatings are typically thicker than
mill galvanizing, and therefore, provide longer periods
of protection. Minimum corrosion protection for galva-
nized ties should be according to ASTM A 153, Class
B-2 (1.5 oz/ft2) (458 g/m2). Zinc coating requirements
are related to the size of the element to be coated.
Stainless steel can be used for unit ties or joint rein-
forcement to resist corrosion. Stainless steel materials
should conform to ASTM A 167, Type 304.
Another method recently developed for corrosion
protection of metal ties is epoxy coating. The applica-
tion of an epoxy coating is similar to that for reinforc-
ing bars used in reinforced concrete or masonry con-
struction. Epoxy coatings provide protection by acting
as an impervious barrier. These coatings are applied to
the base steel by an electrostatic spray method. The
coating bonds to the steel by a heat-induced chemical
reaction in which chemical and mechanical bonds form.
This aids in preventing cracking of the coating due to
handling and installation. This coating type is not sacri-
ficial like zinc coatings. At present, an ASTM Standard
governing this type of corrosion protection has not been
developed. Some manufacturers have been using an
adaption of ASTM A 775 Specification for Epoxy-
Coated Reinforcing Steel Bars for metal tie purposes.
At this time, hot-dip galvanizing is preferred over
epoxy-coated ties since any nicks, voids or cuts of the
epoxy coating could lead to corrosion of the base steel.
THROUGH-WALL FLASHING
Flashing is a necessary component of the wall assem-
bly to assure the excellent moisture penetration resis-
tance of brick masonry cavity walls. Its main purpose
is to collect any moisture that penetrates the exterior
wythe and divert it to the outside of the wall system.
There are a variety of flashing materials that can be
used with brick masonry cavity walls. Flashing for ma-
sonry construction generally fall into three categories:
sheet metals, composite materials (combination flash-
ing) and fabrics (plastic or rubber compounds). Materi-
als such as polyethylene sheeting and asphalt-impreg-
nated building felt should not be used as flashing mate-
rials. These materials can be easily torn or punctured
during installation.

TABLE 2
Flashing Materials

Material Minimum Thickness Advantages Disadvantages

Stainless Steel 0.01 in. (0.25 mm)
2 2
Cold Rolled Copper 10 oz/ft (3100 g/m )
Extremely durable, non-staining Difficult to solder and form,
high cost
Extremely durable May stain adjacent masonry,
high cost

2 2
Copper Laminates 5 oz/ft (1500 g/m ) Easy to form,easy to join, Some coatings not compatible
non-staining with adjacent materials

EPDM 30 mils (0.8 mm) Flexible, easy to form, Metal drip edge
easy to join, non-staining may be required

Rubberized Asphalt 30 mils (0.8 mm) Self-healing, flexible, Degrades in UV light,

easy to form, easy to join, dimensional instability,
non-staining incompatible with sealants,
metal drip edge required

PVC 30 mils (0.8 mm) Flexible, easy to form, Questionable

easy to join, non-staining, durability,
low cost easily torn,
metal drip
edge required

Galvanized Steel 0.015 in. (0.38 mm) Non-staining Difficult to solder,

subject to early
corrosion at bends

5
 Flashing must possess certain physical properties.
Water resistance is the main attribute. However, flash-
ing should also be durable and resistant to damage dur-
ing installation. Resistance to puncturing or tearing and
resistance to ultraviolet light must be evaluated in flash-
ing selection. Flashing material should not be suscepti-
ble to corrosion in fresh mortar or react with adjacent
materials such as rigid insulation.
Flashing should be easily formed into the desired
shape. Compatibility with materials such as sealants or
adhesives should be reviewed. Expected life of the
flashing materials should be the expected life of the
structure, at a minimum. All of these qualities of the
flashing material must be taken into consideration in se-
lection because replacement is expensive. Table 2 de-
scribes the thickness and advantages and disadvantages
of flashing materials that can be installed in brick ma-
sonry cavity walls.
Sheet Metals
Sheet metals used for flashing include stainless steel,
copper, lead-coated copper and galvanized steel. Alu-
minum should not be used since it can corrode in fresh
mortar. Stainless steel and copper materials are the
most durable, but are also the most expensive. Galva-
nized steel has also been used in limited applications.
These flashing materials have a greater life expectancy
than composite or fabric flashing. Sheet metal flashing
is bent and formed on site and sealed by soldering or
with adhesives and rivets. This additional installation
time can result in additional construction costs. Stain-
less steel materials should conform the ASTM A 167
Specification for Stainless and Heat-Resisting Steel
Plate, Sheet and Strip. Copper flashing should comply
with ASTM B 370 Specification for Copper Sheet and
Strip for Building Construction. Solder should conform
to ASTM B 32 Specification for Solder Metal.
Composites
Composite or combination flashings are typically less
expensive than sheet metal and are easier to install. The
most predominant type is a thin layer of metal sand-
wiched between one or two layers of another material.
The metal layer is usually of aluminum, copper or lead.
It is covered on one or both sides with various materi-
als, such as asphalt coatings, kraft paper, fiberglass fab-
ric or plastic films. Product literature should be re-
viewed to determine whether these materials are appro-
priate for use in brick masonry cavity walls. Considera-
tion should be given to compatibility with adjacent
sealants, delamination due to moisture penetration and
movement of the wall system.
Plastic and Rubber Compounds
These flashing materials are usually the least expen-
sive flashing suitable for brick masonry cavity walls.
They are flexible and can make complex shapes, except
in the heavier thicknesses. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC),
Ethylene Propylene Diene Monomer (EPDM) and rub-
6
berized asphalt are the most common plastic flashings
available.
PVC deteriorates and breaks down when exposed to
ultraviolet (UV) light. The material also becomes brit-
tle and shrinks over time due to loss of plasticizers.
Some PVC flashing is not compatible with polystyrene
insulation and can cause the insulation to degrade.
However, not all PVC flashings have experienced such
problems. Appropriate quality, density and thickness of
PVC flashings are paramount to successful performance
and should be obtained from well-recognized manufac-
turers.
EPDM was originally developed as a roofing mem-
brane. However, this type of material has been gaining
widespread use as through-wall flashing for masonry
walls. It has increased resistance to weathering and
performs better in low temperature environments than
PVC. EPDM should be in a cured state. Junctures and
laps of plastic flashing are usually sealed with plastics
or adhesives. These materials may require a metal drip
edge adhered to the flashing when exposed to exterior
elements. EPDM should be talc free or the talc should
be removed where laps are formed.
Another type of fabric flashing is a self-adhering,
rubberized asphalt. This flashing material easily ad-
heres to itself at junctures, laps and interior wall sur-
faces and can be self healing to some extent. However,
this material cannot be placed on damp, dirty or dusty
surfaces. The adhesion properties may be reduced dur-
ing cold weather. Rubberized asphalt can also degrade
in the presence of UV light and therefore, requires the
same type of drip edge as other plastic flashing materi-
als.
WEEP HOLES
Weep holes channel moisture collected on the flash-
ing to the exterior of the wall assembly. For best perfor-
mance, weep holes should always be located directly on
the flashing. If weep holes are installed one to two ma-
sonry courses above the flashing, they will not perform
their intended function. Some types of weep holes may
aid in drying out the wall system, although this is not
their primary purpose.
Weep holes can be formed in a number of ways.
Some of the most common are: 1) omitting mortar in all
or part of the head joint; 2) use of removable rods or
ropes; 3) plastic or metal tubes; and 4) use of a wicking
material. There are also plastic and metal vents that
cover weep holes used in lieu of mortar in vertical head
joints. Open head joints are recommended as weep
holes; however, as long as weep holes remain open for
drainage and positioned at the required flashing loca-
tions with the appropriate size and spacing, the specific
type of weep hole selected is not critical.
DRAINAGE MATERIALS
For brick masonry cavity walls to retard moisture in-
filtration, the air space separating the masonry wythes

FLASHING
PEA GRAVEL
WEEP HOLES
MORTAR UNDER
FLASHING
Drainage Materials
FIG. 5
must be kept clean of mortar droppings or mortar that
may bridge the air space. These obstructions can render
flashing and weep holes ineffective.
While it is important to keep cavities clear, there are
a number of approaches available to keep open a
drainage path to the weep holes. Drainage materials
can be installed above flashing consisting of materials
configured and installed to allow water to flow around
any mortar droppings. The use of these materials does
not negate the importance of good workmanship and
may not be required in all situations. Use of drainage
materials may result in the mortar bridging the air space
at certain locations, possibly above the flashing level.
This may lead to isolated spots of dampness on the inte-
rior or exterior wythe. At worst, it could lead to a path
for water penetration. In all cases, the cavity size
should be maintained.
A layer of pea gravel with an approximate diameter
of 3⁄8 in. (10 mm) can be placed on top of flashing instal-
lations within the wall system. This layer should be ap-
proximately 2 to 3 in. (50 to 75 mm) deep. This will
help to keep mortar droppings from clogging weep
holes. The smallest gravel size should be larger than
the weep hole opening so as not to interfere with
drainage. It is recommended that a bed of mortar, con-
forming to the curve of the flashing, be placed under the
flashing for additional support of the pea gravel. Care
must be exercised when installing pea gravel at bolted
shelf angle locations. The weight of the gravel on the
flashing may cause tearing or puncturing at the bolt
head. Pea gravel at loose lintels needs to be contained
so it does not flow off the end. Fig. 5 shows a typical
detail for the use of pea gravel although it would apply
to many of the drainage materials.
Mesh materials are gaining popularity. These materi-
als are usually manufactured from high density
polyethylene or nylon strand and are available in 1 in.
7
to 2 in. (25 mm to 50 mm) thicknesses. They keep
weep holes open and permanently suspend the mortar
above the flashing level. Many have unique patterns
such as dovetail shapes which break up mortar drop-
pings so moisture has open flow paths to flashing and
weep holes.
Another mortar dropping control device consists of
staggered shelves inserted in the cavity such that they
overlap each other. The individual pieces are fixed in
place by tabs which are mortared into the outer wythe
of masonry. This may collect mortar droppings above
the flashing level and create a bridge for moisture to
cross the cavity.
Some manufacturers of rigid board insulation provide
a grooved face with an adhered filter fabric that is posi-
tioned in the air space towards the exterior. The aligned
grooves act as a channel which allow moisture to drain
down to the flashing and weep holes in the wall system.
The grooves are intended to provide drainage capabili-
ties in the event of the air space being clogged during
construction of the masonry wythes; however, the
grooves must align vertically for proper drainage. Oth-
er rigid insulation boards have an adhered mesh materi-
al which behaves in a similar manner.
EXPANSION JOINT MATERIALS
Building materials and elements used in construction
react differently to loading and environmental condi-
tions. Thus, they are constantly moving. A system of
movement joints is necessary to accommodate these ex-
pected movements. For wythes of brick masonry,
placement of expansion joints is necessary to permit
these movements without concern.
Typical expansion joint details are shown in Fig. 6.
A backer rod and sealant must always be installed to re-
sist moisture penetration at the expansion joint location.
A filler material may be used in the expansion joint be-
hind the backer rod to keep debris out of the joint dur-
ing construction. Common expansion joint filler mate-
rials are pre-molded foam pads and neoprene pads. The
sealant, backer rod and filler material, if present, must
be designed to allow the expected movement; therefore,
the movement potential of these materials must be in-
cluded when determining expansion joint size and spac-
ing. Expansion joint fillers should conform to ASTM D
1056 Specification for Flexible Cellular Materials -
Sponge or Expanded Rubber, Class 2A1.
Sealants come in many varieties and usually consist
of polyurethanes, polysulfides or silicone. Sealants
which exhibit the highest movement capabilities should
be specified. Sealants should conform to ASTM C 920
Specification for Elastomeric Joint Sealants. For ade-
quate sealing of expansion joints the sealant must bond
well to the adjacent brickwork, flashing, windows, etc.
Sealant manufacturers should be consulted to determine
whether priming is necessary based on the sealant mate-
rial selected. Oil-based caulking compounds should not
be used as sealants for masonry wall assemblies be-

(a)
PREMOLDED FOAM OR
NEOPRENE PAD
SEALANT AND
BACKER ROD
(b)
Expansion Joint Fillers
FIG. 6
cause most lack the necessary flexibility and durability
needed for in-service use.
Backer rods are used to keep the sealant at the appro-
priate depth, provide a suitable shape for the sealant and
act as a bond breaker to prevent back-adhesion. The
backer rod should be slightly larger than the joint.
Closed cell polyethylene rods are recommended and
should be free from punctures.
STEEL SHELF ANGLES AND LINTELS
Several different types of steel members can support
either the exterior or interior wythe of a brick masonry
cavity wall. They generally fall into two categories:
shelf angles and lintels. Shelf angles are used in panel
wall systems to support the exterior wythe of brick ma-
sonry at floor levels. Shelf angles are anchored to floor
slabs or beams and break the exterior wall facade into
sections. Loose angle lintels are generally used over
wall openings to support the masonry above. Typical
loose angle lintels bear on the masonry at each end of
the opening and are not attached to the frame or back-
ing.
Steel for shelf angles and lintels should conform to
ASTM A 36 Specification for Carbon Structural Steel.
Steel angles should be at least 1⁄4 in. (6 mm) thick with a
horizontal leg of at least 31⁄2 in. (89 mm) for use with
nominal 4 in. (100 mm) brick wythes and 3 in. (75 mm)
for use with nominal 3 in. (75 mm) thick brick wythes.
Further information on the design of steel lintels can be
found in Technical Notes 31B Revised.
The use of galvanized steel shelf angles or lintels
may be necessary in areas subject to severe corrosion.
Steel lintels, if not galvanized, should be painted before
installation. These steel members support the weight of
the masonry and must remain in good condition. Re-
pair or replacement of shelf angles or lintels is time
consuming and costly so the selection of adequate ma-
8
SEALANT AND
BACKER ROD
NEOPRENE PAD
SEALANT AND
BACKER ROD
(c)
terials is critical to long service life.
INSULATION MATERIALS
In cavity wall construction, the prescribed air space
acts as an insulating layer in addition to the masonry
units. Thermal performance of the system can be fur-
ther enhanced by placing insulation materials in the
cavity. Insulation materials used in brick masonry cavi-
ty walls include inorganic cellular materials such as
perlite and vermiculite, and organic cellular materials
such as polystyrene, polyurethane, polyisocyanurate
and foams. These insulation types are manufactured in
the form of rigid boards, granular fills and foams. Each
of these types, if properly used, will result in a more
thermally efficient wall system.
Although the most important characteristic for insu-
lation is its thermal resistance, other properties should
be considered including water absorption, combustibili-
ty, density, insect resistance and ease of installation.
The following criteria can be used for the selection of
insulation materials for brick masonry cavity walls:
1. The insulation must permit the air space to per-
form its function as a barrier to moisture penetra-
tion by allowing moisture to drain without passage
to the interior wythe.
2. Thermal insulating efficiency must not be im-
paired nor degrade over time due to retained mois-
ture from any source, i.e., wind-driven rain or va-
por condensation.
3. Insulating materials must be long lasting, resisting
rot due to moisture or dryness, offering no food
value to vermin and meeting the building code re-
quirements for flame resistance.
4. Granular fill materials must be capable of support-
ing their own weight without settlement to assure
that no portion of the wall is without insulation
and allow moisture to drain from the cavity.
 5. Foam insulation materials must not shrink with
age to assure that no portion of the wall is without
insulation and that moisture does not have a path
to migrate to the interior wythe.
6. Rigid boards must be firmly attached to the back-
ing so as not to become dislodged in the cavity
and allow air or water movement around the insu-
lation.
7. Consider environmental concerns regarding off
gassing and recycling of insulation materials.
Properties of insulation materials vary widely. Table
3 shows various properties of insulation materials used
in brick masonry cavity walls. The thermal conductivi-
ty (k) and thermal resistance (R) provide a means of
comparing the insulating properties of insulation mate-
rials. These are determined in accordance with ASTM
C 177 Test Method for Steady-State Heat Flux Mea-
surements and Thermal Transmission Properties by
Means of the Guarded-Hot-Plate Apparatus measured at
various temperatures. Due to the large number of types
of insulation, and even larger number of manufacturers,
Table 3 lists only a few representative values of physi-
cal properties. For some materials, an aged or stabi-
lized value is given. In all cases, the aged or stabilized
value is the one that should be used in design. Individ-
ual manufacturers should be consulted for design values
and other properties of their specific materials and their
applications.
Rigid Boards
There are many rigid board insulation materials that
can be installed in the air space of brick masonry cavity
walls. Among the most common are: expanded and
molded polystyrene, extruded polystyrene, expanded
polyurethane, polyisocyanurate, mineral fibers and per-
lite board.
Composition. Rigid board insulations are many and
varied. They include the various mineral fiber boards
and cellular insulation including polystyrenes,
polyurethanes and polyisocyanurates. Air, or other gas-
es, introduced into the material expands the material by
as much as 40 times. Cells are formed in various pat-
terns—open (interconnected) or closed (unconnected).
Most rigid insulation is expanded with hydrogenated
chlorfluorocarbons (HCFC), pentane or other hydro-
genated gases used as blowing agents. Gradual air
leakage into the cells may replace some of the original
gas and eventually reduce the thermal insulating quali-
ty. Some types of insulation use foil facers. These fac-
ers keep air leakage to a minimum and must not be
punctured during construction. Aged R-values should
be used when comparing different types of insulation.
Fibrous insulation materials include wood, cane, or
vegetable fibers bonded with plastic binders. To make
them moisture resistant, they are sometimes impregnat-
ed with asphalt. Fibrous glass insulation consists of a
core board of non-absorbent fibers held together by
phenolic binders and a surface coating of asphalt-satu-
rated organic material reinforced with glass-fiber.
Properties. Water entrapped in insulation can de-

TABLE 3
Insulation Material Properties1

Material Density, lb/ft3 Thermal Thermal Resistance (R), Permeance,

(kg/m 3) Conductivity per inch, Perms2
(k), BTU • in./hr • ft2 • °F °F• ft2 • hr/BTU • in.

Granular Fills

Vermiculite 4.0 - 6.0 (64 - 96) 0.44 2.27 n/a

Perlite 2.0 - 11.0 (32 - 176) 0.27 - 0.42 2.4 - 3.7 n/a

Rigid Boards

Extruded Polystyrene 1.8 - 3.5 (29 - 56) 0.20 5.0 0.83

Expanded Polystyrene 1.0 - 2.0 (16 - 32) 0.23 - 0.26 3.85 - 4.35 0.50 - 0.17

Polyisocyanurate 2.0 (32) 0.14 7.04 n/a

(with facers)
Foamed-in-place
Polyurethane 1.5 - 2.5 0.16 - 0.18 6.25 - 5.56 n/a
Polyicynene n/a 0.25 4 n/a
Foamed Minerals 2.25 (36) 0.26 3.9 n/a
Amino-plast 0.8 (13) 0.20 4.9 n/a
1(hr • °F • ft2) / BTU • in. = 6.933 (m • K)/W
2(in. • Hg ft 2 • hr/gr)/in. = 1.459 x 10-12 kg/(Pa • s • m)

9
stroy its thermal insulating value. Water vapor can flow
wherever air can flow—between fibers, through inter-
connected open cells, or where a closed cell structure
breaks down. Wherever water replaces air, the insulat-
ing value drops drastically since water’s thermal con-
ductivity exceeds that of air by 20 times.
Fibrous organic insulations are especially vulnerable
to moisture damage. Free water will eventually damage
any fibrous organic material or organic binder. Fiber-
board exposed to moisture for long periods of time may
warp or buckle and eventually decay. The expansion
and contraction that accompanies the changing moisture
content may lead to problems.
Though less vulnerable to moisture, inorganic mate-
rials are not immune. Water penetrating into fiberglass
insulation not only impairs the insulating value, but
may also dissolve the binder. Some types of cellular in-
sulation may also break down under repeated
freeze/thaw cycles.
Rigid board insulation should conform to one of the
following: ASTM C 208 Specification for Cellulosic
Fiber Insulating Board, ASTM C 552 Specification for
Cellular Glass Thermal Insulation, ASTM C 578 Speci-
fication for Rigid, Cellular Polystyrene Thermal Insula-
tion, ASTM C 1224 Specification for Reflective Insula-
tion for Building Applications, ASTM C 1289 Specifi-
cation for Faced Rigid Cellular Polyisocyanurate Ther-
mal Insulation Board, ASTM D 3490 Specification for
Flexible Cellular Materials - Bonded Urethane Foam
and ASTM D 3770 Specification for Flexible Cellular
Materials - High Resilience Polyurethane Foam. There
may be other products available for rigid foam prod-
ucts; therefore, manufacturer’s literature should be re-
viewed before selection.
Granular Fills
Granular fills are typically used in the hollow cells of
concrete block backing. However, they can be used in
the cavity. One advantage of granular fills is that they
can be installed after wall sections have been complet-
ed. This permits the mason to work uninterrupted thus
shortening construction time and lowering costs. How-
ever, the water resistance of the fill is of utmost impor-
tance. Settling of the fill material could lead to thermal
bridging in the wall system.
Two types of granular fill insulation have been found
to meet the objectives of cavity wall insulation. These
are water-repellent vermiculite and silicone-treated per-
lite insulation.
Vermiculite is an inert, lightweight, granular insulat-
ing material manufactured by expanding an aluminum
magnesium silicate mineral, which is a form of mica.
The raw material is made up of approximately one mil-
lion separate layers per inch, with a minute amount of
water between each layer. When particles of the miner-
al are suddenly exposed to temperatures in the range of
1 8 0 0°F to 2000 °F (982 °C to 1093 °C), the water
changes to steam, causing the vermiculite to expand in-
10
to cellular granules of vermiculite insulation about 15
times their original size.
Perlite is a white, inert, lightweight, granular insula-
tion material made from volcanic siliceous rock. When
the crushed stone is heated to approximately 1800°F
(982°C), it expands or pops much like popcorn as the
combined water vaporizes and creates countless, tiny
bubbles in the heat-softened, glassy particles. Perlite
can be expanded up to 20 times its original volume.
Water-repellent vermiculite and silicone-treated per-
lite should conform to ASTM C 516 Specification for
Vermiculite Loose Fill Thermal Insulation and C 549
Specification for Perlite Loose Fill Insulation, respec-
tively. Each of these specifications contains limits on
density, grading, thermal conductivity and water repel-
lency. Some properties of these materials is given in
Table 3.
Foamed-in-place Insulation
Foamed-in-place insulations have traditionally been
used to fill the cells of hollow masonry units. However,
new technology has now produced foamed-in-place in-
sulations that can completely fill the air space between
the two wythes of a brick masonry cavity wall. One ad-
vantage of these foamed-in-place insulations is that they
can be installed after wall sections have been complet-
ed. However, the water resistance of brick cavity walls
with these types of insulation materials are unproven in
the field. Shrinkage of the foam material could lead to
moisture drainage paths through the wall system. In ad-
dition, mortar bridging in the cavity may not allow the
foam to flow around it properly. These materials used
in the cavity contradict the drainage system and should
be considered a barrier wall system.
Most foams are a two component system. They are
formed by a chemical reaction of two liquids. They are
placed under pressure, so newly constructed walls must
be cured long enough to resist the pressures. Typical
compositions of these foams are urethane, polyicynene,
magnesium oxychloride cement and ceramic talc and
amino-plast resin. Since most of these products are
proprietary, there are no ASTM standards at this time to
verify quality. Therefore, manufacturers literature
should be consulted for technical information on appli-
cations and usage.
AIR AND VAPOR RETARDERS
Sheets or layers of materials which effectively retard
or reduce the flow of air and water vapor are called air
retarders and vapor retarders, respectively. In recent
years, there has been much confusion pertaining to the
functions of each within a masonry wall system. Air re-
tarders limit the amount of air flow through the wall
system. Vapor retarders are intended to control trans-
mission of water vapor through building assemblies. A
vapor retarder can also serve as an air retarder. An air
retarder may or may not serve as a vapor retarder. It is
sometimes difficult to ensure that either retarder per-
forms only one function. For example, polyethylene
films will function as a vapor retarder, but it will also
resist the passage of air.
To provide effective air and vapor retarders, it is nec-
essary to seal joints in these materials so that continuity
is provided. It is also necessary to seal around the
edges of wall openings such as windows, doors and ac-
cess for utility services. Adhering or taping of the
joints should be specified. The adhesive or tape used
must be compatible with the material composition of
the retarder in addition to performing adequately when
exposed to moisture.
Air Retarders
Masonry cavity walls can appear to be relatively air
tight, but may experience high air leakage rates. Parg-
ing the exterior or interior face of the interior masonry
wythe with mortar is one method to reduce air leakage,
but it will crack if the wythe cracks. Membranes or liq-
uid-applied materials usually provide superior perfor-
mance. Special attention must be given to adjacent ma-
terials or structural members intersecting the interior
wythe and the membrane. Permanent fixtures in the in-
terior wythe and movement joints at the top and sides of
the wythe must provide a continuous air seal to perform
successfully.
For improved air retarder performance, the air and
vapor retarders can be included in combination with
mortar parging. The parging provides a base for the ap-
plication of the vapor retarder. The vapor retarder must
be able to span possible movement cracks in the interior
wythe.
Interior or exterior insulation boards applied to the
interior wythe can also form part of the air retarder sys-
tem. For insulation to work effectively as a retarder,
proper adhesion to the interior wythe by the use of full
grid of adhesive will eliminate air spaces between the
insulation and the interior wythe. Mechanical anchor-
age may provide a tight fit of the insulation to the interi-
or wythe. Joints between insulation boards must be
sealed with a moisture resistant tape or sealant.
Interior gypsum board finish materials can be used as
air retarders when joints are properly sealed. Even
when the interior wall covering is not intended to serve
as the main air retarder, it is suggested that steps be tak-
en to provide good air tightness in order to reduce pos-
sible air circulation in air spaces in the interior wythe.
Vapor Retarders
There are many materials that can be used to effec-
tively provide vapor transmission resistance. However,
the installation methods vary just as much as the materi-
als themselves. Selection should consider the material
and ease of application for the best results.
The vapor retarder selection depends on the type and
location of insulation in the brick masonry cavity wall
and the interior and exterior climate. While some mate-
rials and methods of application may be successful in
the cavity or on the interior side of the interior wythe,
11
there are certain vapor retarders which perform better
on one side that the other.
Suitable vapor retarders consist of two coats of oil-
based or alkyd emulsion paint on the interior side of the
wall finish; a 15-mil thick polyethylene sheet over the
insulation; or the insulation itself if it is highly imper-
meable to water vapor transmission and has taped or
sealed joints. Foil-faced insulation and extruded
polystyrene insulation boards meet these criteria.
When the vapor retarder is installed within the cavity
space, other material options are available. Paints or
suitable coatings can be applied to the outside face of
the interior wythe, but must have the ability to span or
bridge small cracks. The vapor retarder can also consist
of torched-on or spray-applied bituminous coatings,
self-adhesive plastic sheets or plastic materials.
The material must be continuous and be able to ac-
commodate possible movement cracks that may form in
the masonry. For long term performance, vapor re-
tarder materials must remain firmly affixed as vapor
pressure differentials occur. These materials must be
chemically compatible with any insulation placed in the
cavity.
If the insulation is used as the vapor retarder, it must
be held firmly in place by adhesives or mechanical an-
chorage. In addition, the joints between the insulation
boards must be fully sealed with moisture resistant
sealant or tape.
SUMMARY
This Technical Notes is the second in a series dealing
with brick masonry cavity walls. It is concerned primar-
ily with recommended properties and selection of mate-
rials. Other Technical Notes in this series discuss cavity
walls in general, design, detailing and construction.
The information and suggestions contained in this
Technical Notes are based on the available data and the
experience of the engineering staff of the Brick Industry
Association. The information contained herein must be
used in conjunction with good technical judgment and a
basic understanding of the properties of brick masonry.
Final decisions on the use of the information contained
in this Technical Notes are not within the purview of the
Brick Industry Association and must rest with the pro-
ject architect, engineer and owner.
REFERENCES
1. “Brick Masonry Cavity Walls,” Technical Notes
21 Revised, Brick Industry Association, Reston,
VA, August 1998.
2. Handbook of Fundamentals, American Society
of Heating, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning
Engineers, Inc., Atlanta, GA, 1997 Edition.
3. “Thermal Insulation, Environmental Acoustics,”
Volume 04.06, Annual Book of ASTM Stan-
dards, American Society for Testing and Materi-
als, West Conshohocken, PA, November 1998.
4. “Through-Wall Flashing,” Engineering and Re-
 search Digest, Brick Industry Association, Re-
ston, VA, 1996.
5. “Wall Ties for Brick Masonry,” Technical Notes
44B, Brick Industry Association, Reissued Sept.
1988.
6. “Water Resistance of Brick Masonry, Design and
Detailing - Part I of III,” Technical Notes 7 Re-
vised, Brick Industry Association, Reston, VA,
Reissued Feb. 1998.
7. “Water Resistance of Brick Masonry, Materials -
Part II of III,” Technical Notes 7A Revised,
Brick Industry Association, Reston, VA, Reis-
sued Dec. 1995.

12
 Technical Notes
on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
BRICK MASONRY CAVITY WALLS
DETAILING
INTRODUCTION
This is the third in a series of Technical Notes devoted
to brick masonry cavity walls. Other Technical Notes in
this series cover areas of cavity walls in general, including
properties, design, material selection, and insulation; this
Technical Notes is concerned with proper detailing.
The cavity wall can be correctly designed, and proper-
ly constructed using the best materials available, but if
improperly detailed the wall will not function as it should.
GENERAL
Every structure must meet particular requirements
and must be detailed accordingly. Details that are satis-
factory on one structure may not be workable on another.
However, certain details can usually be found that will
minimize the possibility of damage to masonry walls from
cracking, efflorescence, and water penetration. This
Technical Notes will suggest some details which can be
followed to achieve satisfactory cavity walls.
BOND BREAKS
Foundations
In many areas there are significant foundation move-
ments which can cause severe cracking in walls rigidly
attached to the foundation. If these walls are left free of
the foundation, they tend to span the low points and thus
reduce the cracking. In general, differential movements in
foundations supporting cavity walls must be kept to a min-
imum, or serious distress may result. Differential move
Foundation Detail
FIG. 1
* Originally published in January/February 1978, this Technical Notes has been reviewed and reissued.
21B
Reissued*
January
1987
ment of 1/4 in. (6.4 mm) in 15 ft (4.572 m) has been con-
sidered sufficient to cause cracking in masonry walls.
However, observations on cavity type and other masonry
walls have shown that differential movements in the foun-
dation of more than 1/2 in. (12.7 mm) in 15 ft (4.572 m)
could occur and yet the walls remain in good shape and
have no cracks.
Figure 1 illustrates a typical foundation detail. In this
case, the bond is broken between the base of the cavity
wall and the top of the concrete beam by building paper.
The transfer of movements in the foundation to the wall is
thus minimized. Bond breaks also permit differential ther-
mal and moisture movements without distress to either
the brick wall or the concrete foundation. In addition, a
bond beam or tie beam can be formed at the bottom of
the wall by placing reinforcing bars and filling the cavity
with grout. This will tie the inner and outer wythes of
masonry together and distribute any strain over a longer
length of wall. This can also be accomplished by a closer
spacing of the horizontal joint reinforcement at the bottom
of the wall. The above procedures will tend to contain
any vertical cracks that may originate at the bottom of the
wall.
When it is necessary to anchor the masonry wall to
the foundation, it is still possible to detail the wall in a
manner which allows some differential movement. Such
anchorage may be required for load-bearing structures of
high slenderness ratio or in earthquake design areas.
Concrete Roof Slab Detail
FIG. 2
 Concrete Slabs
Thermal strains or other movements are often blamed
for cracking in masonry walls when the actual cause is
the expansion or curling of the concrete slabs bearing on
the walls. The curling of a concrete slab has even been
known to pick up the brick bonded to it. Unfortunately,
this behavior of concrete is frequently overlooked by the
designer in detailing the structure. Figure 2 illustrates a
typical detail that will relieve this condition. In this design,
the bond is broken between the concrete slab and the
brick wall by building paper. This permits the slab to have
some freedom of movement with respect to the wall. In
addition, it permits the longitudinal thermal and moisture
movements to occur without distress. The slab is thick-
ened into a beam over the interior wythe to help stiffen
the slab and minimize curling. Under certain climatic con-
Steel Joist Structural Floor Assembly ditions, provisions must be made for insulation which has
FIG. 3
not been shown.

Anchorage of Wood Floor to Cavity Wall

FIG. 4

Anchorage of Wood Roof Framing to Cavity Walls

FIG. 5

2
 Wall Anchorage to Concrete Beams
FIG. 6
Wall Anchorage to Steel Beam
FIG. 7
BEARING
Structural Steel
Steel has a coefficient of expansion approximately
twice that of brick masonry. If the temperature difference
in the materials is large, and the steel is firmly anchored
to, or confined within, the masonry, then cracking of the
masonry wall will probably occur. Normal practice has
been to positively anchor the joists or steel in the mason-
ry. This design can be improved by lubricating the bear-
ing surfaces and providing slotted holes in the seats of
3
Wall Anchorage to Concrete Columns
FIG. 8
Wall Anchorage to Steel Columns
FIG. 9
the steel members. The anchor bolts should be only
hand-tightened, or friction will prevent the necessary
movement.
Figure 3 illustrates a structural system using steel
joists bearing on a masonry wall.
Wood Floor Joists
Wood floor joists normally have a 3-in. fire cut end
and bear only on the interior wythe of a cavity wall. If the
ends project into the cavity, they can form a ledge which
 may create a moisture bridge across the cavity.
All building codes require joists to be anchored to
masonry walls at specified intervals in a prescribed man-
ner. Codes generally require an anchor at the end of
every fourth joist. Where the joists are parallel to a wall,
anchors engage 3 joists at intervals not exceeding 8 ft
(2.438 m). Cavity wall ties are usually required within 8
in. (203 mm) of joist bearing level. With such construc-
tion, the floor is considered to provide lateral support for
the walls, see Fig. 4.
Wood Rafter Plates
Wood roofs can be anchored to cavity walls by many
methods. two of which are shown in Fig. 5. The detail on
the left illustrates a method using solid units in both
wythes. The detail on the right may be used with vertical

FIG. 10

Anchorage Detail
Corner Concrete Column and Cavity Wall
FIG. 11
Plan Views
FIG. 12

4

Plain Views
FIG. 13
cell back-up units. Anchor bolts are grouted into the hol-
low cells to provide positive anchorage. Regardless of
the method, anchor bolts holding roof plates should
extend into the masonry a minimum of 16 in. (406 mm),
normally about six standard size brick courses. After the
wood plate is installed, the nut should be hand-tightened.
ANCHORAGE AND TIES
When masonry walls are used to enclose skeleton-
5
frame structures, care must be taken to anchor the
masonry walls to the skeleton frame in a manner which
will permit each to move relative to the other. Skeleton
frames are more flexible than brick walls and will undergo
greater deflections under load. The frame and enclosing
wall differ in their reaction to moisture and in the magni-
tude of their thermal movement.
Where anchors tie walls to the structural frame to pro-
vide lateral support, they should be flexible, resisting ten-
sion and compression, but not shear. This flexibility per-
mits differential movements between the frame and the
wall without cracking or distress. Figures 6 through 11
show typical methods for anchoring masonry walls to
columns and beams with corrosion-resistant metal ties.
These anchorage methods will permit both horizontal and
vertical differential movements.
MOVEMENT JOINTS
Vertical Expansion Joints
No single recommendation for the positioning and
spacing of vertical expansion joints can be applicable to
all structures. Each building must be analyzed to deter-
mine the potential horizontal movements, and provisions
must be made to relieve excessive stress which might be
expected to result from such movement. The extent to
which precautions should be taken to prevent brick
masonry from cracking will depend upon the exposure,
character, and intended use of the structure. In some
instances, it may be economically desirable to provide
less than maximum protection as a calculated risk. See
Technical Notes 18A for more specific suggestions.
One additional consideration of extreme importance is
the distinction between control joints and expansion joints.
Control joints are placed in concrete or concrete masonry
walls, along with suitable joint reinforcement, to control
cracking by reducing restraint and accommodating wall
movement from shrinkage due to initial drying. Shrinkage
due to drying is not found in clay masonry construction.
This becomes obvious when one considers the clay units,
which comprise 70% or more of the total volume of a solid
brick masonry wall, are manufactured by a firing process
which drives off all moisture. As a result, control joints are
not necessary to brick masonry walls. Expansion joints
are placed to accommodate the movement of brick
masonry walls due to change in temperature and mois-
ture. Concrete masonry walls also experience expansion
due to changes in temperature and moisture, but they
experience their shrinkage due to initial drying first, then
the control joints act in both contraction and expansion.
Further information regarding expansion joints can be
found in Technical Notes 18A.
Typical details of expansion joints and their locations
are shown in Figs. 12 and 13.
Horizontal Expansion Joints
Cavity walls are successfully used as curtain walls in
concrete and steel-frame buildings. When cavity walls
are so used, the inner masonry wythe is usually support-
ed by the frame at each floor level and laid to the column
faces. The outer wythe, supported by shelf angles, is tied
Reinforced Parapet Wall Double Hung Wood Window
FIG. 14 FIG. 16

to the structure by metal ties to the inner masonry wythe

and the building frame. The shelf angle, which supports
the outer wythe of masonry at each floor, can be secured
to the spandrel in several ways. Care should be taken to
insure proper anchorage and shimming of the angle to
prevent deflections which might induce high concentrated
stresses in the masonry. Angles should be designed so
that total deflections are less than 1/16 in. (1.6 mm).
Even if galvanized shelf angles are used, continuous
flashing should be installed. Regardless of the type, shelf
angles should not be installed as one continuous piece.
Provide a space at intervals to permit thermal expansion
and contraction to occur without damage to the wall.
Where shelf angles are used in this manner, it is sug-
gested that horizontal expansion joints be placed at shelf
angles, see Fig. 8, Technical Notes 21 Revised. This is
particularly important in concrete frame buildings. The
joints should be sealed with a permanently elastic sealant
of a color which will closely match the mortar joints.

PARAPETS
Of all the masonry elements used in buildings, proba-
bly the most difficult to adequately detail is the parapet
wall. Designers have tried many different ways to design
parapets to minimize cracking, leaking, and displacement.
Experts generally agree that the only sure way to avoid
parapet problems is to eliminate the parapet. However,
they are frequently required by building codes, or archi-
tectural considerations.
The detail shown in Fig. 14 is suggested as one
method of building parapets. For cavity wall construction,
it is recommended that the cavity continue up into the
parapet, thereby providing some flexibility between the
outside wythe and the inner wythe. Expansion joints
Foundation Details
FIG. 15
should extend up through the parapet. In addition, the

6
 Metal Casement Window
FIG. 17
parapet wall should be reinforced and doweled to the
structural frame or have an additional expansion joint
spaced between those in the wall below. Expansion joints
should also be placed near corners to avoid displacement
of the parapet. Parapet copings should provide a drip on
both sides of the wall. Metal, stone, and fired clay cop-
ings of various designs usually provide this feature. The
back side of the parapet should be constructed of durable
materials, preferably the same material that is used in the
front side of the parapet. They should not be painted or
coated, they must be left free to "breathe." Unless cop-
ings are impervious with watertight joints, place through
flashings in the mortar bed immediately beneath them and
firmly attach the coping to the wall below with anchor
bolts.
FLASHING AND WEEP HOLES
Flashing is installed in masonry construction to divert
moisture, which may enter the masonry at vulnerable
spots, to the outside. In areas of severe or moderate
exposures, flashing should be provided under horizontal
masonry surfaces, such as roof and parapet, or roof and
chimney; overheads of openings, such as doors and win-
dows; and frequently at floor lines, depending upon the
type of construction.
To be most effective, the flashing should extend
through the outer face of the wall and be turned down to
form a drip. Weep holes should be provided at intervals
of 16 in. (406 mm) to 24 in. (610 mm) maximum to permit
water accumulated on the flashing to drain to the outside.
If, for aesthetic reasons, it is necessary to conceal the
flashing, the number and spacing of weep holes are even
more important. In this case, the spacing should not
exceed 16 in. (406 mm) o.c. Concealed flashing with
7
Commercial Metal Window
FIG. 18
tooled mortar joints can retain water in the wall for longer
periods of time, thus concentrating the moisture at one
spot.
To prevent any possible moisture infiltration and to
promote cavity drainage, place the bottom of the cavity
wall above the finished grade, and avoid placing earth
over the weep holes during landscaping. With basement
construction, it is important to use through-wall flashing at
the bottom of the cavity to prevent moisture from penetrat-
ing the inside surface of the basement wall, see Fig. 15.
In basementless construction, the flashing at the damp-
proof course may also serve as a termite shield.
DOORS AND WINDOWS
Stock sizes of windows and door frames are used in
cavity walls, although sometimes additional blocking is
needed for anchorage. Avoid solid masonry jambs at win-
dows and doors in cavity walls. However, for steel win-
dows, the jamb must be partially solid to accept most
standard jamb anchors. Wood or steel surrounds must be
used to adapt non-modular steel casement windows to
modular cavity walls. Cavity wall ties spaced at 3 ft (914
mm) or less should be placed around all openings not
more than 12 in. (305 mm) from the opening, see Figs.
16, 17 and 18.
Caulking and Sealants
Too frequently, caulking is considered a means of cor-
recting or hiding poor workmanship, rather than as an
integral part of construction. It should be detailed and
installed with the same care as the other elements of the
structure.
Joints at masonry openings for door and window
frames, expansion joints, and other locations where caulk-
ing may be required, are the most susceptible areas for
rain penetration. These areas should be given proper
attention during detailing and construction Also, mainte-
nance programs should be provided to inspect and
replace sealants or caulking which may have dried out, or
otherwise become ineffective, see Figs. 16, 17 and 18. In
all cases, the use of a good grade polysulfide, butyl or sili-
cone rubber sealant is recommended. Oil based caulks
should not be used. Regardless of the type used, proper
priming and backing are a must.

CONDUIT
It is possible to get double duty out of the cavity by
using it to carry short runs of conduit. This feature must
be used with caution so that a moisture bridge across the
cavity is not formed.

SUMMARY
This Technical Notes has discussed and illustrated
the general principles that are involved in the proper
detailing of brick masonry cavity walls. The information,
recommendations, and detailed drawings contained in this
Technical Notes are based on the available data and
experience of the Institute's technical staff. They should
be recognized as suggestions and recommendations for
the consideration of the designers, specifiers, and owners
of buildings when using brick masonry cavity walls.
It is evident that all of the possible conditions and
variations cannot be covered in a single Technical Notes.
However, it is believed that the general principles and
considerations are covered here. The final decision for
details and materials to be used is not within the purview
of the BIA and must rest with the project designer and/or
owner.

8
 21C
Technical Notes REVISED

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
October
1989

BRICK MASONRY CAVITY WALLS

CONTRUCTION

Abstract: This Technical Notes describes proper techniques which should be used during the construction of
brick masonry cavity walls. These techniques cover: storing materials, completely filling all mortar joints, placing
wall ties, flashing and weep holes, keeping the cavity clean and protecting the wall from weather during construc-
tion.
Key Words: brick, cavity walls, flashing, joints, mortar, ties, weep holes, workmanship.

INTRODUCTION Complete Filling of All Mortar Joints

This fourth in the series of Technical Notes devoted to
brick masonry cavity walls covers good construction prac-
tices. Other Technical Notes in this series are concerned
with cavity walls in general, how to insulate them, and
how to properly detail them.
The proper construction of a brick masonry cavity wall
is as important to proper performance as are the design,
the use of quality materials, and proper detailing. Proper
construction may not be achieved if it is considered of
secondary importance by the designer. Adequate supervi-
sion may be necessary to ensure proper construction.
Extensive laboratory tests at the National Institute of
Standards and Technology, formerly the National Bureau
of Standards, and elsewhere, as well as hundreds of
observations of masonry buildings, indicate that to obtain
good masonry performance, there is no substitute for the
complete filling of all mortar joints that are intended to
receive mortar. Partially filled mortar joints result in leaky
walls, reduce the strength of masonry, and may contribute

GENERAL
In the construction of a cavity wall there are no
changes required in basic bricklaying techniques, only
modifications of practices commonly used in the construc-
tion of any brick masonry wall. The fundamental principle
in a cavity wall is that there shall be no bridge of solid
material capable of carrying water across the minimum 2-
in. (50 mm) cavity space. Therefore, the construction of
two separate wythes, with a clean cavity, is of prime
importance. This Technical Notes will discuss certain
construction practices which are necessary for brick
masonry cavity walls to perform successfully.

WORKMANSHIP
The importance of the workmanship used in con-
structing masonry has been stressed by many, sometimes
to the point that it may appear that workmanship alone is
responsible for the performance of masonry walls, regard-
less of the wall design, detailing, or the materials used.
While this is by no means true, good workmanship is a
very important factor in the construction of high perfor-
mance masonry. See Technical Notes 7 Series for more
information on moisture resistance of masonry walls.

Keeping the Cavity Clean

FIG. 1
to spalling due to freezing and thawing in the presence of
excessive moisture. Therefore, all joints intended to
receive mortar in both the exterior and interior wythes
should be completely filled as the brick are laid.

Keeping the Cavity Clean

It is vital that the cavity be kept clean of mortar drop-
pings and other foreign materials. If mortar falls into the
cavity, it may form "bridges" for moisture passage, or it
may fall to the flashing, blocking the weep holes.
Over the years many methods have been developed
and considerable time and discussion have been devoted
to the proper method to use in keeping the cavity clean.
One method is to take a wooden or metal strip, slightly
smaller than the cavity width, and place it in the air space. In cavity wall construction, mortar droppings should not be
This strip rests on the wall ties as the wall is built. Wire or permitted to fall into the cavity. An aid in preventing this is
rope is attached to the strip. Then, as the brickmason to bevel the bed joint away from the cavity.
builds the wall, this strip is easily lifted out. Before the FIG. 2
next row of ties is placed, any mortar which may have fall-
en into the cavity is removed (Figure 1).
Another method is to place every third brick or so in
the course above the flashing of the exterior wythe dry
and wedge it into proper position so that it can be
removed for final cleaning of the cavity. Mortar droppings
at the base of the cavity can be easily removed and weep
holes provided when the brick are mortared in the wall.
In addition to the above mentioned methods of clean-
ing the cavity, the brickmason can use techniques that, if
properly applied, should eliminate a considerable amount
of mortar falling into the cavity in the first place (Figures 2
through 7).
1. After spreading the mortar bed, the brickmason
should bevel the cavity edge with the flat of the trowel When brick are laid on a beveled bed joint, a minimum of
(Figure 2). When mortar is spread in this manner, mortar is squeezed out of the joint. Brick (1) -- beveled
very little will be squeezed out of the bed joints into joint; brick (2) -- conventional joint.
the cavity when the units are laid (Figure 3). FIG. 3
2. The brick units are next rolled into place, keeping
most of the mortar on the outside (Figures 4, 5 and
6).
3. After the brickmason has placed the unit on the bed
joint any mortar fins protruding into the cavity should
be flattened over the backs of the unit, not cut off
(Figure 7). This prevents the mortar from falling into
the cavity and provides a smooth surface which will
not interfere with insulation materials which may be
placed in the cavity.

Tooling
Weather tightness and textural effect are the basic
considerations of mortar joint finish selection and execu-
tion. Properly "striking" or "tooling" the joint helps the
mortar and brick units bond together and seal the wall A uniform bed of mortar is only placed over a few brick.
against moisture. Nine common joint finishes are shown Furrowing is done lightly, if at all. Plenty of mortar is put
in Figure 8 in order of their decreasing weather tightness. on the end of the brick to be placed. The brick is then
Compression of the mortar makes the concave, V, and pushed into place so that mortar is squeezed out of the
head joint.
grapevine joints the most weather tight and acceptable to
FIG. 4
use. The remaining six joint types are not recommended
for exterior use. All holes in the mortar joints should be
filled. Joints should be tooled when the mortar is
"thumbprint" hard.
2
 ous methods. In order of effectiveness these are:
1. Eliminating each second or third head joint.
2. Inserting oiled rods, rope or pins in the head joint at
a maximum of 16 in. (410 mm) o.c. and removing
before final set of the mortar.
3. Placing metal or plastic tubing in the head joint at a
maximum of 16 in. (410 mm) o.c.
4. Placing sash cord or other suitable wicking material
in the head joint at a maximum of 16 in. (410 mm)
o.c.
Insulation Placement
The installation of insulation in a cavity wall is covered
in Technical Notes 21A Revised. In addition, the literature
After placing, mortar squeezed out of bed joint is cut off to of the insulation manufacturer should be consulted before
prevent staining the wall. beginning construction.
FIG. 5
Tie Placement
In a properly constructed cavity wall, both wythes of
masonry must be adequately and properly tied together.
The main concern to the designer is assurance that all of
the ties are in place and remain operative, firmly embed-
ded in and bonded to the mortar. To achieve this, the two
wythes of the cavity must be laid with completely filled

Placing closures requires plenty of mortar be put on the

ends of brick in place and on the ends of the brick to be
placed.
FIG.6

The mortar squeezed from the joints on the cavity side may
be plastered on to the units. Mortar droppings should not
permitted in cavity.
FIG. 7
Weepholes
Weepholes must be placed at the base of the cavity
and at all other flashing levels. They provide a means of
draining away any moisture that may have found its way
into the cavity. Weepholes must provide a clear access to
the cavity and must be placed directly on the flashing for
proper drainage. Typical Mortar Joints
Weepholes can be easily created or installed by vari- FIG. 8

3
bed joints, and the ties must be in the correct position so
that later disturbance of the wall assembly is unnecessary.
There exists extensive data showing that wall ties have
excellent tying capacity if they are well embedded in the
masonry, and also that the cavity wall is a weak structural
member if few working ties must do the job of many
(Figure 9).
There must be at least one 3/16-in. (4.76 mm) diame-
2
ter steel wall tie in every 4 1/2 sq ft (0.4 m ) or #9 gauge
2
wire for each 2 2/3 sq ft (0.25 m ) for a cavity wall whose
cavity is no greater than 4 in. (100 mm). If the cavity
width is greater than 4 in. (100 mm), a wall tie analysis
should be performed. The most common type of wall tie
for brick masonry construction is the Z tie. In addition,
there are the rectangular and U-shaped ties which are to
be used when the backup units are hollow masonry units
Cavity wall metal ties are embedded in bed joints as units
are laid.
FIG. 9
with cells laid vertically.
From a performance standpoint, the most important
factors for wall ties are:
1. Being corrosion resistant.
2. Placing ties at proper spacing. Spacing of ties
should be reduced by one half for ties with drips.
Crimping of the metal ties to form a drip is not neces-
sary, and will decrease the strength of the tie.
3. Full bedding of the bed joint and placing the wall tie
in the mortar 5/8 in. (16 mm) from either edge of the
brick.
Horizontal Joint Reinforcement. Prefabricated hori-
zontal joint reinforcement may be used to tie the interior
and exterior wythes. Truss type joint reinforcement
should never be used to tie the wythes of a brick and
block cavity wall together. Instead, ladder type reinforce-
ment which allows for the in-plane movement between the
wythes is recommended.
Horizontal joint reinforcement is not usually required
in brick masonry walls since they are not subject to
shrinkage stresses. The use of horizontal joint reinforce-
ment makes the placing of the cavity wall ties more con-
venient and there is less concern over omitting them.
4
PROTECTION
Storage of Materials
The manner in which materials are stored at the con-
struction site may have an influence on their future perfor-
mance. Materials should be stored to avoid wetting by
rain or snow, and also avoid contamination by salts or
other matter which may contribute to efflorescence and
staining.
Masonry Units. Masonry units should be stored off
the ground to avoid contamination by dirt and by ground
water which may contain soluble salts. They should also
be covered by a water-resistant membrane to keep them
dry.
Cementitious Materials. Cementitious materials for
mortar should be stored off the ground and under cover.
Sand. Sand for mortar should also be stored on high
ground, or ideally, off the ground to prevent contamination
from dirt, organic materials and ground water, any of
which may contribute to efflorescence and may be delete-
rious to mortar performance. In addition, it is advisable to
store sand and other aggregates under a protective cover.
This will avoid saturation and freezing in cold weather.
Flashing. Flashing materials should be stored in
places where they will not be punctured or damaged.
Plastic and asphalt coated flashing materials should not
be stored in areas exposed to sunlight. Ultraviolet rays
from the sun break down these materials, causing them to
become brittle with time. Plastic flashing exposed to the
weather at the site for months before installation should
not be used. During installation, flashing must be pliable
so that no cracks occur at corners or bends.
Protection of Walls
Rain. Masonry walls exposed to weather and unpro-
tected during construction can become so saturated with
water that they may require weeks, or even months
(depending upon climatic conditions), to dry out. This pro-
longed saturation may cause many of the slightly soluble
salts to go into solution, thus raising the possibility of
efflorescence. Such conditions may also contribute to the
contamination of the masonry with soluble salts from else-
where in the construction (concrete, concrete block, plas-
ter, trim, etc.).
During construction, all walls should be kept dry by
covering the top of the wall with a strong, water-resistant
membrane at the end of each day or shutdown period.
The covering should overhang the wall by at least 24 in.
(610 mm) on each side, and should be secured against
wind. The covering should remain in place until the top of
the cavity wall is completed or protected by adjacent
materials.
Freezing. Leaky walls can sometimes be attributed
to the freezing of mortar before it has set, or the lack of
protection of materials and walls during cold weather con-
struction. Therefore, when building in cold weather, all
materials and walls should be properly protected against
freezing. This involves the following items: storing of
materials, preparation of mortar, heating of masonry units,
laying precautions, and protection of work. Technical
Notes 1 Series, "Cold Weather Masonry Construction,"
contains recommendations for construction and protection
of masonry during freezing weather. ACI-ASCE 530.1
Specifications for Masonry Structures also has require-
ments for cold weather construction.

SUMMARY
This Technical Notes provides the basic information
required for good construction of brick masonry cavity
walls.
The information and suggestions contained in this
Technical Notes are based on the available data and the
experience of the technical staff of the Brick Institute of
America. The information and recommendations con-
tained in this publication must be used in conjunction with
good engineering judgment and a basic understanding of
the properties of brick masonry and related construction
materials. Final decisions on the use of the materials and
recommendations contained in this publication are not
within the purview of the Brick Institute of America and
must rest with the project architect, engineer, owner or all.

5
 23
Technical Notes REVISED

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
Reissued*
February
1997

EFFLORESCENCE
CAUSES AND MECHANISMS
PART I OF II

Abstract: It is important for designers to understand the various types of efflorescence which can occur and to
have at least a basic knowledge of the factors influencing the appearance of efflorescence on brick masonry.
This Technical Notes covers the often very complicated mechanisms leading to the formation of efflorescence,
including the probable sources of soluble salts as well as the sources of moisture needed to activate these salts.
Information is presented as to the composition of each known type of stain, along with research references
describing conditions necessary to cause these stains to appear.
Key Words: admixtures, carbonates, chlorides, condensation, manganese, masonry units, mortar, rain
water, silicates, soluble salts, sulfates, trim, vanadium.

INTRODUCTION
Efflorescence is a crystalline deposit of water-soluble
salts on the surface of brick masonry. The principal
objection to efflorescence is its unsightly appearance.
Although efflorescence is unsightly and a nuisance to
remove, it is usually not harmful to the brick masonry.
Efflorescence is usually white in color; however, all
white stains on brick masonry are not necessarily efflores-
cence. Also, certain vanadium and molybdenum com-
pounds, present in some ceramic units, may produce a
green deposit, commonly referred to as "green stain".
Occasionally, "brown stain" may occur, resulting from
deposits of manganese compounds.
Under certain specific circumstances and conditions,
it is possible for the crystals of efflorescence to form with-
in the bodies of the units. When this occurs, it is possible
that the pressure of crystallization and growth of the crys-
tals may cause cracking and distress to the masonry.
This Technical Notes addresses the mechanisms of
efflorescence, including possible sources of salts and of
water. The purpose is to provide a basic understanding of
the phenomenon of efflorescence for the design profes-
sional, specification writer, contractor or owner. Technical
Notes 23A Revised will present recommendations on how
to prevent the occurrence of efflorescence, and serve as
a guide for its investigation, identification and elimination.
MECHANISMS OF EFFLORESCENCE
The mechanisms of efflorescence are many and often
complicated. However, simply stated, water-soluble salts
in solution are brought to the surface of the masonry and
deposited there by evaporation. The salt solutions may
migrate across surfaces of units, between the mortar and
units, or through the pore structure of the mortar or the
masonry units.
There are certain simultaneous conditions which must
exist in order for efflorescence to occur. Soluble salts
must be present within or in contact with the masonry
assembly. These salts may be present in the facing units,
backup, mortar ingredients, trim, etc. There also must be
a source of water and it must be in contact with the salts
for sufficient time to permit them to dissolve. The mason-
ry must be such that the migration of salt solutions to the
surface, or other locations, occurs in an environment
which is conducive to the evaporation of water.
It is apparent, from the above discussion, that if
masonry could be constructed to contain no water-soluble
salts, or if no water were permitted to penetrate the
masonry, efflorescence would not occur. However, in con-
ventional masonry exposed to weather, neither of these
conditions can exist. Consequently, the practical
approach to the elimination of efflorescence is to reduce
all contributing factors to a minimum.
Sources of Salts
The chemical composition of efflorescent salts is usu-
ally alkali and alkaline earth sulfates and carbonates,
although chlorides have also been identified. The most
common salts found in efflorescence are sulfate and car-
bonate compounds of sodium, potassium, calcium, mag-
nesium and aluminum. Chlorides may also occur as efflo-
rescence. This is usually a result of the use of calcium
chloride as a mortar accelerator, contamination of mason-
ry units or mortar sand by sea water, or the improper use
of hydrochloric acids in cleaning solutions.
Efflorescence is further complicated by the many avail-
able sources of soluble salts. Soluble salts may be present in
the masonry units, in the mortar, or may result from rain water
or ground water, or other sources as discussed hereafter.

*Originally published in May 1985, this Technical Notes has been reviewed and reissued.
 Masonry Units. Since efflorescence appears on the used in wall construction. The mortar is in intimate con-
face of the wall, it is often erroneously assumed to be the tact with the brick on at least four and sometimes five
fault of the brick. This is not usually the case. There are, sides. It is applied to the brick in a wet, paste-like condi-
however, soluble salts present in many of the units that tion which provides ample moisture for the transfer of sol-
make up a wall assembly. uble salts from the mortar to the brick. If any appreciable
Brick - Because of the composition of the raw materi- soluble material is present in the mortar, it will be carried
als and the high temperatures associated with the manu- into the brick proportionately to the amount of moisture
facturing process, it is possible for soluble phases to exist transferred.
within the finished brick. If water is absorbed by such "The simplest case of soluble salt contamination of
products, the soluble salts enter into solution and efflores- efflorescence-free brick is the migration of 'free-alkali'
cence may be formed as evaporation takes place from the solutions from the mortar to the brick. This situation is not
surface of the brick. only the simplest mechanism, but it is also the most com-
In regard to brick which contain water-soluble salts mon. In the trade, it is known as 'new building bloom'.”
formed during firing, Brownell (W.E. Brownell, ìThe
Causes and Control of Efflorescence on Brickworkî,
Research Report No. 15, Structural Clay Products
Institute, 1969) states: "Products such as these will show
efflorescence when placed in distilled water, even though
all precautions are taken to eliminate outside contamina-
tion."
Brick units with low efflorescence potential are readily
available in all parts of the United States and Canada.
The potential for masonry units to effloresce may be easi-
ly assessed by the efflorescence test in ASTM C 67,
Standard Methods of Sampling and Testing Brick and
Structural Clay Tile.
Showing Migration of Soluble Salts from
Backup - Masonry materials used as backup or inner
Backup to Facing Brick
wythes of masonry walls may contain large quantities of FIG. 1
soluble salts. These units may contribute to efflorescence
on the face of the wall, if sufficient water is present to dis-
Cement - The water-soluble alkalies common in mor-
solve the salts and pathways are provided for the solution
tars are sodium and potassium. Alkalies available in port-
to reach the masonry surface.
land cements vary from one source to another, ranging
A comparison of the various types of concrete mason-
from approximately 0.02 percent to 0.90 percent by
ry units with structural clay tile was made by Young (J.E.
weight of the cement. A survey of masonry cements indi-
Young, “Backup Materials as a Source of Efflorescence,”
cates a range of alkali from 0.03 to 0.27 percent by weight
Journal, American Ceramic Society, 40 (7), 1957). Young
of the cement.
measured the soluble salts content and efflorescent ten-
It is suspected that the sulfate content of the cement
dencies of each of the various units in his experiments. It
may be as significant as the alkali content in contributing
was found that concrete products contain two to seven
to efflorescence. Modern cement manufacturing methods
times as much soluble material as the fired clay material.
which attempt to achieve energy conservation may result
Figure 1 illustrates the transfer of soluble salts from
in larger quantities of sulfates in the finished products.
backup units to facing brick. This result was obtained by
placing the backup block in pans of water with five brick Lime - Various investigators disagree as to the possi-
on top of each block, as shown. The brick had previously ble contribution of lime to efflorescence. It has been
been subjected to the efflorescence test and showed no demonstrated that lime, clay or sand additions to a mortar
efflorescence. The potential for backup units to effloresce mix-do not generally contribute to efflorescence (T.J.
can be determined by using the same efflorescence test Minnick, “Effect of Lime on Characteristics of Mortar in
method which is used for facing brick. Masonry Construction,” Bulletin, American Ceramic
Society, 38 (5), 1959.) In fact, these ingredients tend to
Trim - Building trim, such as caps, coping, sills, lin-
dilute the deleterious effects of a high alkali cement.
tels, keystones, etc., are often of materials other than fired
On the other hand, lime is relatively soluble. Its pres-
clay products. These items can be natural stone, cast
ence may serve to neutralize sulfuric acids generated
stone, precast concrete, etc., which may contain soluble
within the masonry. However, a cleaning solution contain-
salts. Such materials may contribute significantly to efflo-
ing hydrochloric acid can produce very soluble calcium
rescence on the face of adjacent brickwork.
chloride which can migrate to the surface. Nevertheless,
Mortar. Mortar can be a significant contributor to lime in mortar is very important in establishing good bond
efflorescence. As Brownell states: to brick units, and thereby increases the water resistance
"The primary and most obvious source of contamina- of the masonry.
tion of otherwise efflorescence-free brick is the mortar

2
 Sand - Sands used in mortar are primarily silica, and
as such they are not water-soluble. Sands, however, may
be contaminated with material which will contribute to
efflorescence. This contamination may include: sea
water, soil runoff, plant life and decomposed organic com-
pounds, among others. Any of these may contribute to
efflorescence.
Miscellaneous Sources of Salts. In addition to the
mortar and units placed in the masonry, there are other
outside sources of soluble salts that may contribute to
efflorescence. Some of these are discussed here.
Admixtures - A wide variety of admixtures for mason-
ry mortars is available to the masonry industry. Most of
these products are proprietary and their compositions are
not disclosed. In general, they are classified as grinding
aids, air-entraining agents, water repellents, wetting
agents and accelerators.
The effects of these admixtures on the properties of
mortar are generally limited to flow, water retentivity and
strength. Little information is available as to their effect
on bond, either between mortar and brick or between
mortar and reinforcing. In addition, there is some evi-
dence, based largely on field experience, that certain
admixtures may reduce the bond between mortar and
brick. This reduction in bond may make masonry walls
more vulnerable to water penetration.
For these reasons, admixtures with unknown compo-
sitions are not recommended for use in mortars unless it
has been established by experience or laboratory tests
that they will neither materially impair mortar bond nor
contribute to efflorescence.
Calcium Chloride - Calcium chloride is sometimes
added to mortar as an accelerator as permitted by ASTM
C 270, Specification for Mortars for Unit Masonry.
Calcium chloride and compounds containing calcium chlo-
ride should not be permitted in masonry containing metal
anchors or reinforcing, as corrosion of metal embedded in
mortar will occur when exposure conditions are favorable.
If calcium chloride is used, it should be limited to an
amount not to exceed 2 percent by weight of the portland
cement or 1 percent of the masonry cement (usually
about 50 percent portland cement) content of the mortar.
See Technical Notes 1. Normally, this amount of calcium
chloride will not contribute materially to efflorescence.
Ground Water - Soluble salts in soil are dissolved by
water which penetrates the ground. Consequently, most
ground water contains a high concentration of these salts.
When the earth is in contact with the masonry, ground
water may be absorbed by the masonry and may rise,
through capillary action, several feet above the ground.
An accumulation of salts in the masonry is then possible.
Atmosphere - It has been reported by some investi-
gators that sulfurous gases in the atmosphere may conta-
minate the brickwork. (F.O. Anderegg, “Efflorescence,”
ASTM Bulletin No. 195, 1952). This situation over a peri-
od of time will cause disintegration of the mortar joint sur-
faces. These acids may also attack the components of
the brick itself. The reports of such instances are infre-
3
quent and are limited to highly industrial areas and
coastal regions.
Sources of Moisture
As previously discussed, the mechanism of efflores-
cence is dependent upon the presence of free water in
the masonry to dissolve the available soluble salts. Some
of the sources of free water are discussed in the following
paragraphs.
Rain Water. The primary source of moisture for the
occurrence of efflorescence is rain water which penetrates
or comes in contact with masonry. The exposure of
masonry to rain water varies greatly throughout the United
States. Rain water exposure is very severe on the
Atlantic Seaboard and Gulf Coast where rains of several
hours duration may be accompanied by high winds. Rain
water exposure is moderate in the Midwest and
Mississippi Valley where wind velocities are lower. Rain
water exposure is slight in arid areas of the West.
Exposure area may be defined roughly in terms of wind
pressure and annual precipitation. The maps in Fig. 2
indicate geographic areas of high wind pressures and
heavy precipitation. A Driving Rain Index, which differs
from the maps in Fig. 2, has recently been proposed.
See Table 1 and Fig. 2 of Technical Notes 7 Revised.
Rain water will penetrate all masonry walls to some
degree, especially if they are improperly designed or
improperly detailed. The craftsmanship employed in the
construction of a masonry wall also has a significant effect
on the amount of water penetrating the wall. Brick
masonry with workmanship characterized by partially filled
joints, deep furrowing of the mortar beds and improper
execution of flashing and caulking details will be more
subject to rain penetration. See Technical Notes 7
Revised, 7A Revised and 7B Revised.
Condensation. In addition to rain water and ground
water, water may accumulate within the wall as a result of
condensation of water vapor. Frequently, efflorescence
that appears on masonry walls protected from rain is due
to this accumulation of condensed water.
Condensation is usually due to moisture originating
inside buildings. Cold outside air, entering a building and
heated for comfort purposes, is invariably low in moisture
content. Moisture released from cooking, bathing, wash-
ing and other operations employing water or steam, and
moisture released by exhalation and perspiration of the
occupants humidify this air. This gain in moisture content
increases the vapor pressure of the inside air substantially
above that existing outdoors. This increased pressure
tends to drive the vapor outwardly from the building interi-
or through any vapor-porous materials that may comprise
the enclosing surfaces.
When vapor passes through porous and homoge-
neous materials, which may be warm on one side and
cold on the other, it may pass through the zone of its dew
point temperature without condensing into water. But, if
the flow of vapor is impeded by vapor-resistant surfaces
at a temperature below the dew point temperature, the
vapor will condense on such cold surfaces. This con-
densed moisture can contribute to efflorescence on the
wall surface. See Technical Notes 7C and 7D.
Construction. Another source of moisture which may
cause "new building bloom" and contribute to future
occurrences of efflorescence in a building is the water
which enters the assembly during construction. The
improper protection of a building during construction may
significantly contribute to future problems, including efflo-
rescence. It is at this stage, when interior assemblies are
exposed, joints are open and foreign materials are pre-
sent on the project, that the construction is highly vulnera-
ble to the entry of considerable moisture. Also, in some
cases, additional soluble salts from other sources may
contaminate the masonry wall assembly.
FIG. 2
OTHER STAINS
Stains will occasionally occur on the surfaces of
masonry structures other than the fairly common white
efflorescence previously discussed. These are carbonate
deposits ("lime run"), silicate deposits (white "scum"),
"green stains" and "brown stains".
Carbonate Deposits (Lime Run)
Carbonate deposits, if they occur, usually appear as a
gray-white, crusty spot in the form of a vertical "run-down"
shape on the face of the wall. These deposits are some-
times referred to as "lime run". This is not really correct,
and may be misleading, as "lime run" is not directly a
result of lime in the mortar. Carbonate deposits nearly
always occur at a small hole or opening in the face of the
4
masonry.
The mechanisms of this type of stain are not clearly
understood, but are often compared with the formation of
stalactites in limestone caves. It is apparent that this
deposit/stain requires a great deal of water traveling a
similar path over an extended period of time. The water
takes any of several calcium compounds into solution,
and brings them to the surface of the masonry through
the hole. The source of the calcium compounds may be
trim, mortar, backup, etc. At the surface, it is thought that
the solution reacts with carbon dioxide in the air, thus
forming the crusty deposit.
These carbonate stains can be removed using a weak
solution of hydrochloric acid, applied directly to the
deposit. Care must be taken to properly wet the wall area
first and rinse it thoroughly after cleaning. This is espe-
cially true when removing carbonate deposits from light-
colored brick. See Technical Notes 20 Revised. The
deposit is likely to reappear unless the water source is
stopped.
Silicate Deposits (Scumming)
Silicate deposits, sometimes called "scumming",
sometimes occur as a general white or gray discoloration
on the face of brick masonry. The discoloration may
occur over all of the face of the masonry or sometimes in
2
specific locations of 100 to 200 sq ft (9 to 19 m ) in area,
irregular in shape. Silicate stain/deposits may also occur
adjacent to trim elements, precast concrete and occasion-
ally large expanses of glass.
These silicate deposits on brick masonry should not
be confused with the "scumming" that occasionally occurs
on brick in the manufacturing process. This "scum" will
be evident on the brick units in storage before they are
placed in the wall.
It is known that there is any number of mechanisms
that may precipitate silicate deposits on brickwork. Their
specific chemistry, however, is not totally clear. Many of
these stains are related to the cleaning of brick masonry
with hydrochloric acid solutions, especially if proper clean-
ing procedures are not carefully followed, i.e., thoroughly
wetting the wall, method of applying the cleaning solution
and thoroughly rinsing the wall with clear water.
Silicate deposits are very difficult, if not impossible, to
remove from brick masonry. They are insoluble in most
acids. Often the only practical method of dealing with a
silicate deposit is to disguise it and permit it to weather
away over time. See Technical Notes 20 Revised.
Vanadium (Green or Yellow Stains)
Some structural clay products develop yellow or green
efflorescent salts when they come in contact with water.
These stains are usually vanadium salts. They may be
found on red, buff or white clay products; however, they
are most objectionable and more readily apparent on the
lighter-colored units. The vanadium salts responsible for
these stains have their origin in the raw materials used for
the manufacture of the clay products. The yellow and
green stains are usually vanadyl salts, consisting of sul-
fates and chlorides, or hydrates of these salts.
The mechanisms of this type of stain are as follows:
as water travels through the brick, it dissolves both the
vanadium oxide and sulfates. In this process, the solution
may become quite acidic. As the solution evaporates
from the surface of the product, the salts are deposited.
The chloride salts of vanadium require highly acidic
leaching solutions, and are usually the result of washing
brickwork with acid cleaning solutions. Vanadyl chloride,
one of the most prominent stain compounds, forms almost
exclusively as a result of washing with hydrochloric acid.
As stated by Brownell: “A highly acid condition in the
water leaching through a brick is necessary for the promo-
tion of the colored vanadyl salts."
Preventing green stain caused by vanadium is impor-
tant, since subsequent efforts at cleaning may turn it into
a brown, insoluble deposit that is very difficult to remove.
To minimize the occurrence of green stain, the follow-
ing steps are recommended:
1. Store brick off the ground and under protective cov-
ers.
2. Never use or permit the use of acid solutions to
clean light-colored brick.
3. Seek and follow the recommendations of the brick
manufacturer for cleaning procedures, for all types
and colors of brick.
Green vanadium stains can be difficult to remove.
Some methods and procedures for the removal of green
stain are described in Technical Notes 20 Revised. Never
attempt to remove green stain with acids.
Manganese (Brown Stain)
Under certain conditions, tan or brown, and some-
times gray staining may occur on the mortar joints of
brickwork. Occasionally, the brown stain will streak down
onto the faces of the brick. This type of stain is the result
of the use of manganese dioxide as a coloring agent in
the units. This staining problem is closely related to the
general efflorescence problem, since it is the sulfate and
chloride salts of manganese that travel to the surface of
the brick and are deposited on the mortar joints.
During the brick firing process, the manganese color-
ing agents undergo several chemical changes, resulting in
manganese compounds that are insoluble in water. They
have varying degrees of solubility in weak acids. As pre-
viously discussed, acid solutions can occur in the brick in
a wall. Also, the brick can absorb hydrochloric acid during
the masonry cleaning process. It is also possible that in
some areas rain water may be acidic (T.J. Minnick, “Effect
of Lime on Characteristics of Mortar in Masonry
Construction,” Bulletin, American Ceramic Society, 38 (5),
1959.)
According to Brownell: "The manganese sulfate or
chloride solutions from the brick will migrate across the
mortar joints especially during a period of drying. These
acidic manganese solutions will be neutralized by the
inherent basic nature of the mortar. Upon neutralization,
insoluble manganese hydroxide is precipitated on the
mortar joints, and this is converted to brown Mn3O4
on drying."
To minimize or eliminate manganese staining, the fol-
lowing are suggested:
5
1. When a building is under construction using brick
colored with manganese, it should not be cleaned
with hydrochloric acid without neutralizing the acid
during the rinsing operation. Such neutralization will
tend to reduce the amount of manganese taken into
solution.
2. Application of silicones to brick (if otherwise unob-
jectionable, see Technical Notes 6A) may prevent
staining by retarding water penetration of the brick
while stored or in service.
3. Always request and follow the advice of the brick
manufacturer in cleaning a brown or manganese-col-
ored brick.
The removal of manganese stain is a fairly simple
operation, and is described in Technical Notes 20
Revised. However, the permanence of the removal is
often in doubt. Hence, the prevention of the occurrence
of brown manganese stain is of paramount importance.
SUMMARY
This Technical Notes has presented a brief descrip-
tion of the causes, mechanisms and sources of efflores-
cence. Technical Notes 23A Revised will address the pre-
vention of efflorescence, a guide for analysis of efflores-
cence problems and the removal of efflorescent salts from
the face of masonry.
The information contained in this Technical Notes is
based on the available data and experience of the techni-
cal staff of the Brick Institute of America. This information
should be recognized as recommendations which, if fol-
lowed with good judgment, should result in brick masonry
that performs successfully.
Final decisions on the use of information, suggestions
and recommendations as discussed in this Technical
Notes are not within the purview of the Brick Institute of
America and must rest with the project owner, designer or
both.
REFERENCES
For further information on the subject of efflorescence,
its causes and mechanisms, the following publications
may be consulted:
1. T. Ritchie, "Study of Efflorescence Produced on
Ceramic Wicks by Masonry Mortars", Journal,
American Ceramic Society, 38 (10) 1955.
2. W. F. Brownell, J. L. Kenna, and P. P. Wilko, Jr.,
"Staining of Mortar by Manganese Colored Brick",
Bulletin, American Ceramic Society, 45 (12) 1966.
3. Technical Notes on Brick Construction 20
Revised, Brick Institute of America, McLean, Virginia,
Sept/Oct 1977.
 23A
Technical Notes REVISED

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
June
1985

EFFLORESCENCE
PREVENTION AND CONTROL
PART II OF II

Abstract: Designers must not only understand the causes and mechanisms of the various types of efflores-
cence which can occur on brick walls, but should be aware of means to prevent efflorescence and to control it if
it does appear. This Technical Notes presents a discussion on the importance of design, details, selection of
materials, the use of caulking and sealants as well as the importance of good construction practices. An analy-
sis procedure, consisting of a seven-point checklist, is suggested for use in examining problem structures. The
concluding discussion addresses methods for the removal of efflorescence.
Key Words: admixtures, analysis procedure, backup, brick, caulking and sealants, coatings, construction
practices, design, efflorescence, mortar, prevention, removal.

solid and hollow facing brick be tested for a tendency to

INTRODUCTION
Efflorescence, the normally harmless deposit of white
crystals of salts on the face of brick masonry, can be pre-
vented. An understanding of the nature and mechanisms
of efflorescence, as well as the possible sources of solu-
ble salts and moisture, is essential to the prevention of
efflorescence.
A detailed discussion of these mechanisms, soluble
salts and moisture sources is contained in Technical
Notes 23 Revised, "Efflorescence-Causes and
Mechanisms". This discussion is recommended reading
prior to the use of this issue of Technical Notes.
This Technical Notes addresses recommendations for
prevention and control of efflorescence, an analysis
checklist for efflorescence problems and procedures for
removal of efflorescence.
PREVENTION OF EFFLORESCENCE
It is not practical to attempt to preclude all soluble
salts and all moisture from contact with masonry.
However, the reduction of each of these contributing fac-
tors is highly practicable and will usually reduce or pre-
vent the occurrence and severity of efflorescence.
Selection of Materials
Selecting materials, i.e., facing brick, backup, trim and
mortar for minimum content of soluble salts and maximum
performance for a watertight structure is the first step in
the prevention of efflorescence. The following recommen-
dations are presented to assist the designer in the selec-
tion of materials to limit the occurrence of efflorescence.
Brick Units. As stated in Technical Notes 23
Revised, brick units which do not contain soluble salts or
contribute to efflorescence are available throughout the
United States and Canada. It is recommended that all
effloresce by the efflorescence test contained in ASTM C
67, Standard Methods of Sampling and Testing Brick and
Structural Clay Tile.
This test consists of partially immersing representative
samples of brick in distilled water for a period of 7 days.
At the end of this period, the units are allowed to dry,
examined for efflorescence and compared to control sam-
ples which were not immersed. Brick should be rated at
not more than "slightly effloresced" to be acceptable.
Backup. Many backup materials contain relatively
high percentages of alkali which may contribute to efflo-
rescence on the face of a masonry wall. It is suggested,
therefore, that backup units be tested for their salt content
by the efflorescence test, as described by W. E. Brownell
(W.E. Brownell, “The Causes and Control of Efflorescence
on Brickwork,” Research Report No. 15, Structural Clay
Products Institute, 1969.)
When backup materials containing soluble salts are
used, it is recommended that the wall details and design
be such that the materials containing salts are separated
from the facing brick. This design practice avoids
through-the-wall migration of water-soluble salts solutions
which lead to efflorescence. This can be done by using
cavity-type walls, for example.
Mortar. In Technical Notes 23 Revised, it is noted
that the principal contribution to efflorescence in mortars
is the high alkali content of the portland cement. The ten-
dencies of cement toward efflorescence may be predicted
with reasonable accuracy from a chemical analysis of the
cement. Cements high in alkaline content are more prone
to produce efflorescence than cements of lower alkali con-
tent.
ASTM Standard Specification for Portland Cement, C
150, contains the following note as part of Section 4,
Chemical Resistance:
"Note 3. Cement containing not more than 0.60 per-
cent alkali calculated as the percentage of Na2O plus
0.658 times the percentage of K2O may be specified
when the cement is to be used in concrete with
aggregates that may be deleteriously reactive.
Reference should be made to the Specification for
Concrete Aggregates (ASTM Designation: C 33) for
suitable criteria of deleterious reactivity."
The alkalies referred to are the total, i.e., acid-soluble,
which includes the water-soluble fraction alkalies. In gen-
eral, the water-soluble alkali content will be of the order of
60 percent of the total. It is stated by Brownell:
"Experience has shown that 0.1 percent free alkali in
a portland cement used in common mortars will cause
'new building bloom'; therefore, if such efflorescence
is to be avoided, the free alkali of the cement should
be less than this and should be specified as low as
possible."
This severe limitation on water-soluble alkali content
can be met only by a few cements, other than portland
blast-furnace slag cement and masonry cements made
with slag cement.
It should be stated, however, that all investigators do
not agree. Many believe that Brownell is extremely con-
servative.
Other ingredients for mortar, i.e., lime, sand and
water, should also be selected with care, although their
contribution to efflorescence may be less frequent (see
Technical Notes 23 Revised).
Mortar types and proportions should be selected on
the bases of structural and exposure requirements for the
particular project. Recommendations for mortar are con-
tained in Technical Notes 8 Revised and Technical Notes
8B.
Admixtures. Admixtures for mortar are generally not
recommended because of their unknown ingredients and
the lack of data on their effect on bond strength and, con-
sequently, watertightness of masonry walls.
Design
The most meticulous design and detailing may be
thwarted by the selection of inappropriate materials or by
poor workmanship. The converse is also true; the use of
the best possible materials and craftsmanship will not in
themselves ensure a successful and permanent structure,
if the design is improper.
Wall Sections. The design of a masonry wall and the
selection of materials for construction should, from the
standpoint of resistance to rain penetration, be based
upon the exposures to which the wall will be subjected.
There are two principal methods employed for pre-
venting penetration of wind-driven rain into the body of the
masonry. One is to provide a cavity or airspace behind
the exterior masonry wythe to channel water through
weepholes back to the outside of the wall. A second
method is to provide an internal barrier to water penetra-
2
tion in back of the exterior wythe. These two wall types
are generally referred to as "drainage" and "barrier" wall
types, respectively, and are discussed in detail in
Technical Notes 7 Series. In general, the "drainage" type
walls are recommended for maximum resistance to rain
penetration and minimum efflorescence.
Details. As previously stated, one of the necessary
conditions for the occurrence of efflorescence is the pres-
ence of moisture in the wall assembly. The preclusion of
this moisture will thwart the mechanisms for efflores-
cence. Therefore, much depends on the design and
attention to certain critical details. Of primary importance
are those details associated with the prevention of the
entry of moisture into the masonry assembly. Also of
importance are details that will direct water away from
wall tops and horizontal surfaces.
Design recommendations, wall types, workmanship
characteristics, detailing, flashing, drips and weepholes
are some of the points to which careful attention must be
paid in order to prevent the occurrence of efflorescence.
These subjects are discussed with recommendations in
Technical Notes 7 Series.
Caulking and Sealants. Too frequently, caulking is
used as a means of correcting or hiding poor workman-
ship rather than as an integral part of construction which
should be designed and installed in the same manner as
other elements of the structure.
Joints between masonry and door and window
frames, expansion joints and other locations where caulk-
ing is required, are the most frequent sources of rain pen-
etration into masonry. These vulnerable locations should
be given careful attention during design and construction.
Also, maintenance programs should be established to
inspect and replace sealants or caulking which have
dried, or become ineffective. It is noted that the expected
life of the best available sealant material is only 4 to 10
years, depending on the exposure.
Construction Practices
As previously discussed, it is apparent that construc-
tion practices and workmanship employed in building
masonry walls can seriously affect the walls’ tendency to
effloresce. Some discussion and recommendations for
proper construction practices follow.
Workmanship. Workmanship characterized by the
complete filling of all mortar joints intended to receive
mortar is desirable, as is the need to keep all cavities
clean and free of mortar droppings. Attention to both of
these items is of primary importance in preventing mois-
ture penetration to the interior of masonry. It is also of
paramount importance in preventing the occurrence of
efflorescence. Technical Notes 7B Revised discusses the
workmanship practices which should be employed in the
construction of masonry walls.
Protection. Partially completed masonry walls
exposed to rain and other elements during construction
may become saturated with water and can require weeks,
or even months (depending on climatic conditions), after
the completion of the building for the masonry to dry. This
prolonged saturation may cause many "slightly" soluble
salts, as well as the highly soluble salts, to go into solu-
tion. Such conditions may also contribute to the contami-
nation of the masonry with soluble salts from elsewhere in
the construction (concrete, plaster, trim, etc.).
During construction, all walls should be kept dry by
covering with a strong, waterproof membrane at the end
of each workday or shutdown period. Mortar boards,
scaffold planks and light plastic sheets weighted with brick
should not be accepted as suitable cover. Metal clamps,
similar to bicycle clips, are commercially available in a
variety of sizes to meet various wall thicknesses. These
are used in conjunction with plastic sheets or water-repel-
lent tarpaulin material and offer excellent protection for
extended periods of time. For masonry construction dur-
ing cold weather, see Technical Notes 1 Series for winter
protection recommendations and construction procedures.
Storage of Materials. The method of storing materi-
als at a construction project site may influence future
occurrence of efflorescence. Materials should be stored
in such a manner as to avoid their saturation by rain,
snow and ground moisture, as well as contamination from
salts or other matter which may contribute to efflores-
cence.
Masonry Units - Masonry units should be stored off
the ground to avoid contamination by dirt and ground
water which may contain soluble salts. They should also
be covered by a waterproof membrane to keep them dry.
Cementitious Materials - Cementitious materials for
mortar should be stored off the ground and either inside
or under cover.
Sand - Sand for mortar should also be stored off the
ground to prevent contamination from dirt, plant life,
organic materials and ground water, any of which may be
a contributor to efflorescence. In addition, it is advisable
to store sand and other aggregates under a protective
membrane cover, if possible.
Analysis Procedure
An examination of a problem structure using the fol-
lowing checklist may be sufficient to determine the cause
and extent of the efflorescence problem, and to suggest
methods for repair and alleviation.
1. Determine the age of the structure at the time when
the efflorescence first appeared. If "new building
bloom" is involved (structures less than one year old),
the source of the salts is often the cement in the mor-
tar, and the source of the moisture is usually the con-
struction water. If, however, the building is over a
year old, other sources must be considered.
If the structure is over two years old, construction
details should be examined for possible leaks in the
wall or in the surrounding construction. The appear-
ance of efflorescence on an established building,
which has been free of efflorescence, is usually attrib-
utable to a new source of water in the masonry.
2. The location of the efflorescence, both on the struc-
3
ture and on the individual units or mortar joints,
should also be carefully noted. The location on the
building may offer some information as to where the
water is entering. The location of salt crystals on the
joints or the units may be of help in determining the
source of the salts. The recent use or occupancy of
the building should also be noted. For example, has
it been vacant for some time or has there been new
construction? In short, what has occurred that might
cause, or trigger, the appearance of the efflores-
cence?
3. The condition of the masonry should be carefully
examined. The profile of the mortar joints, the condi-
tion of the mortar, the quality of workmanship
employed, the condition of caulking and sealant joints,
the condition of flashing and drips, any deterioration
or eroding of mortar joints in copings or in sills should
all be carefully noted. This information should offer
clues as to the entry paths of moisture into the con-
struction.
4. The wall sections and details of construction should
be examined for an indication of possible paths of
moisture travel, and for possible sources of contami-
nation by soluble salts. A careful examination of roof
and wall juncture and flashing details should be
made. A comparison of "contract drawings" with "as
built drawings" may be helpful. This examination will
also be useful for the later determination of steps for
repair or alleviation of the efflorescence.
5. Laboratory test reports on the materials of con-
struction should be examined, if they are available.
This will help determine the source of the soluble
salts, and may be of use in analyzing and making
repair judgments.
6. The identification of efflorescence is sometimes of
use. This can be done by commercial testing labora-
tories. X-ray defraction analysis is sometimes used.
Petrographic analysis or chemical analysis is also
possible. In some instances, it is useful to know both
the type of salts present and their relative quantity.
Table 1 is taken from Brownell's report and is
described as a table of most probable sources of
salts.
7. Miscellaneous sources of water should also be
considered if all other sources seem to be eliminated.
Some of these sources are: condensation within the
wall, leaky pipes, faulty drains and condensation on
heating or plumbing pipes. Although somewhat rare,
if a condensation analysis is necessary, the methods
are described in Technical Notes 7C and 7D.
Corrections and Solutions
When the mechanisms causing the efflorescent salts
to appear have been established and the sources of salts
or moisture are identified (usually the latter). the problem
of making suitable corrections must be addressed. Such
solutions to efflorescence problems usually involve pre-
venting the entry of water into the masonry and removing
the efflorescence from the wall.
Recommendations for the correction of water penetration
 TABLE 1 REMOVAL OF EFFLORESCENCE
Common Sources of Efflorescence As a general rule, the removal of efflorescent salts
from the face of masonry is a relatively easy operation.
As stated, most efflorescent salts are water-soluble and
Most Probable
Principal Efflorescing Salt Source many will disappear of their own accord with normal
weathering. This is especially true of "new building
Calcium sulfate CaSO4•2H2O Brick bloom".
It is usually not advisable to wash efflorescence off of
Sodium sulfate Na2SO4•10H2O Cement-brick
reactions the brickwork except in warm, dry weather, since this
results in the availability of considerably more moisture
Potassium sulfate K2SO4 Cement-brick
reactions which may bring more salts to the surface. Many efflores-
Calcium carbonate CaCO3 cent salts can be removed by dry brushing.
Mortar or con-
crete backing For recommendations concerning the removal of the
Sodium carbonate Na 2CO3 efflorescent salts and other stains on masonry walls, see
Mortar
Technical Notes 20 Revised. Special care should be
Potassium carbonate K2CO3 Mortar exercised in the cleaning operation of new masonry, since
improper procedures and errors can contribute to or
Potassium chloride KCl Acid cleaning cause efflorescence and/or other staining.
Sodium chloride NaCl Sea water
SUMMARY
Vanadyl sulfate VOSO4 Brick As stated, the mechanisms for efflorescence require
the presence of soluble salts and moisture. To prevent or
Vanadyl chloride VOCl2 Acid cleaning stop the occurrence of efflorescence, the elimination of
either will suffice.
Manganese oxide Mn3O4 Brick Recommendations have been offered in this Technical
Notes for the proper selection of materials, wall sections
Iron oxide Fe2O3 or Iron in contact and design details to reduce to a minimum the available
Fe(OH) 3 or brick with salts and the opportunity for water penetration. A discus-
black core sion of the sources of moisture and salts and the mecha-
Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2
nisms of efflorescence is contained in Technical Notes 23
Cement
Revised.
The information contained in this Technical Notes is
in masonry walls are contained in Technical Notes 7 Series. based on the available data and the experience of the
technical staff of the Brick Institute of America. This infor-
Coatings mation should be recognized as recommendations which,
Silicone or acrylic applications are among the solu- if followed with good judgment, should result in brick
tions open suggested for prevention of efflorescence. The masonry that performs successfully.
application of a coating to a masonry wall may prevent Final decisions on the use of details and materials as
recurrence of efflorescence. However, the application of a discussed in this Technical Notes are not within the
coating to masonry which has a tendency to effloresce, purview of the Brick Institute of America and must rest
without stopping the mechanisms causing the occurrence with the project designer, owner or both.
of that efflorescence, may lead to disintegration of the
masonry. REFERENCES
As stated in Technical Notes 7E, water gaining Information beyond that discussed in this Technical
entrance into the masonry will still take soluble salts into Notes is contained in the following publications:
solution. Then, as the water travels toward the treated 1. Selected ASTM Standards for Brick, compiled by
surface, most of it will be stopped at the inner depth of the ASTM for Brick Institute of America, August 1985.
coating penetration (usually 1/8 to 1/4 in. [3 to 6 mm]) 2. Technical Notes on Brick Construction 1 Revised,
from the face. At this point, the water will evaporate, "Cold Weather Masonry Construction-Introduction",
passing through the treated area as vapor and will pre- Reissued July 1981.
sent no problem. However, the soluble salts contained 3. Technical Notes on Brick Construction 1A, “Cold
will be deposited within the masonry at the point where Weather Masonry Construction--Construction and
the water evaporates. The crystalline growth, at that Protection Recommendations,” Reissued December
point, can develop tremendous pressures which may 1982
result in brick spalling. It is for this reason that coatings 4. Technical Noteson Brick Construction 1B, “Cold
are not recommended as a treatment for efflorescence Weather Masonry Construction--Winter Building
problems. Techniques in Europe,” Reissued December 1984.
5. Technical Notes on Brick Construction 1C, “Cold
Weather Masonry Construction--Contemporary
Bearing Wall Buildings,” Reissued July 1981.
4
6. Technical Notes on Brick Construction 7 Series on
the subject of Water Resistance of Brick Masonry.
7. Technical Notes on Brick Construction 8 Revised,
"Portland Cement-Lime Mortars for Brick Masonry",
September 1972.
8. Technical Notes on Brick Construction 20
Revised, "Cleaning Brick Masonry", Sept.-Oct. 1977.
9. Technical Notes 23 Revised, "Efflorescence,
Causes and Mechanisms, Part I of II", May 1985.

5

Technical Notes
on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
THE CONTEMPORARY BEARING WALL
INTRODUCTION
It has only been during the past five years (since
1965) that it has been the practice in this country to base
the design of loadbearing brick masonry structures on a
rational analysis. Prior to this time, the design of build-
ings was based on the empirical requirements of building
codes for minimum wall thickness and maximum height.
As a result of this, bearing wall construction for buildings
higher than three to five stories was uneconomical and
other methods of support (steel or concrete skeleton
frame) were generally used. Since 1965, there has been
a renewed interest on the part of the design professional,
architect and engineer, in modern bearing wall construc-
FIG. 1
*Originally published in February 1970, this Technical Notes has been reviewed and reissued with editorial changes.
24
REVISED
Reissued*
December
1986
tion, wherein the design is based on a rational structural
analysis rather than on outmoded arbitrary requirements.
This interest was first stimulated by the work in Europe,
where many loadbearing brick buildings exceeding ten
stories in height have been constructed during the past
two decades.
EXAMPLES
One of the world's tallest thin-brick bearing wall struc-
tures built in 1957, is located near Zurich, Switzerland
(Fig. 1). This 18-story apartment structure utilizes interior
loadbearing brick walls of 5 to 10 in. in thickness. The
exterior walls (Fig. 2) are 15-1/4 in. in thickness; the thick-
ness in this instance being determined by the require-
ments for thermal insulation rather than by structural
requirements. By using cavity walls, the Swiss have
found a way to provide the required thermal insulation and
still maintain relatively thin exterior walls. Figure 3 shows
a 16-story apartment building in Grenchen, Switzerland
which utilizes cavity wall construction. The exterior walls
of this building (Fig. 4) are comprised of a 6-in. brick inner
bearing wythe, a 1-1/2-in. cavity and a 5-in. exterior brick
wythe. The floor loads are carried by the 6-in. inner
wythe and 6-in. interior brick bearing partitions. The 5-in.
exterior wythe of the exterior wall is self-supporting on the
foundation and is tied only at each floor level, with 1/4-in.
stainless steel wire anchors embedded in the edge of the
slab at approximately 20 in. on center.
FIG. 2

Many of the high-rise brick bearing wall buildings in
Switzerland are stuccoed on the exterior; this being their
traditional method of building. However, there is an
increasing use of exposed clay masonry units. Another
example (Fig. 5) is a 14-story structure in Lucerne. The
exterior bearing walls of this structure are only 7-1/4 in. in
thickness (Fig. 6). The resistance to water penetration is
provided by parging on the interior of the exterior wall
rather than stucco on the outside.
FIG. 3
FIG. 4
2
Recent American examples of brick bearing wall con-
struction are shown in Figs. 7, 9 and 11. Figure 7 is the
17-story Park Mayfair East building, in Denver, Colorado.
The structural system in this building utilizes 11-in. rein-
forced brick masonry (RBM) walls for the full building
height (165 ft). Fourteen-inch prestressed concrete twin-
tee slabs were used for the floor spans, which vary from
32 to 37 ft (Fig. 8).
FIG. 5
FIG. 6
 Figure 9 illustrates the 8-story Oakcrest Towers apart-
ment building in Prince Georges County, Maryland near
Washington, D. C. This building utilizes 8-in. brick exteri-
or walls for the full height of the building, and 6-in. brick
bearing corridor walls. The floor system, in this instance
is steel joints with 2-1/2-in. concrete topping over metal
deck for the 24-ft. apartment span, and a 5-in. flat con-
crete slab for the 6-ft corridor span. Figure 10 is the typi-
cal detail for the 8-in. exterior and the 6-in. corridor walls.
The Muskegon Retirement Apartments (Fig. 11) is an
11-story, 194-unit structure in Muskegon, Michigan. The
structure consists of 8-in. solid brick bearing cross walls
which support the 8-in. precast hollow core concrete plank
floor system. Non-bearing exterior walls are 10-in. brick
cavity walls, insulated with water-repellent vermiculite
(Figs. 12 and 13). Exposed brick forms the interior finish
on the bearing cross walls, which are also separation
walls between units. These walls provide attractive low
maintenance surfaces, fire resistance, structure, and
excellent sound separation.
FIG. 7
FIG. 8
3
BUILDING CODES
Working with a highly qualified Engineering Advisory
Committee, consisting of practicing structural engineers
from throughout the continent, the Structural Clay
Products Institute published the first edition of a rational
design standard for engineered brick masonry in May of
1966. This first Standard was based on laboratory
research and historical performance data. In August
1969, the Institute (now the Brick Institute of America),
also in cooperation and collaboration with the Engineering
Advisory Committee, developed and published a second
generation standard, Building Code Requirements for
Engineered Brick Masonry, BIA, August 1969. This newer
edition incorporates the findings of additional research
and the experience of architects and engineers in their
use of the 1966 Standard.
To date (February 1970), provisions of the First or
Second Edition of the BIA Standard have been accepted
by reference, or incorporated into the masonry chapters,
by all of the model building codes in the United States. In
FIG. 9
FIG. 10a
 addition, the Standard is listed as an acceptable design
standard for masonry in the Department of Defense-
Construction Criteria Manual, and is used by the various
agencies of the Department of Housing and Urban
Development.
For easy reference, the BIA Standard has been
accepted in substance or by reference in the following
model and state building codes:

Model Building Codes

1. BOCA Basic/National Building Code, 1984 Edition;
Appendix A. Referenced Standards.
2. Standard Building Code, 1985 Edition; Section
1403.6 - Structural Analysis of Unreinforced Masonry,
and Section 1411-Reinforced Masonry.
3. Uniform Building Code, 1985 Edition; Chapter 24 -
Masonry.
FIG. 10b
State Building Codes
1. Pennsylvania; "Building Regulations for Protection
from Fire and Panic of the Pennsylvania Department
of Labor and Industry", pages 6, 10 and 106A,
September 22, 1966.
2. North Carolina State Building Code, 1967 Edition;
Section 1403.7, Engineered Designs, and Section
1411, Reinforced Masonry.
3. Ohio Building Code, as amended July 3, 1967;
Section BB-35-19.05, Engineered Brick Masonry,
General Design and Construction Requirements.
4. State of Connecticut Basic Building Code (Revision
dated October 1, 1967); Appendix B, Accepted
Engineering Practice Standards.

FIG. 11

FIG. 13
FIG. 12 EXTERIOR NON-BEARING WALL
INTERIOR BEARING WALL

4
 In addition to the model building codes and state 3. "Contemporary Brick Bearing Wall" Case Study,
building codes listed above, many local municipal sub- BIA (a bimonthly publication).
divisions - cities, counties and townships - have also 4. Technical Notes on Brick and Tile Construction,
adopted, by reference or in principle, these engineered BIA (a monthly series).
brick masonry provisions and requirements. 5. Building Code Requirements for Engineered Brick
Masonry, BIA, August 1969
ECONOMICS 6. Gross, James G.; Dikkers, Robert D.; and
Experience to date indicates that brick masonry bear- Grogan, John C., Recommended Practice for
ing wall construction is competitive with structural frame, Engineered Brick Masonry, BIA. November 1969.
and for many types of buildings can be constructed at
less cost. This economic advantage is due in part to the
increased efficiency of the use of materials. For example,
in a brick bearing wall structure, the brick walls become
enclosure, separation, structure, finish and fire protection.
The economic position is also the result of the simplified
and faster construction process.
Mr. Harold Simpson, General Contractor and part
owner of the Park Mayfair East project in Denver (see
Figs. 7 and 8), stated these reasons for using the brick
bearing wall structural system:
"...As an owner, the number one consideration is
lower initial and future costs, which means we can charge
lower rents and have lower vacancy rates. The next
important single criterion of a good apartment is sound
control. For this, the 11 - in. wall of brick and grout gave
us a sound resistance of 58 decibels which is excellent.
Another important aspect is the shorter construction time
which allows earlier occupancy. This means lower inter-
est payments on construction loans and earlier rent pay-
ments. In fact as the building was being topped out,
some of the lower floor apartments were complete with
carpets and draperies, and future tenants were visiting the
fully furnished display apartments.
"As a contractor, I look at this brick bearing wall struc-
tural system much the same as an owner, but with some
differences. The faster erection time is very important
because time is money. Brick bearing walls give me
lower costs and faster erection by being the structural
system as well as the enclosure walls. When the bearing
walls are complete and the floor slabs have been placed,
we have only to insert the windows and (1) the floor is
closed in, (2) the exterior walls are complete, (3) the
structure is fireproof. In addition, we have fire walls
between apartments and many of the interior walls are
also complete. This is not true with a steel or concrete
structure. This finished building, including appliances,
draperies, carpeting and landscaping, cost $12.25 per sq.
ft. of floor area. This total includes some costs that would
not have to be duplicated if we constructed the buildings
again, but, with labor and material cost increases expect-
ed in the future, a new building similar to this one would
probably cost about the same.”

REFERENCES
1. Monk, Clarence B., Jr. and Gross, James G.,
European Clay Masonry Loadbearing Buildings, SCPI,
1964.
2. Proceedings - The First National Brick and Tile
Bearing Wall Conference, SCPI, 1965.

5
 24C
Technical Notes REVISED

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
Reissued*
May
1988

THE CONTEMPORARY BEARING WALL

INTRODUCTION TO SHEAR WALL DESIGN

INTRODUCTION
The general design concept of the contemporary
bearing wall building system depends upon the combined
structural action of the floor and roof systems with the
walls. The floor system carries vertical loads and, acting
as a diaphragm, lateral loads to the walls for transfer to
the foundation. Lateral forces of wind and earthquake are
usually resisted by shear walls which are parallel to the
direction of the lateral load. These shear walls, by their
shearing resistance and resistance to overturning, transfer
the lateral loads to the foundation. See Fig. 1.
It is the purpose of this Technical Notes to discuss
some of the factors involved in the design of brick mason-
ry shear walls and to present some of the available test
data regarding their strength. Other issues of Technical
Notes will contain examples relating to the design of brick
masonry shear walls.

LATERAL FORCES
The principal lateral forces to be considered in the
design of shear walls are wind pressure and earthquake.
Most building codes and engineering practice standards
specify that wind and earthquake may be assumed never FIG. 1
Shear Wall Action
to occur simultaneously.
Wind Pressure. Building codes usually specify
design wind load requirements which should be consid- withstand minimum total lateral seismic forces assumed to
ered minimum. For additional information on wind pres- act nonconcurrently in the direction of each of the main
sure, the designer may refer to the American Standard axes of the structure in accordance with the following for-
Building Code Requirements for Minimum Design Loads mula:
in Buildings and Other Structures, A58.1 - 1955, and
"Wind Forces on Structures", ASCE Transactions, Vol. V=ZKCW
126, Part II, 1961. where:
Earthquake. Unlike wind pressure, earthquake V = total lateral load or shear at the base
forces on a structure are considered a function of the Z = numerical coefficient dependent upon the zone of
mass and stiffness of the structure. Generally speaking, seismic activity:
subject to dynamic phenomena, the greater the weight Z = 1/4 for Zone 1 (minor damage);
and rigidity of the structure - the greater are the forces Z = 1/2 for Zone 2 (moderate damage);
which must be resisted by the structure. It is, therefore, Z = 1 for Zone 3 (major damage)
current engineering practice to design "box systems" K = numerical coefficient from Table 1
(structures without complete vertical load-carrying space C = numerical coefficient dependent on fundamental
frames) to resist the greater lateral forces. In this type of period of vibration of the structure (in seconds) in the
structural system the lateral forces are resisted by the direction considered
shear walls. The Uniform Building Code, 1970 edition, W = total dead load of the structure.
contains the following requirements pertaining to minimum
earthquake forces for structures:
Every structure shall be designed and constructed to

*Originally published in September/October 1970, this Technical Notes has been reviewed and reissued with editorial changes.

TABLE 1
Horizontal Force Factor “K” for Buildings or Other Structures
Type or Arrangement of Resisting Elements Value of K
All building framing systems except as
hereinafter classified
Buildings with a box system
Buildings with a dual bracing system
consisting of a ductile moment resisting
space frame and shear walls using the
following design criteria:
(1) The frames and shear walls shall
resist the total lateral force in accordance
with their relative rigidities considering the
interaction of the shear walls and frames.
(2) The shear walls acting independently
of the ductile moment resisting portions of
the space frame shall resist the total
required lateral forces.
(3) The ductile moment resisting space
frame shall have the capacity to resist not
less than 25 percent of the required later-
al force
Buildings with a ductile moment resisting
space frame designed in accordance with
the following criteria: The ductile moment
resisting space frame shall have the
capacity to resist the total required lateral
force
Elevated tanks plus full contents, on four or
more cross-braced legs and not support-
ed by a building
Structures other than buildings
For additional information on earthquake forces and
design, the designer may refer to the following publica-
tions:
1. Uniform Building Code, 1970 edition, International
Conference of Building Officials.
2. Reinforced Brick Masonry and Lateral Force
Design, Harry C. Plummer and John C. Blume,
Structural Clay Products Institute, 1953.
3. Seismic Design for Buildings, (Department of the
Army, TM 5-809-10; Department of the Navy, NAV-
DOCKS P-355; Department of the Air Force, AFM 88-
3, Chapter 13), March 1966.
4. Earthquake Engineering Research, The Committee
on Earthquake Engineering Research - Division of
Engineering - National Research Council, National
Academy of Engineering, National Academy of
Sciences, 1969.
DISTRIBUTION OF LATERAL FORCES
Diaphragms. Horizontal distribution of lateral forces
to shear walls is achieved by the floor and roof systems
acting as diaphragms (see Fig. 2).
To qualify as a diaphragm, a floor and roof system
must be able to transmit the lateral forces to the shear
walls without exceeding a deflection which would cause
distress to any vertical element. The successful action of
a diaphragm also requires that it be properly tied into the
supporting shear walls. The designer should insure this
1.00 action by appropriate detailing at the juncture between
horizontal and vertical structural elements of the building.
1.33
Diaphragms may be considered as analogous to hori-
zontal (or inclined, in the case of some roofs) plate gird-
ers. The roof or floor slab constitutes the web; the joists,
beams and girders function as stiffeners; and the walls or
bond beams act as flanges.
Diaphragms may be constructed of materials such as
concrete, wood or metal in various forms. Combinations
of such materials are also possible. Where a diaphragm
is made up of units such as plywood, precast concrete
0.80 planks or steel deck units, its characteristics are, to a
large degree, dependent upon the attachments of one unit
to another and to the supporting members. Such attach-
ments must resist shearing stresses due to internal trans-
lational and rotational actions.
The stiffness of a horizontal diaphragm affects the dis-
tribution of the lateral forces into the shear walls. No
diaphragm is infinitely rigid or flexible. However, for the
purpose of analysis, diaphragms may be classified into
0.67 three groups: rigid, semirigid or semiflexible, and flexible.
A rigid diaphragm is assumed to distribute horizontal
forces to the vertical resisting elements in proportion to
their relative rigidities (see Fig. 3).
Semirigid or semiflexible diaphragms are those which
have significant deflections under load, but which also
3.00 have sufficient stiffness to distribute a portion of the load
to the vertical elements in proportion to the rigidities of the
vertical resisting elements. The action is analogous to a
2.00
continuous beam system of appreciable stiffness on yield-
ing supports (see Fig. 4). The support reactions are
dependent upon the relative stiffness of both diaphragm
and the vertical resisting element.
A flexible diaphragm is analogous to a shear deflect-
ing continuous beam or series of beams spanning
between supports. The supports are considered non-
yielding, and the relative stiffness of the vertical resisting
elements compared to that of the diaphragm is great.
Thus, a flexible diaphragm is considered to distribute the
lateral forces to the vertical resisting elements on a tribu-
tary area basis (see Fig. 5).
Where the center of rigidity of a shear wall system
does not coincide with the center of application of the lat-
eral force, the distribution of the rotational forces due to a
torsional moment on the system must also be considered.
Where rigid or semirigid diaphragms are used, it may be
assumed that the torsional forces are distributed to the
shear walls in direct proportion to their relative rigidities
and their distance from the center of rigidity (see Fig. 6).
In the design provisions for earthquake forces of the 1970
Uniform Building Code, shear resisting elements are
required to resist an arbitrary torsional moment equivalent
to the story shear acting with an eccentricity of not less
2
 than five per cent of the maximum building dimension at
that level. A flexible diaphragm is not considered capable
of distributing torsional stresses.
When dealing with a rigid diaphragm and distributing
the horizontal forces to vertical resisting elements in pro-
portion to the relative rigidities, the relative rigidity of the
shear wall is dependent upon the shear and flexural
deflections. However, for the proportions of the shear
walls in most high-rise buildings, the flexural deflection
FIG. 2
greatly exceeds the shear deflection, in which case only
Diaphragm Action flexural rigidity need be considered in determining the rel-
ative stiffness of the shear walls. For determination of rel-
ative shear and flexural deflections, see Fig. 7.

Relative Rigidities

Wall A 0.33

Wall B 0.22

Wall C 0.45

x = (0.22)(16) + (0.45)(40) = 21.52 ft.

Torsional moment = (20,000)(21.52 - 20)
FIG. 3 = 30,400 ft-lb

If F were applied at center of rigidity, it would be distributed as follows:

Wall A: (0.33)(20,000) = 6600 lb

Wall B: (0.22)(20,000) = 4400 lb.
Wall C: (0.45)(20,000) = 9000 lb.

Since F is not applied at center of rigidity, forces due to torsional

moment are distributed to walls in proportion to their relative rigidities
and the distance from the center of rigidity.

FB = FA
( )( )
0.22
0.33
5.52
21.52
= 0.17 FA

FC = FA
( )( )
0.45
0.33
18.48
21.52
= 1.17 F A

21.52FA + 5.52FB + 18.48FC = 30,400 ft-lb

21.52FA + 5.52(0.17FA ) + 18.48(1.17FA ) = 30,400
44.06FA = 30,400
F A = 690 lb
FIG. 4
F B = 117 lb
F C = 808 lb
Due to torsional moment, forces on walls A and B are increased, while
force acting on wall C is decreased. However, to be on safe side in designing
the walls, no reduction should be made. Therefore, the walls should be
designed to resist the following forces:
Wall A = 6600 +690 = 7290 lb
Wall B = 4400 + 117 = 4517 lb
Wall C = 9000 lb

FIG. 6
Torsional Moment on a Sheer Wall System

A rigorous analysis of the lateral load distribution to

the shear wall is sometimes very time-consuming and fre-
quently unjustified by the results. Therefore, in many
cases a design based on reasonable limits may be used.
FIG. 5 For example, the load may be distributed by first consider-
3
 where:

A = area of wall section [(t)(L)]

Em = modulus of elasticity (1000 f’m)
Ev = modulus of rigidity (400 f’m )
H = height of wall
3
I = moment of inertia of wall section
( 1 tL
12
)
L = length of wall
t = thickness of wall
w = uniform load (wind)

Total Deflection:
∆ = ∆m + ∆v
3
= 3wH
2000f’ mt [( ) ( )]
H
L
+ H
L

Per Cent of Total Deflection (∆) from Flexure:

3
H
∆m = ( ) L
3
∆
() ( )
H
L
+ H
L

Per Cent of Total Deflection (∆) from Shear:

Flexural Deflection:

∆ m = wH
4
= wH
4

3
∆v = () H
L
8EmI (8)(1000f’m )
( 121 ) (t)(L )
3
∆

= 3wH
() ()
H
L
+ H
L
( HL )
3

(2000)(f’m)(t)
Wall Relative Flexural Relative Shear
Proportions Deflection Deflection
Shear Deflection:
H/L ∆ m/∆ ∆v/∆
2 2 1 0.50 0.50
∆v = 6wH = 6wH
2 0.80 0.20
10EvA (10)(400f’m)(t)(L) 3 0.90 0.10
4 0.94 0.06
= 3wH
(2000)(f’m)(t) ( HL ) 5 0.96 0.04

FIG. 7
Relative Shear and Flexural Deflections
Determined for a Uniformly Loaded
Cantilever Member of Rectangular Section

ing the diaphragm as rigid and then by considering it flexi- where:

ble. If the difference is not great, the shear wall can then
be safely designed for the maximum applied load.
Diaphragm Deflection. As previously indicated,
deflection is another factor that must be considered in
designing a horizontal diaphragm. As shown in Fig. 8,
diaphragm deflection should be limited to prevent exces-
sive stresses in the walls which are perpendicular to the
shear walls. The following formula has been suggested
by the Structural Engineers Association of Southern
California for allowable deflection of horizontal
diaphragms in buildings having masonry or concrete
walls:
2 sent due to through-wall flashing. In this situation the
∆ = h f
0.01Et
4
∆ = allowable deflection between adjacent supports of
wall, in inches
h = height of wall between adjacent horizontal sup-
ports, in feet
t = thickness of wall, in inches
f = allowable flexural compressive stress of wall mate-
rial, in pounds per square inch
E = modulus of elasticity of wall material, in pounds
per square inch
The application of these limits on deflection must be
used with engineering judgment. For example, continuity
at floor level is assumed, which in many cases is not pre-
deflection may be based on the allowable compressive
 Rigidity of Shear Walls. Where shear walls are con-
nected by a rigid diaphragm so that they must deflect
equally under horizontal load, the proportion of total hori-
zontal load at any story or level carried by a perpendicular
shear wall is based on its relative rigidity or stiffness. The
rigidity of a shear wall is inversely proportional to its
deflection under unit horizontal load. The total deflection
of the shear wall can be determined from the sum of the
shear and moment deflections. Equations for the deflec-
tion of fixed and cantilevered walls or piers are shown in
Fig. 9.
Where a shear wall contains no openings, the compu-
tations for deflection and rigidity are quite simple. In Fig.
10(a), the shear walls are of equal length and rigidity, and
FIG. 8
each takes one half of the total load. In Fig. 10(b), wall C
Diaphragm Deflection Limitation is one half the length of wall D and it, therefore, receives
less than one eighth of the total load. Where shear walls
stress in the masonry, assuming a reduced cross section contain openings such as doors and windows, the compu-
of wall. The effect of reinforcement which may be present tations for deflection and rigidity are more complex.
in a reinforced brick masonry wall or as a tie to the floor However, approximate methods have been developed
system in a non-reinforced or partially reinforced masonry which may be used. See Fig. 11.
wall is not considered. It should also be pointed out that To increase the stiffness of shear walls as well as
the limit on deflection is actually a limit on differential their resistance to bending, intersecting walls or flanges
deflection between two successive floor or diaphragm lev- may be used. Very often in the design of buildings, Z, T,
els. U, and I-shape sections develop as natural parts of the
Maximum span-to-width or depth ratios for design. See Figs. 12 and 13. Shear walls with these
diaphragms are usually used to indirectly control shapes, of course, have better flexural resistance. The
diaphragm deflection. Normally, if the diaphragm is 1969 BIA Standard, Building Code Requirements for
designed with the proper ratio, the diaphragm deflection Engineered Brick Masonry, (Sec. 4.7.12A) limits the effec-
will not be critical. As a guide for horizontal diaphragm tive flange width that may be used in calculating flexural
proportions, Table 2, taken from the State of California stresses. In the case of symmetrical T or I sections, the
Administrative Code, Title 21, Public Works, may prove effective flange width may not exceed one sixth of the
useful. total wall height above the level being analyzed. In the
case of unsymmetrical L or C sections, the width consid-
TABLE 2
Roof or Floor Diaphragms -- Maximum ered effective may not exceed one sixteenth of the total
Span-Width Ratios wall height above the level being analyzed. In either
case, the overhang for any section may not exceed six
Maximum Span-Width Ratio times the flange thickness (see Figs. 14 and 15). It is, of
l/b course, necessary to insure that the shear stress at the
Diaphragm Construction intersection of the walls does not exceed the permissible
Masonry and Wood and
Concrete Light Steel shear stress. This will depend on the method used in
Walls Walls bonding the two walls together.
Concrete Limited by Coupled Shear Walls. Another method that may be
Deflection used to increase the stiffness of a bearing wall structure
Steel deck (continuous sheet and reduce the possibility of tension developing in shear
in a single plane) 4:1 5:1 walls due to wind parallel to the wall is the coupling of
Steel deck (without continu- 2:1 2 1/2 : 1 collinear shear walls. Figures 16 and 17 indicate the
ous sheet)
Poured reinforced gypsum
effect of coupling on the stress distribution in the wall due
3:1 4:1
roofs to parallel forces. A flexible connection between the walls
Plywood (nailed all edges) 3:1 4:1 is assumed in Figs. 16(a) and 17(a), so that the walls act
Plywood (nailed to supports 1
3 1/2 : 1
as independent vertical cantilevers in resisting the lateral
2 1/2 :1
only--blocking may be omit- loads. Figures 16(b) and 17(b) assume the walls to be
ted between joints) 1
3 1/2 : 1 connected with a more rigid member which is capable of
3:1
Diagonal sheathing (special) shear and moment transfer so that a frame-type action
1
Diagonal sheathing (conven- 2:1 2 1/2 : 1 results. This can be accomplished with a steel, reinforced
tional construction)
concrete or reinforced brick masonry section. The plate
type action, which is indicated in Figs. 16(c) and 17(c),
1 The use of diagonal sheathed or unblocked plywood diaphragms for buildings
having masonry or reinforced concrete walls shall be limited to one-story buildings assumes an extremely rigid connection between walls,
or to the roof of a top story. such as full story height walls or deep rigid spandrels.
5
 SHEAR STRENGTH
Test Data. The present standard racking test,
described in ASTM E 72-68, Method of Conducting
Strength Tests of Panels for Building Construction, pro-
vides only a relative measure of the shearing or diagonal
tension resistance of a wall. Results of this test method
are consequently valid only for comparison purposes and
are not suggested for determination of design values.

Rigidity = 1
∆

Deflection = ∆ = ∆m + ∆v

3
For fixed wall, ∆m = Ph
12EmI

3
For cantilever wall, ∆m = Ph
3EmI

For fixed or cantilever wall, ∆v = 1.2 Ph ∆ of Solid Wall. h = 12 = 0.60

EvA d 20

where: For cantilever wall (see Fig. 6):

∆ m = moment deflection, inches
3
∆ v = shear deflection, inches ∆=
P = horizontal force, pounds
[
0.1112 h
d () ( )] [ ] [ ]
+ 0.0833 h
d
3.0
2.4
12
8
h = height of wall, inches = 0.138 in.
I = moment of inertia of wall, inches
A = area of wall, square inches R= 1 = 1 = 7.22
Em = modulus of elasticity, psi ∆ 0.138
Ev = modulus of rigidity, psi ∆ of 4-ft. Mid Strip of Wall. h = 4 = 0.20
6
If Em = 3 X 10 psi d 20
E v = 0.4 E m
[ ] [ ][ ]
3
∆ = 0.1112(0.2) + 0.0833(0.2) 3.0 12
t = 12 in.
2.4 8
6
P = 10 lb = 0.0328 in.
For fixed wall:
∆ of Piers B, C and D. h = 4 = 1.0
3
∆ = 0.0278 d 4
( )h
d
+ 0.0833 h
d( )
For fixed pier (see Fig. 6):
For cantilever wall:
3
∆B = 0.0278(1) + 0.0833(1)
[ ] [ ][ ]
3.0 12

()
3
∆ = 0.1112 h
d () + 0.0833 h
d = 0.208 in.
2.4 8

RB = 1 = 1 = 4.81; RC = 4.81; R D = 4.81

FIG. 9
∆B 0.208
Calculation of Wall Deflections
∆BCD = 1 = 0.0694
(3)(4.81)

∆(TOTAL) = 0.138 - 0.0328 + 0.0694 = 0.175 in.

R = 1 = 5.71
0.175
Wall is 79 per cent ( 5.71 x 100) as rigid as solid wall.
7.22
*Based on approximate method outlined in “Seismic Design for
Buildings,” Departments of Army, the Navy and the Air Force, March
1966.

FIG. 10 FIG. 11
Distribution of Wind Load Calculation of Wall Rigidity
6
 In this method of test, horizontal movement of the wall
specimen (8 by 8 ft), due to the horizontal racking load at
the top of one end, is prevented by a stop block at the
bottom of the other end. To counteract rotation of the
specimen due to this overturning couple, tie rods are used
near the loaded edge of the wall specimen. Under rack-
ing load these rods superimpose an indeterminate com-
pressive force which suppresses the critical diagonal ten-
sile stresses and increases the load required to rack the
specimen. A summary of the racking data for non-rein-
forced brick masonry walls tested in accordance with
ASTM E 72 is given in Table 3. A typical mode of failure
for a 4-in. brick wall subject to racking is shown in Fig. 18.

FIG. 12
Shear Walls of Equivalent Stiffness

FIG. 15
Effective Flange Width

FIG. 13
Shear Walls With Flanges

FIG. 16
End Shear Walls

FIG. 14
Effective Flanae Width

FIG. 17
Interior Shear Walls

7
 Circular Shear Specimens. Based on experimental
work done at the Balcones Research Center of the
University of Texas by Professors Neils Thompson and
Frank Johnson, the Research Division of the Structural
Clay Products Institute conducted a series of diagonal
tensile tests on circular brick masonry specimens. In
these tests, a 15-in. diameter specimen is tested in com-
pression with the line of load at 45 deg to the bed joints.
As shown in Fig. 19 the diametrical stresses are largely
tensile over the central 80 per cent of the specimen. The
tensile stress is approximately constant for about 60 per
cent of the diameter and may be calculated by the follow-
ing equation:
f’t = 2P
πDt
where:
P = load at rupture, in pounds
D = diameter of specimen, in inches
t = thickness of specimen, in inches
The test results for 133 specimens built with 27 types
of brick and type S portland cement-lime mortar of ASTM
C 270, Specifications for Mortar for Unit Masonry, are
summarized in Table 4. A typical mode of failure for a cir-
cular brick specimen is shown in Fig. 20. While there was
no consistent relationship between diagonal tensile
strength and brick properties, such as initial rate of
absorption, it appeared that brick with the weakest bond
characteristics as shown by flexural strength values also
yielded the lowest diagonal tensile strengths.
FIG. 18
Typical Mode of Failure in Racking
The test results for 20 circular specimens built with
one type of brick and four types of mortars are summa-
8
FIG. 19
Stress Distribution in Tensile Splitting Test
rized in Table 5. As indicated, the mortar type had a
marked effect on the diagonal tensile strength of circular
back masonry specimens.
Square Shear Specimens. The Brick Institute of
America has continued to study the diagonal tensile or
shear strength of brick masonry in an effort to develop
both test methods and design information. Working with
the National Bureau of Standards and the Research
Division of John A. Blume and Associates (San
Francisco), a test method has been developed that has
several advantages over the ASTM E 72 racking test pro-
cedure. As previously stated, in the E 72 procedure the
hold-down tie rods required to prevent overturning of the
specimen under load produce an indeterminate bearing
condition at the bottom edge of the specimen, thus pre-
venting an analytic determination of the stress within the
wall specimen itself.
FIG. 20
Small-Scale Diagonal Tension Test
In the alternate test procedure, which will be submitted
to ASTM as a proposed alternate to the ASTM E 72 proce-
dure, the specimens are nominally 4 ft by 4 ft as opposed to
the 8-ft square specimen in the E 72 procedure. In this
method, the test results are susceptible to stress analysis.
In addition, they are more reproducible and thus more reli-
able for comparison and design data purposes.
 TABLE 3
Racking Strength Data--Non-Reinforced Brick shearing stress V’ m is determined by the equation
1
Masonry Walls

v’m = 0.707 F
Ultimate
Racking tl
Shear
Source No. of Mortar Load, Stress,
of Construction Walls Type kips per psi where:
Data Tested ft F = diagonal compressive force or load, in pounds
2
t = thickness of wall specimen, in inches
3
8-in. brick wall; 2 M 6.25
2
64 l = length of a side of a square specimen, in inches
headers in
every 6th 2 2
course 5 N 6.25 64 TABLE 5
Diagonal Tensile Strength of Brick
10-in. cavity Masonry Specimens as a Function of
4 1
wall; 4-in. brick, 3 N 5.66 64 Mortar Type
2-in. space, 4-
in.brick
4
6-in. brick wall 3 N 8.14 123 Mortar Brick Masonry Specimens
5

6
Tensile Diagonal
4-in. brick wall 5 S 12.5 285 Type Proportions Strength, Tensile Strength
by Volume
2
psi
3
n Strength, psi Ratio
1
Tested in accordance with ASTM E 72.
2
M 1C:1/4L:3S 308 5 313 1.24
Walls not loaded to failure. 1/2
3
“Structural Properties of Six Masonry Wall Constructions,” H. L. Whittemore, A. H.
S 1C:1/2L:4 S 148 5 252 1.00
Stang and D. E. Parsons, National Bureau of Standards Report BMS5, 1938. N 1C:1L:6S 87 5 176 0.70
4
“Structural Properties of a Brick Cavity-Wall Construction,” H. L. Whittemore, A.H. O 1C:2L:9S 64 5 93 0.37
Stang and D.E. Parsons, National Bureau of Standards Report BMS23, 1939.
5
“‘SCR brick’* Wall Tests,” C. B. Monk, Jr., Structural Clay Products Research 1
“Small Scale Specimen Testing,” Progress Report No. 1, SCPI-SCPRF, October
Foundation, Research Report No.1, June 1953.
6
1964.
“Compressive, Transverse and Racking Strength Tests of Four-Inch Brick Walls,” 2
C=portland cement; L=hydrated lime (type S); S=sand.
Structural Clay Products Research Foundation, Research Report No. 9, August 3

1965. 28-day briquets.

4
* Reg. U.S. Pat. Off., SCPI All specimens built with 3/8-in. joints and brick having an average compressive
strength of 11,771 psi and an initial rate of absorption of 10.6 g per min per 30 sq
in.
TABLE 4
Summary of Diagonal Tensile Tests
1
On Circular Brick Masonry Specimens

2
Brick Masonry Specimens
Brick
Initial Rate of Diagonal Tensile Strength,
Absorption, psi
g per min per n Low High
30 sq in.
Average Average x

Less than 5 30 177 341 235

5 to 30 78 131 354 256
More than 30 25 167 287 231

1
“Small Scale Specimen Testing,” Progress Report No. 1, SCPI-SCPRF, October
1964.
2
All specimens built with type S mortar.

The square specimen is placed in the testing frame so

as to be loaded in compression along a diagonal, thus
producing a diagonal tension failure with the specimen
splitting apart along the loaded diagonal (see Figs. 21 and
22). The results of both small scale (2 ft square) and full
scale (4 ft square) tests of 4, 6 and 8-in. thick brick
masonry specimens are summarized in Table 6 and typi-
FiG. 21
cal shear stress-strain curies are displayed in Fig. 23. All Wallette Shear Test Setup
specimens were constructed with type S mortar. The

9
 given in this section, shear walls shall be designed in
accordance with Section 4.7.9 or 4.7.11". (Reinforced or
partially reinforced walls.)
Provision is also made in the standard for increasing
the shear capacity of the wall by taking into consideration
compressive loads on the wall. Section 4.7.12.3 states:
"The allowable shearing stresses in non-reinforced
and reinforced shear walls shall be taken as the allowable
stresses given in Tables 3 and 4 (Tables 8 and 9 of this
Technical Notes) ,respectively, plus one fifth of the aver-
age compressive stress due to dead load at the level
being analyzed. In no case, however, shall the allowable
shear stresses exceed the maximum values given in
Tables 3 and 4.
"In computing the shear resistance of the wall, only
the web shall be considered."

REFERENCES
1. Technical Notes on Brick Construction, BIA, (a
monthly series).
2. Gross, J. G.; Dikkers, R. D.; and Grogan, J. C.;
Recommended Practice for Engineered Brick
Masonry, SCPI, November 1969.
3. Allen M. H. and Watstein, D.; Compressive,
Transverse and Shear Strength Tests of Six and
Eight-lnch Single-Wythe Walls Built with Solid and
Heavy-Duty Hollow Clay Masonry Units, Research
Report No. 16, SCPI, September 1969.
4. Blume, J. A. and Prolux, J.; Shear in Grouted
FIG. 22 Brick Masonry Wall Elements, Western States Clay
Full Scale Shear Test Setup Products Association, August 1968.

Effects of Normal Loads. The Brick Institute of

America has also investigated the effects of compressive
loads normal to the bed joints on the shearing strength of
plain (non-reinforced) brick masonry walls. Table 7 sum-
marizes the results of these tests with the normal com-
pressive load on the wall varying from 0 (unloaded) to 375
psi. The specimens were built with one type of brick uti-
lizing type S mortar and inspected workmanship. All
specimens were two wythes, 8 in. in thickness and bond-
ed with metal ties.

Allowable Stresses. The allowable shear stresses

for non-reinforced masonry provided in the 1969 SCPI
Standard, Building Code Requirements for Engineered
Brick Masonry, are shown in Table 8, and for reinforced
masonry in Table 9.
The Standard also provides a basis for the design of
biaxially loaded shear walls. Section 4.7.12.1 states:
"In non-reinforced shear walls, the virtual eccentricity
(el) about the principal axis which is normal to the length
(l) of the shear wall shall not exceed an amount which will
produce tension. In non-reinforced shear walls subject to
bending about both principal axes, (etl + e lt) shall not
exceed (tl / 3) where e t = virtual eccentricity about the prin-
cipal axis which is normal to the thickness (t) of the shear
wall. Where the virtual eccentricity exceeds the values

10
 TABLE 6
Shear Strength of SIngle-Wythe 4, 6 and 8-in. Clay Masonry Walls

1
2
Specimen Wallettes Walls
Ultimate Unit Average v, Ultimate Unit Average v,
Series Thickness, t, Load, F, Stress, Unit Stress, Load, F, kips Stress Unit Stress,
in. kips v’m, psi psi % v’m, psi psi %
30 359 113 456
27 325 341 5 123 496 447 12
4S 3.63 96 388
28 340
65 353 151 404
6S 5.50 62 333 352 5 154 413 383 11
69 371 124 332

76 298 190 373

8S 7.50 68 269 280 6 187 367 376 3
69 272 198 388

1
2 ft square
2
4 ft square TABLE 9
Allowable Shear Stresses in Reinforced Brick Masonry
TABLE 7
Effect of Normal Load on Shear Strength
1 Allowable Stresses, psi
of 8-in. Brick Masonry Description
Without With
Normal Inspection Inspection
’
Load Load vm x v,
psi kips psi psi % Shear
No shear
97.5 183 reinforcement
0 95.0 178 176 5.0 Flexural
88.5 166 Members vm 0.7 √ f’ m, but not 0.7 √ f’m, but not
to exceed 25 to exceed 50
201 378 Shear Walls vm 0.5 √ f’ m, but not 0.5 √ f’m , but not
250 215 404 387 3.9
201 378 to exceed 50 to exceed 100
With shear
227 426 reinforcement
375 226 424 436 4.3 taking entire
244 457 shear
Flexural
Members v 2.0 √ f’m , but not 2.0 √ f’m, but not
1
to exceed 60 to exceed 120
Built with type S mortar, inspected workmanship and metal-tied.
2 Shear Walls v 1.5 √ f’m, but not 1.5 √ f’m, but not
fb = 11,100 psi IRA= 20.7 g/min/30 in.
to exceed 75 to exceed 150

TABLE 8
Allowable Shear Stresses in Non-Reinforced Brick Masonry

Allowable Stresses, psi

Description Without With
Inspection Inspection
Shear
M or S mortar v m 0.5 √ f’m, but not to 0.5 √ f’m, but not to
exceed 40 exceed 80
N mortar vm 0.5 √ f’m, but not to 0.5 √ f’m, but not to
exceed 28 exceed 56

11
 FIG. 23
Typical Shear Stress-Strain Curves for 6 and 8-in. Walls

12

Technical Notes
on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
THE CONTEMPORARY BEARING WALL - CONSTRUCTION
INTRODUCTION
The Contemporary Bearing Wall concept as con-
ceived and being applied today is based upon rational
engineering design. This concept requires floors and
walls to work together as a system, each giving support to
the other. A building of high strength, in which the struc-
ture provides finish, closure, partition, sound control and
fire resistance, is thereby provided. In order to achieve
this end, it is necessary that proper attention be given to
design details and construction procedures. It is of
utmost importance that constructors follow the plans and
specifications of the designers.
Attention to detail and requirements for high quality
materials and workmanship have not deterred the rapid
acceptance and application of the Contemporary Bearing
Wall concept. Numerous cases can be cited where bear-
ing wall buildings have been built faster than scheduled or
anticipated, and, in many cases, these buildings have
been built at less than the estimated cost of alternate
designs utilizing other materials and structural systems.
SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS
The design of these buildings may be based upon the
Building Code Requirements for Engineered Brick
Masonry, SCPI (BIA), August 1969, which contains vari-
ous additional construction requirements not required by
most other modern building codes. The following sections
relating to both materials and workmanship are specifical-
ly called to the attention of the reader:
1.1 SCOPE
1.1.1 General This standard provides minimum require -
ments for the design and construction of brick masonry of
solid masonry units, both plain (non-reinforced) and rein-
forced. It does not include requirements for construction
using hollow masonry units nor requirements for fire protec-
tion.
1.1.2 Analysis The design of brick masonry shall be based
on a general structural analysis and the requirements of this
standard.
1.1.3 Special Structures For arches, garden walls, retain-
ing walls, tanks, reservoirs and chimneys, the provisions of
this standard shall govern so far as they are applicable.
1.2 PERMITS AND DRAWINGS
1.2.1 Copies of structural drawings and typical details
showing the sizes and position of all structural members,
steel reinforcement, design strengths, and live loads used in
the design shall be filed with the building department before
a permit to construct such work shall be issued.
Calculations pertaining to the design shall be filed with the
*Originally published in Nov/Dec 1974, this Technical Notes has been reviewed and reissued with editorial changes.
24F
REVISED
Reissued*
September
1988
drawings when required by the building official.
1.3 INSPECTION
1.3.1 With Inspection When the design of brick masonry is
based on the allowable stresses and other values given in
Tables 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 for "With Inspection'', the construc-
tion shall be inspected by an engineer or architect, prefer-
ably the one responsible for the design, or by a competent
representative responsible to him. Such inspection shall be
of a nature as to determine, in general, that the construction
and workmanship are in accordance with the contract draw-
ings and specifications.
1.3.2 Without Inspection When there is no engineering or
architectural inspection as specified in Section 1.3.1, the
allowable stresses and other values given in Tables 1, 2, 3,
4 and 5 for "Without Inspection" shall be used.
2.2.1 Brick
2.2.1.1 Brick and Solid Clay or Shale Masonry Units
Standard Specification for Building Brick (Solid Masonry
Units Made from Clay or Shale), ASTM C 62, or Standard
Specification for Facing Brick (Solid Masonry Units Made
from Clay or Shale), ASTM C 216.
2.2.1.2 Grades and Types Brick subject to the action of
weather or soil, but not subject to frost action when perme-
ated with water, shall be of grade MW or grade SW, and
where subject to temperature below freezing while in con-
tact with soil shall be grade SW. Brick used in loadbearing
or shear walls shall comply with the dimension and distor-
tion tolerances specified for type FBS of ASTM C 216.
Where such brick do not comply with these tolerance
requirements, the compressive strength of brick masonry
shall be determined by prism tests. (See Section 4.2.2.1.)
2.2.1.3 Used Brick Used or salvaged brick shall not be
permitted under the provisions of this standard.
2.2.2 Mortar and Grout
2.2.2.1 Non-Reinforced Brick Masonry Mortar for use in
non-reinforced brick masonry shall conform to Standard
Specification for Mortar for Unit Masonry, ASTM C 270,
types M, S or N except that it shall consist of a mixture of
portland cement (type I, II or III), hydrated lime (type S) and
aggregate where values given in Tables 1, 2 and 3 are
used.
2.2.2.2 Reinforced Brick Masonry Mortar and grout for
use in reinforced brick masonry shall conform to Standard
Specification for Mortar and Grout for Reinforced Masonry,
ASTM C 476, except that mortar shall consist of a mixture
of portland cement (type I, II or III), hydrated Iime (type S )
and aggregate where values given in Tables 2 and 4 are
used.
2.2.2.3 Air-entraining admixtures or hydrated lime contain-
ing air-entraining admixtures shall not be used in mortar.
2.2.2.4 Calcium chloride or admixtures containing calcium
chloride shall not be used in mortar or grout in which rein-
forcement, metal ties or anchors are embedded.
 2.2.2.5 Other mortars not specified in Sections 2.2.2.1 and
2.2.2.2 may be used when approved by the building official,
provided strengths for such masonry construction are estab-
lished by tests made in accordance with Section 4.2.2.1 and
Standard Methods of Conducting Strength Tests of Panels
for Building Construction, ASTM E 72.
5.2.1 Mortar Joints All brick shall be laid with full head and
bed joints and all interior joints that are designed to receive
mortar shall be filled. (See Section 5.8.3. ) The average
thickness of head and bed joints shall not exceed 1/2 inch.
5.2.3 Tolerances for Brick Masonry Construction Based
on Actual Dimensions
5.2.3.1 Variation from the Plumb
(1) In the lines and surfaces of columns, walls and arrises:
in 10 feet--1/4 inch; in any story or 20 feet maximum--3/8
inch; in 40 feet or more--1/2 inch.
(2) For external corners, expansion joints and other con-
spicuous lines: in any story or 20 feet maximum--1/4 inch; in
40 feet or more--1/2 inch.
5.2.3.2 Variation from the Level or the Grades Indicated
on the Drawings
(1) For exposed lintels, sills, parapets, horizontal grooves
and other conspicuous lines: In any bay or 20 feet maxi-
mum--1/4 inch; in 40 feet or more--1/2 inch.
5.2.3.3 Variation of the Linear Building Lines from
Established Position in Plan and Related Portion of
Columns, Walls and Partitions
(1) In any bay or 20 feet maximum--1/2 inch; in 40 feet or
more--3/4 inch.
5.2.3.4 Variation in Cross-Sectional Dimensions of
Columns and in the Thickness of Walls
(1) Minus 1/4 inch; plus 1/2 inch.
5.9 CHASES AND RECESSES FIG. 1
Pennley Park North, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
5.9.1 Chases and recesses shall be considered in the Tasso G. Katselas, Architect
structural design and detailed on the building plans. R. M. Gensert, Structural Engineer
Chases not shown on the plans shall be permitted only
when approved in writing by the structural engineer and the men "enclosed a floor every two and a half days and the
building official. masons worked fast and efficiently. They were very
enthusiastic about this construction. We went on the job
EXPERIENCE AND EXAMPLES with very little advance notice, and with more planning
Pennley Park. This complex of eight buildings was time we could have finished the masonry work in seventy-
one of the first major U.S. projects utilizing rationally four working days, rather than ninety-four working days
designed brick bearing walls as a major structural system, actually required." The cost per square foot of the Penn
(Fig. 1). The cost was approximately $4,500,000 or Plaza project was $13.15.
$13.89 per sq ft of floor area including architectural and Oakcrest Towers. Oakcrest Towers is a series of 14
engineering fees, soil analysis and site work. The project apartment buildings, eight stories in height, being con-
was scheduled for 21 months of construction; it started structed on a 50-acre site outside of Washington, D. C.,
May 1, 1964 and 12 months later was 98 per cent com- (Fig. 3). Each building contains a total of 161,334 sq ft. In
pleted. The bearing wall structural system resulted in good weather, the contractors report construction of one
approximately a 10 percent savings of the cost over a story per week. Mr. Stanley Reed, Vice-President of L. F.
structural steel frame alternate. Included in this savings Jennings Inc., the masonry contractor for Oakcrest
of approximately $420,000 was $69,000 for fireproofing of Towers, said that, in their experience, bearing wall build-
the steel frame. Tenants occupied some of the buildings ings were built faster than structural frame buildings and,
seven months after the start of construction. The con- typically, the time required to complete a bearing wall
struction superintendent of the project, Mr. A. M. DiFerio, building and have it ready for occupancy was approxi-
attributed this low cost and speed of construction to a mately equal to the time required to erect the structural
number of reasons, including the simplicity of construc- frame and enclose the frame with masonry walls for a
tion, the use of fewer cranes and other heavy construction project of similar scope. Mr. Reed reported that savings
equipment, and a simple spread footing, which was used on the Oakcrest buildings resulted from lower initial cost
in lieu of caissons. for bearing wall than for structural frame construction, and
Penn Plaza. This project, quite similar to the above, elimination of finishing and painting of interior exposed
consists of six buildings, (see Fig. 2). The masonry con- brick walls.
tractor for this project, Charles L. Cost, stated that his
2
 FIG. 3
Oakcrest Towers, Prince Georges County, Maryland
Bucher-Meyers & Associates, Architects
Keller & Marchigiani, Structural Engineers

FIG. 2
Penn Plaza, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Tasso G. Katselas, Architect
R. M. Gensert, Structural Engineer

Some bearing wall thicknesses in the first buildings

were in excess of 20 in. in thickness. Buildings built after
the SCPI (BIA) standard was introduced had thicknesses
reduced to 8 and 6 in. of brick masonry for exterior and
corridor walls, respectively.
Park Lane Towers. Park Lane Towers is a group of
20-story structures located in Denver, Colorado, (Fig. 4).
Each building is 206 ft high containing 38 one-bedroom,
73 two-bedroom, 4 three-bedroom units and one pent- FIG. 4
house. Fireplaces are featured in the two and three-bed- Park Lane Towers, Denver, Colorado
room units beginning at the 15th floor. Joseph T. Wilson, AIA, Architect
Sallada & Hanson, Structural Engineers
Ground breaking for Park Lane Towers No. 1 began in
May of 1969. The masonry work was started in the fall of
1969 and progressed through the winter. By March 1, the
masonry construction was at the 16th story. By May of
1970, the first building was topped out. BIA recommenda-
tions for cold weather construction were followed.
Total time sequence per floor averaged six to eight
days, depending upon weather and other non-controllable
factors. An average of three and one-half days was
required to construct all walls per story. Twin tee floor
slab erection averaged one day per floor.
The unit cost of Park Lane Towers, based on an area
on 156,280 sq ft. excluding the area of the basement, was
$ 14.71 per sq ft. The total cost of the building was
$2,300,000, including drapes, carpets, kitchens, parking
garage, basement and landscaping (excluding land and
professional fees).
Woodlake Towers. Woodlake Towers is a group of FIG. 5
ten-story, T-shaped buildings, each containing 215 units, Woodlake Towers, Fairfax County, Virginia
Collins & Kronstadt, Leahy, Hogan, Collins, Architects
which consist of efficiencies, one, two and three-bedroom Keller & Marchigiani, Structural Engineers
units, (Fig. 5).
Bearing walls consist of 8-in., single wythe, solid brick
supporting a precast concrete floor system. The first

3
building was completed in 1970 and contains 268,450 sq
ft at a cost of $2,700,000 or $ 10.06 per sq ft (excluding
land, interim financing, professional fees, builder's fee and
entrance lobby finishing). The cost figure of $2,700,000
includes all general construction, electrical and mechani-
cal work, parking lot paving, landscaping, furnished
kitchens and corridor carpeting.
Twin Tower Apartments. Twin Tower Apartments
consist of two identical structures of 11 stories in height
for elderly residents in Jacksonville, Florida, consisting of
a total of 120 efficiency and 80 one-bedroom units, (Fig.
6). The 10-in. bearing walls were grouted cavity walls (4-
2-4) with varying amounts of grout and reinforcement,
depending on loading and location. A 6-in. cast-in-place
concrete slab provided the floor system. The masons
rotated between buildings so the walls could be built on
one building while the floor was formed and poured on the
other building.

FIG. 7
Episcopal House of Reading, Reading, Pennsylvania
Muhlenberg & Greene, Architects
Long & Tann, Structural Engineers

FIG. 6
Twin Tower Apartments, Jacksonville, Florida
Sheetz & Bradfield, Architects
Bennett & Pless, Structural Engineers
as required.
Construction continued throughout the winter. All
materials were stored off the ground and covered for pro-
tection from the elements. A mortar mixing station was
constructed adjacent to the structure, complete with
propane gas equipment to heat sand and water. A cus-
tom-made sand measuring device permitted rapid and

Episcopal House of Reading. It is 15 stories tall

and contains 141 units for middle income, elderly resi-
dents in Reading, Pennsylvania, (Fig. 7). All the bearing
walls are 8 in. thick, single wythe, non-reinforced, solid
brick masonry with the exception of some walls on the
first floor level which are 12 in. in thickness.
The floor system consists of two layers of concrete.
The first is 2 1/4-in. precast concrete containing positive
steel and the second is 5 3/4-in. poured concrete with
polystyrene foam sections to create internal voids.
The basic construction process consisted of building
brick masonry walls and placing concrete floors in a
"leapfrog" fashion. While a crew of 8 to 12 masons, using
corner poles, erected walls on one side of the building,
the 2 1/4 in. concrete floor slabs were placed by tower FIG. 8
Measuring Sand Automatically
crane on the other side and were positioned and shored
4
accurate proportioning by volume of portland cement-lime
and sand mortar. The quantity of sand held by this device
was 9 cu ft. Figure 8 shows this simple but workable
setup for mixing mortar.
TECHNIQUES
Sequence and Scheduling. Most Contemporary
Bearing Wall buildings can be planned so that the floor
erection crew will place the floor in about the same length
of time as is required for the masons to build the walls.
When the crews are balanced in this manner, it is usually
possible to schedule the construction so that neither the
floor crew nor the wall crew will be in the way of the other.
An example is shown in Fig. 9 where a floor system of
steel joists with concrete topping is used. The plan of the
Oakcrest project is tee-shaped with a short leg. The
masons are completing the walls on the leg of the building
and the area immediately next to it. In the background,
concrete is being poured; in the center, steel decking is
being placed; and in the foreground, steel joists are being
set and spaced. In this manner, the contractors built a
story per week in good weather.
FIG. 9
Floor and Wall Construction of Oakcrest Towers.
FIG. 10
Corridor Bearing Walls at Oakcrest Towers.
5
Foundations. Studies have indicated that, in many
cases, foundation costs are reduced by delivering the
loads into the soil in a series of lines or paths which might
utilize spread footings, rather than in a series of points,
which may require piles or caissons. A case in point is
the Oakcrest project in which spread footings for bearing
walls resulted in a savings in cost and time, (Fig. 10).
Formwork. In the construction of Contemporary
Bearing Wall structures with joists or plank floor systems,
there is little or no need for formwork, thus permitting the
other trades to work immediately below the level of the
wall and floor crews. In the case of a cast-in-place con-
crete building, the formwork is often such that other trades
cannot conveniently work for several stories below the
level where concrete is being placed, (Fig. 11).
FIG. 11
Formwork for Cast-in-Place Concrete Frame.
Coordination. The space immediately below a floor
system of plank or joist is available; therefore, mechanical
and other trades can closely follow the wall and floor
crews, so as to contribute to the overall speed of con-
struction, (Fig. 12).
FIG. 12
Working Space is Provided for Other Trades
at Oakcrest Project.
 Scaffolding. The scaffolding requirements are simpli-
fied in bearing wall buildings, usually requiring only one lift
per story, (Fig. 13). Scaffolding used for one and two-
story construction is often applicable to high-rise load-
bearing construction when the masons work overhand
from the inside. All of the examples cited above were
built in this manner.
FIG. 13
Scaffolding is Simple for Bearing Wall Construction.
"SCR masonry process" (Reg. U.S. Pat. Off., SCPI
(BIA)). The "SCR masonry process'' is a development of
the Structural Clay Products Research Foundation (now a
part of BIA). It consists of a continuously adjustable scaf-
fold and corner poles which carry the lines. This provides
a means whereby skilled masons can increase productivi-
ty and enhance the quality of their work, resulting in better
masonry at lower cost. For the construction of a series of
three-story barracks, at Ft. Gordon, Gal, bearing walls
were selected under "Contractor's Option" in lieu of a rein-
forced concrete frame with masonry curtain walls. The
masonry contractor on the project, Phiffer and Goodwin,
stated that, four weeks after installing the "SCR masonry
process", their records indicated a 37 percent increase in
overall production of the 75 masons working the project,
(Fig. 14).
FIG. 14
Use of “SCR masonry process,”* Fort Gordon, Georgia.
6
Prefabricated Elements. Prefabricated stairs, door
and window combinations and other elements which can
easily be set in place prior to the masonry work will elimi-
nate cutting and fitting after the masonry is complete. In
many cases, the prefabricated elements can become
guides for the masonry. In the case of the stairs, illustrat-
ed in Fig. 15, the landings become bench marks for the
floors and the stairs themselves provide continuous
access during construction.
FIG. 15
Prefabricated Metal Stairs Used in Bearing Wall Construction.
Keeping Walls Clean. Frequently it will be desirable to
place concrete for various members supported on brick walls.
In such cases, care should be exercised to prevent the drop-
ping of concrete on brickwork to be left exposed. This can be
prevented by covering the walls with polyethylene sheets
under formwork to make them watertight, (Fig. 16).
Building in Accessories. When cavity walls are used,
FIG. 16
Polyethylene Sheets Under Corridor Formwork in Construction
of Oakcrest Towers.
conduit and other accessories are often built in place as the
walls are constructed. Also, in multi-wythe walls, this is eas-
ily accomplished as the walls are built. In many cases,
through-the-wall units are designed so that they can be
slipped over or conveniently built around conduit and other
such elements, (Figs. 17 and 18).
 FIG. 19
Construction of Reinforced Brick Lintel on Shoring.
FiG. 17
Building in Conduit and Sleeves at Park Lane Towers.
Where the weather is not severe enough to enclose
the construction, heating of materials and proper covering
of walls may be all that is necessary. In all cold weather
construction, the masonry should be constructed so
strength will develop and the mortar will lose sufficient
water to prevent expansion upon freezing.
For further discussion of winter construction, see
Technical Notes 1 Revised, "Cold Weather Masonry
Construction-Introduction", December 1967; 1A, “Cold

FIG. 18
Conduit in 4-in. Wall at Fort Gordon, Georgia.

Lintels. Frequently, in the construction of brick

masonry buildings, it is convenient to build horizontal ele-
ments on shoring, with reinforcing steel to span openings,
(Fig. 19). Reinforced brick lintels have several advan-
tages, including built-in fire resistance and elimination of
structural steel, which requires maintenance and is more
expensive in many cases. For further information on rein-
forced brick lintels, see Technical Notes 17H.
Cold Weather. Complete enclosure of bearing wall
structures is not always the most economical way of pro-
viding protection for winter construction. In severe cli-
mates contractors may enclose the particular walls being
worked upon.
Figure 20 shows Jayhawker Towers, a dormitory at
the University of Kansas in Lawrence. Kansas, where a FIG. 20
Temporary Enclosure at Jayhawk Towers,
prefabricated wood-frame assembly covered with a poly- Lawrance, Kansas.
ethylene film was lowered over the work area to protect
walls under construction during cold weather.
7
Weather Masonry Construction--Construction and
Protection Recommendations,” January 1968; 1B, “Cold
Weather Masonry Construction--Winter Building
Techniques in Europe,” May1968; and 1C, “Cold Weather
Masonry Construction--Contemporary Bearing Wall
Buildings,” October 1968.

8
 Technical Notes 24G

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
Reissued*
February
1987

CONTEMPORARY BEARING WALL

DETAILING

INTRODUCTION TABLE 1
The selection of a wall type and appropriate connec- Nominal Modular Sizes of Brick
tion details is one of the most important decisions to be
made in the design of a bearing wall building. In most Dimensions
cases, the primary consideration will be a system which Unit Modular
satisfies the structural requirements of the building. Other Designation Thickness Height Length Crossing
considerations are also of importance, including the prop- Standard Modular 4” 2-2/3” 8” 3C=8”
erties and performance of the walls and floors that will Engineer Modular 4” 3-1/5” 8’ 5C=16”
result in an economical, maintenance-free and easy-to- Closure Modular 4” 4” 8” 1C=4”
construct building. Double 4” 5-1/3” 8” 3C=16”
Roman 4” 2” 12” 2C=4”
Bearing walls offer the designer the opportunity to Norman 4” 2-2/3’ 12” 3C=8”
develop a complete building system in which the floors Engineer Norman 4” 3-1/5” 12” 5C=16”
and walls not only carry the vertical and lateral loads, but Utility 4” 4” 12” 1C=4”
also provide separation, thermal and acoustical control, Triple 4” 5-1/3” 12” 3C=16”
SCR brick 6” 2-2/3” 12” 3C=8”
and fire-resistive and low maintenance construction. 6” Norwegian 6” 3-1/5” 12” 5C=16”
6” Jumbo 6” 4” 12” 1C=4”
MATERIALS 8” Jumbo 8” 4” 12” 1C=4”
Materials used in constructing the walls for bearing
wall buildings will have considerable influence on the sat-
isfactory performance of the structure. In most cases, the Mortar. There is no one mortar that is best for all
compressive stresses will be relatively high, requiring purposes. Masonry mortar should be selected for the par-
medium to high strength masonry units and mortar. ticular use. ASTM Specifications C 270, "Mortar for Unit
Materials selected should comply with the requirements Masonry", are recommended as a basis for mortar specifi-
contained in the standard, Building Code Requirements cations. It is further recommended that the Proportion
for Engineered Brick Masonry, BIA, 1969. Specification be used rather than the Property
Brick. Alarge percentage of the brick produced in the Specification and that mortar be constituted of portland
United States have unit compressive strengths in excess of cement (type I, II or III), type S hydrated lime (non-air-
5000 psi, with some having compressive strengths as high as entrained), or lime putty and sand.
25,000 psi. Units are readily available throughout the U.S. Building Code Requirements for Engineered Brick
and Canada which have strengths of 10,000 psi and above. Masonry recognizes three mortar types: Types M, S and
Esthetics, durability and economy should also be considered N. In general, type S mortar provides high bond and
in the selection of a particular type of brick unit for a given compressive strength with long durability and good worka-
bearing wall building. The two sizes of brick most widely bility. Type N is a mortar with good strength properties,
used are often referred to as Standard (actual dimensions - 3- durability and excellent workability. In most cases, either
3/4 by 2-1/4 by 8 in.) and Standard Modular (actual dimen- type S or N mortar will provide the desirable properties for
sions for 3/8-in. joint 3-5/8 by 2-1/4 by 7-5/8 in.). There are loadbearing buildings. When high compressive stresses
many different sizes of brick made to suit local conditions. In control the design, type M mortar may be required. Type
some areas of the U.S., 3-in. bed depth brick are widely used. S mortar is proportioned 1C:1/2 L:4 - 1/2 S, type N mortar
The sizes vary with the manufacturer and locality. The size is 1C:1L:6S and type M is 1C: 1/4 L:3S. See Technical
that is most widely made and distributed is called King size, Notes 8 Revised, Portland Cement-Lime Mortars for Brick
with actual bed dimensions of 3 by 9-5/8 in. and height of 2- Masonry".
5/8 in. (laying 4 courses to 12 in.) or 2-3/4 in. (laying 5 cours- Metal Ties and Joint Reinforcement. In years past,
es to 16 in.). Walls built with larger brick units usually provide structural bonding of masonry walls was generally accom-
greater economy than walls of smaller units. Table 1 lists a plished by overlapping masonry units. In so doing, vari-
number of modular brick sizes. These are illustrated in Fig. 1. ous visual patterns were created; two traditional ones
The local availability and strength of specific units should be being English and Flemish bond.
ascertained prior to the design.
*Originally published in December 1968, this Technical Notes has been reviewed and reissued with editorial changes.
 Brick Sizes
(Nominal Dimensions)
FIG.1
Note: Type and percentage of coring will vary with the manufacturer.
In the construction of the thinner masonry walls of
today, when these patterns are not required by esthetic
considerations, it is recommended that metal-tie bonding
be used for multi-wythe solid walls in lieu of masonry
bonding. Laboratory tests at the Structural Clay Products
Institute and independent laboratories indicate that metal-
tied walls are comparable to masonry-bonded walls in
resisting compressive and transverse loads, as well as
water transmission, when the collar joint is full of mortar.
In addition, metal-tied walls generally cost slightly less
than masonry-bonded walls. They also provide greater
freedom in construction and pattern selection.
Metal ties used in bonding masonry walls should be
equal to those required for cavity walls; i.e., 3/16-in. diam-
eter steel or metal ties of equivalent strength spaced so
that at least one tie is provided for every 4-1/2 sq ft of wall
area. Distance between ties should not be over 24 in.
vertically and 36 in. horizontally. Metal ties should be of
corrosion-resistant metal or protected with a corrosion-
resistant metal. Ties may be shaped to form a Z, rectan-
gle or continuous tie of either the ladder or truss type. In
cavity wall construction, the Z and rectangular ties, which
are often used, have depressions or drips in the middle of
the ties. The drip is not necessary and reduces the
strength of the tie; however, most of the ties on the mar-
2
ket have sufficient strength with or without the drips.
There are some advantages to the continuous ladder or
truss type joint reinforcement, particularly where wythes
are made of units with different physical properties or in
wall areas subject to stress concentration.
If stack bond masonry is used as a bearing wall, con-
tinuous joint reinforcement should be provided, spaced
not more than 16 in. on center vertically, one 9-gage or
larger longitudinal wire for each 6 in. of wall thickness or
portion thereof.
CONSTRUCTION DETAILS
Even though the masonry details must be handled
somewhat differently in bearing wall buildings
than in structural frame buildings, the same major
considerations are prevalent:
1. Structural requirements of the buildings must be
met. Anchorage must be provided which will transmit
stress where desired. Equally important are anchor-
age details which will not transmit unwanted forces.
2. Since the elements of the building are in a constant
state of motion, such movement must be accommo-
dated or distress will occur.
3. The opportunity for uncontrolled entrance or con-
densation of water must be avoided. The problem of
 keeping water out of the bearing wall building may be
solved by using cavity or grouted walls. Where solid
walls are used with or without furring, pargeting,
waterproofing and systems of flashing and drainage
can be provided. See Technical Notes 7A Revised,
Water Resistance of Brick Masonry-Materials", and
7B Revised, "Water Resistance of Brick Masonry-
Construction and Workmanship".
Structural Requirements. Because of their structur-
al simplicity, it is possible to design loadbearing clay
masonry buildings quite easily, using accepted theories.
In some buildings, the floor plan will be such that the lon-
gitudinal exterior and corridor walls may be loadbearing.
In others, it may be more advantageous to have trans-
verse bearing walls. In both cases, horizontal forces are
usually resisted by shear wall action. Since the trans-
verse strength of non-reinforced masonry walls is relative-
ly low, structural positioning of building parts are so
arranged as to minimize this action and to exploit the
compressive and shear resistance of the walls.
By utilizing the floors and roof as horizontal
diaphragms and the shear walls as vertical diaphragms,
the horizontal forces are carried down into the foundation.
Shearing stresses in bearing wall buildings will seldom
control the wall type and thickness. Although flexural
stresses in shear walls may control the design under cer-
tain conditions, it is the bearing stress that will generally
govern. For additional information pertaining to structural
design, see Technical Notes 24 Series, "The
Contemporary Bearing Wall.”
Types of walls and floors used with bearing wall con-
struction will depend on a number of factors, including
economics, climate, building type, height and arrange-
ment of walls, and the structural requirements. In most
cases, clay masonry walls from 4 to 12 in. in thickness will
satisfy the structural requirements.
In developing construction details for bearing wall
buildings, it is important to understand the potential condi-
tion of stress at junctures of horizontal and vertical ele-
ments. At connections, as a result of vertical and horizon-
tal loads, compression, tension and shear may occur.
Seldom is it desirable to transmit bending moments at
junctures of floors and walls unless the walls are of rein-
forced masonry. It is relatively easy to develop details
which will transmit tension and compression, as well as
shear. Often, however, it is desired to transmit tension
and compression alone, or shear alone. At times, it is
desirable to take loads horizontally (produced by wind)
but not vertically (due to gravity). For these reasons, it is
important for the structural designer to take an active part
in developing the construction details for a particular pro-
ject.
Where concentrated loads are imposed upon mason-
ry walls, it is recommended that bearing pads be used to
distribute the stress and to permit slight movement which
may occur. Suitable materials for this use include 55-lb
roofing felt, pads of Neoprene, tempered Masonite or vinyl
floor tile. It is advisable to design the connection so as to
position the resultant of the bearing stress in the middle
3
two-thirds of the wall. If the vertical load develops an
eccentricity which falls outside of the middle two-thirds of
the wall, the possibility of excessive tensile bending
stresses developing in the wall must be investigated. See
detailed design requirements contained in the Building
Code Requirements for Engineered Brick Masonry.
Small amounts of reinforcing steel may be grouted in
brick walls to provide extra strength. The designer may
find it helpful to use steel in piers where loads are high.
Bond beams are often desirable to distribute loads at floor
levels. For information on the design and construction of
reinforced brick masonry (RBM), see Technical Notes 17
series, "Reinforced Brick Masonry".
Rigid anchorage of concrete floors to the masonry
walls is seldom desired or needed. The friction will often
meet the structural requirements. Coefficients of friction
between various materials in a dry state will vary.
Standard references indicate a range of values given in
Table 2. In this table, masonry may be considered to be
clay, stone or concrete.
TABLE 2
Coefficients of Static Friction
Masonry and masonry 0.65 - 0.75
Masonry and concrete 0.65 - 0.75
Masonry and dry earth 0.40 - 0.60
Masonry and metal 0.25 - 0.60
Wood and wood 0.30 - 0.60
Wood and masonry 0.50 - 0.60
Wood and metal 0.40 - 0.60
Metal and metal 0.15 - 0.25
Differential Movement. All elements and materials
which go into the makeup of the building are in a constant
state of motion. All building materials move with changes
in temperature, some move with changes in moisture con-
tent, some have plastic flow due to stress, and all have
elastic deformation due to imposed loads. Provisions
must be made to permit the various materials and ele-
ments to move so as not to distress any part. See
Technical Notes, 18 series, "Differential Movement".
The stress developed in restrained elements due to a
change in temperature is equal to the modulus of elastici-
ty multiplied by the coefficient of expansion and by the
change in temperature. Table 3 lists coefficients of lineal
thermal expansion for many commonly used building
materials.
Wood, masonry and concrete may expand with
changes in moisture content. For concrete and wood
products, these movements are reversible. For clay prod-
ucts masonry, in which the initial moisture expansion is
not reversible at atmospheric temperatures and pres-
sures, a moisture expansion design coefficient of 0.0002
 TABLE 3 tlement and the action of unstable soil. Frequently, bear-
Thermal Movement ing wall buildings can be utilized to an advantage because
the loads are delivered in lines rather than points, thus
keeping the soil bearing stress low. Also, the walls can be
Average
Coefficient of Thermal designed as thin, deep beams which, when working with
Lineal Thermal Expansion, inches the footing, will be able to span weak spots or depres-
Expansion, in per 100 feet for
100 F temperature sions in the subsoil.
Millionths
Material increase (to The spacing of expansion joints in bearing walls need
(0.000001) per
degree Fahrenheit closest 1/16 inch) not be as close as for non-bearing walls because bearing
walls are usually of greater strength and mass. Also, they
Clay Masonry are under higher stress, which in many cases will tend to
Clay or shale brick 3.6 0.43 (7/16)
Fire clay brick or tile
restrain the walls, thus reducing movement. Where
2.5 0.30 (5/16)
Clay or shale tile 3.3 0.40 (3/8)
expansion joints are required, it is important to be careful
Concrete Masonry to maintain the structural integrity of the wall.
Dense aggregate 5.2 0.62 (5/8) Floor systems in bearing wall buildings will necessari-
Cinder aggregate 3.1 0.37 (3/8)
Expanded-shale
ly be influenced by structural requirements and by
aggregate 4.3 0.52 (1/2)
arrangements of bearing and shear walls. Joist systems
Expanded-slag and precast plank systems are satisfactory for most build-
aggregate 4.6 0.55 (9/16) ings, since they eliminate form work. Occasionally, two-
Pumice aggregate 4.1 0.49 (1/2)
Stone
way slabs, where the vertical load can be distributed in
Granite 4.7 0.56 (9/16)
two directions, will offer a better floor system.
Limestone 4.4 0.53 (1/2) Control of Moisture and Temperature. In many
Marble 7.3 0.88 (7/8) buildings, cavity walls will meet the structural require-
Concrete
Gravel aggregate
ments, as well as provide walls which are resistant to
6.0 0.72 (3/4)
Lightweight, structural 4.5 0.54 (9/16)
water penetration, because of their internal drainage
Metal channels. Similar drainage channels can be built into
Aluminum 12.8 1.54 (1-9/16) walls which are furred on the inside, if through-the-wall
Bronze 10.1 1.21 (1-3/16)
Stainless steel
flashing is used to collect any water which might pene-
9.6 1.15 (1-1/8)
Structural steel 6.7 0.80 (13/16)
trate the wall and divert it back to the outside through
Wood, Parallel to Fiber weep holes. These air spaces also provide convenient
Fir 2.1 0.25 (1/4) spaces for thermal insulation. Two types of pouring-type
Maple 3.6 0.43 (7/16)
Oak
wall insulation have been investigated and found to be
2.7 0.32 (5/16)
Pine 3.6 0.43 (7/16)
suitable for cavity walls. These are water-repellent vermi-
Wood, Perpendicular to culite loose-fill insulation and water-repellent perlite loose-
Fiber fill insulation. See Technical Notes 21 Series. Cavity walls
Fir 32.0 3.84 (3-13/16)
Maple
can often be used as interior bearing walls to accommo-
27.0 3.24 (3-1/4)
Oak 30.0 3.60 (3-5/8)
date mechanical equipment which may run horizontally
Pine 19.0 2.28 (2-1/4) and vertically in the walls.
On exterior walls, care should be taken to avoid ther-
mal bridges on which condensation may occur. In most
is recommended for clay masonry. A shrinkage coefficient climates, condensation will not occur on uninsulated
of 0.0005 is recommended for concrete. masonry walls; however, through-the-wall metal elements
Elastic deformation due to stress in the elastic range may collect condensation on the inside. See Technical
is approximately linear and is equal to the stress divided Notes 7C, "Moisture Control in Brick and Tile Walls -
by the modulus of elasticity of the material. Condensation", and 7D, "Moisture Control in Brick and
When some materials are continuously stressed, Tile Walls-Condensation Analysis".
there is a gradual yielding in the direction of the stress In bearing wall buildings, some of the detailing prob-
application. This is plastic flow, which is influenced not lems are more critical, while others are minimized. There
only by stress, but also by time and the physical proper- are few absolute answers to these problems. The best
ties of the material. A design value of 0.000001 per unit solution will stem from a rational analysis of the situation.
of length per psi is recommended for concrete. For exam- Good details require ingenuity and imagination. There are
ple, a 100-ft long member, stressed to 1000 psi, would be no standard details which should be used without ques-
expected to have a reduction in the length of 1.2 in. tion. Each juncture of floor and wall should be considered
In brick masonry, the units themselves are not subject as a separate problem and an appropriate detail devel-
to flow, although the mortar joints are. The joints, howev- oped for the situation.
er, seldom comprise more than 15 or 20 per cent of the
volume in compression. Limited research on creep for
brick masonry suggests a design value of 0.0000002 per
unit of length per psi.
Another major cause of movement in buildings is set-
4
 Technical Notes 26
REVISED

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
September
1994

SINGLE WYTHE BEARING WALLS

Abstract: Brick masonry bearing wall systems have been used for years for their
strength, durability and other inherent values. Once widely used in single family residential
construction, this application is experiencing a resurgence in interest. New designs possible
with a single wythe of brick are discussed in this Technical Notes. Selection of materials and
recommended details for one and two story designs are addressed.

Key Words: bearing wall, brick, reinforced brick masonry, single wythe wall.

INTRODUCTION are equally appropriate in commercial construction, and

The rising cost of wood framing members has created
a renewed interest in alternative building systems for
residential housing. The use of light-gage steel framing
is one alternative. Another is the use of single wythe
brick bearing walls. The use of brick masonry as the
load-carrying element of a structure provides several
benefits over other alternate systems. Using brick as
both the building’s exterior skin and its structure capi-
talizes on brick masonry’s strength and other inherent
values. Brick gives a home permanence and beauty.
Brick homes have lower maintenance costs and often
lower insurance rates because of their fire resistant char-
acteristics. Because of their thermal mass properties,
brick homes are more energy efficient than comparably
insulated vinyl- or wood-sided homes. For these rea-
sons, brick homes have a higher resale value.
In a single wythe brick bearing wall system, the brick
masonry serves as both the structural system and the ex-
terior facing. A wood, steel or masonry backing system
is not necessary. The interior living space of a brick
bearing wall home may be the same as that of a framed
home. Floor and roof elements and interior partitions
are constructed with the same materials as used in frame
homes. Home plans may include one or two story
structures, expansive master bedrooms and other popu-
lar amenities. In brick bearing wall homes, attractive
features such as brick masonry fireplaces and special
brick details can be readily incorporated to set the house
apart.
The design and construction of single wythe brick
bearing wall systems are discussed in this Technical
Notes. Typical details for residential applications are
provided. Although this Technical Notes illustrates resi-
dential construction, single wythe brick bearing walls
many of the design and material considerations dis-
cussed in this Technical Notes are the same.
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Single wythe brick loadbearing walls include the
same design considerations as other types of wall sys-
tems. Model building codes dictate the minimum loads
to be resisted by the structural system, the minimum
thermal performance requirements and the necessary
fire resistance of the wall system. Since a brick bearing
wall system forms the building envelope, the designer
must also consider resistance to moisture penetration
and detailing of interior finishes. These concerns are
addressed in the sections that follow.
Structural Considerations
The design of any structural system begins with the
determination of the design loads. Design loads include
vertical loads from the weight of the building materials
and occupants and lateral (horizontal) loads from wind,
soil and seismic forces. In most residential structures,
the controlling forces are the expected vertical loads
plus wind loads. In certain regions of the United States,
predominantly the west coast, seismic loads may control
the structural design.
The model building codes and the associated struc-
tural loads will dictate the size of the building’s struc-
tural members. Model building codes have two meth-
ods of design: empirical and rational. In the case of
loadbearing masonry, all model building codes specify
the minimum wall thicknesses and maximum wall
height or number of stories for empirical designs. Gen-
erally, these limitations are not applicable to buildings
which have been rationally designed. However, the dis-
tinction in model building code limitations for engi-
neered (rational) versus empirically designed masonry
structures is not always clear. Furthermore, even a ratio-
nal design will include some prescriptive detailing re-
quirements. The masonry standard used for the struc-
tural design of brick bearing walls in this Technical
Notes is the Building Code Requirements for Masonry
Structures (ACI 530/ASCE 5/TMS 402) and its com-
panion Specifications for Masonry Stru c t u res ( A C I
530.1/ASCE 6/TMS 602) [4], referred to as the MSJC
Code and Specifications, respectively. Other masonry
design criteria, such as Chapter 21 of the Uniform
Building Code, could also be used.
The most widely used residential building code is the
CABO One- and Two-Family Dwelling Code [5]. The
CABO Code is an empirical code which specifies an 8
in. (200 mm) minimum nominal wall thickness for
loadbearing masonry structures over one story in
height. For single-story homes, a nominal 6 in. (150
mm) wall is permitted, so long as the wall height does
not exceed 9 ft (2.7 m) and the gable height does not
exceed 15 ft (4.6 m). In cases where these limits are
applied, the minimum wall thickness requirements will
influence the type and size of brick unit used. When ra-
tionally designed, these limits on wall size can be ex-
ceeded. Other model building codes have similar pre-
scriptive restrictions, but permit rational design, not
subject to these limits, when using approved masonry
standards.
Loadbearing brick masonry houses may be built with
walls less than 6 in. (150 mm) in nominal thickness
when rationally designed. These walls may require ver-
tical steel reinforcing bars and horizontal reinforcing
bars or wires. Typically, vertical steel reinforcing bars
are used to resist lateral loads and horizontally rein-
forced bond beams are used to attach floor and roof
members. Additional horizontal reinforcement is re-
quired over large openings and in areas of high seismic-
ity. This Technical Notes provides details for location
of vertical reinforcement and horizontal bond beams
when used in brick bearing wall construction.
The designer of a brick bearing wall must specify the
properties of the materials necessary to meet the struc-
tural requirements of the design. The compressive
strength of the brick masonry assembly, f′m, must be
specified. Mortar and grout type or properties should
be identified. Type, size and grade of reinforcement, if
used, should also be specified. See Technical Notes 3
Series for further information on the structural design of
brick bearing walls using the MSJC Code.
Energy Considerations
The model building codes contain requirements to
ensure acceptable thermal performance of the building
envelope. Minimum levels of insulation are required,
and in some cases, air leakage is addressed. Type and
installation of insulation in a single wythe brick bearing
wall system differ from those in other residential wall
systems. In wood frame residential structures, batt in-
2
sulation is typically placed between the wood studs.
For brick bearing wall homes, rigid board insulation is
often placed on the interior face of the brick wythe.
Rigid board insulation has the advantages of being easy
to install and providing high insulation values. Instal-
lation of the insulation board on the interior of the brick
wythe is coordinated with the interior finish materials
and with the flashing and drainage system used to con-
trol water penetration. Options for attaching rigid insu-
lation include square, “Z” or other shaped furring strips,
mechanical fasteners and adhesives. Alternately, insu-
lation may be placed in the cells of hollow brick units.
However, this application is limited to large hollow
units most commonly used in commercial brick bearing
wall buildings. Furthermore, such insulation is general-
ly not as effective as a continuous layer of insulation
placed on the inside face of the single wythe wall, due
to the discontinuity of the insulation at the webs of the
units.
Air leakage through the building envelope may also
be a concern. Although the brick wall provides an ef-
fective air barrier, there will be some leakage through
weep holes and at the top of the brickwork. Building
paper or sheet membrane materials, called “house
wraps”, are commonly installed over exterior sheathing
materials in wood frame construction to prevent air
leakage. However, these materials are not appropriate
for direct application on brick bearing walls. Alternate
approaches to further limit air leakage are the use of ei-
ther foil-faced rigid board insulation or so-called “air-
tight drywall”. These approaches rely on the air pene-
tration resistance of the paper or other films on the insu-
lation or gypsum board. To achieve an impenetrable air
barrier, the joints between the sheets of insulation or
gypsum board should be sealed or taped. Joints be-
tween dissimilar materials, and joints around door and
window frames, should also be sealed.
Water Penetration Resistance
Water penetration is one of the chief concerns in the
performance of any exterior wall system. Resistance to
water penetration of the brick masonry wythe is of ut-
most importance in single wythe construction. Full
mortar joints and good extent of bond between units
and mortar help to reduce water penetration. The head
joints in hollow brick masonry should be laid full, not
face-shell mortar bedded only. Technical Notes 7 Series
provides further information on water penetration resis-
tance of brick masonry wall systems.
A single brick masonry wythe may not prevent water
penetration entirely. Therefore, a drainage cavity with
flashing and weep holes should be provided. If a
drainage cavity is not used, a bituminous, damp-proof
coating should be applied to the inside face of the brick
bearing wall prior to installation of the insulation and
finishes. Material compatibility of the coating with ad-
jacent materials should be considered. In regions of the
country which are subject to large amounts of rainfall or
severe wind-driven rain, the use of a clear water repel-
lent coating on a wall built with good workmanship and
proper details may be appropriate with this wall type.
Location of Interior Work and Finishes
The installation of plumbing, heating and electrical
systems in a loadbearing brick home will vary slightly
from their placement in conventional frame construc-
tion. There is no cavity between studs for the place-
ment of piping or conduit, and piping or conduit should
not be placed within the brick wythe. Instead, the
plumbing, heating and electrical piping or conduit can
be installed between furring strips on the brick bearing
wall, in the floor or ceiling or in interior frame walls.
The type of foundation will influence the location of in-
terior systems. In slab-on-grade construction, it is easi-
est to route the mechanical systems through the ceiling
space. With basement or crawl space foundations, it is
possible to locate mechanical systems between the first
floor joists.
The interior finish materials used in brick bearing
wall homes are the same materials as those used in
frame construction. However, the installation of interi-
or finishes varies. In brick veneer construction, interior
gypsum board is typically nailed or screwed to the
studs. In brick bearing wall construction, gypsum board
or other interior finishes may be nailed or screwed to
furring strips or light-gage metal studs, anchored to the
masonry with special clips or ties, nailed to special nail-
ing inserts in the masonry or adhesively attached over
the brick masonry wythe and insulation. Some com-
mon methods are discussed in Construction Details.
Cabinets and other built-in items can be attached di-
rectly to the brick masonry walls or to furring strips at-
tached to the masonry. Wood 2 by 4’s, spaced to sup-
port the cabinets or other built-in items, can be attached
to the brick masonry using anchor bolts placed in the
masonry wall or by expansion anchors, adhesive an-
chors or other brick anchors and fasteners installed in
the completed masonry. Technical Notes 44 and 44A
provide a complete description of suitable brick anchors
and fasteners. Insulation may be placed between the 2
by 4’s, and cabinets then placed over insulation and at-
tached to the furring using conventional techniques.
Cabinets may also be supported by stud framing built
inside the brick bearing wall, in a manner similar to
brick veneer construction.
MASONRY MATERIAL SELECTION
may be either solid or hollow. Solid units should meet
the requirements of ASTM C 216 Specification for Fac-
ing Brick. Hollow units should meet the requirements
of ASTM C 652 Specification for Hollow Brick. Struc-
tural and model building code requirements, aesthetics,
availability and cost will determine the minimum unit
compressive strength, type and sizes of units used.
Brick unit compressive strengths range from 1,700 psi
to 36,000 psi (12 to 250 MPa), with a mean value of
over 5,200 psi (36 MPa) for molded brick and over
11,300 psi (77 MPa) for extruded brick [1]. Brick unit
strength is directly related to compressive strength of
the brick masonry assembly. Technical Notes 3 A
should be reviewed for material properties of brick ma-
sonry.
There are numerous brick sizes manufactured today.
Solid units are commonly manufactured in nominal
widths of 3, 4 and 6 in. (75, 100 and 150 mm). Hollow
units, which are less than 75 percent solid, are manufac-
tured in nominal widths of 4 in. (100 mm), 5 in. (125
mm), 6 in. (150 mm) and 8 in. (200 mm). See Techni -
cal Notes 10B Revised for a more complete listing of
sizes currently manufactured. Nominal 5 and 6 in. (125
and 150 mm) wide hollow brick are the most common
units used to build reinforced brick bearing wall homes.
Hollow brick are prevalent in reinforced brick bear-
ing walls because they have cells which can accommo-
date vertical reinforcement and grout. The minimum
size of cells in hollow units intended to be reinforced is
dictated by the MSJC Code and listed in Table 1. Larger
bars, horizontal reinforcing bars and coarse grout re-
quire larger cell sizes. When reinforcement is required,
solid brick may be cut to form grout pockets or incorpo-
rate pilasters to accommodate vertical reinforcement.
TABLE 1
Minimum Cell Size1
Max. Grout Min. Clear Cell Max. Vertical
2
Grout Type Pour Ht., ft in. x in. Bar Size
(m) (mm x mm) (Metric Bars)
1 11⁄2 x 2 No. 3
(0.3) (40 x 50 (10)
Fine 5 2x3 No. 5
(1.5) (50 x 75) (15)
12 2 1⁄2 x 3 No. 6
(3.7) (70 x 75) (20)

Selection of masonry materials for a brick bearing 1 1 1⁄2 x 3 No. 4

wall system should consider structural, energy and oth- (0.3) (40 x 75) (10)

er performance requirements as discussed in this Tech - 5 21⁄2 x 3 No. 6

nical Notes. Further information on material selection Coarse
(1.5) (70 x 75) (20)
for adequate strength and compliance with the MSJC
12 3x3 No. 6
Code and Specifications can be found in Te c h n i c a l
(3.7) (75 x 75) (20)
Notes 3 Series.
1Metric dimensions are based on metric reinforcing bar sizes as specified
Brick
in ASTM A 615M.
2Area of reinforcing bar should not exceed 6 percent of cell void area.
Brick used in single wythe bearing wall structures
3
For further information on grouting requirements see
the MSJC Code and Specifications and Technical Notes
3B.
Uniform spacing of vertical reinforcement is impor-
tant in the design and construction of reinforced load-
bearing masonry walls. Cell size and unit length should
be coordinated to provide cells which align vertically
for ease of grouting and uniform spacing of reinforcing
bars. Most hollow brick designed to accommodate re-
inforcing bars have lengths equal to twice their width,
so that cells align vertically when the masonry is laid in
half running bond. Spacing of reinforcement should be
selected with these dimensions in mind.
Mortar
The strength and water penetration resistance of a
brick bearing wall is dependent upon the mortar select-
ed. Portland cement-lime mortars with an air content
less than 12 percent are recommended for their superior
bond strength and resistance to water penetration. In un-
reinforced loadbearing masonry, the MSJC Code allow-
able flexural tensile stresses are reduced approximately
50 percent for assemblies made with masonry cement
mortars or portland cement-lime mortars with air con-
tent over 12 percent. In addition, some codes prohibit
the use of masonry cement mortars and all Type N mor-
tars in Seismic Performance Categories D and E (for-
merly Seismic Zones 3 and 4). Mortar should meet the
proportion requirements of ASTM C 270 Specification
for Mortar for Unit Masonry. Type S, M or N mortar
may be used in loadbearing brick masonry, although
Type S is recommended for use in reinforced brick
bearing walls.
Grout
Grout is used in reinforced brick masonry to bond
steel reinforcement to the surrounding brick masonry.
Grout for masonry may be made from either fine or
coarse aggregate, although fine grout is typically used
for ease of grouting smaller cells. Aggregate type influ-
ences the size of grout space needed. (See Table 1.)
Grout should meet the proportion requirements of
ASTM C 476 Specification for Grout for Unit Masonry,
and use of a shrinkage compensating admixture is rec-
ommended. The water/cement ratio of grout is not typi-
cally specified, but the water content should be suffi-
cient to provide a mixture which has a slump of 8 to 11
in. (200 to 275 mm). Grout should be fluid enough to
fill voids, but not separate into its constituents.
Reinforcement
Vertical steel reinforcement is often used in brick
bearing walls to provide resistance to lateral loads. Size
and spacing of reinforcement required are a function of
design loads, unit size, compressive strength of the ma-
sonry assemblage and cell spacing. The MSJC Code
limits the maximum size of reinforcement used in ma-
sonry to a No. 11 reinforcing bar. As a rule-of-thumb,
the maximum bar size should not exceed the nominal
4
thickness of the wall in inches to ensure proper devel-
opment of the reinforcement. For example, a maximum
reinforcing bar size of No. 6 is recommended for nomi-
nal 6 in. (150 mm) walls.
Steel reinforcing bars should conform to ASTM
Specification A 615, A 615M, A 616, A 617 or A 706,
depending upon the type of bar used. Joint reinforce-
ment, if used, should comply with ASTM A 82 and be
hot-dipped galvanized or made from stainless steel to
reduce the possibility of corrosion.
CONSTRUCTION DETAILS
There are several features of a brick bearing wall sys-
tem which differ from brick veneer wall systems. The
construction of loadbearing brick masonry may incor-
porate reinforcement and must provide support and at-
tachment of floors and the roof. Openings for windows
and doors may be spanned by self-supporting reinforced
or unreinforced brick masonry. Water penetration resis-
tance and thermal resistance are generally provided by
methods other than the traditional drainage cavity and
insulation between wood studs. Possible details for con-
struction of these features in a brick bearing wall sys-
tem follow. The structural details and methods of at-
taching the insulation and interior finishes shown vary
from figure to figure to illustrate the variety of options
available. No single method is preferred in all cases,
nor are all possible options shown.
Bearing Wall Reinforcement
A loadbearing brick wall often contains vertical steel
reinforcement uniformly spaced along the length of the
wall and horizontal reinforcement in bond beams. Ver-
tical reinforcement may also be necessary around open-
ings and at building corners. Figure 1 illustrates one
means of incorporating vertical reinforcing bars in a
wall built of solid units. In this case, horizontal joint re-
inforcement may be required in bed joints, and form-
work is necessary to contain the grout in the grout
HORIZ. JOINT REINF.
VERT. REINF. IN
GROUT POCKET
Solid Brick With Grout Pocket
FIG. 1
 BRICK
VERT. REINF. IN BEARING INTERIOR FINISH
GROUTED PILASTER WALL FURRING ANCHOR
REINF., AS FURRING WITH
REQ’D INSULATION
FINISH FLOOR
METAL TIE FLASHING
SLAB ON GRADE
WEEP VAPOR
HOLES RETARDER
24 IN.
(600 mm)
O.C. MAX.

Pilaster Built with Solid Brick
FIG. 2
VERT. REINF.
IN GROUTED
CELL
Reinforced Hollow Brick
FIG. 3
pocket until it has cured. The brick units will require
special cutting to form the grout pocket within the wall
thickness.
Alternately, brick bearing walls built with solid units
may incorporate pilasters, as shown in Fig. 2, to provide
the necessary confinement of vertical reinforcement.
The advantage of using pilasters is that no forms are re-
quired. They may, however, occupy a significant
amount of floor space if located on the interior side of
the wall.
Masonry walls constructed with hollow units may be
vertically reinforced as shown in Fig. 3. By providing
the necessary reinforcement within the cells of the unit,
Slab-On-Grade Foundation
FIG. 4
Horizontally reinforced bond beams are used to an-
chor bolts for attaching ledgers and plates and to span
wall openings. Bond beams are formed by removing part
of the cross webs of hollow brick or by using special U-
shaped units. Necessary anchor bolts and reinforcement
are placed, and the bond beam is grouted solid. The
depth of the bond beam required will depend on the de-
sign loads for the structure, the material properties of the
masonry and the amount of reinforcement used.
Connections
Foundation. Brick bearing walls may be supported
on poured concrete, concrete masonry or brick masonry
foundation walls. If construction incorporates a slab on
grade, the foundation wall may be built as shown in
Fig. 4. When a crawl space or basement is present, the
floor joist system may be supported directly on the
foundation wall (Fig. 5), on corbeled brickwork (Fig. 6)
or on a ledger joist bolted onto a bond beam (Fig. 7).
The details of support will vary depending upon the size
of foundation wall and the width of the brick bearing
wall above the foundation. A minimum bearing of 3 in.
FURRING WITH
INSULATION
BRICK BEARING FURRING ANCHOR
WALL
REINF., AS REQ’D
INTERIOR FINISH
FINISH FLOOR
FLASHING
WEEP HOLES
24 IN. (600 mm)
O.C. MAX.
FLOOR JOIST

hollow brick bearing walls can optimize the wall sec- BLOCKING
tion. The design and detailing of reinforcement should WATERPROOFING
follow the provisions of the MSJC Code and Specifica- BELOW GRADE BASEMENT OR
CRAWL SPACE
tions. In some cases, such as at terminations or splices
of vertical reinforcing bars, special attention may be
FOUNDATION
necessary to accommodate multiple or hooked reinforc- WALL
ing bars within the confines of the cells of hollow brick.
Technical Notes 3B provides examples of common rein- Basement or Crawl Space Foundation
forced pilasters and reinforced hollow brick walls. FIG. 5

5
 INSULATION
BRICK RIGID INSULATION HAT
BEARING CHANNEL
INTERIOR SCREWED
WALL FINISH VERT. REINF. TO “Z” CLIP
REINF., AS AS REQ’D.
REQ’D FINISH FLOOR
TWO-PIECE INTERIOR
FLASHING FLASHING FINISH
BEHIND
WEEP INSULATION SUB-
HOLES AND FLOORING
24 IN. CARRIED
(600 mm) BELOW FLOOR
O.C. MAX LEDGER JOISTS
BOND ANCHOR
FLOOR JOIST BEAMS, BOLTS IN
AS REQ’D. BOND
BLOCKING BEAMS
METAL TIES LEDGER
JOIST
BASEMENT OR
WATERPROOFING CRAWL SPACE
BELOW
GRADE Floor Connection
FOUNDATION FIG. 8
WALL
Flashing should extend a minimum of 8 in. (200 mm)
above the ledger and at least 3 in. (75 mm) below.
Roof. The roof should be supported directly on top
Basement or Crawl Space Foundation Corbeled Support of the bearing wall to minimize eccentric loading. The
FIG. 6 roof must be anchored to the top of the brick bearing
wall to resist uplift forces on the roof. A wood plate is
BRICK INSULATION
attached to the top of the wall using anchor bolts em-
BEARING WALL
BITUMINOUS
bedded in a bond beam or masonry below. A reinforced
REINF., AS COATING concrete bond beam or a reinforced and grouted brick
REQ’D INTERIOR bond beam may be used, as illustrated in Fig. 9. In this
FLASHING FINISH
BASE TRIM case, the anchor bolts should extend a minimum of 12
WEEP HOLES in. (300 mm) into the grouted cells in the wall below
24 IN. (600 mm) FLOOR JOIST
O.C. MAX and terminate with a standard hook. One alternative,
for use in unreinforced bearing walls, is to thread an-
GROUTED chor bolts through the core holes of the solid units and
BOND BEAM
attach the bolts to a steel plate embedded in the mason-
ry, as shown in Fig. 10.

LEDGER
JOIST
2X WOOD
WATERPROOFING FOUNDATION PLATE
BELOW WALL WITH
GRADE ANCHOR
BOLTS IN
GROUTED
CELLS

REINF.
GROUTED
Basement or Crawl Space Foundation Bond Beam Support BOND BEAM
FIG. 7 INTERIOR
FINISH
(75 mm) should be provided for floor joists which bear HAT
on the foundation wall. Waterproofing should be pro- CHANNEL
vided for below-grade masonry. RIGID BRICK
INSULATION BEARING
Floors. Floors above the first story may be anchored WALL
to the brick bearing walls or be supported on corbeled VERT.
brickwork. In multi-story construction, anchor bolts cast REINF. IN
GROUTED
into a continuous, reinforced, grouted brick bond beam at CELL
the floor support level are often used. A continuous wood
ledger is bolted into place, and the floor joists are attached Roof Connection
to the ledger with joist hangers as shown in Fig. 8. FIG. 9

6
 Window and Door Openings
Masonry over openings for windows and doors may
be supported by loose steel lintels, reinforced brick ma-
sonry lintels or brick masonry arches. The design of
steel lintels is covered in Technical Notes 31B. When
steel lintels are used, flashing and weep holes should be
provided over the lintel as shown in Fig. 11. Alternate-
ly, loadbearing brick masonry can be self-supporting
WOOD PLATE
over many wall openings. Horizontally reinforced
FURRING
brick masonry lintels are one option. Design of rein-
BRICK
BEARING ANCHOR forced brick lintels should be in accordance with the
WALL FURRING MSJC Code or other approved masonry standard. Rein-
ANCHOR WITH forcement may be incorporated into voids in a soldier
BOLT WITH INSULATION
STEEL INTERIOR
course of brick or in a bond beam, as illustrated in Figs.
PLATE FINISH 12a and 12b, respectively. Figure 13 provides required
GROUTED
INTO CORE steel reinforcement for solidly grouted bond beam lin-
tels based on the MSJC Code. Required reinforcement
is determined by the total uniform dead and live loads
Roof Connection on the lintel and the span of the opening. Figure 13 is
FIG. 10
applicable to hollow or solid units of 5 to 6 in. (125 to

BRICK
BEARING INSULATION
WALL
FLASHING INTERIOR
VERT. INTERIOR
FINISH
WEEP REINF., FINISH
HOLES 24 IN. STEEL AS REQ’D.
LINTEL HAT
(600 mm) CHANNEL
O.C. MAX. GROUTED
SOLDIER
RIGID
SEALANT COURSE
INSULATION
BOND
LINTEL BEAM
BITUMINOUS
FLASHING COATING
BRICK
BEARING
WALL INSULATION
WINDOW
WALL PLUG INTERIOR OR DOOR
W/ NAILING FINISH FRAME
INSERT
SEALANT Soldier Course Lintel
FIG. 12a

JAMB
VERT.
REINF., INTERIOR
AS REQ’D. FINISH
DOUBLE
HUNG HAT
WOOD HORIZ. CHANNEL
SEALANT WINDOW REINF. RIGID
GROUTED INSULATION
LIMESTONE BOND
SILL BEAM BITUMINOUS
COATING
INSULATION FLASHING
FLASHING
INTERIOR
FINISH
WINDOW
SILL OR DOOR
FRAME

Window Detail With Steel Lintel Brick Bond Beam Lintel

FIG. 11 FIG. 12b

7
20 20
18 18
16 16 #6 BAR
14 14
12 #6 BAR #5 BAR
12
HT.=8IN. HT.=8IN.
10 10
#5 BAR
8 8
6 6
4 4 #4 BAR
#4 BAR
2 #3 BAR 2 #3 BAR
0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900

LOAD, LB/FT LOAD, LB/FT

24 26
22 24
20 22
#6 BAR
#6 BAR 20
18
18
16
HT.=12IN. 16 #5 BAR HT.=12IN.
14 #5 BAR
14
12
12
10 10
8 8
6 #4 BAR 6 #4 BAR
4 4
#3 BAR #3 BAR
2 2
0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900

LOAD, LB/FT LOAD, LB/FT

28 30
26 28
24 26
#6 BAR #6 BAR
22 24
22
20
18 #5 BAR HT.=16IN. 20
#5 BAR HT.=16IN.
18
16
14 16
14
12
12
10
10
8 8
#4 BAR #4 BAR
6 6
4 #3 BAR 4 #3 BAR
2 2
0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900

LOAD, LB/FT LOAD, LB/FT

a) f′m =2000 psi, Em =1,600,000 psi b) f′ m =4000 psi, Em =2,400,000 psi

NOTES: -LINTELS MAY BE 5 OR 6 IN. NOMINAL WIDTH.

-LINTELS MUST BE GROUTED SOLID OVER ENTIRE HEIGHT, HT.
-FOR METRIC (SI) CONVERSIONS, USE THE FOLLOWING:
1 IN. = 25.4 mm 100 LB/FT = 1.46 kN/m
1 FT. = 304.8 mm 1000 PSI = 6.89 MPa

Reinforcement for Brick Bond Beam Lintels

FIG. 13

8
150 mm) in nominal width. Lintels made of hollow
BRICK BEARING
units are assumed to be grouted over their entire height, WALL
ht. Generally, for loads greater than 400 lb/ft (6 kN/m),
the maximum span length is limited by shear strength of
the lintel. Spans may be increased if shear reinforce-
ment is provided in the lintel. Reinforced brick lintels
should be shored for a minimum of seven days after
construction. Openings can also be spanned by rein-
forced or unreinforced brick masonry arches. Consult
the Technical Notes 31 Series for guidance on the struc- 26 GAGE
tural design of brick masonry arches. GALV.
WALL PLUG
Flashing and Weep Holes
WOOD
For best performance, a drainage cavity with flashing INSERT
and weep holes should be incorporated in the single
wythe bearing wall system. The most common method
to form a drainage cavity behind the brick wythe is to Wall Plug Nailing Insert
space the rigid board insulation a minimum of 1/2 in. FIG. 14
(13 mm) from the inside face of the brick wythe using
furring strips or other spacers. The interior finish is then holes to prevent insects and rain from entering. If the
attached directly over the insulation. Any materials in brick bearing wall is treated with a clear water repel-
direct contact with the brick wythe should be rot and lent, brick vents in head joints at the base and top of
corrosion resistant for long-term durability. Alternately, each story are recommended.
rigid board insulation can be adhered to the brick
Insulation and Finishes
wythe, and light-gage (non-bearing) metal stud framing
can be attached to floor and ceiling joists with no direct The attachment of insulation and interior finishes
contact with the brick wythe. This forms a cavity be- may be accomplished in several ways. One method is
tween the insulation and interior finish which can be to attach treated wood or plastic furring strips to wall
flashed similar to that in brick veneer wall systems. A plugs inserted into mortar joints as shown in Fig. 14, at
minimum 1/2 in. (13 mm) cavity is adequate for this the top, bottom and mid-height of the wall. Rigid board
wall system because the insulation and finishes are in- insulation may be installed between furring strips or
stalled after the masonry is completed. Any voids in over them to form a cavity for drainage. Gypsum board
the mortar should be filled, and any mortar protrusions or other interior finish is then placed over the insula-
should be removed to provide a clear, open cavity. tion. Another option involves the use of a special “Z”
Flashing should be placed at the base of the cavity and clip. The clip is attached to the brick wythe at 16 or 24
at all interruptions in the wall, such as over window and in. (400 or 600 mm) o.c. horizontally or vertically. The
door openings. The effect of flashing placement should leg of the clip extends beyond the rigid board insula-
be considered in the structural design. Splices in flashing tion, and special hat channels (so-called because of their
must be sealed and discontinuous flashing must have end shape) are screwed onto the clip, as shown in Fig. 15.
dams. Flashing should be turned up a minimum of 8 in. The interior finish is then screwed to the hat channels to
(200 mm) and attached with adhesive to the inside sur- finish the wall. A third alternative is light-gage (non-
face of the rigid board insulation or outside surface of the
gypsum board, or nailed or stapled to furring strips. The BRICK
flashing should extend past or be cut flush with the exte- BEARING
WALL
rior face of the brickwork. If the brick bearing wall is re-
inforced, the through-wall flashing at the base of the wall “Z” CLIPS
will be punctured by vertical reinforcing bars. Flashing VERT.
HAT
must be sealed around all reinforcement with mastic at REINF.,
CHANNEL
AS REQ’D.
these locations. Suitable flashing materials are discussed
in Technical Notes 7A Revised. INTERIOR
FINISH
Weep holes should be placed directly above all flash-
ing locations. Weep holes should be located above
grade and spaced a maximum of 24 in. (600 mm) on RIGID
INSULATION
center when using open head joints or brick vents, or 16
in. (400 mm) on center when using wicks or plastic
tubes. Open head joint weep holes are preferred over
rope wicks or tubes. Vents, copper screening or stain- “Z” Clip Installation
less steel wool can be placed in open head joint weep FIG. 15

9
bearing) metal stud framing. The framing is used to
form a drainage cavity and to apply insulation and/or
finishes in a manner similar to that in brick veneer wall
systems. Light-gage metal framing is installed by at-
taching a track to the floor and ceiling joists at the de-
sired distance from the brick wythe. Rigid board insula-
tion may be placed between the metal framing and brick
bearing wall, or insulation may be placed between
studs. The framing provides a level surface for apply-
ing the interior gypsum board or other interior finish.
The framing does not provide support for the brick
bearing walls. This permits a substantial reduction in
the size of the metal framing members. One and one-
half inch (40 mm) studs are often used.
CONSTRUCTION CONSIDERATIONS
Quality Control
The quality of construction of a brick bearing wall is
important for several reasons. The masonry wall is the
primary structural system for the building and must
meet the minimum strength necessary for adequate per- Sponges In Cells To Be Grouted
formance. Without quality construction, the expected FIG. 16
strength of the masonry may not be achieved. Good
workmanship is also important in resisting water pene-
tration. In a single wythe wall, the masonry is the pri- moved at the wall base. See Fig. 17. The cleanouts
mary barrier to water penetration, and good workman- are sealed prior to commencing with grouting. One
ship directly affects the water penetration resistance of method of closing cleanouts in hollow brick is to bevel
the masonry. cut the section of the face shell to be removed. When
To ensure quality construction, the MSJC Code and replaced, the cut piece is held in position by pressure
Specifications contain several provisions regarding ma- from the grout. Cleanouts are seldom used in single
terials testing, inspection of masonry and workmanship. wythe construction except with large cell hollow brick
Brick units and mortar may have to be tested to verify or at pilaster locations. For further information on
compliance with applicable standards. Verification of grouting brick masonry walls, see Technical Notes 17C
assembly compressive strength may be determined by and the MSJC Code and Specifications.
preconstruction testing of brick masonry prisms con-
structed from the same brick and mortar to be used on
the project. Alternately, assembly compressive strength
may be verified by the conservative unit strength
method which requires knowledge of the brick unit
compressive strength and mortar Type to estimate the
masonry assemblage’s strength. Inspection of the ma-
sonry during construction is required by the MSJC
Code, and limits on the dimensional tolerances of ma-
sonry elements ensure expected structural performance.
In reinforced brick masonry, maintaining clear grout
spaces during construction and proper location of rein-
forcement are important. The cells of hollow brick in-
tended to receive reinforcing bars and grout should be
free of mortar protrusions and debris. One method of
keeping the cells of hollow brick clean is to insert
sponges into the cells to be grouted at the beginning of
construction. The sponges are pulled upward by a han-
dle, wire or string as construction progresses, leaving
clean cells ready for grouting, as shown in Fig. 16. An-
other method, if sponges are not used, is to provide
cleanout openings at the base of the wall at all grout lo-
cations. The cleanouts allow the mortar protrusions to Grout Cleanouts
be scraped off after construction and the debris re- FIG. 17

10
 To resist water penetration, full head joints should be
used with solid and hollow units, and full bed joints are
recommended with solid units. Proper installation of
flashing and weep holes and other moisture control
measures will control water which does penetrate the
brick masonry wythe.
Sequence of Work
In a loadbearing wall system, brick masonry is the
primary structural element. The masonry work may be-
gin as soon as the foundation is complete and properly
cured. Bearing walls should be braced during construc-
tion until lateral support is provided by the floors and
roof. Once one story height is laid, construction of the
floor or roof systems follow, possibly serving as a work
platform for the remaining masonry work. The fasten-
ers necessary for attachment of the cabinets, insulation
and interior finishes should be incorporated during the
construction of the masonry. Interior frame walls may
be built simultaneously with the exterior loadbearing
brick walls once the floor has been constructed, at the
builder’s discretion.
Brick bearing walls should attain sufficient strength
before any loads are applied. The curing conditions
will affect the rate of strength gain of loadbearing ma-
sonry. If sufficient moisture is maintained, the masonry
walls should cure a minimum of three days before sup-
porting floor or roof loads. Reinforced brick masonry
beams require curing periods of at least seven days.
Poor curing conditions, such as exposure to cold tem-
peratures, may require longer curing times. Once the
brick bearing walls are cured, the floors and roof may
be attached. The windows, doors, plumbing, electrical
and heating systems, insulation and interior finishes can
be installed as soon as the masonry is complete.
SUMMARY
This Technical Notes covers the design and detailing
of single wythe bearing walls. Selection of materials
and methods of reinforcing and finishing brick bearing
walls are discussed. The information provided illus-
trates a few of the many options available for a single
wythe brick bearing wall system. Design and construc-
tion considerations presented are equally applicable to
11
residential and commercial construction. Any design
should be completed in accordance with the MSJC
Code and Specifications and applicable model building
and energy codes.
The information and suggestions contained in this
Technical Notes are based on the available data and the
experience of the engineering staff of the Brick Institute
of America. The information contained herein must be
used in conjunction with good technical judgment and a
basic understanding of the properties of brick masonary.
Final decisions on the use of the information contained
in this Technical Notes are not within the purview of
the Brick Institute of America and must rest with the
project architect, engineer and owner.
REFERENCES
1. “Brick Masonry Material Properties,” Technical
Notes on Brick Construction 3A, Brick Institute
of America, Reston, VA, December 1992.
2. “Brick Masonry Section Properties,” Technical
Notes on Brick Construction 3B, Brick Institute
of America, Reston, VA, May 1993.
3. “Building Code Requirements for Masonry
Structures ACI 530/ASCE 5 and Specifications
for Masonry Structures ACI 530.1/ASCE 6,”
Technical Notes on Brick Construction 3, Brick
Institute of America, Reston, VA, February
1990.
4. Building Code Requirements for Masonry Struc -
tures and Commentary (ACI 530/ASCE 5/TMS
402) and Specifications for Masonry Structures
a n d C o m m e n t a ry (ACI 530.1/ASCE 6/TMS
602), American Concrete Institute, Detroit, MI,
1992.
5. One-and Two-Family Dwelling Code, Council of
American Building Officials (CABO), Falls
Church, VA, 1992.
6. “Structural Design of Brick Masonry Arches,”
Technical Notes on Brick Construction 31A Re -
vised, Brick Institute of America, Reston, VA,
July 1986.
7. “Structural Steel Lintels,” Technical Notes on
Brick Construction 31B Revised, Brick Institute
of America, Reston, VA, May 1987.
 27
Technical Notes REVISED

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
August
1994

BRICK MASONRY RAIN SCREEN WALLS

Abstract: Pressure equalization across the exterior wythe of brick veneer and cavity walls allows the rain
screen principle to minimize the infiltration of rain into exterior walls. This Technical Notes focuses on the design
and wall components that contribute to the pressure equalized rain screen wall. A compartmented air cavity
behind the exterior brick wythe, a rigid air barrier system and adequate venting area of the exterior cladding in
relation to the leakage area of the air barrier are necessary elements.
Key Words: air barrier, air retarder, brick veneer, cavity wall, drainage wall, exterior cladding,
pressure equalization, rain screen, wind loads.

INTRODUCTION
Rain penetration through walls can damage the build-
ing envelope. Corrosion of metal accessories in the exteri-
or cladding, efflorescence of the masonry and damage to
interior finishes and staining are just a few examples of
problems related to moisture penetration. Water penetra-
tion affects the appearance and function of a variety of
brick masonry wall systems.
Over the years, many methods have been used to
prevent moisture penetration of walls, some more suc-
cessfully than others. Masonry barrier walls rely on the
massive wall materials to deter water penetration.
Drainage type walls, such as brick veneer and cavity
walls, provide good moisture penetration resistance. It
must be recognized that the exterior wythe can not be
made watertight. Provisions for internal drainage are nec-
essary for these wall systems to function as intended.
The next step to provide better moisture penetration
resistance for exterior brick walls is the use of the rain
screen principle. This concept introduces air into the cavi-
ty of conventional drainage type walls to provide pressure
equalization so that the cavity works in resisting wind-dri-
ven moisture penetration.
Cladding researchers and investigators increasingly
recognize air pressure as a major cause of water penetra-
tion problems. They are looking more carefully to the rain
screen principle as a deterrent to moisture penetration.
This Technical Notes discusses the design criteria of the
rain screen wall, how to develop the pressure equalization
feature within the cavity space and additional construction
detailing needed to tailor conventional brick veneer and
cavity wall systems to the pressure equalized rain screen
principle. Other Technical Notes in this series will address
construction considerations and material selection.
HISTORY
The rain screen principle has been used intuitively for
many years. One of the first references to it was made in
1946 by C. H. Johansson entitled, "The Influence of
Moisture on the Heat Conductance for Brick". It was not
until sixteen years later that researchers began to under-
stand how to apply the fundamental laws of physics to the
development of the rain screen principle for practical use.
In 1962, Birkeland of the Norwegian Building Institute
wrote Curtain Walls in which he stated:
"The only practical solution to the problem of rain pen -
etration is to design the exterior rainproof finishing so
open that no super-pressure can be created over the
joints or seams of the finishing. This effect is achieved by
providing an air space behind the exterior finishing, but
with connection to the outside air. The surges of air pres -
sure created by the gusts of wind will then be equalized
on both sides of the finishing. "
Birkeland noted six main sources of moisture leakage
through wall systems. The processes discussed were: 1)
wind-induced air pressure differences; 2) pressure assist-
ed capillarity; 3) gravity; 4) kinetic energy; 5) air currents;
and 6) updrafts. Conventional means such as internal wall
flashing, proper design of openings and overhangs pro-
vide moisture resistance to items 2 through 6. But item 1
was the most difficult to counteract. He concluded that
there was no practical method of obtaining total water-
tightness in wall systems composed of joints when a pres-
sure gradient exists across the exterior rain barrier. These
observations formed the basis of the rain screen principle.
Prompted by Birkeland, researchers in Canada began
an intensive study into wall leakage. In 1963, Canadian
Building Digest (CBD) 40, "Rain Penetration and Its
Control" was published by the Canadian National
Research Council's Division of Building Research. This
publication. which remains a prime reference source on
the subject, popularized the term rain screen principle. G.
K. Garden, who authored CBD 40 on wind-induced mois-
ture penetration wrote:
"It is not conceivable that a building designer can pre -
vent the exterior surface of a wall from getting wet nor
that he can guarantee that no openings will develop to
permit passage of water. It has, however, been shown
that through-wall penetration of rain can be prevented by
incorporating an air chamber into the joint or wall where
the air pressure is always equal to that on the outside. In
essence, the outer layer (wythe) is then an open rain
screen that prevents wetting of the actual wall or air barri -
er of the building".
The critical features of the rain screen principle are:
1. An exterior barrier (rain screen) containing protect-
ed openings which permit the passage of air but not
water.
2. A confined cavity behind the rain screen in which
air pressure is essentially the same as the external air
pressure. Rain Screen Wall Principle
3. Insulation fixed to the outer face of the interior wall FIG. 1
system, if provided in design.
4. An interior barrier (wall) which substantially limits Pressure Equalized Rain Screen Walls
the passage of air and water vapor and is capable of The difference in air pressures across the exterior
withstanding all required design loads (e.g. wind and cladding is a significant force which causes infiltration of
earthquake forces). air and water on windward facades. Air and moisture can
Many field studies and laboratory tests have applied infiltrate through units, mortar joints, hairline cracks, poor-
this principle to a variety of wall systems, including ly bonded surfaces and other openings that exist or devel-
masonry. The developments made over the years can be op over the life of the structure.
effectively applied to conventional brick masonry drainage A rain screen wall is composed of two layers of mate-
wall construction, with some modifications as discussed in rials separated by a cavity as shown in Figure 1. The
this Technical Notes. exterior cladding as discussed in this Technical Notes is a
brick masonry wythe. The interior wall or inner layer can
DEFINITION AND PRINCIPLES be either the backing of an anchored brick veneer wall or
Drainage wall types, such as anchored brick veneers the inner wythe of a cavity wall. When wind loads are
and cavity walls, which provide a space for drainage of imposed on the wall assembly, a pressure difference
moisture that has penetrated the exterior wythe, are often between the exterior wythe and the cavity space is creat-
confused with rain screen walls. When causes of rain ed. This pressure difference forces water on the surface
leakage problems are debated, the question usually aris- of the exterior cladding to penetrate any openings through
es of whether the wall system utilizes the rain screen prin- the wall. If the exterior cladding has sufficient openings to
ciple. Certainly, there is a cavity between the exterior permit air to flow to the cavity behind the cladding, the
wythe and interior wall which provides drainage of mois- pressure in the cavity increases until it equals the pres-
ture which has entered the wall. The concept of drainage sure resulting from the wind load being applied. This is
type walls has been around for decades. More information the phenomenon of pressure equalization design. To
on brick veneer and cavity wall systems can be found in affect this air pressure transfer, the inner layer of the wall
Technical Notes 28 Series and 21, respectively. However, assembly must be airtight. This is achieved by applying
the basic premise of the rain screen principle is to control an air retarder at some location on the backing or inner
all forces that can drive moisture through the wall system. wythe. The air barrier seal at this location should last
The term pressure equalized rain screen wall longer because it is not exposed to the exterior elements.
should be used. This emphasizes the difference from the Since the interior wall will be airtight, stack effect and
more common drainage type wall. The pressure equaliza- mechanical ventilation generated inside the building are
tion in the cavity behind the exterior wythe is the major effectively controlled. Rain penetration through the exteri-
difference between a rain screen wall and a drainage wall. or cladding should be reduced as the pressure difference
A pressure equalized rain screen wall provides the best on the exterior cladding which drives rain into the cavity is
means of resisting water penetration. As such, it should reduced. The resultant wind load will be imposed on the
be used on projects located in areas which receive high air barrier and interior wall.
volumes of wind-driven rain and when resistance to water
penetration is of prime concern.
2

Brick Rain Screen Wall
FIG. 2
Moisture Migration
Exterior claddings primarily restrict the passage of
water and wind and also function as part of a thermal bar-
rier. The extent to which the exterior cladding can be
relied upon to serve these functions is variable, and the
exterior cladding is not considered to be the sole air or
moisture barrier in the wall system.
Rain screen walls using brick veneer and cavity wall
systems should be designed as a two-stage barrier for
moisture penetration resistance. The first stage is the
exterior brick wythe. The backing assembly or the inner
wythe is the second stage. The exterior brick wythe
should be detailed and constructed to provide moisture
resistance so that the second stage is not continually test-
ed. If excess water penetrates the exterior brick wythe,
the backing system may become a single stage in itself
which can lead to failure of the rain screen principle as a
whole. A typical brick masonry rain screen wall is shown
in Fig. 2.
The exterior brick wythe is the first stage of the rain
screen principle, and a majority of the rain water will run
down the face of the brickwork. Some moisture in contact
with the exterior wythe is absorbed by capillary action. If
wind pressure is applied to the face of the exterior brick
wythe, the moisture will be forced into the brickwork, par-
ticularly at mortar joints or openings. The use of dissimilar
3
materials, the presence of mortar joints and the variations
of workmanship make it difficult to ensure a fully water-
proof exterior wythe. Some moisture will penetrate the
brick wythe and infiltrate into the cavity space. If the cavity
space is at the same air pressure as the exterior as a
result of air flow through vent openings and weep holes,
the only moisture which will reach the cavity space is due
to gravity flow and capillary action. For the rain screen
principle to work effectively, water which penetrates the
exterior brick wythe travels down the interior side, is col-
lected on flashing and transferred to the exterior through
weep holes.
It is not advisable to support the exterior cladding on
the floor assembly with the backing system. If detailed in
this manner, moisture which penetrates the exterior
cladding and its flashing has direct access through the
joint at the base of the interior wall to the interior of the
building. Moisture can also flow under the flashing and
penetrate directly into the building. To avoid the chances
of moisture penetration at this location, the exterior
cladding support should be lower than the support of the
interior wall.
The rain screen principle relies on the use of inten-
tional openings in the exterior brick wythe to create pres-
sure equalization in the cavity. The cavity pressure should
be close to the external pressure. That depends upon the
air leakage characteristics of the exterior brick wythe and
that of the air retarder on the backing or the inner wythe.
Sufficient openings in the exterior wythe to balance air
pressures with the exterior of the wall system create the
pressure equalized rain screen wall. The openings are
created by the use of weep holes and vents. Vents near
the top of the wall help permit air circulation through the
cavity which helps in drying out the wall system.
For the second stage to work effectively, both pressur-
ization of the cavity and the provision for an airtight barrier
are extremely important. The extent to which the cavity
can be pressurized will reduce the amount of moisture
carried through the exterior wythe by wind. It also tends to
decrease the tendency for moisture that penetrates due to
capillary action to bridge the cavity and contact the back-
ing.
Moisture may actually be transported through the wall
system by air passing through weep holes and vents.
Movement of air within the cavity can transfer moisture to
the interior wall and distribute it along the wall area. Air
leakage can then draw this moisture into and through the
backing or inner wythe. Laboratory tests have shown that
high air leakage through the backing or inner wythe can
even cause moisture to climb up and extend the area of
wall wetness. The backing or inner wythe should not per-
mit air leakage to occur, thus vents will not have to be
oversized which could permit excess rain penetration.
Vapor and Air Retarders
There has been much confusion in the building indus-
try about the functions of vapor and air retarders. Vapor
retarders are intended to control transmission of water
vapor through building materials. A vapor retarder always
serves as an air retarder. Air retarders limit the amount of
air flow through wall assemblies. An air retarder may or be accounted for:
may not serve as a vapor retarder. It is difficult that either 1. wall openings,
retarder performs only one function. For example, polyeth- 2. disruption of the retarders due to building services
ylene film is commonly used as a vapor retarder but will such as utilities,
also act to resist the passage of air. Most types of sheath- 3. concealed spaces such as areas above suspended
ing used as air retarders tend to permit the passage of ceilings, behind heating elements and at junctions of
water vapor. This can result in a common problem: many interior walls which connect with outer portions of the
wall systems essentially have a two-stage setup of building envelope,
retarders. 4. minimize and seal joints of interior finishes,
In actual construction, this means that moisture may 5. minimize and seal joints between interior finishes
become trapped between the air and vapor retarder and interruptions such as interior partitions and wall
installations if both are provided at different locations in openings.
the wall assembly. The amount of moisture and the dura-
tion of wetness of certain critical elements may render the Most difficulties with installing the retarders occur at
wall design vulnerable to premature deterioration and dis- wall openings. A variety of materials intersect in one area,
tress. Of concern is the potential for corrosion of metal which can be complicated. Damage by subsequent trades
accessories within the wall system, deterioration of may breach or puncture the air and vapor retarders.
sheathing materials and decrease in insulation capacity. Openings must permit field construction tolerances which
Vapor retarders are normally placed on the warm side must be accommodated by field-fit and sealing of the
of insulation in the wall assembly. Air retarders on the retarders. Also, attention to details of the air and vapor
other hand have no distinct position. If interior wall board retarders can help minimize direct heat loss and other
or other finishes are used as retarders, concern arises detrimental effects due to exfiltration of air movement
over punctures for utility services and wall hangings. within the wall system. Figure 3 depicts the possibilities of
Further, the incomplete seal around the perimeter of the exfiltrating air in wall construction. Air can circulate
wall section, may render the air retarder ineffective. The through spaces between studs and cells of masonry units
use of the air retarder on the exterior side of the interior and exit at leakage paths to the exterior. Where the com-
wall has additional liabilities. Inspection for proper installa- ponents of a building assembly can be completely sealed
tion may be difficult and corrective repair may be trouble- to prevent air leakage and the interior finish material pro-
some. When air exfiltration does occur, the exterior vides the vapor resistance needed, a separate vapor
applied air retarder which has some vapor retarder quali- retarder is not usually required.
ties, may result in condensing water being trapped in the
wall. Walls designed with rigid insulation on the exterior
side of the air retarder can be designed so that the sec-
ond (partial vapor retarder) barrier is at a temperature
above the dew point so condensation problems can be
eliminated.
Generally, the mass of water which can penetrate into
a wall assembly by air leakage, even through a very small
opening, is several times larger than the amount of water
which infiltrates by other means. When this airborne water
condenses, it is unlikely that it can be removed by vapor
transmission or evaporation to the exterior. Drying out of
this water is more likely to occur by air moving through
the wall system under different temperature and humidity
conditions.
The location of the air and vapor retarders will depend
on the wall system in question and whether inspection is
needed during construction. Construction not requiring
inspection should have the air and vapor retarders placed
on the interior side of the interior wall. Incorrect installa-
tion or faults can easily be repaired or maintained. Where
inspection is employed on a project, the air and vapor
retarders can be installed within the wall system.
However, the long term performance is questionable
because these installations are not easily accessible for
repair.
When detailing for both air and vapor retarders in
pressure equalized rain screen walls, the following should Sources of Exfiltrating Air Movement
FIG. 3

4
 To provide effective air and vapor retarders, it is nec-
essary to seal joints in these materials so that continuity is
provided. It is also necessary to seal around the edges of
wall openings such as windows, doors and access for util-
ity services. Caulking or taping of the joints should be
specified. The joints in the retarders should be detailed
and dimensioned with consideration of the need to
accommodate variations in joint dimensions, building
deflections and differential movement of building materi-
als.
If the sealant materials are inaccessible after con-
struction, they must have qualities which will provide sat-
isfactory performance over the life of the structure. Even
when the sealant material can be repaired or replaced,
the sealant must be suitable for the construction materials
and environmental conditions. Field experience, tests or
manufacturer's literature should be used as the basis for
selecting sealant materials for compatibility with the air
and vapor retarders selected.
The successful performance of the joint seal over the
life of the structure depends on the ability of the material
to adhere to the surfaces and to deform without tearing,
delamination or peeling under repeated cycles of expan-
sion and contraction. Workmanship is also very important.
Air bubbles in the sealant or air voids between the sealant
and adjacent materials must be avoided. Sealant manu-
facturer's information should be followed for proper instal-
lation.
Axial and Lateral Loads
Load application to the exterior brick wythe and the
interior wall and load transfer are based on the type of
wall design and its associated construction. The exterior
wythe is treated differently in cavity wall design from that
in veneer wall design. The treatment of the exterior wythe
of a rain screen wall with respect to axial and lateral loads
is no different from that of conventional construction.
The exterior wythe of a veneer wall should not be
subjected to any axial load other than its own weight.
Veneers must be designed, detailed, and constructed so
that no axial loads are imposed. The exterior wythe of a
cavity wall can carry vertical loads and still perform as the
exterior cladding in the rain screen wall. The imposed
load depends on the anchorage of floor or roof compo-
nents to the exterior wythe.
Building codes state that the brick wythe of an
anchored veneer wall does not resist lateral loads and
that the backing must be designed to carry all lateral
loads. In cavity wall design, both wythes share a portion
of the lateral loads imposed. In fact, all lateral loads will
initially be resisted by the exterior wythe and then trans-
ferred through the wall system to the building frame. For
lateral load distribution to occur, the exterior wythe must
be anchored to the backing or interior wythe with metal
ties in a sufficient number and spacing. Design must con-
sider lateral load distribution, tie stiffness and deflection of
the wall system. See Technical Notes 21 Series and 28
Series for the proper design and construction of cavity
walls and brick veneer over wood or steel backings,
respectively.
5
Thermal Insulation
All wall components affect the thermal resistance of
the assembly and contribute to the overall R-value. For
masonry wall systems, the insulation provides most of the
thermal resistance. The designer should choose the level
of insulation required as part of the total wall design, con-
sidering its location.
The type and location of the insulation has a signifi-
cant impact on the design and installation of the air and
vapor retarders. The possible locations for thermal insula-
tion include: 1) in the cavity; 2) in the interior wall; and 3)
on either face of the interior wall. The general types of
insulation used in drainage type walls are rigid board insu-
lation, fiberglass (batt) insulation or loose fill.
It is important to eliminate any gap between the insu-
lation and the floor or ceiling. With suspended ceilings or
ceilings attached to the bottom chord of joist construction,
the insulation should be continued above the ceiling to the
bottom of structural slabs, not as detailed in Fig. 4. For
the pressure equalization to occur, air and vapor retarders
must also be continued to the floor or roof above the sus-
pended ceilings. If the air retarder is not continued, the
insulation may separate from the backing wall by air infil-
tration pressure. Proper abutment of the edges of the
insulation must be considered to hinder air circulation
from the interior of the building.
Cavity Placement. Rigid board insulation should be
used when insulation in the cavity is desired. In order to
be effective, it must be adhered tightly to the exterior side
of the interior wall. If any air is permitted to circulate
behind the insulation, the pressure equalization of the
cavity is weakened as is the insulation capacity. As a
result, the method of securing the insulation is important.
Generally, adhesives or mechanical fasteners are used.
Consideration on selecting adhesives includes: 1) assur-
Leakage Above Suspended Ceilings
FIG. 4
ing clean surfaces under field conditions; 2) compatibility of
the adhesive with the insulation; 3) long-term effectiveness
of the adhesive; and 4) movement of the wall system.
Use of dabs of adhesive is not recommended
because it creates an air gap which allows free air move-
ment. Use of a full adhesive bed is recommended, where
the full adhesive bed acts as a vapor barrier. If a full
adhesive bed is not desired, a grid set-up is recommend-
ed because it will compartmentize the air spaces behind
the insulation board and retain the full insulation capacity.
There are a variety of mechanical fasteners available
to attach rigid board insulation to the backing wall. Use of
mechanical fasteners is suggested where uneven sur-
faces or protrusion of mortar require bending of the insu-
lation to avoid air-gaps between the insulation and the
interior wall. Mechanical fasteners are more reliable in the
long term than adhesively attached clips. Adhesively
attached fasteners are more convenient, but the same
considerations for selecting adhesives to attach the insu-
lation must be evaluated. Mortar joints should be cut flush
to remove fins or protrusions and provide as smooth a
surface as possible for a tight fit of the insulation to the
interior wall.
The insulation must support its own weight and
accommodate expected wall movements. Further, the
insulation may be subjected to wind pressures. These
wind pressures must be resisted by the insulation to avoid
separation of the insulation from the interior wall. The
choice of mechanical fasteners, adhesives or a combina-
tion of both should take into consideration the life of the
structure, conformance with manufacturer's specifications
and possible failure of the fastener or adhesive. Thus, in
some cases a combination of both may be advisable to
ensure that costly repairs are not needed for the life of the
structure.
Loose granular fill insulation must not be placed in the
cavity. This placement violates the rain screen principle.
However, loose fill insulation, such as vermiculite and per-
lite, can be used in the unobstructed vertical cells of the
masonry backing to increase thermal resistance.
Stud Wall Placement. For stud wall backings, fiber-
glass (batt) insulation is placed in the stud cavities. The
insulation is usually slightly larger than the stud depth to
provide a friction fit. Stud spacing should be controlled so
that friction will be effective in keeping the insulation in
place. The fiberglass insulation must fill the entire stud
cavity so that air circulation is minimized. If not completely
filled, convection can greatly reduce the thermal resis-
tance of the interior backing wall.
Interior of Wall Placement. Insulation installed on
the interior of the interior wall is usually limited to masonry
backings. It provides easy installation and is available to
inspection of placement. The insulation can be applied by
many means, but the need to support interior finishes
usually requires the use of metal or wood furring.
Differential Movement
All building materials change dimension with changes
in temperature. Some building materials change dimen-
sion with moisture content. All materials will deform elasti-
6
cally when subjected to loads. Some materials with
cement matrices will deform plastically (creep) when
loaded. Adequate allowance for deformations of materials
and building movements are critical to the successful per-
formance of the pressure equalized rain screen wall.
Problems can arise if these naturally occurring move-
ments are not recognized and accommodated for in initial
design. The air and vapor retarders must not be disrupted
by building movements, whether it be material generated
or the building as a whole.
Sealing of movement joints is required to prevent the
passage of water and air without restricting differential
movement. The sealant acts as the primary resistance to
the passage of water through joints in exterior elements. A
backing material and, perhaps, a filler may be needed for
large movement joints.
Discussion of building movements is beyond the
scope of this Technical Notes. The reader is directed to
Technical Notes 18 Series for information on accommo-
dating material and building movements, such as the
building frame, exterior cladding and interior wall systems.
Recommendations for other materials should be
reviewed.
PRESSURE EQUALIZED RAIN SCREEN
DESIGN PARAMETERS
The pressure equalized rain screen wall, whether a
brick veneer or a cavity wall system, will be subject to
both axial and lateral loads. In the design of these innova-
tive wall systems, imposed loads must be taken into
account for the rain screen wall to perform as intended.
Other environmental loads, such as moisture leakage,
thermal and air retarder performance, must also be con-
sidered. There are many parameters which affect the
pressure equalized rain screen principle. These parame-
ters include: 1) rate of applied wind load; 2) magnitude of
applied wind load; 3) cavity volume; 4) stiffness of the
interior wall and the exterior cladding; 5) compartmenta-
tion of the cavity; and 6) leakage areas of the air retarder
and the exterior cladding. Many of these factors are inter-
related.
Wind Loads
An advantage of the pressure equalized rain screen
wall, in theory, is that no wind load should be imposed on
the exterior cladding. However, wind is dynamic and vari-
able so that the pressures applied to the wall are con-
stantly changing. An ideal rain screen wall would pressure
equalize instantly. In fact there is a time lag between the
imposed wind load and pressure equalization in the cavity.
As a result a pressure difference does occur across the
exterior cladding.
This pressure is normally positive, a driving force
pushing air into the wall. However, the cavity pressure can
exceed the positive wind pressure under gusting wind
conditions. This situation occurs after the cavity pressure
increases to match that of a high wind, and the wind sud-
denly decreases. Until pressure equalization occurs, the
cavity pressure will exceed the exterior wind pressure
which creates a negative load on the cladding. This nega-
tive loading will tend to force water out of openings in the
exterior cladding, reducing the likelihood of further mois-
ture penetration. Under the rain screen principle, wind
loads on the exterior brick wythe may actually be reduced
due to pressure equalization of the cavity space.
However, the entire design wind load should be applied to
the exterior cladding and the backing.
Pressure Differences and Distribution
Pressure differences are encountered in buildings
from two main sources. The first is commonly referred to
as stack effect, which is created by temperature differ-
ences between the exterior and interior of the building.
The second is the wind forces that are imposed on the
building envelope. The net pressure difference across a wall
system at the top and sides may be a combination of both
and is not the same for all parts of the building envelope.
The stack effect which occurs mainly during the heat-
ing season results from warmer inside air rising as a
result of a lower density than cooler outside air. This dif-
ference in density creates an outward positive pressure at
the top of a building, while exerting negative pressure at
the wall base. Thus, air will tend to infiltrate at the lower
levels of the building and exfiltrate at the upper levels.
Wind causes air infiltration on the windward side of
buildings and exfiltration on the leeward side and also on
the sides parallel to the wind direction. A flat roof will
experience exfiltration because of negative uplift pressure
caused by wind. Since wind velocity increases with
height, the difference in pressure across the building
envelope increases with height.
Pressure distribution on the windward facade varies
from a maximum at the center and decreases towards the
corners of the building. Suction pressures on the leeward
wall vary from a maximum at the corners of the building,
diminishing towards the center. The pressure on the side
walls parallel to the wind direction is normally negative,
but may change rapidly to positive pressure as the wind
changes directions. This is usually why wind pressures
are normally higher at the top and corners of the building
envelope.
The rain screen wall minimizes the air pressure differ-
ences across the exterior brick wythe by transferring the
pressure to the cavity space, see Fig. 1. Under the
imposed wind load (P e), air flows into the cavity causing
the cavity pressure (P c) to increase until Pc = Pe and ∆Pc =
0. When the entire wind load is imposed on the interior
wall, pressure equalization will occur. The veneer backing
or the interior cavity wall wythe is thus designed for the
entire wind load.
Cavity Volume
When positive pressure is applied to the exterior
cladding, movement of air into the cavity causes the pres-
sure in the cavity to increase to match the external pres-
sure applied. The volume of air required to achieve pres-
sure equalization is dependent on the volume of the cavi-
ty. The rate at which pressure equalization occurs is
dependent on the rate at which air can enter the cavity.
Thus, as the cavity volume increases, the vent openings
7
in the exterior brick wythe must be increased in order to
permit more rapid pressure equalization. The driving force
causing air to enter the cavity is the pressure difference
across the exterior cladding. As air enters the cavity, this
pressure difference decreases. The flow rate is propor-
tional to the pressure difference, and as air flows into the
cavity, the flow rate decreases.
Both the exterior cladding and air retarder applied to
the interior wall will deflect under applied loads. Stiffness
of these elements will influence the volume of the cavity.
Since these deflections also vary as the pressure differ-
ences vary, it becomes clear that this situation is very
complex.
Leakage of the Exterior Cladding and the Air
Retarder
The relative airtightness of the exterior cladding with
respect to that of the air retarder applied to the interior
wall is paramount for the cavity to pressure equalize with
the exterior wind pressure. If the two layers have similar
air leakage characteristics, each layer will transmit the
same volume of air, and the pressure differences will not
change. If the interior wall is made more airtight, a greater
pressure difference will occur across it than that across
the exterior cladding. In the ideal case, the air retarder
would be completely airtight, and the pressure difference
across the exterior cladding would be negligible. However,
this is generally not the case.
The effectiveness of the rain screen wall is decreased
as greater amounts of air are permitted to penetrate
through the air retarder. The Architectural Aluminum
Manufacturers Association specifies that, for laboratory
tests, air leakage through a curtain wall should not exceed
2 3 2
0.06 cfm/ft (0.0003 m /s/m ) for a pressure difference
equivalent to a 25 mph (11 m/s) wind. This value for air
retarders is currently being considered in ASTM
Committee E 6. However, in Canada, the acceptable rate
is one-third of that currently being suggested in ASTM. It
seems prudent to use the lower value for air leakage
through the air retarder.
Compartmentation
The wind pressure flowing around a building creates a
distribution of positive and negative pressures over the
building exterior cladding as shown in Fig. 5. If the cavity
of the rain screen wall is continuous, horizontally or verti-
cally, lateral flow of air in the cavity will occur.
If air is permitted to flow laterally in the cavity, pres-
sure equalization will not occur. Moisture penetration into
the wall assembly may not be reduced.
To prevent lateral airflow, the cavity must be compart-
mented. The size of the compartments should be based
on the pressure differences across the exterior cladding.
The corners and tops of buildings experience the greatest
pressure differences; hence, the compartments located in
these areas should be small. Where pressure differences
are small, such as the center of the exterior cladding, the
compartments can be larger. Many researchers suggest
that these compartments have closures no more than 4 ft
(1.2 m) apart at the sides and top of the building in a 20 ft
(6 m) wide perimeter zone, see Fig. 6. Compartment clo-
 Moisture Movement Caused by Wind
FIG. 5

sures should be within this recommendation for the sides 2 2

and top of the building. Based on the design wind pres-
sure of the wall area in question, compartment dimen-
sions outside the 20 ft (6 m) zone of the tops and corners
of the building can be increased. For a design wind pres-
sure less than 15 psf (718 Pa), compartment closures
8
should be provided for every 400 ft (37 m ) of wall area.
When the design wind pressure is between 15 psf (718
Pa) and 25 psf (1200 Pa), the compartment closures
2 2
should be decreased to 250 ft (23 m ) of area. When the
design wind pressure is greater than 25 psf (1200 Pa),
 Compartmentation of Rain Screen Walls
FIG. 6
the compartment closures should have a maximum area
2 2
of 100 ft (9 m ). At the minimum, the cavity must be
closed at all corners and at the roof to prevent air from
the windward side of the building laterally flowing to the
adjacent sides, as shown in Fig. 5.
Research conducted by Canada Mortgage and
Housing Corporation used wind tunnel testing to deter-
mine the effects of compartmentation in the cavity. One
significant result of this testing was that the compartment
closures experienced at least two times the applied wind
load. This research concluded that compartment closures
must be designed for high wind pressures and must be
completely sealed to prevent lateral airflow from one com-
partment to the next.
Exterior Cladding Openings
To provide pressure equalization in the rain screen
wall, there must be a series of openings to connect the
cavity to the exterior of the wall system. The openings
should be positioned at the top and bottom of each com-
partment. All openings at the top and bottom should be
placed at the same height, respectively, to avoid airflow
loops in the cavity.
There are no definitive guidelines for the required
amount of openings for each compartment. The area of
openings depends on the airtightness of other compo-
nents of the cavity, e.g., the air retarder system and the
cavity closures. If completely sealed compartment clo-
sures are used, a 10:1 ratio for cladding air leakage to air
retarder leakage is recommended. Most often, the cavity
9
closures will not form an airtight seal of the individual
compartments. To account for this the required opening
area should be larger. Some studies suggest a ratio of 25
to 40 times more air flow volume through the openings in
the exterior brick wythe than air leakage through the inte-
rior wall. Therefore, the tighter the compartment, the less
the area of openings in the exterior cladding required for
pressure equalization of the cavity. To obtain the airtight-
ness value of the interior wall construction, testing of a
mock-up wall compartment may be required since little
information on the range of air tightness of various field-
applied air retarder components is available. After having
evaluated the air tightness of the interior wall, the open-
ings in the exterior cladding should be established to fit
the recommended ratio.
The following recommendations should provide suffi-
cient venting to achieve pressure equalization for the rain
screen wall. Vents are installed at the top and bottom of
each compartment. Open head joints should be spaced at
a maximum of 24 in. (600 mm) o.c. horizontally in the
exterior brick wythe. If clear, round openings are used,
they should be at least 3/8 in. (10 mm) inside diameter,
and the spacing should be reduced to 16 in. (400 mm)
o.c. horizontally. Open head joints may be positioned at
flashing locations in the exterior brick wythe and serve as
weep holes. A minimum of two vents at both the top and
bottom should be provided for each individual compart-
ment. The suggested minimum cavity width is 2 in. (50
mm). If the cavity space width is greater than 2 in. (50
mm), open head joints should be used as vents. Vents
should not be positioned at corners. Water drainage provi- 7. Ruggiero, S.S. and Myers, J.C., "Design and
sions in the wall assembly should be evaluated carefully Construction of Watertight Exterior Building Walls," Water
to avoid placing vents at high flow areas such as sills and in Exterior Building Walls: Problems and Solutions, ASTM
heads of openings in the wall system. It is imperative that STP 1107, Schwartz, T.A., Ed., American Society for
the cavity have no blockage due to mortar bridging or Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA, 1991.
mortar droppings that can collect at the bottom of the cav- 8. "Structural Requirements for Air Barriers," Canada
ity closures in each compartment, thus blocking the vent Mortgage and Housing Corporation, Report No.
openings. 30133.0RI, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, August 1991.
9. Williams, M.F. and Williams, B.L., "Water Intrusion
SUMMARY in Barrier and Cavity/Rain Screen Walls," Water in
This Technical Notes describes the pressure equal- Exterior Building Walls: Problems and Solutions, ASTM
ized rain screen principle as it applies to conventional STP 1107, Schwartz, T.A., Ed., American Society for
brick veneer and cavity wall systems. This innovative wall Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA, 1991.
design has been used extensively in Canada and Europe
for many years. Pressure equalization across the exterior
wythe of drainage type walls is the main emphasis of the
rain screen principle. Design recommendations that cover
the prominent aspects of the pressure equalized rain
screen principle to minimize rain penetration through the
exterior walls are described.
The information and suggestions contained in this
Technical Notes are based on available data and the
experience of the engineering staff of the Brick Institute of
America. The information contained herein must be used
in conjunction with good technical judgment and a basic
understanding of the properties of brick masonry. Final
decisions on the use of the information contained in this
Technical Notes are not within the purview of the Brick
Institute of America and must rest with the project archi-
tect, engineer and owner.

REFERENCES
1. Anderson, J.M. and Gille, J.R., "Rain Screen
Cladding -A Guide to Design Principles and Practice,"
Construction Industry Research and Information
Association - Building and Structural Design Report,
Butterworths, London, England, 1988.
2. "A Study of The Rainscreen Concept Applied to
Cladding Systems on Wood Frame Walls," Canada
Mortgage and Housing Corporation, Report No.
39108.0R1, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, August 1990.
3. Drysdale, R.G. and Suter, G.T., "Exterior Wall
Construction in High-Rise Buildings -Brick Veneer on
Concrete Masonry or Steel Stud Wall Systems," Canada
Mortgage and Housing Corporation, Report NHA 5450,
Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, 1991.
4. Fornoville, L., "Rain Resistant Masonry
Construction," Third North American Masonry Conference,
Matthys, J.H. and Borchelt, J.G., Eds., University of Texas
at Arlington, Arlington, Texas, 1985.
5. Piper, R.S. and Kenney, R.J., "Brick Veneer Walls
-Proposed Details to Address Common Air and Water
Penetration Problems," Masonry: Design and
Construction, Problems and Repair, ASTM STP 1180,
Melander, J.M. and Lauersdorf, L.R., Eds., American
Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA, 1993.
6. Rousseau, M.Z., "Facts and Fiction of Rain
Screen Walls," National Research Council of Canada,
Construction Canada, Vol. 32, Number 2, March/April
1990.
10
 28
Technical Notes REVISED

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
August
1991

ANCHORED BRICK VENEER

WOOD FRAME CONSTRUCTION

Abstract: This Technical Notes deals with the prescriptive design of brick veneer with wood frame construction
in buildings limited to three stories in height in new construction. The properties of the brick veneer/wood stud
system are described, which lead to design considerations. Selection of materials, construction details, and
workmanship techniques are included. The minimum requirements given have proven successful for this type of
wall construction.
Key Words: brick, flashing, foundations, lintels, ties, veneer, weepholes, wood frame.

INTRODUCTION PROPERTIES OF BRICK VENEER

Anchored brick veneer construction consists of a Strength
nominal 3 in. (75 mm) or 4 in. (100 mm) thick exterior Factors that affect the strength of brick veneer are the
brick wythe anchored to a backing system with metal ties type of brick and mortar used, the span of the veneer and
in such a way that a clear air space is provided between the backing, the stiffness of the backing, and the tie sys-
the veneer and the backing system. The backing system tem. Although the brick veneer is not designed to carry
may be wood frame, steel frame, concrete or masonry. By lateral load, it does carry a proportionate share. In fact,
definition, a veneer wall is a wall having a facing of due to the relatively low stiffnesses normally achieved in
masonry units, or other weather-resisting, noncombustible wood frame construction, the brick veneer usually carries
materials, securely attached to the backing, but not so the majority of any lateral load.
bonded as to intentionally exert common action under
load. The brick veneer is designed to carry loads due to Support
its own weight, no other loads are to be resisted by the With wood framing the brick veneer must carry its
veneer. own weight and transfer this weight to a noncombustible
For many years brick veneer construction was limited foundation. The weight of brick veneer should not be sup-
principally to wood frame houses. It is now being used on ported by wood framing or other types of wood construc-
low-rise commercial and institutional construction and is tion. Table 1 contains empirical height limitations for brick
used frequently for high-rise buildings, especially with veneer and wood frame construction. These limits, which
concrete masonry or steel stud backing systems. This are found in model building codes, are imposed because
Technical Notes discusses the prescriptive design of brick of the differences in relative stiffnesses of the brick veneer
veneer on wood frame buildings three stories or less in and the wood frame. Further, differences in movement
height. Other Technical Notes in this series cover brick resulting from wood shrinkage and brick expansion are
veneer with different backing systems. controlled by these limits.
The minimum requirements given in this Technical TABLE 1
Notes are based on successful past performance of brick Empirical Height Limitations for Brick Veneer
veneer anchored to wood frame systems. The proper
design, detailing and construction of anchored brick Nominal Number Height at Height at
Thickness of
veneer walls ensure that these walls function as complete of Plate, Gable,
Brick Veneer, in. Stories ft (m) ft (m)
systems. It is important to understand that the failure of (mm)
any part of the system, whether in design or construction,
can result in improper performance of the entire system.
Satisfactory performance of brick veneer wood frame sys-
3 (75) 2 20 (6.10) 28 (8.53)
tems is achieved with: (1) an adequate foundation, (2) a
sufficiently strong, rigid, well-braced backing system, (3) 4 (100) 3 30 (9.14) 38 (11.60)
proper attachment of the veneer to the backing system,
(4) proper detailing, (5) the use of proper materials, and
(6) good workmanship in construction.

Fire Resistance
Brick veneer wall assemblies can attain fire ratings of
up to 2 hr. Figure 1 shows a brick veneer wall assembly
with a 2 hr fire rating. The combustible wood stud must be
protected from fire on each side by noncombustible mate-
rials which meet the required fire rating. A 4 in. (100 mm)
nominal brick wythe provides a 1 hr fire rating.
Moisture Resistance
Brick veneer wall assemblies are classified as
drainage type walls. Walls of this type provide good resis-
tance to rain penetration. It is essential to maintain the
clear air space between the brick veneer and the backing
to ensure proper drainage. Flashing and weepholes work
with the air space to provide moisture penetration resis-
tance. Refer to Technical Notes 7 Series for more infor-
mation. Brick veneer with wood frame backing has histori-
cally been built with a 1 in. (25 mm) minimum air space.
The protection provided by roof overhangs and the rela-
tively low wall heights aid in reducing water penetration.
Resistance to Heat Transmission
Brick veneer wall assemblies provide resistance to the
transmission of heat and capacity insulation. The overall
coefficient of heat transmission, U-value, of these walls
can be easily calculated using the procedure given in
Technical Notes 4 or the ASHRAE Handbook,
Fundamentals Volume. The mass of the brick veneer pro-
vides capacity insulation. It effectively lowers and delays
the peak heating and cooling loads. The overall U-value
obtained for the wall assembly can be adjusted by the
capacity insulation correction factor (M factor) given in
Technical Notes 4B, Fig. 1. This adjustment of the overall
U-value will help the designer to more accurately predict
the performance of the building envelope. The actual per-
formance of brick masonry buildings shows that this
adjustment is very conservative, but it is an improvement
over the steady-state assumptions normally used in calcu-
lating heat flow.
2 Hr. Fire Rated Brick Veneer Wall Assembly
FIG. 1
2
Acoustical Properties
Brick veneer wall assemblies reduce sound transmis-
sion by several means. The mass of the veneer reduces
sound transmission by absorbing the energy of the sound
vibrations. The discontinuity between the brick veneer and
the wood backing prevents vibrations of the exterior brick
wythe from directly vibrating the rest of the wall assembly,
thereby retarding sound transmission to the interior.
Further, a high percentage of the sound is reflected by the
brick wythe.
Although there are no specific data available on the
sound transmission characteristics of brick veneer wall
assemblies, the brick veneer wall system shown in Fig. 1
has an estimated Sound Transmission Class (STC) in
excess of 45. See Technical Notes 5A for more informa-
tion on the STC.
DESIGN AND DETAILS
Foundations for Brick Veneer
Brick veneer with wood frame backing must transfer
the weight of the veneer through the veneer to the foun-
dation. Typical foundation details for brick veneer are
shown in Fig. 2. It is recommended that the foundation or
foundation wall supporting the brick veneer be at least
equal to the total thickness of the brick veneer wall
assembly. Many building codes permit a nominal 8 in.
(200 mm) foundation wall under single-family dwellings
constructed of brick veneer, provided the top of the foun-
dation wall is corbeled as shown in Fig. 2(c). The total
projection of the corbel should not exceed 2 in. (50 mm)
with individual courses projecting beyond the course
below not more than one-third the thickness of the unit
nor one-half the height of the unit. The top course of the
corbel should not be higher than the bottom of the floor
joist and shall be a full header course.
Foundations must extend beneath the frost line as
required by the local building code. Design of the founda-
tion should consider differential settlement and the effect
of concentrated loads such as those from columns or fire-
places. Appropriate drainage must be provided in order to
maintain soil bearing capacity and prevent washout.
Brick walls which enclose crawl spaces must have
openings to provide adequate ventilation. Openings
should be located to achieve cross ventilation.
Ties
Ties typically used with wood framing are shown in
Fig. 3. There should be one tie for every 2 2/3 sq. ft. (0.25
2
m ) of wall area with a maximum spacing of 24 in. (600
mm) o.c. in either direction. The nail attaching a corrugat-
ed tie must be located within 5/8 in. (16 mm) of the bend
in the tie. The best location of the nail is at the bend in the
corrugated tie, and the bend should be 90˚.
Wire ties must be embedded at least 5/8 in. (16 mm)
into the bed joint from the air space and must have at
least 5/8 in. (16 mm) cover of mortar to the exposed face.
Corrugated ties must penetrate to at least half the veneer
thickness and have at least 5/8 in. (16 mm) cover. Ties
should be placed so that the portion within the bed joint is
completely surrounded by the mortar.
 Typical Foundation Details
FIG. 2

Flashing and Weepholes

Flashing and weepholes should be located above and
as near to grade as possible at the bottom of the wall,
above all openings, and beneath sills. Weepholes must be
located in the head joints immediately above all flashing.
Clear, open weepholes should be spaced no more than
24 in. (600 mm) o.c. Weepholes formed with wick materi-
als or with tubes should be spaced at a maximum of 16
in. (400 mm) o.c. If the veneer continues below the flash-
ing at the base of the wall, the space between the veneer
and the backing should be grouted to the height of the
flashing. Flashing should be securely fastened to the
backing system and extend through the face of the brick
veneer. The flashing should be turned up at least 8 in.
(200 mm). Typical flashing details are shown in Figs. 2, 4
and 5. Flashing should be carefully installed to prevent
punctures or tears. Where several pieces of flashing are
required to flash a section of the veneer, the ends of the
flashing should be lapped a minimum of 6 in. (150 mm)
and the joints properly sealed. Where the flashing is not Unit Ties
continuous, such as over and under openings in the wall, FIG. 3
the ends of the flashing should be turned up into the head
joint at least 2 in. (50 mm) to form a dam.

3
 Lintel Details
FIG. 4

Lintels, Sills and Jambs help to relieve the stresses caused by these movements
Brick veneer backed by wood frame must always be between the wall and the supporting foundation. Flashing
supported by lintels over openings unless the masonry is at the base of the wall between the veneer and the foun-
self-supporting. Lintel design information may be found in dation will provide sufficient break in the bond.
Technical Notes 17H and 31B. Loose steel, stone or pre- Expansion Joints. Expansion joints to allow for hori-
cast lintels should bear at least 4 in. (100 mm) at each zontal movement may be required in brick veneer when
jamb. All lintels should have space at the end of the lintel there are long walls, walls with returns or large openings.
to allow for expansion. The clear span for 1/4 in. (6.3 mm) The placement of expansion joints and the materials used
thick steel angles varies between 5 ft (1.5 m) and a maxi- should be in accordance with the information given in
mum of 8 ft (2.4 m), depending on the size of the angle Technical Notes 18 Series.
selected. Steel lintels with spans greater than 8 ft (2.4 m) Horizontal Joint Reinforcement
may require lateral bracing for stability. The maximum Masonry materials subject to shrinkage stresses, such
clear span may be restricted by the fire protection require- as concrete masonry, require horizontal joint reinforce-
ments of some building codes. Concrete, cast stone and
stone lintels must be appropriately sized to carry the
weight of the veneer.
Reinforced brick lintels are also a viable option. Some
of the advantages of reinforced brick lintels are: more effi-
cient use of materials; built-in fireproofing; elimination of
differential movement which may occur with steel lintels
and brick veneer; and no required painting or other main-
tenance. Typical residential construction details for a lintel,
sill and jamb using wood stud backing are shown in Figs.
4 and 5.
Eave Details
A typical residential eave detail is shown in Fig. 6.
This detail is suggested for the area at the top of the
veneer. The air space between the top of the brick veneer
and wood framing is necessary to accommodate move-
ment. Larger overhangs and gutters are helpful to keep
water from contacting the wall below.
Movement Provisions
Design provisions for movement which include bond
breaks, expansion joints, and joint reinforcement are not
usually required in residential and low-rise brick veneer
construction. However, they may be required in specific
situations and the designer should analyze the project to
determine such need.
Bond Breaks. Significant differential foundation set-
tlement and horizontal movement may cause cracking in
walls rigidly attached to the foundation. Bond breaks will Jamb and Sill Details
FIG. 5

4

Eave Detail
FIG. 6
ment for control of cracking from such movement. Brick is
not subject to shrinkage, therefore horizontal joint rein-
forcement is never required in brick masonry for this pur-
pose. It may be beneficial to use limited amounts of hori-
zontal joint reinforcement in brick veneer for added
strength at the corners of openings and at locations where
running bond in the masonry is not maintained.
Horizontal joint reinforcement should be used to add
integrity to veneer constructed in locations with intermedi-
ate and higher seismic activity or when the units are laid
in stack bond. It may be either single or double wire joint
reinforcement. The wire should engage the veneer ties as
shown in Fig. 3(e) in seismically active areas. When using
horizontal joint reinforcement, it must be discontinuous at
all movement joints.
Sealant Joints
Exterior joints at the perimeter of exterior door and
window frames to be filled with sealant should be formed
by the adjacent materials or be a reservoir type joint. The
joint should be no less than 1/4 in. (6.3 mm) nor more
than 1/2 in. (12.7 mm) wide and 1/4 in. (6.3 mm) deep. If
wider joints are required, the sealant depth should be
one-half of the joint width. A compressible backer rod or
sealant bond break tape must be used. Fillet joints are not
recommended, but if used, should be at least 1/2 in. (12.7
mm) across the diagonal. Fig. 7 shows typical sealant
joints. These joints should be solidly filled with an elastic
sealant forced into place with a pressure gun. All joints
should be properly prepared before placing sealants.
Appropriate primers should be applied as necessary.
Expansion joints must be clear of all material for the thick-
ness of the veneer wythe and closed with a backer rod
and sealant.
SELECTION OF MATERIALS
Brick
Brick should conform to ASTM C 62, C 216 or C 652
for Building Brick, Facing Brick and Hollow Brick, respec-
tively. Grade SW is required where high and uniform
resistance to damage caused by cyclic freezing is desired
5
and where the brick may be frozen when saturated with
water. Grade MW may be used where moderate resis-
tance to damage caused by cyclic freezing is permissible
or where the brick may be damp, but not saturated, when
freezing occurs.
The brick selected should have an average initial rate
of absorption (suction) of not more than 30 grams per 30
2
in.2 (1.5 kg/m ) per minute at the time of laying. Units hav-
ing average initial rates of absorption exceeding this value
may be wetted immediately before they are laid.
Alternately, the units may be wetted thoroughly 3 to 24
hours prior to their use so as to allow moisture to become
distributed throughout the unit. With either method the
units should be surface dry when laid.
The use of salvaged brick is not recommended. In
general, masonry constructed with salvaged brick con-
tains some weaker and less durable units than masonry
constructed with new brick. Salvaged brick and the rea-
sons against its use are discussed in detail in Technical
Notes 15.
Mortars
Mortar materials should comply with the requirements
of ASTM C 270 Standard Specification for Mortar for Unit
Masonry. Two types of cementitious materials are permit-
ted: portland cement-lime and masonry cement. portland
cement-lime mortars made with non-air-entrained materi-
als have greater strength than those made with air-
entrained materials and masonry cement. Proprietary
mortar mixes, masonry cements, are widely used because
of their convenience and good workability. Masonry
cements usually contain portland cement, ground lime-
stone and additives which provide workability, water reten-
tivity and air entrainment. See Technical Notes 8 for infor-
mation on both portland cement-lime mortars and mason-
ry cement mortars.
Type N mortar is suitable for most brick veneer
although Type S or Type M may be used. Type S mortar
is recommended where a high degree of flexural resis-
tance is required and may be required in areas of high
seismic activity. Type M is recommended where the brick
veneer is in contact with earth. For further information on
the selection of mortar see Technical Notes 8B.
Ties
Brick veneer with wood frame backing is supported on
the foundation with lateral support provided by the ties
and backing system. The ties must be capable of resisting
tension and compression resulting from forces perpendic-
ular to the plane of the wall. More information on wall ties
is found in Technical Notes 44B.
Corrugated steel ties, at least 22 gage, 7/8 in. (22
mm) wide, 6 in. (150 mm) long, as shown in Fig. 3(d)
have historically been used to attach brick veneer to wood
frame backing. However, corrugated metal ties are more
susceptible to corrosion than wire ties. Adjustable ties pro-
vide better load transfer and permit differential movement
in taller structures. Wire for such ties is either wire gage
W1.7, 9 gage, or wire gage W2.8, 3/16 in. (4.8 mm) diam-
eter. Wire ties should be fabricated from wire conforming
 Sealant Joints
FIG. 7
to ASTM A 82 Specification for Steel Wire, Plain, for
Concrete Reinforcement. Plate portions of adjustable ties
are normally 14 gage in thickness. Steel used to fabricate
plate portions and corrugated ties should conform to
ASTM A 366 Standard Specification for Steel, Carbon,
Cold-Rolled Sheet, Commercial Quality.
All tie components must be corrosion resistant. Zinc
coating on steel must be at least 1.5 oz per square foot
2
(458 g/m ). This corresponds to ASTM A 153 Standard
Specification for Zinc Coating (Hot-Dip) on Iron and Steel
Hardware, Class B-2.
Ties are usually fastened to the wood frame with cor-
rosion-resistant nails that penetrate the sheathing and are
driven a minimum of 1 1/2 in. (38 mm) into the studs.
Flashing and Weepholes
There are many types of flashing available which are
suitable for use in brick veneer walls. Sheet metals, plas-
tics, laminates or combinations of these have been used
successfully. Plastic flashing should be at least 30 mil
thick. Asphalt impregnated felt (building paper) or an air-
infiltration barrier is not acceptable for use as flashing.
These materials serve other purposes in the wall assem-
bly. Building paper is applied as a moisture barrier to the
sheathing. Air-infiltration barriers function as their name
implies and may also serve as a moisture barrier.
Selection of flashing is often determined by cost; how-
ever, it is recommended that only superior materials be
used, as replacement in the event of failure is exceedingly
expensive.
6
Weepholes can be made in several ways. Some of
the most common ways are leaving head joints open,
using removable oiled ropes or rods, using plastic or
metal tubes, or using rope wicks. There are also plastic or
metal vents which are installed in lieu of mortar in a head
joint. Clear openings without obstructions produce the
best weepholes. For further discussion on flashing and
weepholes see Technical Notes 7A.
Horizontal Joint Reinforcement
Horizontal joint reinforcement should be fabricated
from wire conforming to ASTM A 82. It should have a cor-
rosion-resistant coating which conforms to ASTM A 153,
Class B-2.
Lintel Materials
Lintels may be reinforced brick masonry, reinforced
concrete, stone or steel angles. Reinforcement for rein-
forced brick masonry lintels should be steel bars manu-
factured in accordance with ASTM A 615, A 616 or A 617,
Grades 40, 50, or 60 and should be at least No. 3 bar
size. Joint reinforcement can also be used in reinforced
brick masonry lintels.
Steel for lintels should conform to ASTM A 36
Standard Specification for Structural Steel. Steel angle lin-
tels should be at least 1/4 in. (6.3 mm) thick with a hori-
zontal leg of at least 3 1/2 in. (89 mm) for use with nomi-
nal 4 in. (100 mm) thick brick veneer, and 3 in. (75 mm)
for use with nominal 3 in. (75 mm) thick brick veneer.
Steel lintels should be painted before installation.
Sealants the 1 in. (25.4 mm) minimum air space between the
There are numerous types of sealants available that veneer and the backing clean and free of all mortar drop-
are suitable for use with brick veneer. The material select- pings, so that the wall assembly will perform as a
ed should be flexible and durable. Superior sealants may drainage wall. If mortar blocks the air space, it may pro-
have a higher initial cost, but their high flexibility and vide a bridge for water to travel to the interior. In addition,
increased durability result in savings of maintenance costs all flashing, weepholes, ties and other accessories must
due to the reduced frequency of reapplication. Good be properly installed and kept clean.
grades of polysulfide, butyl or silicone rubber sealants are
recommended. Oil-based caulking compounds are not SUMMARY
recommended since most lack the desired flexibility and This Technical Notes is concerned primarily with the
durability, see Technical Notes 7A. Regardless of the prescriptive design and conventional applications of
type of sealant chosen, proper primers and backer rods anchored brick veneer in new wood frame buildings limit-
must be selected. Follow the recommendations of the ed to three stories in height. Other Technical Notes in this
sealant manufacturer. series consider brick veneer applied to existing structures,
brick veneer with different backing materials for mid-and
CONSTRUCTION high-rise structures, and adhered thin brick veneer.
Protection of Materials The information and suggestions contained in this
Technical Notes are based on the available data and the
Masonry. Prior to and during construction, all materi-
experience of the engineering staff of the Brick Institute of
als should be stored off of the ground to prevent contami-
America. The information and recommendations con-
nation by mud, dust or other materials likely to cause
tained herein must be used in conjunction with good tech-
stains or defects. The masonry materials should also be
nical judgment and a basic understanding of the proper-
covered for protection against the elements.
ties of brick masonry and related construction materials.
To limit water absorption, it is recommended that all
Final decisions on the use of the information contained in
brick masonry be protected by covering at the end of
this Technical Notes are not within the purview of the
each workday and for shutdown periods. The cover
Brick Institute of America, and must rest with the project
should be a strong, weather-resistant membrane securely
architect, engineer, owner or all.
attached to and overhanging the brickwork by at least 24
in. (600 mm). Partially completed masonry exposed to
REFERENCES
rain may become so saturated with water that it may
For more detailed information on materials, design
require months after the completion of the building to dry
and construction procedures, the individual Technical
out. This saturation may cause prolonged efflorescence.
Notes referred to herein should be consulted.
See Technical Notes 23 Series for more information.
Flashing. Flashing materials should be stored in
places where they will not be punctured or damaged.
Plastic and asphalt coated flashing materials should not
be stored in areas exposed to sunlight. Ultraviolet rays
from the sun break down these materials, causing them to
become brittle with time. Plastic flashing exposed to the
weather at the site for months before installation should
not be used. During installation, flashing must be pliable
so that no cracks occur at corners or bends.
Workmanship
Good workmanship is as essential in constructing
brick veneer as it is in all types of brick masonry construc-
tion. All joints intended to receive mortar, including head
joints with hollow brick, should be completely filled. Joints
or spaces not intended to receive mortar should be kept
clean and free of droppings. Courses of brick laid on foun-
dations or lintels must have at least two-thirds of the brick
thickness on the support.
The joints should be tooled with a jointer as soon as
the mortar has become thumbprint hard. The types of
joints recommended for exterior use with brick veneer are
concave, "V" and grapevine. These joints firmly compact
the mortar against the edges of the adjoining brick. Other
joints are not recommended because they do not provide
the necessary resistance to moisture penetration. See
Technical Notes 7B Revised for further information.
It is essential when constructing brick veneer, to keep
7
 Technical Notes
on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
BRICK VENEER
EXISTING CONSTRUCTION
INTRODUCTION
The application of brick veneer to existing construc-
tion is popular because it enhances the appearance and
improves the performance of existing walls. Its most com-
mon application is in refinishing the exterior of one and
two-family dwellings, and also in refacing the fronts of
commercial buildings.
Brick veneer over existing construction consists of a
nominal 3-in. (75 mm) or 4-in. (100 mm) thick brick wythe
attached to an existing wall with metal ties in such a way
that a 1-in. (25 mm) air space is maintained between the
new brick veneer and the existing wall. New brick veneer
can be applied to wood frame, metal, concrete or mason-
ry structures.
This Technical Notes considers the application of
brick veneer to various types of existing construction. The
illustrations, however, show only brick veneer applied to
existing wood frame structures. This is the most common
application. Details for brick veneer applied to other types
of construction are similar, the method of attachment vary-
ing with the type of existing construction.
PROPERTIES
In addition to improving the appearance of the exist-
ing structure, the application of brick veneer may also
enhance many of the performance properties of the wall
and structure to which it is applied.
Thermal Properties
The thermal properties of a wall are improved by the
addition of brick veneer in two ways - the addition of mass
and the reduction of infiltration. The application of brick
veneer also provides an opportunity to add insulation if
desirable.
TABLE 1
Empirical Height Limitations for Brick Veneer
Nominal Thickness of
Stories
the Brick Veneer, in (mm)
3 (75)
4 (100)
*Originally published in Sept/Oct 1978, this Technical Notes has been reviewed and reissued with editorial changes.
28A
Reissued*
September
1988
Additional information on the thermal properties of
brick veneer and brick masonry in general may be found
in Technical Notes 28 Revised, and Technical Notes 4
Series.
Moisture Resistance
The moisture resistance of a wall can also be
improved by the application of properly detailed and
installed brick veneer. See Technical Notes 28 Revised, 7
Series and 21C for further information.
Fire Resistance
Constructing brick veneer over existing walls of com-
bustible materials will decrease the possibility of externally
initiated fires. Typical brick veneer wall assemblies have
fire resistance ratings up to 2 hr.
Acoustical Properties
The addition of brick veneer to an existing wall will
improve the sound transmission loss of the wall. This is
due to the addition of mass and the discontinuity of the
system. Further information is given in Technical Notes
28 Revised and Technical Notes 5A.
DESIGN AND DETAILING
Proper design and detailing of brick veneer applied to
existing construction is very important to ensure that the
wall assembly acts as it is intended. Areas of concern in
design and detailing are structural performance, support-
ing the veneer, attaching the veneer to the existing struc-
ture, flashing and weepholes, movement provisions, fram-
ing around openings, and the top of the veneer.
Structural Design
Brick veneer is a non-loadbearing component of the
wall assembly. In addition to its own weight, the only load
that the brick veneer should carry is a proportionate share
Empirical Height Limitations
Height at Plate, Height at Gable,
ft (m) ft (m)
2 20 (6.10) 28 (8.53)
3 30 (9.14) 38 (11.58)
of any lateral loads. The wide differences between the
stiffness characteristics of the brick veneer and those of
the existing wall that usually occur result in the brick
veneer carrying a disproportionate share of the lateral
loads not considered in the design.
The height limitations for brick veneer are based on
the past history of successful performance. Empirical
height limitations are provided in Table 1.

Supporting Brick Veneer

Brick veneer may be supported directly on either
existing or new concrete foundations. Alternatively, it may
be supported on steel angles anchored to existing con-
crete or masonry walls.
Foundations. The brickwork should extend down to (a)
the existing foundation where possible, as shown in Fig.
1a. If the existing foundation is not sufficiently wide to
support the entire thickness of the brick wythe, a new
foundation, as shown in Fig. 1b, can be installed at the
same depth as the existing foundation. A bond break
should be installed between the existing and new founda-
tions to allow for any differential movement.
Steel Angles. An alternate method of supporting the
brick veneer is shown in Fig. 1c. This requires attaching
a continuous corrosion-resistant steel angle to the existing
foundation or basement wall. The angle should be
installed at or slightly below grade. Installing the angle
below the frost line will decrease the possibility of deleteri-
ous effects resulting from freeze-thaw actions. The
angles should be attached to existing basement or foun-
(b)
dation walls constructed of concrete or masonry. Angles
should never be anchored to wood plates or framing
members.
This method of support should be used with caution.
A careful analysis of the loads being applied to the angle
should be made. Special consideration should be given
to the eccentricities of the applied loads. The sizing and
spacing of bolts must be carefully computed, taking into
account not only the loads to be carried, and their result-
ing eccentricities, but also the strength of the foundation
wall itself. In general, this method of support should be
confined to one-story structures where the total height to
the plate does not exceed approximately 14 ft (4.3 m).
Attachment
The brick veneer must be securely attached to the
existing construction. Provide one tie for each 2 2/3 sq ft (c)
2
(0.24 m ) of wall area. The maximum spacing of ties,
either horizontally or vertically, should not exceed 24 in.
Typical Foundation Details
(600 mm) o.c. This tie spacing applies above and below FIG. 1
grade. The above-grade spacing may be reduced to one
2
tie for each 3 1/4 sq ft (0.30 m ) of wall area for one and above grade. Where the veneer continues below grade,
two-family dwellings not exceeding one story in height. the space between the veneer and the existing construc-
tion should be completely filled with mortar or grout.
Flashing and Weepholes Flashing should also be installed at the heads and sills of
Good flashing details, similar to those shown in Figs. all openings, and wherever the air space is interrupted.
1c, 2, and 3 are essential to brick veneer construction. In The flashing should extend through the face of the brick
order to divert the moisture out of the air space through veneer to form a drip. Where the flashing is not continu-
the weepholes, continuous flashing should be installed at ous, such as at heads and sills, the ends should be
the bottom of the air space. The flashing must be at or turned up approximately 1 in. (25 mm).

2
 Weepholes should be located in the head joints
immediately above all flashing. The maximum spacing of
the weepholes should be 24 in. (600 mm) o.c. When wick
materials are used in the weepholes or when the flashing
does not extend through the face of the brick veneer, the
spacing of the weepholes should not exceed 16 in. (400
mm) o.c. Additional discussion of flashing and weepholes
may be found in Technical Notes 7 Series.
Movement Provisions
Provisions to accommodate differential movement due
to temperature, moisture, shrinkage, and creep are not
ordinarily required in small brick veneer buildings. For
structures larger than single-family houses, the design
should include considerations of potential differential
movements and proper details to accommodate them.
Design and details for differential movement may
include: expansion joints, flexible anchorage, joint rein-
forcement, bond breaks, and sealants. These items and
their applications are discussed in Technical Notes 18
Series, 28 Revised and 21 Series.
Framing Around Openings
Typical lintel, jamb, and sill details are shown in Fig.
3. New brick sills can usually be constructed so that the
existing sill overlaps the new brick sill.
New moulding installed at the existing jambs and
heads of openings should extend the framing enough so
that the air space between the brick veneer and the exist-
ing construction can be properly sealed.
Lintels may be of reinforced brick masonry, steel
angles, or precast concrete. Reinforced brick masonry
and steel angle lintels are the most commonly used in
brick veneer construction.
The minimum required bearing length for steel angle
lintels is 4 in. (600 mm). The spans and sizes of steel
angle lintels may be modified by fireproofing requirements
in local building codes.
Further information on the design, detailing and mate-
rial selection of lintels may be found in Technical Notes
17H and Technical Notes 31B Revised.
Top of the Veneer
A typical detail for the top of the brick veneer at an
existing cave is shown in Fig. 4. There should be at least
a 1/8 - in. (3.2 mm) clear space between the top of the

Typical Lintel, Jamb and Sill Details

FIG. 3

last course of brick and the bottom of the soffit. This

space should be covered with a new moulding strip and
sealant or caulking. If there is insufficient eave to properly
cover the top of the veneer, provisions must be made to
extend the cave.

Base Detail
FIG. 2

3
SELECTION OF MATERIALS
The proper selection of quality materials is essential
to the satisfactory performance of a brick veneer wall
assembly. No amount of design, detailing or construction
can compensate for the improper selection of materials.
Brick
Nominal 3-in. (75 mm) or 4-in. (100 mm) thick brick,
conforming to ASTM C 62 or ASTM C 216, should be
used for brick veneer. Grade SW brick is recommended
because the brick wythe is isolated from the remainder of
the wall by the air space, thus exposing it to the maximum
temperature extremes.
Salvaged brick should not be used because they may
not provide the strength and durability necessary for satis-
factory performance. The use of salvaged brick is dis-
cussed in Technical Notes 15.
Mortar
The use of the correct mortar is very important to the
successful performance of brick veneer. Portland cement-
lime mortars are recommended because they have a long
history of proven performance. Portland cement-lime
mortars for brick masonry are discussed in Technical
Notes 8 Series.
Type N portland cement-lime mortar is recommended
for brick veneer, except that Type M portland cement-lime
mortar should be used for brick veneer below grade,
where the brickwork is in contact with earth.
Ties
The type of tie system which should be used with
brick veneer will depend on the construction of the exist-
ing wall. Corrugated metal ties may be used with wood
frame backup. Metal wire ties should be used elsewhere.
Several types of ties which may be used in brick veneer
applied to existing construction are shown in Figs. 2a
through 2d in Technical Notes 28 Revised.
Corrugated Metal Ties. Corrugated metal ties
should be corrosion-resistant. They should be at least 22
gage, 7/8 in. (22 mm) wide and 6 in. (150 mm) long.
Metal Wire Ties. Metal wire ties should be at least 9
gage and corrosion-resistant. It is recommended that
3/16 -in. (4.7 mm) diameter metal wire ties be used to fas-
ten the brick veneer to a structural frame. Metal wire ties
should comply with ASTM A 82 or A 185.
Corrosion Resistance. Corrosion resistance is usu -
ally provided by copper or zinc coating, or by using stain-
less steel. To ensure adequate resistance to corrosion,
coatings or materials should conform to:
Zinc-Coating of Flat Metal-ASTM A 153, Class B-3;
Zinc-Coating of Wire-ASTM A 116, Class 3;
Copper Coated Wire-ASTM B 227, Grade 30 HS;
Stainless Steel-ASTM A 167, Type 304.
Tie Fasteners
The type of fastener used to attach the ties to the
existing wall will also depend on the construction of the
existing wall.
Wood Frame. Corrosion-resistant nails should be
used to attach the corrugated metal ties to wood frame
construction. The nails should penetrate at least 1 1/4 in.
4
(40 mm) into the wood studs.
Metal. Corrosion-resistant, self-tapping metal screws
should be used to attach metal wire ties to metal con-
struction. The screws should penetrate at least 1/2 in. (13
mm) into the metal.
Concrete or Masonry. There are several methods of
attaching the metal wire ties to existing concrete or
Typical Eave Detail
FIG. 4
masonry walls. The ties may be attached with lag bolts
and expansion shields or masonry nails. The fasteners
and anchors should be corrosion-resistant.
Steel Angles
When a continuous steel angle is used to support the
new brick veneer at the foundation wall, it should be of
steel conforming to ASTM A 36, and should be treated or
coated to resist corrosion. Bolts or other fasteners should
also be corrosion-resistant.
The sizing of the angle, and the sizing and spacing of
the bolts should be determined by structural analysis.
Steel angles for lintels should be a minimum 1/4 in.
(6.2 mm) thick with at least 3-in. (75 mm) legs and the
steel should conform to ASTM A 36. For information on
steel lintels for brick masonry, see Technical Notes 31B
Revised.
Flashing
Flashing materials for use with brick veneer may be
bituminous membranes, plastics, sheet metals, or combi-
nations of these. It is best to select only superior materi-
als because replacement in the event of failure will be
costly, if not impossible. Asphalt impregnated felt paper
should not be used as a flashing material. For a more
complete discussion on the various types of flashing, see
Technical Notes 7A Revised.
Weepholes
Weepholes are formed by inserting a material into the
mortar joint, or by omitting all or part of the head joint.
Forming materials, such as well-oiled rods, are removed
to leave an unobstructed opening. Other forming materi-
als, such as plastic tubes or rope wicks, may be left in
place. Sometimes metal screening, fibrous glass, or other
materials, are placed in open weepholes, but this should
not be done indiscriminately. Materials such as metal
screening can corrode and cause staining of the masonry.
CONSTRUCTION
Supports
Foundations. Supporting brick veneer on new or
existing foundations requires excavating down to the
existing foundation. The excavation must be sufficiently
wide for the brickmason to work. Prior to placing the
masonry on an existing foundation, the foundation should
be brushed clean of loose soil and debris.
Angles. When constructing brick veneer on continu-
ous corrosion-resistant steel angles, the first course of
brick should be laid in a mortar setting bed. This provides
a means to compensate for any variations and misalign-
ment of the steel angles.
Installing Additional Insulation
Applying brick veneer over existing construction offers
an opportunity to better insulate the existing exterior walls.
The insulation materials used should comply to the criteria
discussed in Technical Notes 21A.
Rigid insulation may be installed directly over the
existing finish prior to erecting the new brick veneer. A 1-
in. (25 mm) air space should be maintained between the
brick veneer and the rigid insulation. If the existing wood
frame or metal stud walls contain little or no insulation, the
existing siding of the wall may be removed so that insula-
tion can be installed within the wall. The materials
removed from the existing wall may be reapplied.
Workmanship
Good workmanship is necessary to achieve satisfac-
tory performance of brick veneer. The veneer must be
properly constructed if the expected performance of the
masonry is to be obtained.
Mortar Joints. There is no substitute for the com-
plete filling of all mortar joints that are intended to receive
mortar. Partially filled mortar joints result in leaky walls,
reduced strength of the masonry, and may contribute to
cracking and spelling due to freezing and thawing in the
presence of moisture. All joints intended to receive mortar
should be completely filled as the brick are laid.
Keeping the Air Space Clean. It is essential to
maintain a 1-in. (25 mm) air space between the brick
veneer and the existing wall, and to keep it clean of mor-
tar protrusions, droppings, and other foreign materials. If
mortar falls into the air space, it may form "bridges" for
moisture and thermal transfer, or it may fall onto the flash-
ing and block the weepholes.
Tooling of Joints. Weather tightness and textural
effect are the basic considerations of mortar joint finish
selection and execution. Tooling the joint properly helps
the mortar adhere to the edges of the brick units and seal
the wall against moisture penetration. The use of con-
cave, V, or grapevine joints is recommended. The joints
should be tooled when the mortar is "thumb-print" hard.
Additional information on joints may be found in Technical
Notes 21C.
Flashing and Weepholes. Flashing materials must
5
be carefully installed to prevent punctures or tears. The
flashing must be securely attached to the existing wall
and should extend through the face of the brick veneer.
Weepholes should be installed in the head joints immedi-
ately above all flashing.
Tie Placement. Secure attachment of the ties to the
existing wall is a necessity. The ties must be of sufficient
length to provide a minimum 2-in. (50 mm) embedment
into the bed joints. Ties should be placed in the bed joints
and should be completely surrounded by mortar.
Caulking or Sealants. Caulking joints at the perime-
ter of exterior door and window frames should not be less
than 1/4 in. (6 mm) nor more than 3/8 in. (10 mm) wide.
They should be cleaned for a depth of 3/4 in. (20 mm).
The joints should be properly primed before placing caulk-
ing compound or sealant. The caulking or sealant should
be placed with a pressure gun.
Cleaning. If the brick veneer is properly and carefully
constructed, cleaning the brickwork can be kept to a mini-
mum. Most of the cleaning can be done by dry cleaning
methods or by washing the wall with plain water. Refer to
Technical Notes 20 Revised for information on cleaning
brick masonry.
Protection
Storage of Materials. Masonry units should be
stored off the ground to avoid contamination by dirt and
ground water, which may contain soluble salts. They
should be covered by a weather-resistant membrane to
keep them dry.
Mortar materials should also be stored off the ground
and under cover. If these materials are exposed to mois-
ture, they may become useless for constructing the brick
veneer. Flashing, ties and other materials should also be
protected from the weather.
Protection of Walls. Partially completed walls must
be protected from the elements. This can be done by
securely attaching a strong, weather-resistant membrane
to the existing structure and allowing it to overhang the
brickwork by at least 2 ft (0.61 m). This will prevent the
wall from becoming saturated, thus decreasing the possi-
bility of efflorescence, and other deleterious effects
caused by moisture in brick masonry.
SUMMARY
This Technical Notes provides the basic information
required to properly select materials, design, detail, and
construct brick veneer over existing construction. Further
information about the properties of brick veneer and con-
cepts not unique to brick veneer over existing construction
is discussed in Technical Notes 28 Revised.
The information and suggestions contained in this
Technical Notes are based on the available data and the
experience of the technical staff of the Brick Institute of
America. This information should be recognized as recom-
mendations and suggestions which, if followed with good
judgment, will result in brick veneer wall assemblies that per-
form successfully. Final decisions on the use of details and
materials as discussed are not within the purview of the Brick
Institute of America, and must rest with the project designer,
or owner, or both.
 28B
Technical Notes REVISED

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
November
1999

BRICK VENEER
BRICK VENEER/STEEL STUD WALLS
Abstract: This Technical Notes addresses the considerations and recommendations for
the design, detailing, materials selection and construction of brick veneer/steel stud walls.
This information pertains to behavior of the veneer, differential movement, ties and anchors,
air space, detailing, selection of materials and construction techniques.

Key Words: anchors, brick, brick veneer, design, elastic properties, masonry, perme-
ability, stability, steel studs, stiffness, walls.

INTRODUCTION
Introduced in the 1960Õs, the brick veneer/steel stud GYPSUM BOARD
wall system has evolved into a successful construction BATT INSULATION
2 IN. (50 mm)
method used in a wide variety of commercial, industrial MINIMUM STEEL STUDS
AIR SPACE EXTERIOR
and institutional structures which include such building
SHEATHING
types as schools, churches, hospitals and office build-
BUILDING
ings. These buildings usually have structural frames of ADJUSTABLE PAPER
TIES 6 IN. (150 mm)
steel or reinforced concrete. Unlike residential con- MINIMUM LAP
struction, they generally are not designed with over-
hangs, eaves or gutters to protect the veneer and fre-
quently incorporate parapets. They also are usually WEEP
taller than residential structures. Consequently, com- HOLES FOUNDATION
mercial brick veneer/steel stud wall systems have
greater exposure to their environment than their resi-
FLASHING
dential counterparts. For this reason, it is important to
closely observe proper design, detailing and construc-
tion practices to ensure that expected and required lev-
els of performance are met.
Brick Veneer/Steel Stud Wall
The brick veneer/steel stud wall system is considered FIG. 1
an anchored veneer wall. An anchored veneer is a brick
wythe secured to and supported laterally by the backing
through anchors (ties) and supported vertically by the PROPERTIES OF BRICK VENEER/
foundation or other structural elements. The veneer STEEL STUD WALLS
transfers out-of-plane load directly to the backing and is The brick veneer/steel stud wall system offers several
not considered to add load-resisting capacity to the wall advantages over other claddings. The system demon-
system. Anchored brick veneer with steel stud backing strates superior performance in many of the specific ar-
consists of a nominal 3 or 4 in. (75 to 100 mm) thick eas of concern for designers, contractors and property
exterior brick wythe mechanically attached to a steel owners such as attractive appearance, high resistance to
stud backing system with corrosion-resistant metal ties water penetration, low thermal transmission rate, ease
so as to create a prescribed air space between the veneer of construction and low maintenance.
and the backing system. (See Fig. 1)
This Technical Notes is one of four in a series dealing Aesthetics
with brick veneer. This issue addresses brick veneer Brick is available in a large variety of colors, textures,
with steel stud backing in commercial construction. glazes and coatings. In addition, many sizes are manu-
Other issues in the series discuss other types of brick factured and special shapes can be created to achieve a
veneer wall systems. broad range of units. Add to this the ability to achieve
multiple bond patterns, the use of colored mortars and
interesting masonry detailing, and the creative possibili-
ties are nearly endless. For further information on sizes
and patterns, refer to Technical Notes 10B and 30.
Ease of Construction
The steel studs and exterior sheathing of a brick ve-
neer/steel stud wall can be constructed prior to laying
the brick veneer wythe. This allows the building to be
closed-in and placed under-roof quickly. Thus, interior
work can begin with brick masonry construction fol-
lowing at a convenient time. Further, other trades can
be scheduled to work and not interfere with the mason.
In addition, the weight of a brick veneer/steel stud wall
is less than a wall constructed of brick and concrete ma-
sonry units. Thus, perimeter framing member sizes and
seismic forces used in the design may be reduced.
Moisture Resistance
Brick veneer construction incorporates a drainage
cavity to deter water penetration into the building. This
air space creates a physical separation between the
brick wythe and the inner steel stud wall. When wind-
driven rain penetrates the veneer wythe, the cavity al-
lows the water to drain down the back face of the brick.
This water is then collected at the base of the wall by
flashing and channeled out to the exterior through weep
holes. When properly designed and constructed, a brick
veneer/steel stud system is resistant to water penetration
through the entire assembly. For additional informa-
tion, see Technical Notes 7 Series.
Thermal Properties
Brick veneer systems incorporating a cavity can
greatly reduce the amount of heat transmission through
the system. This air space provides a thermal separa-
tion between the brick wythe and other system compo-
nents, increasing the resistance of the entire wall system
to heat loss or gain. Further, brickwork has a high ther-
mal mass giving it the ability to store and slowly release
heat over time. This is taken into account in current en-
ergy codes by allowing a lower R-value for walls with
masonry. In addition, closed-cell rigid board insulation
can be placed inside the cavity for additional thermal
resistance. With the board insulation located outside of
the steel stud wall, there is increased resistance to heat
transmission and reduced thermal bridging. For further
information, refer to Technical Notes 4 Series.
Fire Resistance
Brick masonry has superior fire resistance. Building
codes may require that exterior walls have a fire resis-
tance rating based on fire separation distance, size of
building and occupancy classification. They may re-
quire protection from one or both sides, depending on
whether the fire separation distance is more or less than
5 ft (1.5 m) respectively. A nominal 4 in. (100 mm)
brick wythe has a fire resistance period of 75 minutes
resulting in a 1 hour fire resistance rating and can pro-
2
vide this protection for the exterior surface of the wall.
Fire resistance ratings may increase to 2 or 3 hours for
an entire assembly which includes brick. For additional
information, see Technical Notes 16 Series and Engi-
neering & Research Digest UL Fire Ratings.
Acoustical Properties
Brick veneer walls with cavities are well suited as
sound insulators. Three mechanisms reduce the sound
transmitted through the wall. The hard surface of the
brickwork reflects a large portion of sound waves. The
mass of the brickwork absorbs another portion of sound
energy. The remaining sound energy which makes its
way through the brick wythe must continue through the
air space and the sheathed studs. This air space sepa-
rates the brick from the steel studs causing a dampening
effect. With only ties bridging the cavity, a further re-
duction in sound wave propagation is realized due to
discontinuous construction. Finally, the energy must
vibrate the sheathing and stud to reach the inside of the
building. Additional information on sound transmis-
sion can be found in Technical Notes 5A.
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
Brick veneer/steel stud walls must resist loads as pre-
scribed by the governing building code(s). For exterior,
nonbearing walls, these loads are typically due to wind
and seismic events. Although a veneer is defined as a
nonstructural facing, brick veneer does resist loads.
Certainly the weight of the brick is supported by the
brickwork itself. But brickwork also contributes to the
resistance of out-of-plane loads. In addition, in-plane
forces caused by the weight of the brickwork are also
resisted internally, including in-plane loads generated
by seismic events. Returns and offsets in the veneer
wythe can also act as flanges and cause in-plane loads
on the wall.
Steel studs can be designed to be non-loadbearing or
loadbearing. Both non-loadbearing and loadbearing
studs provide backing for the brick wythe by resisting
any out-of-plane loads such as those from wind or seis-
mic events. Loadbearing studs also serve as part of the
structural system of a building by supporting a portion
of the gravity load or acting as shear walls while non-
loadbearing studs only support their own weight.
Building Codes
Minimum standards for brick veneer/steel stud walls
are established in the model building codes adopted by
most local jurisdictions. Some of these codes reference
the ACI 530/ASCE 5/TMS 402 Building Code Require-
ments for Masonry Structures, also known as the Ma-
sonry Standards Joint Committee (MSJC) Code [Ref.
2]. Within this Code, there is an entire chapter devoted
to masonry veneers which outlines prescriptive, as well
as alternate, design requirements for anchored masonry
veneers. To determine code provisions for a building in
a specific area, the local building code jurisdiction
should be consulted.
System Behavior
Together, brick veneer and steel studs resist out-of-
plane loads by each taking a portion of the load relative
to its flexural stiffness, span length, and the ability of
the ties to transfer the load. The flexural stiffness of the
brick is substantially greater than that of the steel stud
backing. In addition, the brick veneer typically spans a
greater distance than the steel stud system (see Fig. 2).
Consequentially, the brick initially carries most of the
load, acting similar to a one-way beam. Deflections in
the brick wythe are transmitted to the steel studs
through the ties. Ties nearest the top and bottom of the
steel stud transfer more load than those located near the
center of the span. Frictional forces at the support for
the veneer resist a portion of the load.
As the masonry continues to deflect, flexural tensile
stresses developed in the veneer may cause cracking
near the center at the largest moment concentration.
This occurs when the modulus of rupture of the brick-
work has been exceeded. The veneer will subsequently
act as two separate segments allowing no stress across
the crack. Thus, each segment will act as a one-way
beam spanning between the tie nearest the crack and the
respective tie at the top or bottom of the veneer.
Steel Studs
Steel studs must be designed to provide adequate out-
of-plane support for all loads imposed on the wall sys-
tem. This is done by establishing a maximum deflec-
tion limit on the stud while maintaining steel stress val-
ues in the stud within permissible limits. This deflec-
BRICK
WYTHE
METAL
TIE
STEEL
STUD
SYSTEM
Base Reaction
BRICK VENEER/STEEL STUD TIE LOAD
SYSTEM WITH POSITIVE
UNIFORM WIND LOAD
Initial Moment and Tie Load Distribution
FIG. 2
3
tion is calculated assuming the entire out-of-plane load
is resisted by the studs alone, neglecting contribution of
the brick veneer. While a number of design tables are
based on a stud deflection of stud span length divided
by 360 (L/360), using this criterion may permit more
deflection than the veneer is able to tolerate without vis-
ible cracking and resulting water damage. Therefore, to
obtain sufficient backing stiffness, the allowable out-of-
plane deflection of the studs should be restricted to
L/600 using service level loads. Such deflection criteri-
on will allow a maximum crack width of about 0.015
inches (0.38 mm) in the brick veneer wythe for typical
floor-to-floor dimensions. Studs surrounding all open-
ings in the veneer should be designed with loads based
on the tributary area of the opening. Further criteria for
loadbearing studs include providing adequate bearing
capacity for the gravity loads.
The flanges of the steel studs must be laterally braced
to resist compression in bending. This can be accom-
plished by fastening sheathing or board materials, such
as gypsum sheathing, plywood or cement board, to each
side of the stud. In general, rigid board insulation
should not be considered as adequate bracing. Alterna-
tively, if sheathing or board materials are not installed
or are only installed on one side of the stud, bracing can
be provided by steel straps or channels attached either
horizontally or diagonally. However, it is suggested to
provide sheathing on both sides to help support the
moisture barrier and any interior finishes. The design
of the bracing should follow appropriate codes and
technical literature. [Ref. 10]
Ties
Metal anchors or veneer ties transfer load between
the brick veneer and either the studs or the structural
frame of the building. The load which is transferred
through a given wall tie depends on many factors. Such
factors include: tie stiffness; the backing element the tie
is fastened to (the building frame or the steel stud);
where the tie is fastened relative to the backing ele-
mentÕs span; where the tie is located relative to the
brick veneerÕs span; and whether any cracks have oc-
curred in the veneer.
For walls having shelf angles at each floor level with
either no windows or punched window openings in
which brick veneer supports the header lintel, ties locat-
ed near the bottom and top of the floor that are attached
directly to the building frame will have the highest load.
In one test performed for this configuration, the tie con-
nected closest to the shelf angle supporting the veneer
to the building frame carried just over 30% of the total
out-of-plane load of the vertical strip on the story it
served [Ref. 1].
With brick veneer supported on a shelf angle above a
window band, the ties at the floor level will typically
carry the highest load. Again, ties which are fastened
directly to the building frame will carry more load than
those attached to the studs.
Seismic Design
As the possibility and potential intensity of seismic
activity increases, certain seismic provisions should be
employed in brick masonry as with all building materi-
als. These requirements are specified in the model
building codes. Some of these codes reference the
MSJC Code. Refer to the appropriate building code to
determine specific seismic provisions.
The veneer chapter in the MSJC Code addresses seis-
mic provisions for anchored veneers. It stipulates that
brick veneer built in Seismic Performance Category
(SPC) C should have its sides and top isolated from the
structure to prevent seismic loads from being imparted
to the veneer. This can be accomplished with expan-
sion joints normally used in brick veneer structures.
Brick veneer constructed in SPC D should comply
with all provisions of SPC C and have the weight of the
veneer supported independently at each story. Further, it
should reduce the area of wall supported by each tie to
75 percent of the area it supports in a non-seismic area
and include a continuous single-wire joint reinforcement
with a minimum wire size of W1.7 (MW 11) at a maxi-
mum spacing of 18 in. (460 mm) o.c. vertically.
Brick veneer in SPC E should comply with all provi-
sions SPC D and provide vertical expansion joints (iso-
lation joints) at all returns and corners. In addition, joint
reinforcement must be mechanically connected to ties
with clips or hooks. Further information on seismic ties
can be found under Ties in the DETAILING section.
DETAILING
Foundations
Although some building codes permit the support of
brick veneer on wood foundations, it is recommended
that the weight (gravity load) of the veneer be supported
on concrete or masonry foundations or other noncom-
bustible structural supports. The brick wythe may ex-
tend below grade if it is properly detailed and construct-
ed to minimize water penetration. A typical foundation
detail is shown in Fig. 3. Locating base flashing and
weep holes a minimum of 6 in. (150 mm) above grade
will allow the drainage system to function properly.
Base flashing should extend through the full wythe of
the veneer to preclude any moisture from migrating by
capillary action up through the brickwork.
Brick below the base flashing should be detailed as a
barrier wall system by completely filling the cavity with
grout or mortar to minimize water penetration. Ties
should be located within the grouted cavity according to
the same spacing as in the brick veneer above grade.
Backing for the brick wythe below grade should be con-
crete or masonry instead of steel studs. This is due to
the high lateral pressures encountered below grade from
earth, water and any surcharge loads.
Soil immediately adjacent to the brickwork should be
thoroughly drained or the brick wythe exterior water-
proofed below grade. Self-adhesive waterproofing mem-
4
GYPSUM
BRICK BOARD
VENEER
ADJUSTABLE STEEL
TIE STUD
BUILDING
PAPER
EXTERIOR SPACING
SHEATHING VARIES
BASE FLASHING
WITH CAVITY
GROUTED SOLID
BELOW BATT
INSULATION
WEEP
HOLES
WATERPROOFING
Wall Section at Foundation
FIG. 3
branes with protection board to prevent damage during
backfill operations can prevent water from penetrating the
brick. Drainboards with integral filter fabric and water-
proofing membrane can also drain water to the foundation
drain tile system. A french drain between the soil and the
wall consisting of a gravel fill with a fabric filter surround
and drain tile below sloped a minimum of 1Ú8 in./ft (10
mm/1 m) can also provide some drainage.
Drainage Cavity
The drainage cavity or air space provides a means to
drain water which penetrates the brick wythe. The air
space between the back of the brick and the sheathing
should be a minimum of 2 in. (50 mm) in order to mini-
mize the possibility of mortar bridges in the cavity. Air
spaces should be a maximum of 4 1Ú2 in. (114 mm) when
size and spacing of ties are prescribed by building
codes. If the cavity is wider than 4 1Ú2 in. (114 mm), ad-
ditional or stronger ties may be required. When rigid
board insulation is placed in the air space, the clear dis-
tance from the back side of the brick to the exterior side
of the insulation must be no less than 1 in. (25 mm).
The cavity must be kept clean of mortar and mortar
droppings in order to function properly. When a high
probability of mortar falling into the cavity exists,
drainage materials may be specified at the base to catch
mortar droppings or prevent mortar from entering the
cavity respectively. These materials are usually made
of a plastic mesh or fabric porous enough to allow pas-
sage of water, but which catch or deter mortar from col-
lecting at the bottom of the cavity. While it is not
mandatory to include drainage materials in brick ve-
neer/steel stud walls, they may help in keeping the cavi-
ty open. However, the use of drainage materials should
not preclude good workmanship and an effort to keep
the air space clean.
Flashing and Weep Holes
Flashing collects water at the bottom of the air space
and directs it toward weep holes which channel it to the
exterior face of the wall. Flashing must be placed at all
points where the cavity is interrupted. These include
above and below all wall openings, above all shelf an-
gles, at the base of the wall and under the coping at
parapets. Flashing should extend vertically up the
backing a minimum of 8 in. (200 mm). If drainage ma-
terials which catch mortar are placed at the bottom of
the cavity, flashing at the base of the wall may need to
extend higher on the backing. The moisture barrier on
the backing should lap the top of the flashing a mini-
mum of 2 in. (100 mm). Individual flashing pieces
should be overlapped at least 6 in. (150 mm) and sealed
to avoid water running under adjacent flashing pieces.
At flashing ends, such as over and under openings in
the wall, the ends should be turned up into the next
head joint at least 1 in. (25 mm) to form a dam to chan-
nel water out of the wall. It is imperative that flashing
not stop behind the face of the brickwork.
Weep holes should be placed immediately above the
all flashing to permit water to exit the wall. Weep hole
spacing should not exceed 24 in. (600 mm) o.c. for
open head joints, and 16 in. (400 mm) o.c. if wicks or
tubes are used. Metal or plastic screens can be in-
stalled in open head joint weep holes to keep insects out
of the air space. See Fig. 4.
Moisture Barrier
Moisture barriers are membranes which prevent liq-
uid water from passing through them. Such a mem-
WEEP HOLES 24 IN.
BASE OF
WALL (600 mm) O.C. MAXIMUM
16 IN. (400 mm) O.C.
WITH WICKS OR TUBES
Flashing and Weep Holes
FIG. 4
5
brane should be located between the cavity and the
sheathing or rigid insulation attached to the studs.
While the drainage cavity acts to divert most water pen-
etrating the brickwork, a moisture barrier should keep
out any water which finds its way across the cavity via
ties, mortar bridging or splashing. Individual pieces of
moisture barrier should be installed with their edges and
ends lapped at least 6 in. (150 mm). Sheathing or rigid
insulation with an inherent resistance to moisture pene-
tration may also serve as a moisture barrier when all
edges and joints are completely taped or sealed.
Sheathing
An exterior grade sheathing or insulation material
should be installed on the exterior side of the stud.
Edges and joints of insulation board that also serves as
the moisture barrier should be thoroughly sealed with
tape or sealant to ensure against moisture intrusion over
the life of the wall. Such joint treatment will also re-
duce air infiltration. Careful detailing at the top of
walls should provide a watertight condition. If sheath-
ing is used to laterally brace the studs, it should be rigid
to provide the required stiffness.
Steel Studs
The top connection of nonbearing studs must be de-
tailed to prevent inadvertent vertical load transfer to the
studs. No rigid connection should be allowed between
the top track and the studs. This allows for the struc-
tural member above the track to deflect without trans-
ferring loads to the studs.
Field welding of studs should not be permitted.
Shop welding may be permitted on steel studs with a
minimum of 0.068 in. (1.7 mm) thick steel or 14 gage
studs. To increase quality assurance, welders and weld-
ing procedures should be qualified as specified in the
AWS D1.3 by the American Welding Society. A corro-
sion inhibiting coating should be applied to all welded
areas after welding is completed.
Ties
Care must be taken to anchor the masonry veneer to the
backing in a manner that will permit each to move freely,
in-plane, relative to the other. Anchors or ties that con-
nect the veneer to the backing must provide out-of-plane
support, resisting tension and compression, but should not
resist shear. This permits in-plane differential movements
between the frame and the veneer without causing crack-
ing or distress. Corrugated ties are not permitted when
brick veneer is supported by steel stud backing.
Ties should provide the capacity to transfer loads ap-
plied to a maximum of 2 2Ú3 sq ft (0.25 m2) of wall area.
Each tie should be spaced a maximum of 18 in. (450
mm) o.c. vertically and 32 in. (810 mm) o.c. horizontally.
Typical ties are shown in Fig. 5. Ties in high seismic ar-
eas must be mechanically fastened to horizontal rein-
forcement in the brick veneer as depicted in Fig. 6. All
ties must be embedded at least 11Ú2 in. (38 mm) into the
brick veneer with a minimum mortar cover of 5Ú8 in. (16
 ends of the opening. Shelf angles are typically installed
at each floor and support the weight of the brickwork
for that story. Lintels and shelf angles must be sized to
have a maximum deflection between support points of
L/600 or 0.3 in. (7.5 mm) and rotation of less than 1Ú16 in.
(1.6 mm). The horizontal leg of all angles should be
sized to support a minimum of 2Ú3 the thickness of the
BASE & VEE TIE BASE & VEE TIE
WITH PRONGS brick wythe.
Vertical expansion joints should not cross a lintel or
shelf angle without making provisions for potential move-
ment. Where an expansion joint aligns with the jamb of
the masonry opening, a bond break material, such as No.
15 asphalt felt, is often included around the end of the lin-
tel to allow the lintel to move on its supported end.
Lintels should be installed over all masonry openings
EYE & PINTLE TIE WIRE & SCREW TIE unless the brick is self-supporting. Lintels can be loose
steel angles, stone, precast concrete, or reinforced ma-
Tie Assemblies sonry. They should bear a minimum of 4 in. (100 mm)
FIG. 5 on brick on either side of the opening and should be
sized to carry the brick veneer above them. For further
information on lintels, refer to Technical Notes 31B.
Shelf angles should consist of steel angles sized and
installed to carry the brickwork above. Structures with
a maximum veneer height of 30 ft (9.1 m) from founda-
tion to top of wall and 38 ft (11.6 m) from foundation to
top of gable can have their entire brick veneer support-
ed directly on a foundation wall, footing or noncom-
bustible support without shelf angles. Structures with
brick veneer above this height should have a shelf angle
at each floor. Shelf angles may be located near the
floor line or at the window head. Shelf angles attached
to rigid concrete or steel elements should have full
height shims to reduce rotation as shown in Fig. 7. Any
shelf angle attached to miscellaneous steel elements

2Ó MIN. (50 mm)

MINIMUM AIR SPACE

REGLET
PROTECTIVE
BUILDING PAPER MATERIAL
FLASHING FULL HEIGHT
SHIM
WEEP HOLES
Seismic Tie Assemblies
FIG. 6 ELASTIC
JOINT
SEALANT
12Ó (200 mm)
mm) to the outside face of the wall. They must be se- COMPRESSIBLE MAXIMUM
curely attached to the steel studs through the sheathing, MATERIAL BELOW
SHELF ANGLE
not to the sheathing alone. Around the perimeter of ADJUSTABLE
openings, additional ties should be installed spaced at a TIE
maximum of 3 ft (1 m) o.c. within 12 in. (300 mm) of
the opening.
Lintels and Shelf Angles
Lintels provide support of brickwork over masonry
Shelf Angle with Concrete Frame
openings and are supported by the brickwork at the FIG. 7
6
must have bracing to prevent out-of-plane movement of
the wall as depicted in Fig. 8. Shelf angles should not
be installed as one continuous member. Space should FLASHING EXTERIOR
be provided at intervals to permit thermal expansion BRICK SHEATHING
VENEER
and contraction of the steel angle to occur without caus-
BATT
ing distress to the masonry. Lipped brick may be used INSULATION
above or below a shelf angle to maintain the same joint WEEP
GYPSUM
HOLES
width at the angle as other joints in the brickwork. BOARD
Shelf angles should be supported by miscellaneous STEEL HEADER
structural steel elements and not by steel studs. Field LINTEL
welding of shelf angles to studs should never be permit- SEALANT
ted since the thin wall of the steel stud increases the po-
tential for burn-through. Further, a stud which supports
HEAD
a shelf angle may require additional reinforcing and
may be more prone to corrosive action from exposure to
the moist cavity. MIN. 2 IN.
(50 mm)
AIR SPACE
Sealant Joints
EXTERIOR
Sealant joints seal expansion joints and perimeters of SHEATHING

openings to prevent water penetration. These joints are ADJUSTABLE

TIE
typically a compressible, foam backer rod with an hour- BUILDING PAPER
glass shaped sealant overlay. Sealant joints should be STEEL
FLASHING WITH STUDS
free of mortar for the entire thickness of the brick ve- END UNIT
GYPSUM
neer and closed with the backer rod and sealant. If de- BOARD
SEALANT
sired, a compressible material may be included behind WINDOW UNIT
the backer rod.
The perimeter of all exterior window frames, door
frames and sleeves should be closed with a sealant JAMB
joint. This joint should be between 1Ú4 and 1Ú2 in. (6.3 and
12.7 mm) wide and 1Ú4 in. (6.3 mm) deep. Fillet joints
are not recommended, but if used, should be at least 1Ú2
in. (12.7 mm) across the diagonal. WINDOW UNIT
BACKER ROD ANCHORED TO
& SEALANT EITHER
Head, Jamb and Sill Details BACKING OR
BRICK SILL
BRICK VENEER
Openings in brick veneer walls should be carefully WEEP HOLES (NOT BOTH)
detailed to prevent water from entering the brick ve-
FLASHING STOOL

1 1/2 IN. (38 mm) STEEL TRACK

CONTINUOUS ANGLE MIN. OVERHANG (DOUBLED AT
WELDED TO STEEL OPENINGS)
JOISTS ADJUSTABLE TIE

RIGID SILL
INSTALLATION
1/4Ó (6.4 mm)
FLEXIBLE
ANCHOR Head, Jamb and Sill Details
BRICK VENEER FIG. 9

neer/steel stud wall system. Provision should be made

STEEL for movement between the brick veneer and the frame
ANGLE KICKER
EXTERIOR or backing. Window frames, door frames and opening
SHEATHING STEEL STUD WITH
BATT INSULATION sleeves should be attached to either the brick veneer or
WEEP HOLE BEYOND the backing, but not both. Rowlock brick sills should
SEALANT AND VERTICAL STEEL ANGLE be angled a minimum of 15 degrees to the horizontal
BACKER ROD SUPPORTING SHELF
ANGLE for drainage. (See Fig. 9)
STEEL SHELF ANGLE Parapet Walls

Brick Veneer/Steel Stud Bracing System

Parapets are exposed on three sides and consequently
FIG. 8 are more susceptible to the elements. These walls are
7
vulnerable to water penetration and condensation. contract. Moisture expansion can continue for years
Parapet walls should be avoided unless required. A while thermal movement and mortar contraction will
gravel stop detail can be used instead of a parapet wall occur periodically, contingent upon temperature and
as shown in Fig. 10. If a parapet is required, it should moisture content. As a result, brickwork will continual-
be properly designed, detailed and constructed. Steel ly change in size during its life within a wall.
studs are not recommended as backing for parapet walls To accommodate this movement, brick veneer should
because of problems with moisture and movements. be designed in discrete sections which are allowed to
Reinforced brick masonry provides the best means of move independently of each other. This is accom-
constructing parapets above brick veneer/steel stud plished through the use of expansion joints and bond
walls as depicted in Fig. 11. breaks detailed into the veneer. An expansion joint
consists of a vertical or horizontal opening through the
Movement Provisions
brick wythe that is closed with a sealant joint and elas-
Brickwork will expand and contract as will all build- tic materials. These joints surround each section of
ing components. Brick is subject to permanent expan- brick and isolate them from each other. Expansion
sion as a result of freezing and moisture. Brickwork is joints must be designed and constructed to permit the
subjected to contraction from mortar shrinkage. anticipated movement. Further, expansion joints must
Changes in temperature will cause brick to expand and be located and constructed so as not to impair the in-
tegrity of the wall.
The spacing and placement of vertical and horizontal
expansion joints must be done on a case-by-case basis.
ROOFING
Each wall must be examined to determine its potential
FASCIA (4Ó MIN.
BELOW BRICK) for movement based on its length, openings, offsets,
corner conditions, wall intersections, means of support,
DOVETAIL ANCHOR
changes in wall heights and parapets. These features
CONTINUOUS SEALANT
influence the amount of movement in a wall. Any por-
ADJUSTABLE ANCHOR
tion of wall not able to resist the resulting stresses
BUILDING PAPER
should be isolated by an expansion joint.
ADJUSTABLE TIE
STEEL STUDS Vertical Expansion Joints
BRICK VENEER
A vertical expansion joint consists of a typical
MIN. 2 IN. (50 mm) BATT INSULATION sealant joint over either a compressible pad or an open-
AIR SPACE
ing through the brick wythe. Such pads can be made of
EXTERIOR SHEATHING GYPSUM BOARD premolded foam or neoprene. (See Fig. 12) Where
possible, vertical expansion joints should extend from
the foundation to the top of the brickwork without devi-
ating from vertical. When this is not possible, they can
Gravel Stop
be terminated at horizontal expansion joints. Generally,
FIG. 10
the spacing of vertical expansion joints should not ex-
ceed 30 ft (9.1 m) in walls without openings. Vertical
expansion joints are also recommended where site walls
abut buildings and at the corners of large openings.
Building corners should have a vertical expansion joint
METAL COPING located at the corner. Alternatively, a vertical expan-
CONTINUOUS SEALANT sion joint should be located in each wall on either side
STEEL REINFORCEMENT
2 IN. (50 mm) MINIMUM AIR SPACE
THRU-WALL FLASHING
COUNTER FLASHING

SEALANT AND BACKER ROD

DOVETAIL SLOT
AND ANCHOR

PREMOLDED FOAM NEOPRENE PAD

Masonry Parapet Wall Expansion Joints

FIG. 11 FIG. 12
8
of the corner. These two expansion joints should be lo-
cated no more than 10 ft (3.0 m) from each other. Plan
offsets and setbacks of a wall should also include a ver-
tical expansion joint on inside corners.
Horizontal Expansion Joints
A horizontal expansion joint cannot function unless
there is some means of supporting the brickwork above
it. Usually this is accomplished by a shelf angle. All
shelf angles should have a horizontal expansion joint
below them. These joints are located between the bot-
tom of the shelf angle and the brickwork below. They
consist of a sealant joint and either an opening or com-
pressible pad behind them as shown in Fig. 7.
Bond Breaks
When a different material, such as concrete masonry
or precast, is incorporated into a brick wall, differential
movement between the two materials is likely to occur.
In such cases, a bond break should separate it from the
surrounding brickwork. This break allows for movement
between the two materials and diminishes horizontal or
vertical cracking. A bond break is achieved by installing
a layer of No. 15 asphalt felt or flashing between the oth-
er material and the mortar joint surrounding it.
For further information on movement, expansion
joints and bond breaks, see Technical Notes 18 Series.
Horizontal Joint Reinforcement
Although not usually required for brick veneer con-
struction, horizontal joint reinforcement can be incorpo-
rated into brick veneer walls to alleviate cracking from
high internal stress or to have the brick serve as a rein-
forced lintel. Horizontal joint reinforcement is necessary
for veneer laid in stack bond, in high seismic areas, and
possibly in joints adjacent to different materials. It may
be either single or double wire joint reinforcement and
must have at least 5Ú8 in. (16 mm) mortar cover. Horizon-
tal joint reinforcement can also be used above and below
the corners of masonry openings for added strength.
Thermal Design
Insulation
All buildings must comply with energy code require-
ments. Such codes establish minimum standards for ther-
mal resistance of wall assemblies for buildings. Increas-
ing the thermal resistance of a wall is usually accom-
plished by adding insulation. Batt-type insulation is typi-
cally placed between studs to increase the thermal resis-
tance of the wall. Rigid insulation can be used on the out-
side of the studs and serves to reduce the thermal bridging
effect at the stud. An example of such a heat transmission
calculation for brick veneer/steel stud walls can be found
in Technical Notes 4. For further information on energy
code compliance, refer to Technical Notes 4B.
Condensation
Experience has shown that most water or moisture
found between steel studs in a brick veneer/steel stud
9
wall can be attributed to condensation. Condensation
occurs at the point in the wall where the temperature
gradient and latent moisture exceed the dew point. If
this point is within the drainage cavity, then the conden-
sation will find its way out of the wall via the drainage
system. However, if it is on the inside of the steel stud
wall, then it may dampen or eventually saturate sur-
rounding materials and may lead to further problems.
Consequently, it is recommended that a condensation
analysis be conducted to determine if the potential for
condensation exists in a wall. If results indicate that it
may occur, then the wall design should be changed.
This is usually accomplished by adding rigid board in-
sulation inside the cavity between the brick and the ex-
terior sheathing to increase the thermal resistance of the
wall or by installing an air barrier or vapor retarder to
decrease air and vapor movement through the wall. See
Technical Notes 7C and 7D for further information.
SELECTION OF MATERIALS
Brick
Brick are usually selected on the basis of their ap-
pearance which include color, texture and size. To as-
sure quality, brick units should conform to one of the
following: ASTM C 216 Specification for Facing Brick,
ASTM C 652 Specification for Hollow Brick, ASTM C
1405 Specification for Glazed Brick (Single Fired, Sol-
id Units) or ASTM C 126 Specification for Ceramic
Glazed Structural Clay Facing Tile, Facing Brick and
Solid Masonry Units. All brick units should be of
Grade SW. The use of salvaged brick is not recom-
mended since such brick may not bond properly with
mortar and may be less durable. For further informa-
tion on brick specifications and salvaged brick, see
Technical Notes 9 Series and 15 respectively.
Mortar
Mortar plays an important role in the flexural
strength of a brick veneer wythe. Out-of-plane strength
tests of full-scale walls indicate that the bond between
mortar and brick units is the most important single fac-
tor affecting wall strength when resisting horizontal
joint cracking. Mortar should conform to ASTM C 270
Specification for Mortar for Unit Masonry. A designer
should select the lowest compressive strength mortar
that is compatible with the structural requirements of a
project. The compatibility between a particular brick
and mortar should be examined when determining mor-
tar type. Flexural bond strength of a particular
brick/mortar combination can be determined using
ASTM C 1357 Test Methods for Evaluating Masonry
Bond Strength. Type N mortar is suitable for most ve-
neer brickwork, except in areas where wind loads ex-
ceed 25 psf (1.2 kPa) or brick are below grade, where
Type S mortar should be used. Type S mortar is recom-
mended where a high degree of flexural resistance is re-
quired and may be required in areas of higher seismic
activity. Admixtures and additives for workability are
not recommended since they can potentially weaken the
mortar. Admixtures containing chlorides should never
be used since they could greatly increase the probability
of efflorescence and corrosion. For more information,
refer to Technical Notes 8 Series.
Steel Studs
Steel studs should be a minimum of 0.043 in. (1.1
mm) thick steel or 18 gage to provide sufficient thickness
to engage the threads of the screw. Studs should have a
protective coating conforming to one of the following
ASTM standards: 1) ASTM A 653/653M Specification
for Steel Sheet, Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) or Zinc-Iron
Alloy-Coated (Galvannealed) by the Hot-Dip Process
with a minimum G90/Z275 coating designation 2)
ASTM A 875/875M Specification for Steel Sheet, Zinc-
5% Aluminum Alloy-Coated by the Hot-Dip Process
with a minimum GF90/ZGF275 coating designation.
Sheathing
Exterior sheathing on steel studs should be rigid and
suitably fastened with corrosion-resistant screws. The
sheathing should be one of the following: exterior grade
or water-resistant fiberglass faced gypsum sheathing or
cement board, not less than 1/2 in. (13 mm) in thickness;
exterior grade plywood, not less than 3/8 in. (10 mm)
thick; or closed-cell insulating rigid foam not less than 1Ú2
in. (13 mm) thick conforming to ASTM C 578 Specifica-
tion for Rigid, Cellular Polystyrene Thermal Insulation.
Screws
A minimum #10 self-tapping screw is recommended.
Screws used to attach exterior sheathing and ties can be
either carbon steel or stainless steel. Carbon steel
screws should have a non-corrosive coating of zinc,
polymer or composite zinc-polymer. Zinc-plated
screws should be either mechanical-zinc plated accord-
ing to ASTM B 695 Specification for Coatings of Zinc
Mechanically Deposited on Iron and Steel or electro-
zinc plated in accordance with ASTM B 633 Specifica-
tion for Electrodeposited Coatings of Zinc on Iron and
Steel. Polymer-coated screws do not have the self-
healing properties of zinc, although they can offer ac-
ceptable, long-term protection. A composite zinc-poly-
mer coating offers superior protection to either coating
alone. Stainless steel screws are acceptable even
though a galvanic potential exists between stainless
steel and carbon steel. This is possible because of an
area-relationship principle where the surface area of the
steel stud is much larger than that of the screw which
results in a decreased corrosion potential. Copper-coat-
ed screws are not recommended since they can react
galvanically with steel studs having zinc coatings.
Screws incorporating an integral EPDM or neoprene
sealing washer under the screw head for added water re-
sistance are recommended. Due to the area-relationship
principle mentioned above, when stainless steel screws
are used with carbon steel ties, sealing washers are
highly recommended.
10
Ties
Two-piece adjustable ties with a minimum wire size
of W1.7 (MW 11) with a diameter of 0.1483 in. (3.77
mm) should be used. Eye and pintle adjustable ties
should have a minimum wire size of W2.8 (MW 18)
with a diameter of 3Ú16 in. (4.8 mm). Wire ties are avail-
able in a variety of standard lengths from 3 to 5 in. (75
to 125 mm) and diameters from 0.1483 to 0.2500 in.
(3.77 to 6.35 mm). Ties with formed drips in the wire
should not be used since they have reduced load capaci-
ty. Corrugated ties should not be used in conjunction
with steel stud backing. They may not fully engage the
stud upon initial loading and do not have sufficient
compressive capacity for the given air space.
Ties should be hot-dipped galvanized in accordance
with Class B-2 of ASTM A 153/153M Specification for
Zinc Coating (Hot-Dip) on Iron and Steel Hardware. In
addition, ties should have a maximum horizontal out-
of-plane mechanical play of 1Ú16 in. (1.6 mm) and should
not deform over 0.05 in. (1.2 mm) for 100-lb load in ei-
ther tension or compression.
Ties incorporating an EPDM sealing membrane be-
tween the sheathing or insulation and the wall base of
the tie should be considered for superior water resis-
tance. Prongs at each end of an adjustable tie base (see
Fig. 6) may also be considered to provide a mechanical
connection between the tie and the stud. These prongs
provide positive, independent anchorage in the event of
long-term deterioration of sheathing or insulation and
prevent compression of the insulation or sheathing.
When using a prong-leg base, a modified asphalt pad
with self-adhesive is recommended. This pad is in-
stalled under the tie base and will seal openings created
by the prongs and screws in the sheathing or insulation.
Moisture Barrier
A moisture barrier is required and can be provided by
No. 15 asphalt felt (building paper), certain high-densi-
ty polyethylene or polypropylene plastics (housewraps)
and certain water-resistant sheathings with fiberglass
facings. No. 15 asphalt felt should comply with Type I
of ASTM D 226 Specification for Asphalt-Saturated
Organic Felt Used in Roofing and Waterproofing.
Some plastic membranes (housewraps) may have
qualities similar to those of a moisture barrier, but as-
certaining the effectiveness of a particular plastic as a
moisture barrier can be difficult. While felts tend to
seal themselves when penetrated by fasteners, plastics
may not. In addition, some plastic membranes also act
as vapor retarders trapping water vapor inside the stud
wall where it can condense if the temperature gradient
in the wall drops below the dew point. The length of
time a plastic membrane will be exposed to ultraviolet
(UV) sunlight should also be considered. Most show
serious degradation with 3 to 12 months exposure to
UV rays. Thus, all plastic membranes should not be re-
garded as equivalent and caution should be used when
specifying them as a moisture barrier.
 Water-resistant sheathings with integral membranes
must be completely sealed with tape or sealant to per-
form as moisture barriers. This means components pro-
viding this seal must maintain their integrity and perfor-
mance when subjected to moisture and other environ-
mental conditions over the life of the wall. These
sheathing systems should also allow for the transmis-
sion of vapor unless a vapor retarder is required.
Air Barriers and Vapor Retarders
Where analysis indicates a probability of condensa-
tion, an air barrier or vapor retarder should be provided.
Air barriers are plastic membrane made of polyethy-
lene, polypropylene or polyolefin. Most allow the
transmission of vapor, while some also act as air barri-
ers. Since there is no current ASTM standard specifi-
cally for air barriers, different manufacturers provide
data based on different standards, including ASTM D
726 Test Methods for Resistance of Nonporous Paper to
Passage of Air and ASTM E 283 Test Method for De-
termining the Rate of Air Leakage Through Exterior
Windows, Curtain Walls, and Doors Under Specified
Pressure. When a standard is published, it will set min-
imum performance criteria for air leakage, structural in-
tegrity, bulk-water resistance and water-vapor resis-
tance. However, until the standard is adopted, caution
should be exercised when specifying air barriers.
Vapor retarders are made of materials similar to air
barriers. While some air barriers will also inhibit vapor
transfer, all vapor retarders can be air barriers if they
are installed and thoroughly sealed with no tears or
holes. Currently, no standards for vapor retarders exist
although some manufacturers cite test data based on
ASTM E 96 Test Methods for Water Vapor Transmis-
sion of Materials. However, this test does not account
for fastener penetrations or joints in the retarder. Mate-
rials which qualify as vapor retarders should have a
perm rating of 1 or less.
Lintels and Shelf Angles
Steel for lintels and shelf angles should conform to
ASTM A 36/A36M Specification for Carbon Structural
Steel. Steel angles should be a minimum of 1Ú4 in. (6.3
mm) thick. All angles should be painted as a minimum
to inhibit corrosion. Galvanized and stainless steel an-
gles should be considered in harsh environments such
as coastal areas.
Flashing
Flashing material should be waterproof and durable.
It should be sufficiently tough and flexible so as to re-
sist puncture and cracking. In addition, it should not be
subject to deterioration from exposure to ultraviolet
(UV) light or when in contact with metal parts, mortar,
sealants or water. Flashing should also be compatible
with adjacent adhesives and sealants. Flashings used in
a wall system with water-resistant sheathing as the
moisture barrier should be self-adhesive. Flashing mate-
rials are generally formed from sheet metals, bitumi-
11
nous-coated membranes, plastics or combinations there-
of. The selection is largely determined by cost and suit-
ability. Acceptable bituminous membranes do not in-
clude asphalt-impregnated felt. It is suggested that only
superior materials be selected, since replacement in the
event of failure is extremely expensive. See Technical
Notes 7A Revised and Engineering & Research Digest
Through-Wall Flashing.
Sealants
Sealants should be selected for their durability, exten-
sibility, compressibility and their compatibility with
other materials. A sealant should be able to maintain
these qualities under the temperature extremes of the
climate in which the building is located. Sealant mate-
rials should be selected to comply with ASTM C 920
Specification for Elastomeric Joint Sealants. Specific
sealants recommended for brick include polysulfide,
solvent release acrylic, silicone and urethane sealants.
A sealant primer may be required before applying some
sealants on certain brick to preclude staining. Since
acetoxic silicone will attack cement in mortar, it should
not be applied to masonry. Oil-based caulks should not
be used since they may stain the adjacent brickwork.
Backer rods should be placed behind all sealant
joints. They should be closed-cell plastic foam or
sponge rubber. Backer rods should be capable of resist-
ing permanent deformation before and during sealant
application, non-absorbent to liquid water and gas, and
should not emit gas which may cause bubbling of the
sealant. A bond breaking tape may be required with
some types of backer rods. For further information on
sealants, refer to ASTM C 1193 Guide for Use of Joint
Sealants.
CONSTRUCTION
Storage of Materials
All materials at the job site should be stored off the
ground and under adequate cover to prevent deteriora-
tion and contamination. Cements and lime should be
kept dry. Foreign material must be kept out of sand.
Brick should not be placed directly on the ground to
preclude any potential staining from the earth.
Workmanship
Some device for measuring sand should be used
when mortar is mixed at the job site. Only full bags of
cements and lime should be added to the mixer unless
accurate volumetric measurements are used. Re-tem-
pering of mortar by adding water is permitted as neces-
sary to maintain consistency. Colored mortars should
not be retempered due to the possibility of changing the
color during the process. All mortar should be used
within 21Ú2 hours of mixing. See Technical Notes 8B for
further information on controls for mixing mortar.
Brick which have an initial rate of absorption (suction)
of more than 30 g/min/30 in.2 (1.55 kg/min/m2) should
be wetted and permitted to surface dry prior to laying
when using mortar cement or masonry cement unless
portland cement lime mortar is used. This will increase
the bond between the mortar and the brick by slowing the
absorption of water from the mortar. For additional in-
formation, refer to Technical Notes 7B Revised.
Hot or cold weather protection may be necessary if
temperatures are above 90 ¼F (32.2 ¼C) or below 40 ¼F
(4.4 ¼C). For summer construction when temperatures
are above 90 ¼F (32.2 ¼C) and wind exceeds 8 mph
(12.9 km/hr), mortar should be used within 2 hours of
mixing and finished brickwork may need to be fog
sprayed with water. For winter construction with tem-
peratures below 40 ¼F (4.4 ¼C), brick units should be at
least 20 ¼F (-6.7 ¼C) or above when mortared in a brick
wall. Mortar must not be frozen and should have a tem-
perature between 40 ¼F (4.4 ¼C) and 120 ¼F (48.9 ¼C)
when placed. Additional wind breaks and enclosures
may be necessary within certain lower temperature
ranges. For further information, see Technical Notes 1
Series in addition to the Hot and Cold Weather Mason-
ry Construction Manual. [Ref. 4]
Care should be taken to fill all mortar joints com-
pletely, including head joints. Conversely, any location
not intended to receive mortar, such as air spaces, weep
holes and expansion joints, should be kept clean and
free of mortar and mortar droppings. Mortar joints
should be properly tooled to enhance the water resis-
tance of the wall by consolidating the mortar. Joints
should be tooled when thumbprint hard with a jointer
tool slightly larger than the joint. Concave, ÒVÓ or
grapevine mortar joints are the most water resistant
since they do not provide a ledge for water to remain on
the brickwork.
Protection
Protection of the unfinished wall in place is extreme-
ly important. The entry of rain or snow into brickwork
in progress may increase the potential for efflorescence
and distress in the finished wall. Wind screens and en-
closures may also be necessary in hot or cold weather.
MAINTENANCE
Most brick masonry walls are virtually maintenance
free. If they are properly designed, detailed and con-
structed, maintenance becomes less critical. However,
brick veneer/steel stud wall systems should be inspected
periodically to ascertain performance and identify any
potential problems. Inspections should be performed
on an annual basis as a minimum and ideally on a sea-
sonal basis (see Technical Notes 7F). Such an inspec-
tion should address sealant joints, plumbness of the
wall, cracking, etc. In this way, repairs and corrections
can be initiated prior to the occurrence of severe prob-
lems.
25MÓB.I.A. 11/99
SUMMARY
This Technical Notes is one of a series which deals
with brick veneer. This issue is primarily concerned
with the design and construction of the brick
veneer/steel stud wall system used as exterior walls in
other than residential construction.
The information and suggestions contained in this
Technical Notes are based on the available data and on
the experience of the engineering staff of the Brick In-
dustry Association. The information contained herein
must be used in conjunction with good technical judg-
ment and a basic understanding of the properties of
brick masonry. Final decisions on the use of the infor-
mation contained in this Technical Notes are not within
the purview of the Brick Industry Association and must
rest with the project architect, engineer and owner.
REFERENCES
1. Arumala, J.O., Brown, R.H., Performance Eval-
uation of Brick Veneer with Steel Stud Backup,
College of Engineering, Clemson University,
Clemson, SC, 1982.
2. Building Code Requirements for Masonry Struc-
tures (ACI 530-99/ASCE 5-99/TMS 402-99),
The Masonry Society, Boulder, CO, 1999.
3. Exterior Wall Construction in High-Rise Build-
ings, Canada Mortgage and Housing Corpora-
tion, Ottawa, Ontario, 1991.
4. Hot and Cold Weather Masonry Construction,
Masonry Industry Council, Lombard, IL, 1999.
5. KPFF Consulting Engineers and Computech En-
gineering Services, Report on Behavior and De-
sign of Anchored Brick Veneer/Metal Stud Sys-
tems, September, 1989.
6. McGinley, W.M., Warwaruk, J., Longworth, J.,
Hatzinikolas, M., Masonry Veneer Wall Systems,
Structural Engineering Report #156, Department
of Civil Engineering, University of Alberta, Jan-
uary, 1988.
7. Rutila, Dean A., ÒInnovations in Brick VeneerÓ,
The Construction Specifier, Vol. 51, No. 11, Oc-
tober, 1998.
8. ÒSelf Drilling Fasteners Ð The BasicsÓ, The Con-
struction Specifier, Vol. 42, No. 9, August 1989.
9. Seminar on Brick Veneer Wall Systems, Canada
Mortgage and Housing Corporation, Ottawa,
Ontario, June, 1989.
10. Specification for the Design of Cold-Formed
Steel Structural Members, American Iron and
Steel Institute, Washington, DC, 1996.
11. Tuluca, Adrian, ÒThermal Bridges in BuildingsÓ,
The Construction Specifier, Vol. 49, No. 11, Oc-
tober, 1996.
 Technical Notes 28C

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
Reissued*
February
1990

THIN BRICK VENEER

INTRODUCTION

Abstract: This Technical Notes is an introduction to thin brick veneer, and covers the brick units, several appli-
cation procedures and its advantages and disadvantages. It is not the purpose of this Technical Notes to cover
all aspects of the use of thin brick veneer, nor to make specific recommendations for installation. Future issues
on the topic of thin brick veneer will address, in detail, design, detailing and construction requirements.

Key Words: adhered veneer, brick, panels, prefabrication, thick set, thin brick, thin set.

INTRODUCTION concrete panel. Another procedure involves bonding thin

This Technical Notes addresses thin fired clay units,
often referred to as thin brick, as interior or exterior wall
coverings: Thin brick veneer is a relatively new product
which is seeing increasing popularity in commercial, resi-
dential and do-it-yourself markets. The kinds of thin brick
units discussed are formed from shale and/or clay, and
are kiln-fired. These thin brick units are much like facing
brick (ASTM C 216), except they are approximately 1/2 to
1 in. (12 to 25 mm) thick. The face sizes are normally the
same as conventional brick and therefore, when in place,
give the appearance of a conventional brick masonry wall.
ASTM C 1088 Thin Veneer Brick Units made from Clay or
Shale covers two grades for exposure conditions to
weather which are defined as Exterior and Interior. The
three types of thin veneer brick are based on appearance
and are defined as TBS, TBX and TBA. Minimum com-
pressive strengths are not required in C 1088 as there is
no way to test thin brick in compression.
There were early uses of thin brick. In the early
1950's, the Structural Clay Products Research Foundation
(now the Brick Institute of America) began the develop-
ment of "SCR Re-Nu-Veneer", a 3/4 in. (19 mm) thick
fired clay unit which had Norman size nominal face
dimensions (2 - 2/3 in. by 12 in. [68 mm by 305 mm]).
The decision to begin development of this product was
due to marketing research which recognized remodeling
and reveneering areas as substantial markets for a thin
clay veneer wall covering. In addition to developing the
thin units, the Foundation developed special clips to
attach the units to an existing wall, mortar for grouting the
joints and a power-driven grouting gun. Locations were
chosen to test the product, manufacturers were licensed
to produce the units and applicators were licensed to
install the "Re-Nu-Veneer". After approximately 4 years of
effort, work was discontinued on the project.
Today, thin brick are being installed using a variety of
procedures. In Japan and in the United States, thin brick
have been placed into forms and cast integrally with con-
crete, thus providing a very attractive architectural precast
*Originally published in January 1986, this Technical Notes has been reviewed and reissued with editorial changes.
brick to a 16 in. by 48 in. (406 mm by 1220 mm) sub-
strate, resulting in small, lightweight, easily installed mod-
ular panels. Ceramic tile installation techniques are often
used to install the brick units, either at the jobsite or on
prefabricated panels, and homeowners are renovating
with do-it-yourself thin brick products.
This Technical Notes addresses thin brick units, sev-
eral methods for installing thin brick, as well as some of
the advantages and disadvantages of thin brick veneer.
THIN BRICK UNITS
Thin brick are available in various sizes, colors and
textures. The most commonly found face size is standard
modular with nominal dimensions of 2-2/3 in. by 8 in. (68
mm by 203 mm). The actual face dimensions vary slightly
among manufacturers, but are typically 3/8 in. to 1/2 in.
(10 mm to 13 mm) less than the nominal dimensions.
The economy size unit is 50% longer and higher, but this
difference goes virtually unnoticed since the aspect ratio
(length to height) is the same for both the standard and
the economy modular units. The economy modular face
size, 4 in. by 12 in. (102 mm by 305 mm), is popular for
use in large buildings because productivity is increased,
and the unit's size decreases the number of visible mortar
joints, thus giving large walls a more pleasing appearance
by reducing the visual scale of the wall. Other sizes, such
as Norwegian, 3-in. (76 mm), non-modular, oversize, etc.,
may be available. Table 1 contains face sizes of several
modular brick units; however, thin brick may not be avail-
able in each size. It is advisable to check with individual
manufacturers or distributors regarding sizes available in
a particular area. Figure 1 illustrates the various types of
thin brick units.
As with all other fired clay or shale products, color
depends on the chemical composition of the raw material,
the intensity of firing and controls used in the firing. The
color ranges for thin brick units are as unlimited as those
 TABLE 1 METHODS OF THIN BRICK INSTALLATION
Nominal Modular Face Sizes of Brick
Adhered Veneer
Face Dimensions Adhered veneer relies on a bonding agent between
Unit Designation Number of the thin brick units and the backup substrate. Adhered
Height Length Courses in veneer construction may be classified as either thin bed
in. in. 16 in. set or thick bed set.
Thin Set. The thin bed set procedure typically utilizes
Standard 2 2/3 8 6 an epoxy or organic adhesive, and is normally used on
Engineer 3 1/5 8 5 interior surfaces only. For areas subject to dampness,
Economy 8 or
only clear and dry masonry surfaces or concrete surfaces
Jumbo Closure 4 8 4
Double 5 1/3 8
should be used for backup. For dry locations, the backing
3
Roman 2 12 8
material (substrate) may be wood, wallboard, masonry,
Norman 2 2/3 12 6 etc. A cross-section depicting a wood frame wall upon
Norwegian 3 1/5 12 5 which thin brick veneer (thin set procedure) is installed is
Economy 12 or shown in Fig. 2.
Jumbo Utility 4 12 4
Triple 5 1/3 12 3

for other fired clay brick. The texture of thin brick units
depends on the method of manufacture and the surface
treatment used prior to firing. Also, some manufacturers
provide glazed thin brick units.
The physical properties, such as modulus of rupture
and compressive strength of the thin units, depend on the
raw materials and methods of molding or forming the
units. Fire resistance properties of thin brick construction
have not been evaluated. But, because the units are
made from fire clay or shale, it is likely that the overall Thin Set Interior Finish Over Wallboard
performance of a wall system would be improved as com- FIG. 2
pared to non-masonry sidings. Thermal resistivity of thin
Thick Set. The thick bed set procedure is used on inte-
brick is probably not significantly different than that of
rior and exterior surfaces. The backing material may be
solid face brick; however, because of the unit's thickness,
masonry, concrete, steel or wood stud framing. The thick
the overall resistance would be very little. Likewise,
bed setting procedure over concrete masonry is illustrated in
because of the thickness, the units would contribute little
Fig. 3. The wire lath shown in Fig. 3 may be eliminated if
mass for thermal storage.
the masonry wall is heavily scarified (sand-blasted).
Primarily, thin brick functions as an architectural wall
(Williams, Griffith, Jr., “New Bricklike Tile Veneer,” Building
covering that has the maintenance-free benefits of con-
Standards, July-August, 1982). For applications over steel
ventional brick masonry. Secondarily, thin brick will pro-
studs, procedures are similar to those used for concrete or
vide some protection to the material over which it is
masonry backup; however, wallboard and building felt must
applied. In comparison to conventional brick masonry,
be installed over the studs before the lath and mortar bed
thin brick will have less fire resistance, sound resistance,
are placed. Thick bed setting of thin brick over steel studs is
structural strength, thermal mass or insulation properties.
shown in Fig. 4.
Prefabrication
Prefabrication, utilizing thin brick veneer units, has
been accomplished using the "casting" method. This
process involves the combination of thin brick, grout
and/or concrete cast into a prefabricated panel (similar to
architectural pre-cast concrete). This process requires
the use of forms, a method of placing the units, and a
system for grouting. The usual practice is to place the
units face down into a form (or waffle mold), and place a
very fluid grout over the back surface of the units. The
grout flows into the space between the units, thus forming
the appearance of mortar joints (see Fig. 5). Concrete
and reinforcement are placed over the grout to provide
structural support. The installation of a completed panel
Thin Brick Units is shown in Fig. 6.
FIG. 1

2
 Thick Set Method Over Masonry
FIG. 3

Thick Set Method Over Steel Stud Framing

FIG. 4

3
 Grouting Over Back Surface of Thin Brick Panel
FIG. 5
The use of steel studs and the thick bed setting pro-
cedure is another method of prefabrication with thin brick
(see Figs. 4, 7 and 8). The use of thin brick for prefabri-
cation of this type results in panels which are lighter than
many of the conventional prefabricated panel systems.
There are several advantages of prefabrication over
laid-in-place masonry. By using panelized construction,
the need for on-site scaffolding is eliminated, which can
be a significant cost savings in masonry construction. If
an off-site plant is used, the work and storage areas for
materials at the jobsite are reduced, resulting in a less
congested jobsite. If proper scheduling of delivery is
maintained, the panels can be erected as they are deliv-
ered, eliminating any need for panel storage at the site.
One of the distinct advantages of the factory set-up is that
it permits year-round work and multi-shift workdays. The
use of prefabricated masonry may eliminate the need for,
or actually provide, the means of winterizing the structure.
The use of panelization makes possible the fabrica-
tion of complex wall shapes. These shapes can be
accomplished with ease. Complicated shapes with
returns, soffits, arches, etc., are accomplished by using
jigs, forms and templates. Repetitive usage of these
shapes can lower costs appreciably.
Erection of Panel
FIG. 6
4
Positioning Prefabricated Panel
FIG. 7
Prefabrication allows for the use of stringent quality con-
trol. Mortar batching systems can be tightly controlled, and
curing conditions, temperature and humidity can also be
controlled. Panelization on some projects may save con-
struction time. It is possible for the masonry panels to be
built before ground-breaking for the project, thus keeping far
enough ahead of the in-place construction work to permit
panel erection when needed.
As with any construction method, prefabrication has
inherent advantages as well as disadvantages. The use of
prefabricated brick masonry is limited to use with certain
types of construction. The designer should be aware of the
limitations of prefabricated masonry. The size of brick
masonry panels is limited primarily by transportation and
erection requirements. Architectural plan layout may, in
some cases, preclude the use of prefabricated brick mason-
ry. Another disadvantage of prefabricated brick masonry, as
in other panel systems, is the absence of adjustment capa-
bilities during the construction process. In-place masonry
construction permits the craftsman to build masonry to fit the
other elements of the structure by adjusting joint thicknesses
over a large area so that they are not noticeable. This is not
Electric Winch Used to Lower Panels Over Edge of Slab
FIG. 8
possible with prefabricated elements. The use of prefabricat-
ed elements sometimes requires that other trades build to
accuracies beyond the standard construction tolerances of
those trades.
Thin Brick Panel
FIG. 9
Modular Panels
A relatively new method of thin brick application is
becoming popular in the United States and Canada.
Modular panels are produced by several different compa-
nies and each system differs slightly. Basically, thin brick
units are adhered to modular panels in the factory, or at
the jobsite. The modular panels have dimensions of
approximately 16 in. by 48 in. (406 mm by 1220 mm), as
shown in Fig. 9. The backing materials to which the brick
units are adhered may consist of polystyrene,
polyurethane, cementitious board, asphalt-impregnated
fiber board, plywood, aluminum, or a combination of these
materials, depending on the manufacturer.
The panels weigh approximately 35 lb (16 Kg), which
is light enough for one person to handle easily.
Installation techniques vary only slightly among the differ-
ent manufacturers. At the time of this writing (1985) most,
but not all, systems require that the head and bed joints
between the thin brick units be grouted after the panels
are secured to the supporting wall.
The application of the modular panels is illustrated in
Fig. 10. Since the construction materials and application
methods vary among manufacturers, the user must select
the panel with installation techniques and materials which
best fit the job requirements. Measures must be taken to
prevent water penetration and subsequent corrosion,
especially for multi-story buildings which are subjected to
severe weather conditions.
BUILDING CODE ACCEPTANCE
The model building codes (Building Officials and Code
Administrators, International, 4051 West Flossmoor Road,
Country Club Hills, Illinois; Southern Building Code
5
Congress International, Inc., 900 Montclair Road,
Birmingham, Alabama; International Conference of
Building Officials, 5360 South Workman Mill Road,
Whittier, California) do not specifically address the usage
of thin brick veneer in all of the methods of installation
mentioned in this Technical Notes. Thick set and thin set
adhered veneer have been used for many years with thin
brick units, ceramic tile and architectural terra cotta; there-
fore, these methods are addressed in the model codes.
The other methods, such as prefabrication or modular
panels, may have to be approved on a case-by-case
basis, through research compliance reports from the vari-
ous model code agencies, or through code changes.
Modular Panels Over Frame Construction
FIG. 10
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
OF THIN BRICK VENEER
Some of the advantages of thin brick veneer are:
1. Interior thin brick veneer finishes can be applied by
homeowners or other moderately skilled craftsmen.
2. Thin brick veneer is more durable and longer last-
ing than aluminum, wood or vinyl sidings.
3. Prefabrication with thin brick veneer is easily and
economically done.
4. Better sound and fire resistance properties may be
obtained using thin brick veneer than with some non-
masonry sidings.
5. Thin brick units are more durable than imitation brick
units made from gypsum, cement or plastics.
6. Walls built with thin brick units are lighter in weight
than conventional masonry veneer.
7. Cleanup costs often incurred in conventional brick
veneer construction may be reduced.
8. Year-round installation is possible.
9. May be used where structural support for convention-
al brick veneer is not available.
 Some of the disadvantages of thin brick veneer are:
1. The durability and overall quality of thin brick veneer
systems may not be equivalent to conventional brick
veneer.
2. Thin brick veneer does not provide the structural
properties of conventional brick veneer.
3. Sound and fire resistance properties are less than
those of conventional brick masonry veneer.
4. Thin brick veneer does not provide the thermal
mass of conventional brick veneer.

SUMMARY
This Technical Notes has discussed a relatively new
product in the masonry industry - thin brick veneer. Walls
faced with thin brick veneer may look like conventional
brick masonry walls, yet weigh considerably less. Thin
brick veneer is popular with homeowners for redecorating
or renovating because the homeowners can obtain an
attractive finish and may do the work themselves.
Thin units are also used in commercial construction,
applied one unit at a time, or applied in large prefabricat-
ed panels. Small, lightweight, interlocking modular panels
are available and are installed as a siding. Thin brick
veneer can provide the same architectural effects as con-
ventional brick masonry, but does not have the same
structural, thermal or fire resistance qualities.
The information contained in this Technical Notes is
based on the available data and the experience of the
technical staff of the Brick Institute of America. Final deci-
sions on the use of information, details and materials as
discussed in this Technical Notes are not within the
purview of the Brick Institute of America and must rest
with the project designer, owner, or both.

6
 29
Technical Notes REVISED

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
July
1994

BRICK IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE

PEDESTRIAN APPLICATIONS
Abstract: This Technical Notes describes brick paving systems used in landscape de-
sign. Landscape architecture and its relationship to brick masonry is covered. Master plan-
ning and environmental aspects of landscape architecture are briefly discussed. Applications
covered include patios, walks, steps and ramps. Materials and methods of construction of
flexible and rigid paving applications, citing the most critical requirements, are outlined.

Key Words: landscape architecture, patios, pavements, ramps, steps, terraces.

INTRODUCTION parameters. Material and system selections are usually

Landscape architecture is the planning and design of
elements relating to the land, including trees, plants,
paving, streets and sometimes structures. The design
must take into account all of these elements and their
relation to each other. Brick as a landscape material is
an important design element. Brick paving applications
can be used to create a pathway through the landscape,
delineating pedestrian elements from natural elements.
Since brick is made from the earth and is small in scale,
it fits into many landscaping plans.
This Technical Notes covers the topic of brick as it
relates to landscape architecture. It also covers
environmental issues concerning the use of brick and
brick paving systems in landscaping. Paving
applications addressed include patios, walks, steps and
ramps. Design, installation and material selections are
discussed. Other installation practices that must be
considered, but are not included in this Technical Notes,
are edging, expansion joints and membranes. Other
Technical Notes in this series cover garden walls and
other miscellaneous landscape applications. Paving
systems and related issues are discussed in more detail
in the Technical Notes 14 Series [5,6].
LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
The art of landscape architecture is more than the
placement of trees and shrubs. Often it involves the de-
velopment and planning of large areas within cities and
suburban areas. This is typically organized through the
development of a master plan. Alternately, landscaping
may be on a much smaller scale, as in the design of a
small garden. The landscape architect must always con-
sider certain issues, including aesthetics, harmony, con-
tinuity/unity, accessibility, economy and other design
based on these issues.
Materials can be broadly classified as either land-
scape materials or hardscape materials. Landscape ma-
terials include trees, plants, grasses, soil and gravel.
Hardscape materials include brick, stone, concrete and
other hard materials. A comprehensive landscape plan
usually combines both landscape and hardscape fea-
tures.
Master Planning
The landscape architect plays a much larger role with
all land development issues today than in the past.
Buildings and their relationship and integration into the
site have become increasingly important design issues.
This may apply to entire subdivisions and cities as well.
A master plan is usually developed to incorporate all el-
ements into a comprehensive land development design.
Master plans will dictate where open spaces should be
located and locations of buildings, pavements and
walks. Brick can play an important part in the develop-
ment of master plans since it can be used as a common
thread throughout an entire project. This includes walls,
pavements, fountains, planters, fences, steps and other
miscellaneous landscape uses. Continuity throughout
the project can be achieved by using brick in many of
these applications.
Environmental Issues
There is now more pressure than ever to consider the
environmental effects of a particular landscape plan. A
movement, often termed “sustainable development”,
considers the environmental impact of land develop-
ment before, during and after design. Environmental is-
sues, such as storm water runoff and the lack of water,
are becoming more important as landscape architects
look more closely at potentially threatening issues.
Sustainable Development. Sustainable develop-
ment can be defined as development that meets the
needs of the present without compromising the future.
In the past, sites were often dramatically altered without
adequate consideration of the environmental impact.
As with all designs, compromises must be made to
achieve the design requirements. Sustainable develop-
ment takes into account the effects of materials used in
the landscaping plan on the environment. The embod-
ied energy and the effects of the manufacturing of the
material on the environment are closely considered.
Brick is a material made from clay and shale, some of
the earth’s most abundant materials. The energy used
to make brick, which is termed its embodied energy, is
less than that of concrete, steel and many other materi-
als [3]. Since brick is inert, it does not pose any long-
term environmental threats.
Water Issues. Environmental concerns have been
raised regarding both storm water runoff and the lack of
water in some areas. When many parts of the landscape
are being covered by impermeable surfaces, storm wa-
ter runoff becomes a larger problem. The amount of
water that drains off of a shopping center parking lot,
for example, can be quite large causing flooding or ero-
sion. Thus, the size of storm sewers and catch basins
must be increased in size accordingly, putting more
stress on the infrastructure. Conversely, some areas of
the country are so arid, they cannot support plant life.
Porous Pavements - Most hardscaping materials,
such as concrete or asphalt, will not allow water back
into the ground. This is also true of rigid (mortared)
brick pavements and some flexible (mortarless) brick
pavements over an impermeable base. These systems
can have a negative effect in urban areas which include
trees as a part of the urban landscape. Trees can die due
to lack of water and nutrients when surrounded by im-
pervious hardscapes. In an effort to provide water for
trees, grates have been used, but their small size can in-
hibit proper tree growth. Soil and mulch have also been
used around trees, but usually become compacted and
allow rain to evaporate away too quickly. When water
infiltration into the ground is desired, a pavement which
allows water to percolate back into the ground should
be used [4]. One alternative that can help water infiltra-
tion and reduce storm water runoff is the use of porous
pavements.
A porous pavement allows water to filter through it,
percolate back into the ground and replenish the ground
water. In most cases, mortarless brick paving over an
aggregate base can be constructed to allow water to per-
colate into the ground. However, to allow more perco-
lation to occur, the pavement must have joints between
the pavers at least 1⁄4 in. (6 mm) wide. The joints allow
water to enter easily and permeate to the base. The
base should be an open-graded aggregate, such as free-
draining gravel or sand, to allow percolation. Although
2
porous pavements allow storm water runoff to be di-
rected back into the ground water system, it may go
against usual pavement design practice. In a flexible
brick pavement, it is desirable to have a dense base to
resist loads from traffic above and from frost heave
from below. Using an open-graded base may not pro-
vide the stable base that is needed.
To use an open-graded base under brick paving,
some simple recommendations must be followed. The
open-graded base must be compacted appropriately.
Guidelines exist for the proper construction of open-
graded bases [6]. A membrane, such as a geotextile or
filter fabric membrane, must be placed between the
sand setting bed and the open-graded base to avoid set-
tling of the sand into the voids of the base. A geotextile
may also be required between the base and the soil or
subgrade to prevent soil from pumping up into the base.
The size of the joints can be problematic when large
amounts of water constantly run across the pavement.
Jointing sand may wash out in areas when the joints are
larger than 1⁄4 in. (6 mm). Another issue to consider is
that interlock of the pavers will not be achieved when
the joints are larger than 1⁄4 in. (6 mm). Interlock of the
pavement occurs when the pavers are compacted into
the sand setting bed and the entire pavement - i.e.
pavers, setting bed, and base - lock together and act to
withstand the loads as a single element. A flexible
brick paving system can be designed for improved per-
colation, but interlock of the pavement cannot be ex-
pected when sand-filled joints are larger than 1⁄4 in. (6
mm).
Xeriscapes - Xeriscapes are defined as water-effi-
cient landscapes which not only require less water to
grow vegetation, but have a reduced need for mowing,
fertilizing and pesticide application. They may be used
in certain areas of the country, such as parts of Southern
California, Arizona and Nevada, where water supplies
are low or unreliable. Instead of introducing planting
areas that require large amounts of water, it may be pru-
dent to use brick in the place of plants. In this manner,
reliance on the local water system, expensive watering
systems and plant maintenance can be reduced. Wild-
fires in arid regions of the country are another concern
which may require the use of non-combustible materials
adjacent to homes. Brush and shrubs can act as fuel
sources for wildfires. Brick paving adjacent to the
house can act as a fire break. To offset the use of all of
the hardscape materials, patterns are laid in the pave-
ment to give the impression of plantings. Obviously,
this must fit in with the entire landscaping plan.
Aesthetics
One of the most important features that a landscape
architect faces is that of appearance. The look of any
design can evoke strong feelings, good or bad. So it is
important that the aesthetics of the project be examined
closely. As in all architecture, form, color and pattern
are the vehicles for achieving a certain aesthetic appeal.
Brick paving utilizes its variety of size, shape, color and The color of brick pavers range from buffs to dark
pattern to conform to the chosen theme. Brick pavers browns, pinks to deep reds. The pavers can be a uni-
are produced in a variety of sizes. The most common form color or there can be a range of colors. The color
sizes are shown in Table 1. of brick will not fade over time. Different colors can be
arranged within a pavement to achieve a truly dramatic
TABLE 1 look.
Almost any pattern is possible with brick. The pat-
Typical Brick Paver Sizes1
tern can be simple diagonals or more complicated cross
Width, Length, Height, or weave patterns. Different colored units can be used
in. (mm) in. (mm) in. (mm) to create a flow pattern for pedestrian traffic. It may
4 (100) 8 (200)
suggest a special theme used throughout the landscape
plan. The more traditional brick paving patterns are
3 5⁄8 (92) 75⁄8 (194) Varies according to
manufacturer and
shown in Fig. 2. Brick can also be cut to achieve a pat-
31⁄2 (89) 71⁄2 (190) application, tern; although in some cases, specially shaped pavers
usually 11⁄4 (32), 21⁄4 (57), may be used.
7 5⁄8 (194) 75⁄8 (194) 25⁄8 (67) or 23⁄4 (70)

8 (200) 8 (200)

CHAMFER HEIGHT
HEIGHT
(a) RUNNING BOND (b) HERRINGBONE

LENGTH LENGTH
WIDTH WIDTH

1Check with manufacturer for availability of chamfers.

(c) BASKETWEAVE (d) BASKETWEAVE

ALTERNATE
Alternative sizes and shapes of pavers can also be
manufactured or cut from standard units into the desired
shape. For example, radial brick are often used to cre-
ate curves or circles in the pavement, as shown in Fig-
ure 1.
(e) STACK BOND (f) 8 x 8 ON 45° ANGLE

Brick Paving Patterns

FIG. 2
BRICK PAVING SYSTEMS
Brick paving can be classified by two basic systems;
flexible and rigid. Flexible brick pavements usually
consist of mortarless brick paving over a sand setting
bed and an aggregate base. Rigid brick pavements con-
sist of mortared brick paving over a concrete slab.
Mortarless brick paving can be used over any base.
Mortared brick paving must be supported by an ade-
quate concrete slab or the mortar joints or pavers may
crack if the base is not sufficiently rigid. Examples of
flexible and rigid brick pavements are shown in Figs. 3
and 4, respectively.
Although a flexible brick paving system is generally
recommended, there are certain applications where rigid
brick paving is desired. An example is brick steps,
which requires the edges to be mortared together to
Special Brick Shapes keep the brick in place. The major advantages of using
FIG. 1 a flexible pavement include easier repairs to utilities be-

3
 base is often the most critical element for long-term
MORTARLESS BRICK PAVING performance of the paving assembly. Insufficient base
DRAIN
SAND SETTING BED
GEOTEXTILE COMPACTED
thickness or improperly compacted bases will lead to
AGGREGATE BASE undulations (rutting) or cracking of the pavement. Ap-
propriate base thickness depends on the type of loading
and weathering it will receive. Most residential patios
and terraces will only receive pedestrian traffic; there-
fore, the thickness may depend more on its resistance to
frost heave. The minimum recommended base thick-
ness is 4 in. (200 mm) for concrete, asphalt and aggre-
PRESSURE- gate bases. Thicker bases and the use of a subbase may
COMPACTED TREATED
SUBGRADE TIMBER
be required in areas with poor soil conditions or soils
EDGING that are constantly saturated. In these cases, the base
should be increased in thickness based on local require-
Flexible Brick Paving ments.
FIG. 3 Drainage. Drainage is another key design feature
which affects long-term performance. Poor drainage
will allow water to stand on the pavement and saturate
MORTARED the brick pavement. Problems resulting from poor
BRICK PAVING
CONCRETE BASE drainage include deterioration of the paving, moss and
MORTAR
SETTING BED COMPACTED SUBBASE
DRAIN EXPANSION JOINT algae growth and slippery pavements. Therefore, it is
BRICK EDGING important to slope the pavement to keep water from col-
lecting. Primary drainage of all pavements should oc-
cur on the surface. Drainage should occur away from
buildings or other walls. For brick pavements, a slope
of 1⁄8 to 1⁄4 in. per foot (1 to 2 mm per 100 mm) is recom-
mended. Lesser slopes will allow water to accumulate.
COMPACTED SUBGRADE
Steps and ramps must also be sloped to avoid standing
water. Treads of steps should slope 1⁄8 to 1⁄4 in. per foot (1
to 2 mm per 100 mm). Cross-slopes of the pavement
Mortared Brick Paving
help drain water off of the pavement, but the slope
FIG. 4
should not exceed 3 percent. Flexible brick pavements
neath the pavement and usually lower installation costs. may allow some water to percolate down into the
The design of brick paving systems can be rather ground. In this case, subsurface drains may be neces-
complex, depending on the size of the project. Techni - sary to remove water from the system.
cal Notes 14 Series discusses many of the design and Steps and Ramps
construction parameters in more depth than in this Tech - Steps and ramps are used to connect different levels
nical Notes. Only critical or unique information is con- for easy access. Steps have traditionally been used to
tained here. allow movement up and down steep slopes or within
Patios and Walks structures. The size and configuration of steps is gov-
erned by a combination of physical human dimensions
Some of the most widely used features of landscape and aesthetics. Ramps are used on gentle slopes and are
design to which brick is adapted are patios and walks. used to provide access for the physically impaired.
Patios may be outdoor extensions of the indoor living Since ramps have low slopes, they will require more
space and supplement the activities of the occupant. space than steps. Brick has been used successfully in
Patios are often adjacent to living, family or dining all configurations of steps and ramps mainly because it
rooms. Patios may be built as terraces, which are raised is a small element which permits numerous configura-
levels of earth supported on one or more sides by a wall tions. Model building codes often dictate certain crite-
or bank. A terrace is used to extend living space along ria for steps and ramps such as riser-tread relationships
a hillside. and minimum slip resistance. Other design issues that
Walks are often effectively used to provide an inter- should be considered include structural support of the
esting and inviting entrance path to a garden or home. steps or ramps and other safety issues. Steps should be
Walks may be used to define pedestrian travel routes a minimum width of 60 in. (1.5 m) for public spaces, or
and can provide geometric patterns in formal garden 42 in. (1.1 m) for private residences. There should be at
layouts. They can also serve as a path through a natural least two, preferably three or more steps, in a stepped
or garden setting. walkway, since single steps can be overlooked and lead
Bases. The proper design and construction of the to trips.
4
 Step Riser - Tread Relationships. Riser-tread rela-
tionships have been studied for many years. Most steps
are constrained to fit into a set elevation at the top and
the bottom of the steps. For these steps, riser-tread rela-
tionships have been developed for safe and efficient
use. In other areas, such as plazas, the tread dimension
may not be constrained, which allows freedom of de-
sign. In these areas, riser and tread dimensions will be
dictated by human dimensions and appearance.
Most local building codes mandate the minimum and
maximum riser dimension and minimum tread dimen-
sion. The 7-11 rule is used most frequently; that is,
maximum riser height is 7 in. (180 mm), while the min-
imum tread depth is 11 in. (280 mm). The riser must al-
so be greater than 4 in. (100 mm) in height. Due to nor-
mal walking and gait, optimum riser-tread dimensions
do exist. One formula for determining this relationship
has been recommended for use [1]. It provides a gener-
al guideline for riser and tread dimensions.
T x R = 77.5 (T x R = 500, for SI units)
where:
T = tread width, in. (cm)
R = riser height, in. (cm)
In this equation, the riser is restricted between 4 in.
(10 cm) and 7 in. (18 cm). Since brick is a small ele-
ment, there are a variety of bonding patterns for the
tread and riser. Figure 5 shows several examples of
bonding arrangements with modular brick.
Landings may be included in steps, especially when
the cumulative height of steps is great. Building codes
set the maximum height between landings at 12 ft (3.7
m); however, it is usually more desirable to limit the
maximum height to 5 ft (1.5 m) between landings. The
length of the landing should be long enough to allow
easy cadence, which is about 5 ft (1.5 m) or a multiple
of 5 ft (1.5 m).
Edge Details. For safety reasons, several issues re-
lating to the edge of the steps should be considered. In
most pedestrian applications, it may be beneficial to
highlight the edge of the step by varying the color of the
tread and riser brick, changing the bond pattern of the
tread or by extending the tread slightly over the riser.
Step Configurations
FIG. 5
5
These distinctions of the edge allow easy visual indica-
tion that a change is coming, which helps to avoid trip-
ping. Extending the tread over the riser creates a shad-
ow line highlighting the stairs and also allows the treads
to be slightly deeper than if they were squared off.
However, the maximum projection should be 11⁄2 in. (40
mm) to avoid catching the foot while stepping up. If a
rounded tread is used, the leading edge should be a
maximum 1⁄2 in. (13 mm) radius.
Ramps. The model building codes and other acces-
sibility codes [2] usually limit the slope of ramps to no
steeper than 1:12 in most applications. Greater slopes
are allowed only if the total rise is less than 6 in. (150
mm). Slopes greater than those allowed by codes make
it difficult for persons in wheelchairs to negotiate the
ramp. The width of a ramp should be at least 3 ft (0.9
m) wide for one-way traffic and 5 ft (1.5 m) wide for
two way traffic. In addition, landings should be provid-
ed every 30 ft (9 m) horizontally.
Support and Bonding. Brick steps and ramps are
usually supported by a concrete base, but any material
capable of supporting the brick properly could be used,
if designed properly. Deflections or settlement of the
support must be minimized to avoid cracking in the
brickwork. Figure 6 shows a concrete support system
for a step and ramp. Brick should be adequately bond-
ed to the support or restrained around its perimeter to
avoid loosening of units. Mortar is usually used to
bond the brick to the concrete. This paving system is
very effective when proper materials and installation
are used. Dowels or ties into the mortar joints are not
necessary since the mortar provides adequate bond.
Newer types of adhesives are now being used to bond
the brick directly to the concrete. These adhesives must
be durable to withstand the severity of its environment.
Adhesives can only be used when the concrete surface
is fairly even and free of contaminants. Caulks and
sealants are not appropriate for this purpose.
Adequate footings should be designed for the step or
ramp support. The depth of the footings should extend
below the frost line. Since the paving assembly is sup-
ported on its own footing, an isolation joint should be
used between the pavement and building and between
the pavement and ramps or steps.
Safety. In addition to the required physical dimen-
sions of the element, the slip resistance of the surface
should also be considered. The static coefficient of
friction is usually used to determine if a surface is con-
sidered slippery. There is no consensus minimum value
for coefficient of friction; however, some codes are pro-
moting minimum static coefficient of friction values of
0.6 for pavements and 0.8 for ramps [2]. Limiting the
static coefficient of friction to these values is believed
to make the surfaces safe and passable by both able-
bodied pedestrians and the physically impaired. It is
usually excessive water ponding or the contamination
of the pavement by other substances which cause most
 CONCRETE SLAB
MORTARED BRICK PAVING
EXPANSION JOINT, TYP.
COMPACTED GRAVEL
(a)
Stair and Ramp Sections
FIG. 6
slips and falls. Brick usually has an adequate slip resis-
tance, with higher coefficient of friction values
achieved when a rough textured brick is used.
SELECTION OF MATERIALS
Pavements can be subjected to severe weather and
abrasion; therefore, the materials used to construct them
must be of superior quality. Most of the materials in a
pavement must conform to ASTM standards. Follow-
ing are recommendations for the selection of paving
materials. Additional information on material selection
can be found in Technical Notes 14 Series.
Brick Pavers
Pavers must be able to withstand the weather and the
abrasion of pedestrian traffic. Pavers should conform to
the requirements of ASTM C 902 Specification for
Pedestrian and Light Traffic Paving Brick. Units con-
forming to ASTM C 1272 Specification for Heavy Ve-
hicular Paving Brick may be used, but are usually not
necessary for most landscape applications, unless heavy
vehicular traffic is expected. Heavy vehicular traffic is
composed of high volumes of heavy vehicles on a pave-
ment. Two of the more critical requirements of ASTM
C 902, durability and abrasion, are discussed below.
Other requirements, such as dimensional tolerances,
chippage and warpage should also be considered.
Durability. The resistance of pavers to weathering is
determined by the Class of the paver. The Class of the
paver is based on the durability of the unit and is deter-
mined by compressive strength, cold water absorption
and saturation coefficient of the unit. Class SX pavers
are intended for use where the paver may be frozen
while saturated with water. In exterior applications
where freezing is not present, pavers should conform to
Class MX or SX. Class NX pavers are acceptable for
interior use where they are protected from freezing
when wet. Alternate means of assessing durability of
brick pavers are addressed in ASTM C 902 and Techni -
cal Notes 14A Revised.
Abrasion Resistance. Pavers must be able to resist
6
MORTARED BRICK PAVING
EXPANSION JOINT
CONCRETE SLAB
COMPACTED GRAVEL
COMPACTED SUBGRADE
(b)
the abrasive action of traffic. ASTM C 902 includes
three abrasion classifications of pavers; Types I, II and
III. Type I pavers are appropriate for areas receiving ex-
tensive abrasion, such as commercial driveways and en-
trances. Type II pavers are intended for exterior walk-
ways and floors in restaurants and stores. Type III pavers
are used for residential floors and patios. The paver Type
is determined by its abrasion index, which is calculated
by dividing the cold water absorption by the compressive
strength and multiplying by 100. The resistance to abra-
sion can also be determined by a laboratory test, as out-
lined in ASTM C 902.
Setting Bed Materials
The setting bed, placed between the base and the
brick pavers, functions as a leveling course for slight ir-
regularities in the base and units. Setting bed materials
include sand, mortar, asphalt and building felt.
Sand. Sand used as a setting bed should be a
washed, well-graded angular sand with a maximum par-
ticle sized of 3⁄16 in. (4.8 mm). Sand should conform to
ASTM C 33 Specification for Concrete Aggregates,
usually referred to as concrete sand. Mason’s sand can
also be used as the setting bed material when the thick-
ness of the setting bed is less than 1 in. (25 mm). Ma-
son’s sand should conform to ASTM C 144 Specifica-
tion for Aggregates for Masonry Mortar. The thickness
of the sand setting bed should be between 1⁄2 in. and 2 in.
(13 mm and 50 mm).
Mortar. Mortar setting beds are used in mortared
brick paving applications. Mortar should conform to
ASTM C 270 Specification for Mortar for Unit Mason-
ry or ANSI A118.4 Specification for Latex-Portland
Cement Mortar, when a latex additive is used. For exte-
rior mortared brick pavements, Type M mortar is pre-
ferred. Type M portland cement-lime mortar consists of
1 part portland cement, 1⁄4 part hydrated lime and 3 3⁄4
parts sand. Type S mortar can be used alternately. In
severe freeze/thaw environments, mortars with better
freeze/thaw resistance should be used. Two mortar
properties that greatly influence freeze/thaw resistance
are air content and water/cement ratio. An air content
for paving mortars between approximately 10 percent
and 15 percent is optimal. Increasing air content too
much will reduce bond between the brick paver and
mortar. To address the water/cement ratio, the mortar
should be mixed with just enough water to make it
workable. The thickness of the mortar setting bed
should be between 3⁄8 in. and 1 in. (10 mm to 25 mm).
Asphalt. Asphalt setting beds typically consist of
approximately 7 percent asphalt and 93 percent sand.
The asphalt setting bed is used over a concrete or as-
phalt base. The thickness of the asphalt should be ap-
proximately 3⁄4 in. (20 mm).
Building Felt. Brick may be placed directly on a
new or existing asphalt or concrete base. In these appli-
cations, building felt may serve as a cushion between
the pavers and the base, which can accommodate small
dimensional variations of the base and pavers. Two
layers of No. 15 building felt or one layer of No. 30
building felt is appropriate.
Base Materials
Base materials consist of crushed aggregate, gravel,
sand, asphalt and concrete. Asphalt and concrete bases
often require an aggregate subbase. Steps and ramps
usually are built on concrete bases, whereas patios and
terraces may be supported on any of the base materials
listed.
Aggregate Bases. Aggregate bases include crushed
stone, gravel and sand. Heavier loading or areas sub-
jected to frost heave may require crushed stone. Open-
graded aggregate (gravel) is often used in areas of poor
drainage, areas subjected to frost heave or when porous
pavements are designed. The proper aggregate size de-
pends on the depth of the layer and the size of the com-
paction equipment. Maximum aggregate size is usually
3
⁄4 in. (20 mm) diameter.
In residential pedestrian applications, sand bases can
be used when the subgrade compaction is ensured,
when bearing on undisturbed earth and in areas where
frost heave is not a consideration. Sand used as a base
material should be a concrete sand conforming to
ASTM C 33 and be clean and free of deleterious mate-
rials.
Concrete Bases. New or existing concrete bases
may be used to support brick paving. New concrete
should be installed following recommended concrete
practices. Where mortar is used to bond brick pavers to
the concrete, the concrete should have a rough textured
finish. Caution should be used if brick is placed over an
existing concrete slab. The existing concrete slab must
be sound and any major cracks filled adequately with
concrete or mortar.
Asphalt Bases. New or existing asphalt bases may
used to support mortarless brick paving. Proper asphalt
materials are generally determined by paving contrac-
tors or the asphalt plant and are beyond the scope of this
7
Technical Notes. Asphalt bases should not be used to
support mortared brick paving.
CONSTRUCTION
One of the most important factors in long-term pave-
ment performance is proper installation. Critical ele-
ments include proper base compaction, proper edge re-
straints and full mortar joints, if used. There are numer-
ous ways to install brick paving, and techniques tend to
vary by region. The recommendations in this Technical
Notes are based on experience and provide a minimum
level of workmanship necessary for satisfactory perfor-
mance. More information on construction of brick
pavements may be found in Technical Notes 14 Series.
Base Preparation
Proper compaction of the subgrade (soil) and base is
one of the most critical factors in pavement installation.
Pavements rely on the strength of the base to adequately
resist loads. Poorly compacted aggregate bases usually
lead to undulations (rutting) or cracking of the pave-
ment. Most patios, steps and ramps are built adjacent to
a building or residence. These are often areas over
backfill rather than undisturbed earth, making proper
compaction even more critical. Compaction of the sub-
grade should be done with the largest equipment possi-
ble so that proper compaction is achieved. Once the
subgrade is compacted, the base may be built on top.
The base material should be spread and compacted in
layers or lifts. The thickness of each layer must be con-
sistent with the size of compaction equipment, but nev-
er exceed 4 in. (100 mm). Vibratory rollers may be nec-
essary, although for most residential applications plate
compactors provide enough force. Typical compaction
criteria is 95 percent maximum density.
Mortar Installation
When brick are installed with mortar, standard brick-
laying or tile setting procedures should be followed.
The preferred method of mortar placement is with a
trowel. The concrete base should be clean and slightly
dampened, but surface dry prior to placing the mortar.
Brick pavers should be buttered on the ends and shoved
into the mortar setting bed. All joints intended to re-
ceive mortar should be solidly filled. The joints should
be tooled with a metal jointer. A shallow concave joint
profile is preferred for proper compaction of the joint
and to keep water from ponding on the mortar joints.
CONCLUSION
This Technical Notes describes elements considered
in landscape design including master planning and envi-
ronmental aspects of landscape architecture. Design of
pavements, steps and ramps is discussed. Materials and
construction of these elements and the most critical re-
quirements for each are outlined.
The information and suggestions contained in this
Technical Notes are based on the available data and the
experience of the engineering staff of the Brick Institute
of America. The information contained herein must be
used in conjunction with good technical judgment and a
basic understanding of the properties of brick masonry.
Final decisions on the use of the information contained
in this Technical Notes are not within the purview of the
Brick Institute of America and must rest with the pro-
ject architect, engineer and owner.
REFERENCES
1. Abdou, O. and Burdette, J., “Masonry Stairs:
Design and Material Performance,” Proceedings
Sixth North American Masonry Conference,
Philadelphia, PA, June 1993, pp. 739-754.
2. “Americans with Disabilities Act: Accessibility
Guidelines for Buildings and Facilities,” U.S.
Architectural and Transportation Barriers Com-
pliance Board, Washington, D.C., A u g u s t
1992.
3. “AIA Environmental Resources Guide,” Ameri-
can Institute of Architects, Washington, D.C.,
1993.
8
4. Arnold Associates, “Urban Trees and Paving,”
Princeton, NJ, August 1982.
5. “Brick Floors and Pavements, Design and De-
tailing,” Technical Notes on Brick Construction
14 Revised, Brick Institute of America, Reston,
VA, September 1992.
6. “Brick Floors and Pavements, Materials and In-
stallation,” Technical Notes on Brick Construc -
tion 14A Revised, Brick Institute of America,
Reston, VA, January 1993.
7. “Flexible Pavement Guide for Roads and
Streets,” National Stone Association, Washing-
ton, D.C., January 1985.
8. Harris, C.W. and Dines, N.T., Time-Saver Stan-
dards for Landscape Architects, McGraw-Hill
Book Co., New York, NY, 1988.
 Technical Notes
on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
BRICK IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
MISCELLANEOUS APPLICATIONS
INTRODUCTION
In this issue of Technical Notes are suggestions for
the use of brick in landscape architecture that take advan-
tage of the unique practicality and permanent beauty of
the material. The color and texture of brick will comple-
ment the masses and lines of contemporary architecture.
And for traditional architecture, brick lends the same
charm that has endured for more than a century and a
half on the grounds surrounding the splendid mansions of
Colonial America.
The success of landscape architecture depends upon
the intelligent spacing and inter-relationship of the various
elements, understanding the limits and possibilities of
structural and plant materials, discreetly evaluating the
weakness and strength of various colors and textures,
and choosing materials which are sympathetic with the
site, with each other and with the people who are to see
and use them.
Brick is an ideal material for use in landscape archi-
tecture for it is made of natural earth material, clay or
shale, burned to permanent hardness. In the manufactur-
ing process, brick take on colors which we know as earth
colors - reds, browns, buffs and yellows - which are
entirely harmonious with nature.
MATERIALS AND WORKMANSHIP
Most garden and landscape structures will be subject-
ed to the extremes of exposure to the elements.
Therefore, proper selection of materials and high quality
workmanship cannot be emphasized too strongly.
Brick. Brick for garden structures should meet the
requirements for grade SW of ASTM Standards for Facing
Brick, C 216 (where exposed to view) or ASTM Standard
Specifications for Building Brick, C 62 (where not exposed
such as below grade). Used or salvaged brick should not
be used for garden structures unless they are tested and
meet the grade SW requirements. Most used brick do not
meet these requirements (see Technical Notes 15,
"Salvaged Brick").
Mortar. Types M and S. conforming to ASTM
Specifications for Mortar for Unit Masonry, C 270, are rec-
ommended for reinforced and non-reinforced brick garden
structures.
Workmanship. All head, bed and collar joints should
be completely filled with mortar. Less than excellent
*Originally published in April 1967, this Technical Notes has been reviewed and reissued with editorial changes.
29B
Reissued*
May
1988
workmanship should not be permitted, since a defect may
result in deterioration due to the extreme exposure of gar-
den structures.
DESIGN
The best possible materials and workmanship will not
in themselves assure successful and permanent garden
structures. Careful consideration must also be given to
construction details. The following Technical Notes out-
line details which may be helpful: 29 Rev and 29A Rev.,
“Brick in Landscape Architecture, Terraces and Walks,”
and “Garden Walls;” 7A Rev. and 7B Rev., “Water
Resistance of Brick Masonry, Materials,” and
“Construction and Workmanship;” and 17E, 17F and 17G,
“Reinforced Brick Masonry Retaining Walls.”
Steps. Brick steps, such as those shown in Fig. 1,
offer a practical solution to problems which develop in
landscaping a slope. The relatively small sizes of brick
permit flexibility of design, such as adjustments of tread
and riser dimensions, and construction of curves. All
treads should pitch outward slightly (1/4 in.) for drainage.
Brick Screens. Pierced brick screens offer beauty as
well as privacy, without loss of light or air (see Fig. 2). A
brick screen can provide a handsome separation between
the children's play area and the adults' terrace, and cool-
ing breezes are not thwarted by any of the numerous pat-
terns available to the designer. Unlike hedges that
require trimming or wood fences with their need for
repainting, brick walls are maintenance-free.
Outdoor Fireplaces. An outdoor fireplace can be a
garden structure of beauty when brick are used to exe-
cute an imaginative but highly practical design, such as
shown in Fig. 3. Fireplaces should be planned to face the
prevailing breezes. This orientation not only allows the
smoke to blow away, but also provides the best draft.
Fire brick should be selected for the firebox of outdoor
fireplaces.
Planting boxes. Planters may be constructed
indoors and outdoors, in a wide variety of designs. They
protect decorative plants from animals and facilitate waist-
high gardening as shown in Fig. 4.
In constructing brick planting boxes, adequate
drainage must be provided. This may be accomplished
by weep holes, as indicated in Fig. 5. When the planting
box is designed with a closed bottom, as indicated in Fig.
 (a)

FIG. 2
(b)

FIG. 1

6, a drain should be provided. Also, careful attention

should be given to the waterproofing of the inside to pre-
vent efflorescence and staining on the outside face of the
brick. In addition, walls must be checked to insure their
resistance to lateral earth pressures.
Edging. Brick edging, as indicated in Fig. 7, may be
used to define the lawn area and keep it trim and neat for
all seasons. In addition, the brick strip provides a surface
for the lawnmower and thereby eliminates hand trimming.
Concealment Structures. Figure 8 shows the con-
denser of a central air-conditioning system that has been FIG. 3
concealed by a low perforated brick screen. The screen
must have adequate openings to allow free circulation of
air required for efficient operation. Also, access for servic-
ing should be provided.
Trash cans are unsightly, but a low brick enclosure, as
indicated in Fig. 9, will banish from sight such undesirable
items in landscape architecture. In addition to being
handsome, the structure is maintenance-free.
Tree Protection. Tree roots require air, water and miner-
als to survive. When a grade level is changed and the soil
depth over the roots is either increased or decreased, the
roots have difficulty obtaining a normal amount of air, water
and minerals. Therefore, to insure the life of a tree, it is nec-
essary to protect it from a grade change.
The properly designed brick retaining wall, reinforced or
non-reinforced, is very effective in withstanding lateral pres-
FIG. 4
sure from earth when changes in grade are necessary.
2
 FIG. 5

FIG. 7

FIG. 6

Visual evidence of respect for nature is shown in the

photographs in Fig. 10. Mature trees were preserved, uti-
lizing a brick retaining wall and a handsome brick tree
well.
Raising the Grade. Minor fills, 6 in. or less in depth,
will not harm most species of trees, if the fill is good top
soil that is high in organic matter and loamy in texture.
For major grade changes, air and adequate water must
be supplied to the roots of the tree. This may be accom-
plished by constructing a brick retaining wall around the
trunk of the tree and placing a layer of gravel and a sys-
tem of drain tile on original grade over the roots of the FIG. 8
tree. Figure 11 indicates two plans for placing the drain
tile. The tile should slope in the direction indicated. It is
important that the tile extend through the brick retaining
wall so that water will not collect around the trunk of the
tree. In addition to the tile placed on original grade, it

3

FIG. 9
FIG. 10
may be necessary to place a series of bell tile vertically
over the roots, and connected to the tile system for addi-
tional air and water circulation. This detail is shown in
Fig. 12. The system must be designed to fit the contour
of the land so that water drains away from the tree trunk.
4
(a)
(b)
FIG. 11
If economy is essential, or the questionable value of a
tree will not permit the expense involved in the construc-
tion of a complete areation system, a variation may be
adopted. For example, if a tree was originally on a well
drained slope, sufficient drainage may be obtained
through the fill by using coarse gravel around a series of
bell tile placed vertically over the roots, in which case the
horizontal tile drains may be omitted.
Lowering the Grade. Protecting a tree from a lowered
grade is usually less complicated than protecting it from a
raised grade. Lowering the grade can be equally harmful to a
tree unless proper attention is given to cutting the roots, prun-
ing branches, stimulating root growth and watering.
Generally, protection is achieved by terracing the grade. If
space is available, the tree may be unharmed if it remains on
a gently sloping mound. Another way to protect a tree from a
lowered grade is to build a brick retaining wall between it and
the lower grade, as shown in Fig. 13.
FIG. 12

FIG. 13

5
 Technical Notes 30

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
Reissued*
September
1988

BONDS AND PATTERNS IN BRICKWORK

spacing should be reduced so that the tie area per square

BOND foot of wall is not less than specified above.
The word bond, when used in reference to masonry, Structural bonding of solid and reinforced brick
may have three meanings: masonry walls is sometimes accomplished by grout which
Structural Bond: The method by which individual is poured into the cavity or collar joint between wythes of
masonry units are interlocked or tied together to cause masonry.
the entire assembly to act as a single structural unit. The method of bonding will depend on the use
Pattern Bond: The pattern formed by the masonry requirements, wall type and other factors, However, the
units and the mortar joints on the face of a wall. The pat- metal tie method is generally recommended for exterior
tern may result from the type of structural bond used or walls. Some of the advantages of this method are greater
may be purely a decorative one unrelated to the structural resistance to rain penetration and ease of construction.
bonding. Metal ties also allow slight differential movements of the
Mortar Bond: The adhesion of mortar to the masonry facing and backing which may relieve stresses and pre-
units or to reinforcing steel. vent cracking. (See Technical Notes 25, “Brick and Tile
Metal-Tied Walls.”)
STRUCTURAL BONDS
Structural bonding of masonry walls may be accom-
plished in three ways: (1) by the overlapping (interlocking)
of the masonry units, (2) by the use of metal ties embed-
ded in connecting joints, and (3) by the adhesion of grout
to adjacent wythes of masonry.
The overlapped bond is based on variations of two
traditional methods of bonding. The first is known as
English bond and consists of alternating courses of head-
ers and stretchers (Fig. 1). The second is Flemish bond
and consists of alternating headers and stretchers in
every course, so arranged that the headers and stretchers
in every other course appear in vertical lines (Fig. 1).
The stretchers, laid with the length of the wall, devel-
op longitudinal bonding strength; while the headers, laid
across the width of the wall, bond the wall transversely.
Modern building codes require that masonry-bonded
brick walls be bonded so that not less than 4 per cent of
the wall surface is composed of headers, with the dis-
tance between adjacent headers not exceeding 24 inches,
vertically or horizontally.
Structural bonding of masonry walls with metal ties is
used in both solid wall and cavity wall construction (Fig. 2).
Most building codes permit the use of rigid steel bond-
ing ties in solid walls.
At least one metal tie should be used for each 4 1/2
sq ft of wall surface. Ties in alternate courses should be
staggered. The distance between adjacent ties should
not exceed 24 in. vertically nor 36 in. horizontally.
Additional bonding ties, spaced not more than 3 ft apart
around the perimeter and within 12 in. of the opening, FIG. 1
English and Flemish Bonds
should be provided at all openings.
If ties less than 3/16 in. in diameter are used, tie
*This Technical Notes has been reviewed and reissued in September 1988.
 Flemish Bond. Each course of brick consists of
PATTERN BONDS alternate stretchers and headers, with the headers in
Frequently, structural bonds, such as English or alternate courses centered over the stretchers in the inter-
Flemish, or variations of these, may be used to create vening courses. Where the headers are not used for the
patterns in the face of the wall. However, in the strict structural bonding, they may be obtained by using half
sense of the term, pattern refers to the change or varied brick called "clipped" or "snap" headers.
arrangement of the brick texture or color used in the face. Flemish bond may be varied by increasing the num-
Therefore, it may be possible to secure many patterns ber of stretchers between headers in each course. If
using the same structural bond. Patterns also may be there are three stretchers alternating with a header, it is
produced by the method of handling the mortar joint or by known as "garden wall" bond. If there are two stretchers
projecting or recessing certain brick from the plane of the between headers, it is designated as "double stretcher
wall, thus creating a distinctive wall texture that is not garden wall" bond. Garden wall bond may also be laid
solely dependent upon the texture of the individual brick. with four or even five stretchers between the headers.
There are five basic structural bonds commonly used English Bond. English bond is composed of alter-
today which create typical patterns. These are: Running nate courses of headers and stretchers. The headers are
bond, common or American bond, Flemish bond, English centered on the stretchers and joints between stretchers
bond and block or stack bond, as illustrated in Fig. 3. in all courses are aligned vertically. Snap headers are
Through the use of these bonds and variations of the used in courses which are not structural bonding courses.
color and texture of the brick, and of the joint types and
color, an almost unlimited number of patterns can be
developed.
Running Bond. The simplest of the basic pattern
bonds, the running bond, consists of all stretchers. Since
there are no headers in this bond, metal ties are usually
used. Running bond is used largely in cavity wall con-
struction and veneered walls of brick, and often in facing
tile walls where the bonding may be accomplished by
extra width stretcher tile.
Common or American Bond. Common or American
bond is a variation of running bond with a course of full
length headers at regular intervals. These headers pro-
vide structural bonding, as well as pattern. Header cours-
es usually appear at every fifth, sixth or seventh course.
In laying out any bond pattern, it is important that the
corners be started correctly. For common bond, a three-
quarter brick should start each way from the corner at the
header course.
Common bond may be varied by using a Flemish FIG. 2
header course. Metal-Tied Masonry Walls

FIG. 3
Traditional Pattern Bonds

2

FIG. 4
Double Stretcher Garden Wall Bond
with Units in Diagonal Lines
FIG. 5
Garden Wall Bond with Units in Dovetail Fashion
English Cross or Dutch Bond. English cross or
Dutch bond is a variation of English bond which differs
only in that vertical joints between the stretchers in alter-
nate courses do not align vertically. These joints center
on the stretchers themselves in the courses above and
below.
There are two methods used in starting the corners in
Flemish and English bonds. Figure 3 shows the so-called
"Dutch corner" in which a three-quarter brick closure is
used, and the English corner in which a 2-in. or quarter
brick closure, called a "queen closure", is used. The 2-in.
closure should always be placed 4 in. in from the corner,
never at the corner.
Block or Stack Bond. Block or stack bond is purely
a pattern bond. There is no overlapping of units since all
vertical joints are aligned. Usually this pattern is bonded
to the backing with rigid steel ties, but when 8 - in. bonder
units are available, they may be used. In large wall areas
and in load bearing construction, it is advisable to rein-
force the wall with steel reinforcement placed in the hori-
zontal mortar joints. In stack bond it is imperative that
prematched or dimensionally accurate masonry units be
used if the vertical alignment of the head joints is to be
maintained.
Figures 4 and 5 illustrate patterns that may be
obtained by varying brick color. Figure 4 is a double
stretcher garden wall bond with the pattern units in diago-
nal lines. Figure 5 shows a garden wall bond with the
pattern units set in dovetail fashion.
Wall Texture. Recently many contemporary modifica-
tions of the traditional bonds have been used by project-
ing and recessing units, also by omitting units to form per-
forated walls or screens. Figure 6 illustrates contempo-
rary uses of masonry which imaginatively extend the tradi-
tional patterns.
MORTAR JOINTS
As previously indicated, the treatment of mortar joints
in the face of the wall affects the pattern and wall texture.
The mortar serves four functions:
1. It bonds the units together and seals the spaces
between.
2. It compensates for dimensional variations in the
units.
3. It bonds to and, therefore, causes reinforcing steel
to act as an integral part of the wall.
4. It provides a decorative effect on the wall surface
by creating shadow or color lines.

FIG. 6 FIG. 7
Contemporary Bonds Mortar Joints
3
 Mortar joint finishes fall into two classes: troweled and
tooled joints. In the troweled joint, the excess mortar is
simply cut off (struck) with a trowel and finished with the
trowel. For the tooled joint, a special tool, other than the
trowel, is used to compress and shape the mortar in the
joint.
Figure 7 shows a cross section of typical mortar joints
used in good brickwork.
Concave Joint ( 1 ) and V-Shaped Joint ( 2 ) .
These joints are normally kept quite small and are formed
by the use of a steel jointing tool. These joints are very
effective in resisting rain penetration and are recommend-
ed for use in areas subjected to heavy rains and high
winds.
Weathered Joint (3). This joint requires care as it
must be worked from below. However, it is the best of the
troweled joints as it is compacted and sheds water readily.
Struck Joint (4). This is a common joint in ordinary
brickwork. As American mechanics often work from the
inside of the wall, this is an easy joint to strike with a trow-
el. Some compaction occurs, but the small ledge does
not shed water readily, resulting in a less watertight joint
than joints (1), (2) or (3).
Rough Cut or Flush Joint (5). This is the simplest
joint for the mason, since it is made by holding the edge
of the trowel flat against the brick and cutting in any direc-
tion. This produces an uncompacted joint with a small
hairline crack where the mortar is pulled away from the
brick by the cutting action. This joint is not always water-
tight.
Raked Joint (6). Made by removing the surface of
the mortar, while it is still soft. While the joint may be
compacted, it is difficult to make weather-tight and is not
recommended where heavy rain, high wind or freezing is
likely to occur. This joint produces marked shadows and
tends to darken the overall appearance of the wall.
Colored mortars may be successfully used to
enhance the patterns in masonry. Two methods are com-
monly used: (1) the entire mortar joint may be colored or
(2) where a tooled joint is used, tuck pointing is the best
method. In this technique, the entire wall is completed
with a 1-in. deep raked joint and the colored mortar is
carefully filled in later.

4
 31B
Technical Notes REVISED

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
Reissued*
May
1987

STRUCTURAL STEEL LINTELS

Abstract: The design of structural steel lintels for use with brick masonry is too critical an element to be left to
“rule-of-thumb" designs. Too little concern for loads, stresses and serviceability can lead to problems.
Information is provided so that structural steel lintels for use in brick masonry walls may be satisfactorily
designed.
Key Words: beams (supports); brick; buildings; deflection; design; lintels; loads (forces); masonry; struc-
tural steel; walls.

INTRODUCTION
A lintel is a structural member placed over an opening
in a wall. In the case of a brick masonry wall, lintels may
consist of reinforced brick masonry, brick masonry arches,
precast concrete or structural steel shapes. Regardless
of the material chosen for the lintel, its prime function is to
support the loads above the opening, and it must be
designed properly. To eliminate the possibility of structur-
al cracks in the wall above these openings, the structural
design of the lintels should not involve the use of "rule-of-
thumb" methods, or the arbitrary selection of structural
sections without careful analysis of the loads to be carried
and calculation of the stresses developed. Many of the
cracks which appear over openings in masonry walls are
due to excessive deflection of the lintels resulting from
improper or inadequate design.
This Technical Notes presents the considerations to
be addressed if structural steel lintels are to be used. It
also provides a procedure for the structural design of
these lintels. For information concerning reinforced brick
masonry lintels, see Technical Notes 17H and for brick
masonry arches, see Technical Notes 31, 31A and 31C
Revised.
CONSIDERATIONS
General
When structural steel lintels are used, there are sev-
eral considerations which must be addressed in order to
have a successful design. These include loading, type of
lintel, structural design, material selection and mainte-
nance, moisture control around the opening, provisions to
avoid movement problems and installation of the lintel in
the wall.
Types
There are several different types of structural steel lin-
tels used in masonry. They vary from single angle lintels
in cavity or veneer walls, to steel beams with plates in
solid walls, to shelf angles in brick veneer panel walls.
Most building codes permit steel angle lintels to be used
for openings up to 8 ft 0 in. (2.4 m). Openings larger than
this are usually required to have fire protected lintels.
Loose Angle Lintels. Loose angle lintels are used in
brick veneer and cavity wall constructions where the lintel
is laid in the wall and spans the opening. This type of lin-
tel has no lateral support. Figure 1a shows this condition.
Combination Lintels. In solid masonry walls, single
loose angle lintels are usually not capable of doing the
job. Therefore, combination lintels are required. These
combination lintels can take many forms, from a clustering
of steel angles, such as shown in Figs. 1b and 1c, to a
combination of steel beam and plates, as shown in Figs.
1d and 1e.
Angle Lintels - In solid masonry walls, it is usually sat-
isfactory to use multiple steel angles as a lintel. These
angles are usually placed back to back, as shown in Figs.
1b and 1c.
Steel Beam/Plate Lintels - In solid walls with large super-
imposed loads, or in walls where the openings are greater
than 8 ft 0 in. (2.4 m), it may be necessary to use lintels com-
posed of steel beams with attached or suspended plates, as
shown in Figs. 1d and 1e. This permits the beam to be fully
encased in masonry, and fire-protected.
Shelf Angles. In panel walls systems, the exterior
wythe of brickwork may be supported by shelf angles
rigidly attached to the structural frame. These shelf
angles, in some cases, also act as lintels over openings in
the masonry. This condition is shown in Fig.1f.

*Originally published in Nov/Dec 1981, this Technical Notes has been reviewed and reissued.
 Fig. 1
Types of Structural Steel Lintels
Design
The proper design of the structural steel lintel is very
important, regardless of the type used. The design must
meet the structural requirements and the serviceability
requirements in order to perform successfully. Design
loads, stresses and deflections will be covered in a later
section of this Technical Notes.
Materials
The proper specification of materials for steel lintels is
important for both structural and serviceability require-
ments. If materials are not properly selected and main-
tained, problems can occur.
Selection. The steel for lintels, as a minimum, should
comply with ASTM A 36. Steel angle lintels should be at
least 1/4 in. (6 mm) thick with a horizontal leg of at least 3
1/2 in. (90 mm) for use with nominal 4 in. (100 mm) thick
brick, and 3 in. (75 mm) for use with nominal 3 in. (75
mm) thick brick.
Maintenance. For harsh climates and exposures,
consideration should be given to the use of galvanized
steel lintels. If this is not done, then the steel lintels will
require periodic maintenance to avoid corrosion.
Moisture Control
Proper consideration must always be given to mois-
ture control wherever there are openings in masonry
walls. There must always be a mechanism to channel the
flow of water, present in the wall, to the outside.
2
Flashing and Weepholes. Even where galvanized
or stainless steel angles are used for lintels in cavity and
veneer walls, continuous flashing should be installed over
the angle. It should be placed between the steel and the
exterior masonry facing material to collect and divert
moisture to the outside through weepholes. Regardless
of whether flashing is used, weepholes should be provid-
ed in the facing at the level of the lintel to permit the
escape of any accumulated moisture. See Technical
Notes 7A for further information on flashing and weep-
holes.
Movement Provisions
Because of the diversity of movement characteristics
of different materials, it is necessary to provide for differ-
ential movement of the materials. This is especially true
at locations where a number of different materials come
together. Technical Notes 18 Series provides additional
information on differential movement.
Expansion Joints. Expansion joints in brick masonry
are very important in preventing unnecessary and unwant-
ed cracking. There are two types of expansion joints
which will need to be carefully detailed when lintels are
involved: vertical and horizontal.
Vertical - Vertical expansion joints are provided to per-
mit the horizontal movement of the brick masonry. Where
these expansion joints are interrupted by lintels, the
expansion joint should go around the end of the lintel and
then continue down the wall.
 Horizontal - In multi-story walls where the lintels are a
continuation of shelf angles supporting masonry panels,
horizontal expansion joints to accommodate vertical
movement must be provided. Often a simple soft joint
below the shelf angle is all that is needed. See Technical
Notes 18A, 21 Rev, and 28B Rev for typical details.
Installation
The installation of steel lintels in masonry walls is a
conventional construction operation, familiar to most
members of the building team. The walls are built to the
height of the opening, the lintel is placed over the open-
ing, and the masonry work is continued. One item of spe-
cial construction that must be noted is temporary shoring.
Temporary Shoring. If the steel lintel is being
designed assuming in-plane arching of the masonry
above, then the lintel must be shored until the masonry
has attained sufficient strength to carry its own weight.
This shoring period should not be less than 24 hr. This
minimum time period should be increased to three days
when there are imposed loads to be supported. If the
masonry is being built in cold weather construction condi-
tions, the length of cure should be increased. If the lintel
is designed for the full uniform load of the masonry and
other superimposed loads ignoring any inherent arching
action, then no shoring is required.
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
General
The structural design of steel lintels is relatively sim-
ple. The computations are the same as for steel beams
in a building frame, but because of the low elasticity of the
masonry, and the magnitude and eccentricity of the load-
ing, the design should not be taken lightly. A proper
design must consider the loads, stresses, and serviceabil-
ity of the system. If these are not properly taken into
account, problems of cracking and spelling could occur.
Fig. 2
Lintel Load Determination
3
Loads
The determination of imposed loads is an important
factor. Fig. 2 shows an example of a lintel design situa-
tion. On the left is an elevation showing an opening in a
wall with planks and a beam bearing on the wall. On the
right is a graphic illustration of the distribution of the
superimposed loads.
Uniform Loads. The triangular wall area (ABC) in
Fig. 2b above the opening has sides at 45-deg angles to
the base. Arching action of a masonry wall will carry the
dead weight of the wall and the superimposed loads out-
side this triangle, provided that the wall above Point B
(the top of the triangle) is sufficient to provide resistance
to arching thrusts. For most lintels of ordinary wall thick-
ness, loads and spans, a depth of 8 to 16 in. (200 mm to
400 mm) above the apex is sufficient. If stack bonded
masonry is used, horizontal joint reinforcement must be
provided to ensure the arching action.
Providing arching action occurs, the dead weight of
the masonry wall, carried by the lintel, may be safely
assumed as the weight of masonry enclosed within the tri-
angular area (ABC). To the dead load of the wall must be
added the uniform live and dead loads of the floor bearing
on the wall above the opening and below the apex of the
45-deg triangle. Again, providing arching occurs, such
loads above the apex may be neglected. In Fig. 2b, D is
greater than L/2, so the floor load may be ignored, but, in
order to use this assumed loading, temporary shoring
must be provided until the masonry has cured sufficiently
to assure the arching action.
If arching action is not assumed and temporary short-
ing is not to be used, the steel lintel must be designed for
the full weight of the masonry and other superimposed
live and dead loads above the opening. There could be
quite a substantial difference in the final lintel sizes
required in each case.
 Concentrated Loads. Concentrated loads from
beams, girders, or trusses, framing into the wall above the
opening, must also be taken into consideration. Such
loads may be distributed over a wall length equal to the
base of the trapezoid and whose summit is at the point of
load application and whose sides make an angle of 60
deg with the horizontal. In Fig. 2b, the portion of the con-
centrated load carried by the lintel would be distributed
over the length, EC, and would be considered as a par-
tially distributed uniform load. Arching action of the
masonry is not assumed when designing for concentrated
loads. Again, if stack bonded masonry is used, horizontal
joint reinforcement must be provided to assure this distrib-
ution.
Stresses
After the loads have been determined, the next step
in the design of the lintel is the design for stresses.
Which stresses need to be checked will depend upon the
type and detailing of the lintel.
Flexure. In a simply supported member loaded
through its shear center, the maximum bending moment
due to the triangular wall area (ABC) above the opening
can be determined by:
Mmax = WL
6 tion modulus should be chosen.
where:
Mmax = maximum moment (ft---lb)
W = total load on lintel (lb)
L = span of lintel, center to center of end bearing (ft)
As an alternative, the designer may wish to calculate an
equivalent uniform load by taking 2/3 of the maximum
height of the triangle times the unit weight of the masonry
as the uniform load across the entire lintel. If this is done,
the maximum bending moment equation becomes:
Mmax = wL
2
8 the lintel, then a detailed, combined stress analysis will be
where:
w = equivalent uniformly distributed load per unit
of length (lb per ft).
To this bending moment should be added the bending
moment caused by the concentrated loading, if any.
Where such loads are located far enough above the lintel
to be distributed as shown in Fig. 2b, the bending moment
formula for a partially distributed uniform load may be
used. Such formulae may be found in the " Manual of
Steel Construction," by the American Institute of Steel
Construction (AISC). Otherwise, concentrated load bend-
ing moments should be used.
4
The next step is the selection of the required section.
The angle, or other structural steel shape, should be
selected by first determining the required section modu-
lus. This becomes:
S = 12Mmax
Fb
where:
3
S = section modulus (in )
Fb = allowable stress in bending of steel (psi)
The allowable stress, F b, for ASTM A 36 structural steel is
22,000 psi (150 MPa) for members laterally supported.
Solid brick masonry walls under most conditions provide
sufficient lateral stiffness to permit the use of the full
22,000 psi (150 MPa). This is especially true when floors
or roofs frame into the wall immediately above the lintel.
The design for non-laterally supported lintels should be in
accordance with the AISC Specification for the Design,
Fabrication and Erection of Structural Steel for Buildings.
Using the design property tables in the AISC Manual,
a section having an elastic section modulus equal to, or
slightly greater than, the required section modulus is
selected. Whenever possible, within the limitations of
minimum thickness of steel and the length of outstanding
leg required the lightest section having the required sec-
Combined Flexure and Torsion. In some cases, the
design for flexure will need to be modified to include the
effects of torsion. This is the case in cavity and veneer
walls where the load on the angle is not through the shear
center.
In some situations, such as veneers, panel or curtain
walls, the lintel may be supporting only the triangular por-
tion of masonry directly over the opening. If this is the
case, then the torsional stresses will usually be negligible
compared to the flexural stresses, and can be safely
ignored.
If, on the other hand, there are imposed uniform loads
within the triangle or imposed concentrated loads above
necessary. The design of a lintel subjected to combined
flexure and torsion should be in accordance with the AISC
Specification for the Design, Fabrication and Erection of
Structural Steel for Buildings.
Shear. Shear is a maximum at the end supports, and
for steel lintels it is seldom critical. However, the computa-
tion of the unit shear is a simple calculation and should
not be neglected. The allowable unit shear value for
ASTM A 36 structural steel is 14,500 psi (100 MPa). To
calculate the shear:
vmax = R max
AS
where:
Vmax = the actual maximum unit shear (psi)
Rmax = maximum reaction (lb)
As = area of steel section resisting shear (sq. in.)
 Bearing. In order to determine the overall length of a
steel lintel, the required bearing area must be determined.
The stress in the masonry supporting each end of the lin-
tel should not exceed the allowable unit stress for the type
of masonry used. For allowable bearing stresses, see
"Building Code Requirements for Engineered Brick
Masonry," BIA; "American Standard Building Code
Requirements for Masonry," ANSI A41.1-1953 (R 1970);
or the local building code. The reaction at each end of
the lintel will be one-half the total uniform load on the lin-
tel, plus a proportion of any concentrated load or partially
distributed uniform load. The required area may be found
by:
Ab = R max
fm
where:
Ab = required bearing area (sq in.)
fm = allowable compressive stress in masonry (psi)
In addition, any stresses due to rotation from bending
or torsion of the angle at its bearing must be taken into
account.
Since in selecting the steel section, the width of the
section was determined, that width divided into the
required bearing area, Ab, will determine the length of
bearing required, F and F1, in Fig. 2b. This length should
not be less than 3 in. (75 mm).
If the openings are close together, the piers between
these openings must be investigated to determine
whether the reactions from the lintels plus the dead and
live loads acting on the pier exceed the allowable unit
compressive stress of the masonry. This condition will not
normally occur where the loads are light, such as in most
one and two-story structures.
Serviceability
In addition to the stress analysis for the lintel, a ser-
viceability analysis is also important. Different types of
lintels have different problems of deflection and rotation,
and each must be analyzed separately to assure its prop-
er performance.
Deflection Limitations. After the lintel has been
designed for stresses, it should be checked for deflection.
Lintels supporting masonry should be designed so that
their deflection does not exceed 1/600 of the clear span
nor more than 0.3 in (8 mm) under the combined superim-
posed live and dead loads.
For uniform loading, the deflection can be found by:
4
∆t = 5wL (1728)
384 EI
where:
∆t = total maximum deflection (in.)
E = modulus of elasticity of steel (psi)
4
I = moment of inertia of section (in. )
5
For loadings other than uniform, such as concentrated
loads and partially distributed loads, deflection formulae
may be found in the AISC Manual.
Torsional Limitations. In cases where torsion is pre-
sent, the rotation of the lintel can be as important as its
deflection. The rotation of the lintel should be limited to
1/16 in. (1.5 mm) maximum under the combined superim-
posed live and dead loads. As mentioned before, all addi-
tional bearing stresses due to angle rotation must be
taken into account in the design for bearing.
Design Aids
In order to facilitate the design of steel angle lintels,
several design aids are included. These design aids are
not all-inclusive, but should give the designer some help
in designing lintels for typical applications. Conditions
beyond the scope of these tables should be thoroughly
investigated.
Table 1 contains tabulated load values to assist the
designer in the selection of the proper size angle lintel,
governed either by moment or deflection under uniform
load. Shear does not govern in any of the listed cases.
The deflection limitation in Table 1 is 1/600 of the span, or
0.3 in. (8 mm), whichever is less. Lateral support is
assumed in all cases.
Table 2 lists the allowable bearing stresses taken from
ANSI A41.1-1953 (R 1970). In all cases, allowable bear-
ing stresses set by local jurisdictions in their building
codes will govern.
Table 3 lists end reactions and required length in
bearing, which may control for steel angle lintels.
SUMMARY
This Technical Notes is concerned primarily with the
design of structural steel lintels for use in brick masonry
walls. It presents the considerations which must be
addressed for the proper application of this type of
masonry support system. Other Technical Notes address
the subjects of reinforced brick masonry lintels and brick
masonry arches.
The information and suggestions contained in this
Technical Notes are based on the available data and the
experience of the technical staff of the Brick Institute of
America. The information and recommendations con-
tained herein, if followed with the use of good technical
judgment, will avoid many of the problems discussed.
Final decisions on the use of details and materials as dis-
cussed are not within the purview of the Brick Institute of
America, and must rest with the project designer, owner,
or both.
 TABLE 1
1,2,3,4,5,6
Allowable Uniform Superimposed Load (lb per ft) for ASTM A 36 Structural Steel Angle Lintels

Span in Feet (Center to Center of Resisting Elastic Moment of

Horizontal Angle Size Weight per Required Bearing Moment Section Inertia
Leg (in) (in x in x in) ft (lb) (ft-lb) Modulus 4
(in )
3 4 5 6 7 8 3
(in )

2 x 2 1/2 x 1/4 3.6 352 146 73 458 0.25 0.372

2 1/2 x 2 1/2 x 1/4 4.1 631 279 141 80 715 0.39 0.703
5/16 5.0 777 336 170 96 880 0.48 0.849
2 1/2 3/8 5.9 923 390 197 112 1045 0.57 0.984
3 x 2 1/2 x 1/4 4.5 908 467 237 135 83 1027 0.56 1.17
3 1/2 x 2 1/2 x 1/4 4.9 1233 692 366 210 130 86 1393 0.76 1.80
5/16 6.1 1509 846 446 255 158 104 1705 0.93 2.19
3/8 7.2 1769 992 521 298 185 122 1998 1.09 2.56

2 1/2 x 3 1/2 x 1/4 4.9 664 308 155 88 752 0.41 0.777
3 x 3 1/2 x 1/4 5.4 956 518 263 150 92 1082 0.59 1.30
3 1/2 x 3 1/2 x 1/4 5.8 1281 718 409 234 145 95 1448 0.79 2.01
3 1/2
5/16 7.2 1590 891 498 285 177 116 1797 0.98 2.45
3/8 8.5 1865 1046 583 334 207 136 2108 1.15 2.87
4 x 3 1/2 x 1/4 6.2 1672 938 594 341 212 140 1888 1.03 2.91
5/16 7.7 2046 1147 726 417 260 172 2310 1.26 3.56
5 x 3 1/2 x 5/16 8.7 3153 1770 1130 779 487 324 3557 1.94 6.60
3/8 10.4 3721 2089 1333 918 574 381 4198 2.29 7.78
6 x 3 1/2 x 3/8 11.7 5268 2958 1889 1308 958 638 5940 3.24 12.90

1
Allowable loads to the left of the heavy line are governed by moment, and to the right by deflection.
2
Fb = 22,000 psi (150 MPa)
3
Maximum deflection limited to L/600
4
Lateral support is assumed in all cases.
5
For angles laterally unsupported, allowable load must be reduced.
6
For angles subjected to torsion, make special investigation.

TABLE 2
1
Allowable Compressive Stresses (psi) in Masonry

Type of Mortar
Type of Wall
M S N O
Solid walls of brick or solid units
of clay when average compressive
strength of unit is as follows:

8000 plus psi 400 350 300 200

4500 to 8000 psi 250 225 200 150
2500 to 4500 psi 175 160 140 110
1500 to 2500 psi 125 115 100 75

Grouted solid masonry of

brick and other solid units of clay

4500 plus psi 350 275 200 -

2500 to 4500 psi 275 215 155 -
1500 to 2500 psi 225 175 125 -

Masonry of hollow units 85 75 70 -

1 Adapted from “American Standard Building Code Requirements for Masonry,” National Bureau of Standards, ANSI A41. 1-1953 (R 1970).

6
 TABLE 3
1 2
End Reaction and Required Length of Bearing for Structural Angle Lintels

2 1/2” Leg Horizontal 31/2” Leg Horizontal

fm Length of Bearing fm Length of Bearing
psi 3 4 5 6 psi 3 4 5 6

400 3000 4000 5000 6000 400 4200 5600 7000 8400
350 2625 3500 4375 5250 350 3675 4900 6125 7350
300 2250 3000 3750 4500 300 3150 4200 5250 6300
275 2063 2750 3438 4125 275 2888 3850 4813 5775
250 1875 2500 3125 3750 250 2625 3500 4375 5250
225 1688 2250 2813 3375 225 2363 3150 3938 4725
215 1613 2150 2688 3225 215 2258 3010 3763 4515
200 1500 2000 2500 3000 200 2100 2800 3500 4200
175 1313 1750 2188 2625 175 1838 2450 3063 3675
160 1200 1600 2000 2400 160 1680 2240 2800 3360
155 1163 1550 1938 2325 155 1628 2170 2713 3255
150 1125 1500 1875 2250 150 1575 2100 2625 3150
140 1050 1400 1750 2100 140 1470 1960 2450 2940
125 938 1250 1563 1875 125 1313 1750 2188 2625
115 863 1150 1438 1725 115 1208 1610 2013 2415
110 825 1100 1375 1650 110 1155 1540 1925 2310
100 750 1000 1250 1500 100 1050 1400 1750 2100
85 638 850 1063 1275 85 893 1190 1488 1785
75 563 750 938 1125 75 788 1050 1313 1575
70 525 700 875 1050 70 735 980 1225 1470

1
End Reaction in lbs.
2
Length of Bearing in inches.

REFERENCES

1. AISC, Manual of Steel Construction, American

Institute of Steel Construction, Inc., New York, New
York, Eighth Edition, 1980.
2. AISC, Specification for the Design, Fabrication
and Erection of Structural Steel for Buildings,
American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc., New
York, New York, 1978.
3. ANSI, American Standard Building Code
Requirements for Masonry, ANSI A41.1-1953 (R
1970), American National Standards Institute, New
York, New York.
4. BIA, Building Code Requirements for Engineered
Brick Masonry, Brick Institute of America, McLean,
Virginia, 1969.

7

Technical Notes
on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF SEMICIRCULAR BRICK MASONRY ARCHES
INTRODUCTION
The semicircular arch is among the most popular arch
forms used by architects today. Its smooth, continuous
curve makes it easily adaptable to many architectural
styles and applications.
This issue of Technical Notes presents recommended
procedures and tables for the structural design of non-
reinforced semicircular and segmental arches. Technical
Notes 31 and 31A contain further information about gen-
eral arch forms and their design.
Holiday Inn, McLean, Virginia
*Originally published in February 1971, this Technical Notes has been reviewed and reissued with editorial changes.
31C
REVISED
Reissued*
August
1986
DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS
Since the brick masonry arch is usually an integral
part of a wall and not free-standing, basic design assump-
tions are made which assist in making the analysis.
The spring line is assumed to be located on a hori-
zontal line one fourth the span length above the horizontal
axis. The arches are assumed to be fully restrained at
the spring line and the portion of semicircular arch above
this line is analyzed in a manner similar to that for a para-
bolic arch, using the formulas in Section 10, Method A
from Frames and Arches, by Valerian Leontovich, M.S.,
McGraw-Hill 1959.

NOMENCLATURE
d = arch ring depth, in inches,
f = rise of arch, in feet,
fm = allowable compressive stress, in psi,
H = horizontal thrust, in pounds,
HDL = horizontal thrust, in pounds, caused by a
uniform dead load,
L = span length, in feet,
n = number of shear planes (see Technical Notes
31A.)
P = allowable concentrated load, in pounds,
P’ = maximum allowable concentrated load in
pounds under combined loading provisions,
P* = additional concentrated load capacity caused by
the uniform dead load.
t = wall thickness, in inches
vm = allowable shear stress in brick masonry, in psi,
W = allowable uniform load, in pounds per foot,
x = length of wall required, in inches, to resist
horizontal thrust
DEVELOPMENT OF TABLES
In the determination of the arch's capacity for uniform
loads, the limiting factor was found to be the compressive
strength of the brick masonry. Additional stresses due to
the circular loading of the masonry above the intrados are
also taken into consideration.
In determining the capacity for concentrated loads,
the limiting factors were found to be bending at the center
line of span, shear at the spring line (vm = 40 psi), and
maximum compressive stress (f m). Tensile stresses were
not permitted to develop at mid span.
Since axial forces develop in the arch ring from the
concentrated and uniform loads, interaction formulas were
developed for each loading condition. These formulas
combine the axial stresses with the bending stresses.
ALLOWABLE LOADING
In all formulas used in this publication, d and t are
measured in inches, and L is measured in feet. The fol-
lowing loading conditions were considered for analyzing a
semicircular arch.
Uniform Load. Tables 1, 2, 3 and 4 give the allow-
able uniform loads occurring over the entire span length
for a 1-in. thick arch ring. Figure 1 illustrates the following
requirements and limitations:
1. Uniform load occurring between lines 1 and 3 (0.90
L and 0.70 L) are those provided for in the load
tables.
2. Uniform loads occurring above line 1 may be
ignored, at the discretion of the designer, provided
arching action occurs in the brick masonry above the
arch ring. (See discussion in Technical Notes 31 and
31A.)
3. There must be a minimum height of masonry (line
3) equal to 0.70 L above the horizontal axis. No
2
superimposed loads are permitted below this line.
4. The maximum design height of masonry is 0.25 L
above the crown for walls higher than line 2.
5. In all cases, the horizontal thrust (H) must be
checked as shown in Technical Notes 31A, Fig. 4.
For a given arch, the horizontal thrust is directly pro-
portional to the uniform load.
6. The portion of wall that resists the horizontal thrust
is assumed to be non-yielding to any lateral move-
ment.
FIG. 1
Concentrated Load. Table 5 gives the allowable
concentrated loads occurring at the center line of span for
a 1-in. thick arch ring. Figure 2 illustrates the following
requirements and limitations:
1. Concentrated loads occurring between lines 2 and
3 (1.20 L and 0.75 L) are those provided for in the
load table.
2. Concentrated loads occurring between lines 1 and
2 may be divided by the span length (L) and consid-
ered as equivalent uniform loads.
3. Concentrated loads occurring above line 1 (1.50 L)
may be ignored, at the discretion of the designer, pro-
vided arching action occurs in the brick masonry
above the arch ring. (See discussion in Technical
Notes 31 and 31A.)
4. In all cases, condition 4 for uniform loads must be
used with the resulting thrusts added to those of the
concentrated loads.
5. There must be a minimum height of masonry (line
3) equal to 0.75 L above the horizontal axis. No
superimposed loads are permitted below this line.
6. In all cases, the horizontal thrust H must be
checked as shown in Technical Notes 31A, Fig. 4.
For a given arch, the horizontal thrust is directly pro-
portional to the concentrated load.
7. The portion of wall that resists the horizontal thrust
is assumed to be non-yielding to any lateral move-
ment.
 ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE
Design an arch to meet the requirements as shown in
Fig. 4. The arch is semicircular; the horizontal axis is 6 ft
above the base; the span, L, is 10 ft; the arch ring depth,
d, is 12 in. (11 1/2 in. actual); and the nominal wall thick-
ness, t, is 8 in. (7 1/2 in. actual). A beam reaction of 5000
lb is located at the center line of the span and 17 ft above
the base. The uniform load consists of 1000 lb per ft
dead load and 500 lb per ft live load occurring 14 ft above
the base. Assume f m = 400 psi and the brick masonry
weighs 10 psf per 1-in. thickness.

FIG. 2

Combined Loading. When the uniform loads are

combined with concentrated loads, the concentrated load
capacity of the arch ring increases. This additional capac-
ity is due to the compressive stress from the uniform load
equalizing the tensile bending stress at mid span due to
the concentrated load (M/S = P/A). This additional capac-
ity may be expressed by the following formula:

P* = H DL d
1.34L

The values of P’ and H’ in Table 6 are the allowable

FIG. 4
capacities governed by compression or shear. They
should be used only as a check when combined loadings
are used. Uniform Load
In all cases, the actual load must be less than P’, and
less than the allowable load, P, plus the additional capaci- Wall DL = 0.25(10)(10)(7.5) = 188 lb per ft
ty P*. The total horizontal thrust must be checked and Arch DL = 1(10)(7.5) = 75
should be less than the maximum allowable for a uniform Floor DL = 1000
load. Floor LL = 500
Total Uniform Load = 1763 lb per ft
SEGMENTAL ARCHES Concentrated Load = 5000 lb
Any segmental arch with f / L’ > 0.29 but < 0.50 can
be considered as an equivalent semicircular arch as DL = 1263 = 0.72
shown in Fig. 3. Twice the radius is the equivalent L for TL 1763
use with the tables.
All the following calculations will be with 1 in. of wall
thickness; actual t = 7.5 in., fm = 400 psi, d = 11.5 in. and
L= 10 ft.

Uniform Load
The uniform load occurs at 8 = 0.8L
10
Use Table 2, since 0.7L < 0.8L < 0.9L
From Table 2, W = 724 lb per ft and
H = 2993 lb
FIG. 3

3
 If arches are to be loaded unsymmetrically or do not
W(actual) = 1763 = 235 lb per ft < 724 O.K. comply with the assumptions and limitations given in this
7.5 Technical Notes, consideration should be given to rein-
H(actual) = 235 (2993) = 970 lb forced brick masonry. (See Technical Notes 17A Revised,
724 "Reinforced Brick Masonry - Flexural Design", and 17M,
"Reinforced Brick Masonry Girders - Examples".) If condi-
Concentrated Load tions exist other than those covered in the tables, special
The concentrated load occurs at 8+3 = 1.1 L analysis should be made by the designer.
10 The Brick Institute of America can not assume
responsibility for the results obtained when using this
Use Table 5 since 0.75L < 1.1 L < 1.2L Technical Notes Issue. It is beyond the scope of the
From Table 5, P = 88 lb and H = 84 lb Institute to anticipate every design situation that may
P(actual) = 5000 = 667 lb > 88 N.G. arise. However, so long as the design criteria agree with
7.5 the assumptions and limitations, satisfactory results can
be obtained which will save countless hours of calculation
However, since there is combined loading, advantage time.
can be taken of the increased capacity due to the uniform
load. TABLE 1
Allowable Uniform Load for f m = 300 psi (t =1 in)
P* = 970(0.72)(11.5) = 600 lb
1.34(10)
P(allowable) = 600 + 88 = 688 lb d=3.5 in. d= 7.5 in. d= 11.5 in. d= 15.5 in.
L
667 < 688 O.K. W H W H W H W H
From Table 6, P’ = 1060 lb
2 810 697 1520 1496 2071 2295 2509 3094
667 < 1060 O.K.
H(actual) = 667 (84) =636 lb 4 424 686 857 1489 1230 2289 1556 3089
88
6 277 659 591 1474 870 2277 1124 3078
Horizontal Thrust 8 193 611 444 1447 669 2257 875 3061
H(total) = 970 + 636 = 1606 < 2993 O.K.
10 134 533 349 1406 538 2227 713 3036
At this point the wall shear caused by the horizontal
thrust at the spring line should be checked. Assume Vm = 12 86 420 280 1347 445 2185 597 3001
40 psi and n = 2
14 -- -- 226 1268 374 2128 510 2956
x = H = 1606(7.5) = 20.5 in < 6 ft O.K.
16 -- -- 180 1164 317 2055 440 2898
vmnt 40(2)(7.5)
18 -- -- 141 1034 269 1964 383 2825
The overturning moment of the support due to hori-
zontal thrust should be checked next (see Technical 20 -- -- 105 873 228 1852 335 2737
Notes 31A). In this example, the horizontal thrust is 1606
(7.5) (8.5) = 102,000 ft-lb.
The resistance to overturning is a function of the over-
all axial load, wall shape, and reinforcement, if any. This
is a separate analysis that should be performed after con-
sidering the total loading conditions on the entire struc-
ture.

CONCLUSION
This issue of Technical Notes has presented a simpli-
fied but conservative approach to a complex structural
design problem. To provide an analysis for all possible
assumptions and loading conditions is beyond the scope
of this publication. Most loading conditions encountered
will be similar to those in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2. To load an
arch unsymmetrically defeats its use as a natural load-
carrying structure and induces bending stresses that may
cause failure.

4
 TABLE 2 TABLE 3
Allowable Uniform Load for f m = 400 psi (t =1 in) Allowable Uniform Load for f m = 500 psi (t =1 in)

d=3.5 in. d= 7.5 in. d= 11.5 in. d= 15.5 in. d=3.5 in. d= 7.5 in. d= 11.5 in. d= 15.5 in.
L L
W H W H W H W H W H W H W H W H

2 1082 930 2028 1996 2762 3061 3347 4127 2 1353 1163 2536 2495 3453 3827 4185 5159

4 569 919 1145 1989 1642 3055 2077 4121 4 714 1152 1434 2488 2055 3821 2597 5154

6 376 892 792 1973 1164 3043 1501 4111 6 475 1125 993 2473 1458 3809 1879 5143

8 268 844 599 1947 897 3023 1172 4094 8 343 1077 753 2446 1125 3789 1468 5126

10 195 766 474 1906 724 2993 957 4068 10 255 1000 600 2405 911 3759 1201 5101

12 137 653 385 1847 602 2951 804 4034 12 188 886 491 2347 760 3717 1012 5066

14 87 498 317 1767 510 2894 690 3988 14 131 731 408 2267 647 3660 870 5021

16 -- -- 261 1664 437 2821 600 3930 16 80 527 341 2164 558 3587 759 4962

18 -- -- 212 1533 377 2730 526 3858 18 -- -- 284 2033 485 3496 669 4890

20 -- -- 170 1373 325 2618 464 3770 20 -- -- 234 1872 423 3384 594 4802
TABLE 4 TABLE 5
Allowable Uniform Load for f m = 600 psi (t =1 in) Allowable Concentrated Load (t =1 in)*

d=3.5 in. d= 7.5 in. d= 11.5 in. d= 15.5 in. fm = 300 to 600 psi
L
W H W H W H W H d=3.5 in. d= 7.5 in. d= 11.5 in. d= 15.5 in.
L
2 1624 1396 3044 2995 4145 4593 5023 6192 P H P H P H P H

4 859 1385 1722 2988 2467 4587 3188 6186 2 15 12 703 547 1078 841 1451 1131

6 573 1359 1194 2973 1752 4575 2257 6175 4 9 9 126 101 1075 841 1449 1131

8 418 1310 908 2946 1353 4555 1765 6158 6 13 16 38 35 418 332 1445 1132

10 315 1233 725 2905 1097 4525 1445 6133 8 20 25 40 41 97 86 967 764

12 238 1120 596 2846 918 4483 1219 6099 10 28 36 48 52 88 84 199 172

14 174 964 499 2767 783 4426 1050 6053 12 38 49 58 67 93 95 162 150

16 118 760 421 2663 678 4353 918 5995 14 48 65 70 83 104 111 160 156

18 -- -- 356 2532 592 4262 812 5922 16 61 83 84 102 117 130 168 171

20 -- -- 299 2372 520 4150 723 5834 18 75 103 100 124 133 152 181 191

20 90 125 117 148 151 177 198 215

* Values may be linearly interpolated except where horizontal lines occur. At these lines, the allowable load is
3 2
0.241 (L+ 0.083d + 0.134 (L+ 0.083d) d or the value above the line, whichever is smaller. The horizontal thrust is 0.778P+ 0.134 (L+ 0.083d) or value above the line,
1.34 (L+ 0.083d) - 0.778d
whichever is smaller.

5
 TABLE 6
Maximum Concentrated Load Under Combined
Loading Conditions (t = 1 in.)

fm = 300 psi fm = 400 psi fm = 500 psi fm = 600 psi fm = 300 to 600 psi
L
d = 3.5 d = 7.5 d = 3.5 d = 7.5 d = 3.5 d = 7.5 d = 3.5 d = 7.5 d = 11.5 in. d = 15.5 in.
P’ H’ P’ H’ P’ H’ P’ H’ P’ H’ P’ H’ P’ H’ P’ H’ P’ H’ P’ H’

2 328 256 703 547 328 256 703 547 328 256 703 547 328 256 703 547 1078 841 1451 1131

4 326 256 701 547 326 256 701 547 326 256 701 547 326 256 701 547 1075 841 1449 1131

6 324 256 698 548 324 256 698 548 324 256 698 548 324 256 698 548 1072 842 1445 1132

8 273 203 695 549 321 257 695 549 321 257 695 549 321 257 695 549 1065 842 1442 1133

10 235 170 691 550 310 227 691 550 316 257 691 550 316 257 691 550 1060 842 1440 1134

12 211 143 685 551 275 194 685 551 310 258 685 551 310 258 685 551 1055 843 1436 1135

14 195 125 685 504 252 169 676 552 304 258 676 552 304 258 676 552 1050 843 1431 1136

16 187 110 630 453 237 149 670 553 287 188 670 553 297 258 670 553 1045 843 1422 1137

18 183 98 587 410 228 133 661 554 273 169 661 554 289 259 661 554 1040 842 1411 1137

20 184 88 555 374 225 120 723 505 266 151 652 555 280 259 652 555 1025 842 1400 1138

6

Technical Notes
on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
BRICK MASONRY DETAILS - SILLS AND SOFFITS
Abstract: Detailing of brick masonry is both an art and a science. Recommendations are provided for the
development of successful details using brick masonry and other materials. Detailing of sills and soffits is specif-
ically addressed. Performance, esthetic value and economics are the principal considerations in the develop-
ment of successful details.
Key Words: brick, connections, construction, design, detailing, economics, esthetic value, function,
performance, prefabrication, sills, soffits, structural stability.
INTRODUCTION
Successful detailing of brick masonry is both an art
and a science. Proper details should result in a structure
which is pleasing to the eye, but more importantly, per-
forms well over its lifetime. Good detailing is not acciden-
tal, it requires proper planning. This planning may involve
close cooperation between the architectural, engineering
and construction disciplines in the early stages of the
design process.
There are three items which should be considered in
the development of a successful detail. These are: 1.
Performance considerations; 2. Esthetic value considera-
tions; and 3. Economic considerations. The last two of
these items may be traded off against each other. But,
the first is mandatory and if it is not the primary concern,
the detail may, and probably will, be doomed to failure.
This failure can manifest itself in several ways: cracking,
structural failure, moisture penetration to the interior, or
efflorescence, to mention a few.
It is possible to have a successful detail while com-
promising either the esthetic value or the economic con-
siderations. But, it is impossible to have a successful
detail if the performance considerations are compromised.
A successful detail can be developed with excellent
esthetic value while completely ignoring the economic
considerations or vice versa, but to ignore the perfor-
mance considerations is to invite trouble.
APPROACH TO DETAILING
General
Proper planning in the development of brick details is
essential to the successful execution of that detail in the
field. The designer must be familiar not only with the
properties of the various materials involved, but also how
they go together in the construction process and how they
will perform, both individually and together in service. The
most esthetically pleasing detail is of no benefit if it can't
*Originally published in Jul/Aug 1981, this Technical Notes has been reviewed and reissued.
36
REVISED
Reissued*
January
1988
be built, or does not perform its intended function.
The designer should always keep in mind that differ-
ent materials react to temperature and moisture changes
in different ways. While in some cases these differences
may be minor, in others they may be significant. If they
are not properly addressed, the result can be facade fail-
ures, such as leaking, bowing, cracking, etc. For a dis-
cussion of differential movement, see Technical Notes 18
Series.
Performance Considerations
Performance is all-important if the detail is to be suc-
cessful. There are three items which must be considered
in the development of a detail which will provide satisfac-
tory performance. They are: 1. Functional considerations;
2. Structural stability; and 3. Construction considerations.
In the development of the detail, it is imperative that all of
these items be given proper consideration.
Functional Considerations. One of the first steps in
the development of a successful detail is to determine the
function of the element. The designer must determine the
purpose of the element, and how the element will affect
the overall performance of the building. Typical questions
which should be addressed are: 1. Is the element to serve
as a weather-tight enclosure? 2. Will stresses, axial, flex-
ural or shear, be developed in the member? 3. Should it
channel and direct the flow of moisture? 4. Is it to seal the
top of a vertical element? 5. Is its purpose merely for
esthetic value? Only after the designer has determined
the required functions of the element can he begin to con-
sider the other factors which will dictate the final design.
Structural Stability. The designer must develop a
detail which ensures that all applied loads can be ade-
quately resisted by the element or that they are trans-
ferred to other elements of the structure which can resist
them. These applied loads may be axial, transverse,
shear or in the case of prefabricated elements, loads due
to transportation and erection. One area of concern is the
manner and adequacy of the connection of the element to
the structure. It is imperative that these connections be
structurally sound, to ensure structural stability of the ele-
ment.
Construction Considerations. The designer should
take great care to ensure that the details can be easily
executed in the field. This requires that the designer be
knowledgeable in current construction practices. While
some innovation may be necessary and beneficial, the
detail should not require radical deviation from conven-
tional construction practices. Typically, the more simple
and straightforward the detail is, the easier it is to con-
struct and thus, the better its performance. In some
instances, the construction can be simplified by prefabri-
cation of the element. Care should be taken by the
designer to ensure, to the greatest extent possible, that
the detail does not require several crafts to be working in
the same location at the same time.
Esthetic Value Considerations
The designer must also determine how best to fulfill
the functional requirements and yet provide the desired
esthetic value. This involves decisions on materials, col-
ors and textures, and other esthetic considerations. The
configuration of the element is also an important esthetic
consideration. The designer may decide to project or
recess parts of the element to provide shadow lines or to
use a different bond pattern to call attention to the detail.
The esthetic value of the detail is limited only by its func-
tion, its ease of construction, the designer's imagination
and possibly its economic feasibility.
Economic Considerations
A detail, to be successful, should have the capability
of being constructed economically. Economics involves
both materials and labor. A successful detail requires that
both the quantity and quality of materials be closely con-
trolled. The use of excess materials to achieve the func-
General Studies/Classroom/Instructional Resources Center
State University Agricultural and Technical College
Delhi, New York
FIG. 1
2
tion of the detail should be avoided.
Details which require very specialized skills by the
crafts involved should be avoided. If very specialized
skills are required, there is usually a reduction in produc-
tivity of the craftsmen and an increase in cost.
SILLS
General
The prime function of a sill is to channel water away
from the building. The sill may consist of a single unit or
multiple units; it may be built in place or prefabricated;
and it may be constructed of various materials.
Esthetic Value
The desired esthetic effect may be achieved through
the use of special shaped units, either manufactured or
cut to the desired shape. A word of caution concerning
manufactured special shapes-while most manufacturers
are capable of making special shapes to match the color
and texture of the units selected for the project, there will
be an added cost for each special-shaped unit. The
added cost for the special shapes is dependent upon the
complexity of the configuration of the shape and the num-
ber of units of each special shape required. Some manu-
facturers carry certain special shapes in stock. It may be
advantageous to slightly alter the detail so that these
stock special shapes may be used in lieu of one with a
slightly different configuration.
The appearance of the sill and the overall esthetic
appeal of the structure may also be achieved by the use
of a contrasting color or texture or by use of materials
other than brick for the sill. Esthetics may also be affect-
ed by the use of a different bond pattern than that used in
the adjacent wall. See Figs. 1 and 2.
Westgate Corporation Building
McLean, Virginia
FIG. 2
 Sill in Frame/Brick Veneer Construction
FIG. 3
Materials
Sills for use in brick masonry construction are typically
brick, concrete, stone or metal. The selection of material
is primarily dependent upon the required esthetic effect.
But it is also important to note that metal, concrete and
stone sills normally require fewer joints than do brick sills,
and therefore provide fewer potential avenues for water
penetration. Once the decision of which material to use is
made, then decisions concerning the quality of that mater-
ial can be made. Whichever material is selected, it
should be of high quality. A discussion of brick and mortar
properties is found in Technical Notes 7B Revised.
Flashings for use in sills can be of a number of mate-
rials, such as copper, lead or plastics, see Technical
Notes 7A Revised for additional information. Aluminum
and asphaltic-impregnated felt are not recommended for
use as flashing materials. Aluminum is not recommended
since alkalies in the cement of the mortar may attack it
and cause corrosion. Asphaltic-impregnated felt is not
recommended because it is easily punctured during con-
struction. For the same reason, plastic films of less than
20 mil thickness should also be avoided. Once the flash-
ing has been punctured, it ceases to fulfill its function,
thus in place flashing should be inspected for punctures
and tears, and appropriately repaired prior to laying brick
masonry on the flashing. Also, some plastics are subject
to continued degradation after having been exposed to
sunlight for an extended period of time.
Details
General. Since the primary function of sills is to
divert water away from the building, the top surface
should slope downward and away from the building. In
the case of brick sills, see Figures 3 and 4, the slope
should be at least 15 deg from horizontal. This may vary
somewhat according to the sill configuration of the win-
dow unit, particularly in the case of wood windows. The
sill should extend a minimum of 1 in. (25 mm) beyond the
face of the wall at its closest point to the wall, see Fig. 3.
In some instances, it may be necessary that the brick
units at the ends of the sills be uncored units so that no
cores are exposed to view.
3
Sill in Cavity Wall Construction
FIG. 4
When concrete or stone sills are used, they should be
sloped away from the building, and also sloped from the
ends toward the center, see Figs. 5 and 6. The slope
away from the building should be at least 15 deg from
horizontal, the slope from the ends should be 1/8 in. (3
mm) to 12 in. (300 mm) toward the center of the sill. For
sills longer than 4 ft ( 1.2 m), the slope should extend for
at least a distance of 2 ft (600 mm) from the ends, see
Fig. 6.
Flashing and Weepholes. In general, when a collar
joint, cavity or air space is interrupted, such as at sills, at
the base of the walls, at lintels over openings and at shelf
angle supports, flashing should be provided in the wall.
The function of flashing is to serve as a collector for any
moisture penetrating the wall or the sill. It is important
that the flashing extend through the brick to the exterior
face of the wall at the lower end of the flashing and be
turned down at least to in. (6 mm) to form a drip. The
flashing at the sill should extend beyond the ends of the
sill to the first head joint outside of the jamb of the open-
ing, and should be turned up and outward for a distance
of at least 1 in. (25 mm) at each end, see Fig. 5. If the
ends are not turned up and out, the moisture collected on
the flashing will have a path into the adjacent wall and
there is no way to predict where it may go. The purpose
of turning the flashing up and out is to assure that the
Concrete or Stone Sill
FIG. 5
 Concrete or Stone Sill
FIG. 6
moisture stays on the flashing until it drains from the wall.
See Technical Notes 7A Revised for a discussion of mate-
rials to be used as flashing.
Once moisture penetrating the wall or sill has been
collected on the flashing, it must be removed from the
wall. This is the function of weepholes. Weepholes may
be installed in several ways, see Technical Notes 21C.
Weepholes should be placed on top of the flashing, not
one course up. If wick-type materials are employed, or if
hidden flashing is used, the weepholes should have a
maximum horizontal spacing of 16 in. (400 mm). If open
weepholes with no wicks are used, the horizontal spacing
may be increased to 24 in. (600 mm) maximum.
Drips. Every sill should be provided with a drip. The
function of the drip is to prevent water from returning to
the exterior face of the wall. The drip of a properly sloped
brick sill is the lower corner of the brickwork. A drip in a
concrete or stone sill is usually formed, or cut into the bot-
tom face of the sill, as shown in Figs. 5 and 6. The drip
on a concrete or stone sill can be cut in several shapes,
Vee-shape, rectangular, semi-circular, or a combination of
these. The shape of the drip is not important, but its pres-
ence and location are important. The inner lip of the drip
should be located a minimum of 1 in. (25 mm) from the
exterior face of the wall, as shown in Fig. 5.
Connections. In brick masonry sills of short length, 4
ft. (1.2 m) or less, no special anchorage is necessary.
However, sills of brick, concrete, metal and stone having
long runs should be anchored to the masonry below or
behind the sill, see Figs. 3 and 5. This will require pene-
tration of the flashing below or behind the sill. Care must
be taken to ensure that these penetrations are adequately
sealed so that the flashing functions as intended.
Attachment of the sill to the window will vary with win-
dow type and manufacturer. It is most important that the
joint where the sill and window make contact be sealed
with a high-quality sealant, see Technical Notes 28
Revised and 28B Revised.
4
Expansion Joints. When expansion joints are nec-
essary, it may be desirable to install them in vertical align-
ment with window jamb lines. If this is done, the expan-
sion joint should also be installed through the sill. This
will enable the expansion joint to perform as intended.
If the sill extends beyond the jamb of the opening and
an expansion joint is required at the jamb, then the
expansion joint should be continuous around the entire sill
extension, as should the flashing, see Fig. 6.
Construction
In the past, sills for use in brick masonry construction
have generally been built in place, using conventional
construction practices. A trend during recent years has
been to use prefabricated sills, particularly when com-
bined with a spandrel and soffit, see Technical Notes 40
Series. This type of construction will be further discussed
in the Soffits portion of this Technical Notes.
When prefabricated brick, pre-cast concrete, or stone
sills are used, they should have section lengths as long
as is practical. The lengths will be determined by ease of
handling and erection and the sills' ability to resist erec-
tion stresses. The length of sill sections should be limited
to a length that can easily be handled by equipment
already on the jobsite. The joints between long sill sec-
tions should be constructed using a soft joint. It may also
be necessary, in very long runs of sill, to provide expan-
sion joints at the ends where the sill abuts the jamb.
SOFFITS
General
Detailing of soffits for brick masonry requires special
considerations. The primary function of a brick masonry
soffit is to enclose the building while providing an estheti-
cally pleasing appearance. There are two primary consid-
erations in addition to esthetic value in the detailing of sof-
fits: the structural stability of the system and whether it
can be easily and economically constructed using conven-
tional methods.
 Though prefabrication has not been widely used for
total projects, it has been successfully used in many spe-
cialized applications and is considered a conventional
construction method. Prefabrication has been widely
used in the construction of soffits and may provide the
most economical approach on certain projects.
Construction of soffits in place often requires expensive
forming and shoring. However, if there is only a small
area of soffits involved on a given project, this may be the
most efficient method.
Materials
Soffits generally are reinforced and grouted in some
manner, whether built in place or prefabricated. Several
projects have been constructed using reinforced and
grouted hollow units, conforming to ASTM C 652. See
Technical Notes 17 for information on reinforcement and
grout. Properties for brick and mortar are discussed in
Technical Notes 7B Revised.
There are several high bond mortar additives avail-
able which may allow the designer to eliminate the rein-
forcement and grout. However, it should be noted that
the high bond mortars do not work well with all brick units.
The instructions of the additive manufacturer must be
strictly followed, and a pre-design testing program should
be carried out, see Technical Notes 39A.
Design
There are several questions which must be answered
when designing soffits. Some deal with esthetic value,
some with structural stability and some with construction.
The primary esthetic concern is configuration. Should the
soffit be horizontal, or sloped, should it be integral with the
spandrel or separate? The primary design concern is
structural. How should it be detailed to assure structural
soundness, under all loading conditions, including any
loads imparted during erection? This may require detail-
ing and construction practices unfamiliar to the designer
and contractor since this is not like a wall and demands
careful consideration. One of the earliest decisions to be
BIA Headquarters Building
McLean, Virginia
FIG. 7
5
made about the construction of the soffit is whether it will
be best to construct it in place, or to prefabricate it. The
configuration, structural and economic considerations may
dictate the method of construction to be used. See Figs.
7 and 8.
Details
General. Each soffit entails its own unique detailing
problems. These may include: configuration, support
available from the surrounding structure, space restriction
on built in place soffits and construction sequencing. The
manner in which these problems are solved will determine
how successfully the soffit will perform.
Flashing and Weepholes. Normally, soffits do not
require flashing or weepholes. However, in some applica-
tions, both may be required, see Fig. 9. In other applica-
tions, only weepholes may be required, since the inclu-
sion of flashing in some cases may impair the structural
stability of the soffit. It can only be stressed that the
detailer should always keep in mind the primary function
of flashing and weepholes in determining whether they
are needed in any particular application. Their primary
functions are:
Flashing - collect and divert to the weepholes any
moisture which might penetrate the element.
Weepholes - convey all collected and diverted water
to the exterior.
Connections. Whether the soffit is prefabricated or
built in place, its connection to the structure is the most
demanding detail for the designer to develop. Previously
developed details may be totally inappropriate in the pre-
sent situation. Connection details are critical in providing
structural stability to the soffit. In detailing connections, it
is important to keep one principal always in mind. That
principle is: Keep It Simple. The simplest connection
details are in most cases the most successful.
Expansion Joints. The installation of expansion
joints, in most cases, should be avoided in soffits; howev-
Evans Library, Texas A & M University
College Station, Texas
FIG. 8
 Built-in-Place Brick Soffit
FIG. 9
er, it may be necessary to provide expansion joints when
soffits are to be installed over large areas. The installa-
tion of expansion joints may cause problems in providing
structural stability of the element and require additional
connections to the structure. If it is necessary that expan-
sion joints be installed in soffits, it is important to remem-
ber that the function is expansion control. This is provid-
ed by resilient joints which can be compressed to provide
for the movement of brick masonry, especially during hot
weather, due to thermal expansion of the brick masonry
and return to its original shape when the temperature is
cooler. Reinforced and grouted brick masonry does not
usually require expansion joints.
Construction
Structural and economic considerations normally
determine the construction methods to be used. While
the detailer does not normally specify the manner in which
the detail is to be executed during construction, the
method of support and economic aspects determined by
the detail will affect the method of construction chosen.
The method of supporting the soffit, both its perma-
nent support and support during construction, has a direct
bearing on the method of construction selected. The eco-
nomics of constructing the element can be affected by
configuration, structural support and materials selection.
Economics in turn may well be the final determining factor
in the selection of the construction methods employed.
When a soffit is constructed in place, it sometimes
requires a complicated system of centering and falsework
which must be left in place for a number of days. Normal
practice is to provide spacer strips on the forms which
locate each unit within the form and provide a joint on the
exposed face suitable for tuckpointing once the form is
removed, see Fig. 10. These strips should be the width of
the joint and a minimum of 1/2 in. (13 mm) in height.
After the units have been placed on the form, the upper
side is grouted and ties are placed in the joints for anchor-
age to the structure. After several days of curing, the
forms are stripped and the joints can then be tuckpointed.
The number of days required for curing is dependent
upon conditions at the site during the curing period and
the materials used. See Technical Notes 7 for tuckpoint-
ing recommendations.
6
Built-in-Place Soffit Forming
FIG. 10
In some cases, the use of built in place soffits may be
precluded. Then, prefabrication may be the most logical
and economical approach, see Technical Notes 40 Series.
This method of construction has been used very satisfac-
torily on many projects. On most of the projects where it
has been used, the soffit is built integral with a spandrel
cover and a sloped sill, see Figs 11 and 12.
SUMMARY
The designer, when developing details for sills and
soffits, should keep in mind the function of the element
being detailed, the esthetic value he wishes to achieve,
the structural stability of the element, and the economics
of construction. It is essential to provide details which
allow the elements to perform their primary functions as
well as possible. In order to do this, the designer must
select the proper materials, locate them in the proper
place, and provide sufficient information so that the ele-
ment can be properly constructed. Several decisions and
assumptions must be made by the designer because
each project and each element on the project must be
satisfactorily addressed.
This Technical Notes addresses the major considera-
tions necessary to successfully detail sills and soffits of
brick masonry. In some cases, other considerations may
be necessary due to unusual or unique conditions. It is
beyond the scope of this Technical Notes to address all
conditions and combinations of conditions which may
occur, therefore the designer or owner, or both, must
make the final decision on the details, the materials
selected and the construction procedures used. The rec-
ommendations made in this Technical Notes are merely
that-recommendations. The final configuration of the
detail must in the long run be based on the designer's
application of some or all of the principles set forth here.
 Prefabricated Brick Sill, Spandrel and Soffit
FIG. 11

Prefabricated Brick Sill, Spandrel and Soffit

FIG. 12

7
 36A
Technical Notes REVISED

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
Reissued*
January
1988

BRICK MASONRY DETAILS - CAPS AND COPINGS, CORBELS AND RACKING

Abstract: Recommendations are provided for the development of successful details using brick
masonry. Detailing of caps, copings, corbels and racking is specifically addressed. Performance,
esthetic value and economics are the principal considerations in the development of successful
details.
Key Words: brick, caps, connections, construction, copings, corbels, design, detailing, econom-
ics, esthetic values, function, performance, racking, structural stability.

INTRODUCTION in Technical Notes 36 Revised.

This Technical Notes is the second in a series that dis-
cusses brick masonry details. This Technical Notes will
address the detailing of caps, copings, corbels and racking.
Technical Notes 36 Revised addresses the detailing of sills
and soffits.
The recommended approach to detailing is covered in
Technical Notes 36 Revised. While that Technical Notes is
primarily for sills and soffits, it does provide the general
approach applicable to all detailing. The following items
should be considered in the development of a successful
detail: 1. Functional considerations; 2. Esthetic value; 3.
Construction considerations; 4. Economic considerations.
DEFINITIONS
Caps and Copings
The definitions for cap and coping are entirely depen-
dent upon which dictionary or glossary is used as a refer-
ence. In addition, there are other terms which are used
interchangeably with them, such as water table, canting
strip, and offset. For the purpose of this Technical Notes,
the word "coping" applies to the covering at the top of a
wall, and the term "cap" refers to a covering within the
height of the wall, normally where there is a change in wall
thickness. The other terms cited will not be used.
Corbels and Racking
A corbel is defined as a shelf or ledge formed by pro-
jecting successive courses of masonry out from the face of
the wall. Racking is defined as masonry in which succes-
sive courses are stepped back from the face of the wall.
CAPS AND COPINGS
General
The primary function of caps and copings is to channel
water away from the building. The cap or coping may be a
single unit or multiple units. They may be of several differ-
ent materials. The tops may slope in one direction or both
directions. Additionally, where caps are discontinuous, a
minimum slope from the ends of 1/8 in. (3 mm) in 12 in.
(300 mm) should be provided, as shown in Figures 4 and 6
*Originally published in Sept./Oct. 1981, this Technical Notes has been reviewed and reissued.
The esthetic value the designer wishes to achieve may
come from the configuration of the element, its color, or its
texture. Caps and copings normally do not serve any struc-
tural function, and do not present any major problems in
their construction.
Materials
Caps and copings can be constructed of several materi-
als: brick, pre-cast or cast-in-place concrete, stone, terra
cotta, or metal. It should be pointed out that because of
their location in the structure, caps and copings are exposed
to climatic extremes. This severe exposure must be of
prime concern to the designer. Because caps and copings
are subjected to extreme exposure, brick masonry may not
be the best choice of materials. This is because caps and
copings of brick require more joints than do those made of
other materials. This provides more avenues for possible
water penetration into the wall. If brick is the material
selected, great care must be taken to provide for the move-
ment to which the element will be subjected and also to
make sure all joints are properly filled with mortar.
Concrete, stone and metal caps and copings can be
installed in relatively long pieces, thus requiring less joints
than do those made from brick.
Concrete, stone and terra cotta all have thermal expan-
sion properties similar to those of brick masonry and nor-
mally present no extreme problems with differential move-
ment when applied as caps and copings, if properly
detailed. Metal has very different thermal expansion proper-
ties than brick masonry. Depending upon the metal used,
its thermal expansion coefficient may be 3 to 4 times that of
brick masonry. The designer should be aware of this and
provide for this differential movement in the development of
the details. Consideration must also be given to the drying
shrinkage of the element if cast-in-place concrete is the
material selected.
If brick is the material chosen for the coping, it may be
desirable in some applications to use a special shape to get
a positive slope in two directions. In most applications, the
slope should be only in one direction, with drainage onto the
roof and not down the wall face. In such case, the coping
can be built using regular shapes.

Design
The prime consideration in the design of caps and cop-
ings is the performance of the element in service. The
designer must take into consideration the movement of the
element, differential movement between the element and
the wall, joint configuration and material, connection of the
element to the wall, and type and location of flashings.
The esthetic value of the detail should be evaluated. As
with details of other elements, selection of material, color,
texture and configuration will effect the esthetic value of the
detail. The designer has a wide range from which to
choose, but he must keep in mind that the performance
should not be compromised to achieve esthetic value. Coping for Cavity Wall Parapet
The economic considerations are seldom a major con- FIG. 2
sideration in the development of details for caps and cop-
The caps should overhang the wall face on the exposed
side. Copings should overhang the wall on both sides. The
overhang should be of sufficient dimension so that the inner
lip of the drip is at least 1 in. (25 mm) from the face of the
wall. Since the function of caps and copings is to prevent
moisture penetration, the fewer the number of joints, the
more assurance that the detail will perform its function.
Flashing and Weepholes. Flashings for caps and cop-
ings generally serve a different function from flashings used
elsewhere in the structure. Flashing used with caps and
copings has as its prime function the prevention of the entry
of moisture into the wall. The collection and diversion of the
water from the wall becomes a secondary, although impor-
tant function.
In order to properly anchor caps and copings to the
wall, it may become necessary to penetrate the flashing with
the anchor, see Figs. 1, 3, and 4. To prevent moisture from
entering the wall, at these points, it is absolutely necessary
that the penetrations be adequately sealed, or the flashing
will fail to function as intended.

Flashings should be extended beyond the face of the

Precast Concrete or Stone Coping on Cavity Wall Parapet

FIG. 1

ings. The material selected may have a minor effect on the

economics of the detail. It affects the economics not only by
its own costs, but also by the economics of installation. The
economic considerations should not have a deleterious
effect on the performance of the details in service.

Details
General. The function of caps and copings is to pre-
vent the entry of water into the wall where the wall becomes
partially or totally discontinuous vertically. Caps should have Coping for Solid Masonry Parapet
the top surface sloping downward, away from the face of the FIG. 3
wall above. Copings may slope in one or both directions. In
all cases, the slope should be a minimum of 15 deg from
horizontal.
2
 Rowlock Coping on Solid Masonry Parapet Masonry Bearing Wall Coping
FIG. 4 FIG. 5

wall and bent downward 1/4 in. (6 mm) to form a drip, as ing due to thermal expansion. Metal caps and copings
shown in Figs. 2, 5, and 6. Metal copings may also serve require an extension down the face of the wall, 4 in. (100
as flashings. It should be recognized that exterior flashings mm) min., and a sealant between the metal and the wall to
not contained within the wall serve the same functions as do prevent wind uplift and water penetration. Care should be
interior flashing. Information on flashing materials is provid- taken to seal each penetration of the metal cap or coping
ed in Technical Notes 7A Revised. where it is exposed to the exterior environment.
While the flashing for caps and copings may have a dif- Expansion Joints. It is necessary to provide expan-
ferent prime function from normal usage, it is still necessary
to provide weepholes immediately above the flashings to
convey the water collected on the flashing out of the wall,
unless exterior flashing is used. Weepholes should be
spaced at a maximum of 24 in. (600 mm) o.c., unless wicks
or hidden flashing are used. Then the spacing should be
reduced to 16 in. (400 mm) o.c. maximum.
Drips. Regardless of the material selected for caps or
copings, drips should be provided. When brick caps and
copings are used, the drip is the lowest point on the ele-
ment, as shown in Figs. 4 and 7. When metal caps and
copings are used, the drips can be formed by bending the Masonry Cavity Wall Coping
material outward from the face of the wall, see Figs. 2, 5
and 6. With heavy gauge metals, stone concrete or terra FIG. 6
cotta caps and copings, the drip is either cut or formed in
the bottom of the projection beyond the face of the wall, as
shown in Figs. 1, 3, and 7. This drip can be in several con-
figurations, and still perform. The important thing is that a
drip be provided and that the inner lip be at least 1 in. (25
mm) from the face of the wall as shown in Figs. 1, 3, and 7.

Connections. Elements other than caps and copings

require careful consideration of their connection to the struc-
ture for the structural stability of the element. In the case of
caps and copings, the structural stability becomes sec-
ondary to the climatic considerations, such as moisture and
temperature. Connections which are usually provided for
structural purposes are generally rigid. Because of the
diversity of materials used for caps and copings in conjunc-
tion with brick masonry walls, the connection in some cases
should be of a flexible nature. Brick masonry, concrete,
stone and terra cotta, respond to climatic conditions in much
the same manner, and rigid connections can be used with
little consideration of differential movement. Because of the
dissimilarity of metal and brick masonry in their reaction to
climatic conditions, the connections require some flexibility.
Light gauge metal copings as shown in Figs. 5 and 6
should be nailed to the wall, and horizontal slots should be
provided at nailing locations to prevent buckling of the cop-
Brick and Precast Concrete or Stone Caps
FIG. 7
sion joints in long walls to provide for movement of the wall
due to thermal and moisture expansion. This is particularly
true in parapet walls and other masonry walls which are
exposed to the exterior climatic conditions on both sides.
Expansion joints are discussed in Technical Notes 18
Series.
When expansion joints are required in the wall, the
expansion joints should also be provided through any caps
or copings in the same locations. It may be necessary to

3
provide additional joints in metal copings. Metal copings
should be so detailed and constructed that they function
independently of the movement of the wall below.
Expansion joints should be of a compressible material, but
should also be extensible. One method of providing expan-
sion joints is to leave the mortar from the head joints in a
vertical line and insert a synthetic backer rod to the desired
depth and fill the remainder of the joint with a high-quality
sealant.
Construction. Caps and copings require no special
construction skills. If brick masonry is used as the cap or
coping material, great care should be taken to ensure that
all head and bed joints are completely filled. If cast-in-place
concrete is used, some provision must be made to allow for
the initial drying shrinkage of the concrete.
If precast concrete or stone are used for caps or cop-
ings, non-compressible shims should be placed on the top
of the wall at the exterior face of the wall. The shims are
used because the weight of this type of cap or coping would
compress the plastic mortar and a smaller joint would result.
Then the mortar for the bed joint is spread and the cap or
coping installed. The shims which should have a thickness
equal to the bed joints should be left in place until the mortar
has set. Once the mortar has set, the shims should be
removed and the joint tuckpointed.
CORBELS AND RACKING
Limitations on Corbeling
FIG. 8
4
General
Corbeling of brick masonry may be done to achieve the
desired esthetics, or to provide structural support. There are
empirical requirements provided by most codes and stan-
dards for unreinforced corbels, as shown in Fig. 8. If these
requirements are to be exceeded, then the element will
require a rational design as a reinforced element.
Corbels. The empirical approach requires that the total
horizontal projection not exceed one-half the thickness of a
solid wall, or one-half the thickness of the veneer of a
veneered wall. It is also required that the projection of a sin-
gle course not exceed one-half of the unit height or one-third
of the unit bed depth, whichever is less. From these limita-
tions, the minimum slope of the corbeling can be estab-
lished (angle measured from the horizontal to the face of the
corbeled surface is 63 deg 26 min. see Fig. 8). The
required slope could be increased by the requirements that
the unit projection not exceed one-third of the bed depth if
they are more restrictive. It should be pointed out that the
eccentricity induced into the wall by the corbeling must be
considered in the wall design. If these limitations are
exceeded, the wall should be reinforced to resist the stress-
es developed by the corbeling.
Fig. 9 illustrates graphically the pattern of stresses with-
in two corbels of different configurations under identical
loading conditions. The corbel on the left is 45 deg from
 Corbeling Stress Distribution
FIG. 9

horizontal, which is not in accordance with building code
requirements. The corbeled wall on the right has an angle
of corbel 60 deg from horizontal and is very close to the
building code requirement of 63 deg 26 min discussed
above. The 60-deg corbel shows a stress pattern with axial
and shear stresses with the only concentration of stresses
directly below the applied load, P. The shear stresses are
well distributed within the wall section. The 45-deg corbel,
on the other hand, has bending stresses in addition to the
axial and shear stresses, and the pattern of the stresses
has been drastically altered. In addition to the concentration
of compressive stresses immediately beneath the load, P.
there is another concentration of compressive stress at the
toe of the corbel. The bending stresses require that a corbel
of this configuration be rationally designed and reinforced.
Those corbels having an angle from horizontal of 60 deg or
greater do not require reinforcement unless they exceed the
other requirements given above.
which allow the elements to perform their primary functions
as well as possible. In order to do this, the designer must
select the proper materials, locate them in the proper place
and provide sufficient information so that the element can be
properly constructed. Several decisions and assumptions
must be made by the designer because each project and
each element on the project must be satisfactorily
addressed.
The information and suggestions contained in this
Technical Notes are based on the available data and the
experience of the technical staff of the Brick Institute of
America. The information and recommendations contained
herein if followed with the use of good technical judgment,
will avoid many of the problems discussed here. Final deci-
sions on the use of details and materials as discussed are
not within the purview of the Brick Institute of America, and
must rest with the project designer, owner, or both.

Racking. When racking back to achieve the desired

dimensions, care must be exercised to insure that, since
there is no limitation on the distance each unit may be
racked, the cores of the units are not exposed. Preferred
construction consists of a setting bed over the racked face
with the uncored brick or paving brick set to provide a
weather-resistant surface. Mortar washes may also be
used. They may not, however, be as durable. When using
a mortar wash, it should not bridge over the rack, but should
fill each step individually.

SUMMARY
The designer, when developing details for caps, cop-
ings, corbels and racking should keep in mind the function
of the element being detailed, the esthetic value he wishes
to achieve, the structural stability of the element, and the
economics of construction. It is essential to provide details

5
 39
Technical Notes REVISED

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
January
1987

TESTING FOR ENGINEERED BRICK MASONRY

BRICK, MORTAR AND GROUT
Abstract: Testing of brick, mortar and grout is often required prior to and during construction of engineered
brick masonry projects. The tests involve a combination of laboratory and field procedures which are described
in various ASTM standards. The extent of testing is a decision made by the engineering or architectural firm
responsible for the masonry design, and may consist of only a few laboratory tests to determine the properties of
the brick units, or may involve extensive laboratory and field sampling and testing. This Technical Notes
describes the testing of materials; other issues in this series describe testing of brick masonry assemblages.
Key Words: brick, engineered brick masonry, grout, mortar, quality control, testing.

INTRODUCTION als or assemblages. Likewise, other standards and build-

The use of engineered brick masonry in the construc-
tion of loadbearing structures requires that the standard
methods for determining the physical properties of both
the materials and the masonry assemblages be strictly
followed. The standards and specifications for engi-
neered brick masonry are based, for the most part, on the
results of American Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTM) methods of testing.
It is not the intent of this Technical Notes to super-
sede the various applicable ASTM standards, but to sup-
plement them. The ASTM standards have been carefully
developed by balanced technical committees composed
of people experienced and knowledgeable in their chosen
fields. Therefore, if the prescribed methods of tests are
not adhered to, inaccurate and inconsistent test data and
erroneous conclusions can result. This can be quite seri-
ous when the design of a masonry bearing wall structure
is based on such tests, or when such tests are used as
quality controls during construction.
This Technical Notes covers testing of masonry mate-
rials for obtaining information needed to determine design
properties for engineered brick masonry. Additional test-
ing required for assessment of material compliance to var-
ious ASTM specifications is not included. In addition, field
testing of brick, mortar and grout for quality control is dis-
cussed.
This Technical Notes is the first in a series on testing.
Other Technical Notes in this series discuss the construc-
tion, preparation and testing of masonry assemblages (in
the laboratory); and the sampling, preparation and han-
dling of jobsite test specimens for the purpose of quality
control of the construction.
ENGINEERED BRICK MASONRY STANDARDS
There are several standards used in the United States
for the design of brick masonry structures, all of which
contain some requirements for testing of masonry materi
ing codes require testing in order to establish various
design parameters.
In addition to predesign and preconstruction testing,
testing for the purpose of quality control is often imple-
mented. The BIA standard (Building Code Requirements
for Engineered Brick Masonry, Brick Institute of America,
McLean, Virginia, August 1969.), for example, requires
that the initial rate of absorption (IRA) of brick at the time
of laying not exceed .025 oz per sq in. per min (approxi-
mately 20 g/30 in.2/min). Since the development of the
BIA Standard, ASTM C 62 and ASTM C 216 have been
changed and now recommend that the limit on IRA be 30
g/30 in.2/min. The determination of this property may be
made in the laboratory on oven-dry brick, or at the con-
struction site as a field test. The tests outlined within this
Technical Notes are those which are most commonly per-
formed to satisfy the requirements of the BIA Standard.
TESTING STANDARDS
The ASTM standards which are most frequently uti-
lized when testing brick masonry materials should be
readily available to all laboratory personnel, and to individ-
uals involved in field testing. The applicable standards
are as follows:
Clay Masonry Units -ASTM C 67, Standard Method of
Sampling and Testing Brick and
Structural Clay Tile
Mortar -ASTM C 270, Standard
Specification for Mortar for Unit
Masonry
-ASTM C 91, Standard
Specification for Masonry Cement
-ASTM C 109, Standard Test
Method for Compressive Strength
of Hydraulic Cement Mortars
(Using 2-in. or 50-mm Cube
Specimens)
 -ASTM C 780, Standard Method
for Preconstruction and Construction
Evaluation of Mortars for Plain and
Reinforced Unit Masonry
Grout -ASTM C 476, Standard Specification for
Grout for Masonry
-ASTM C 1019, Standard Specification for
Sampling and Testing Grout
For the most part, these standards provide clear and
concise explanations of the procedures for sampling and
testing masonry materials; however, for the novice, some
areas may present some confusion. The following sec-
tions will explain some of the procedures required by the
various ASTM standards.
BRICK TESTING FOR
ENGINEERED BRICK MASONRY
The strength of brick varies considerably, depending
on raw material, method of manufacture and degree of fir-
ing. The range in compressive strength is on the order of
2000 psi to in excess of 20,000 psi. The BIA Standard
does not dictate minimum compressive strength require-
ments for brick, but since the allowable stresses and elas-
tic moduli of masonry are a function of compressive
strength of brick, testing to determine compressive
strength is required.
For the determination of unit compressive strength, f’b,
the procedures given in ASTM C 67 should be followed.
The initial rate of absorption (IRA) is another impor-
tant property. If the IRA of brick exceeds an acceptable
upper limit, problems with excessive shrinkage of mortar
and grout, and poor bond, are apt to occur. The proce-
dures for determining the IRA, in the laboratory and in the
field, are contained in ASTM C 67.
drying the specimens before testing, one variable that can
affect the results is eliminated. If they are wet-cut with a
masonry saw, the drying should follow the cutting. If a
wet capping material, such as high-strength gypsum, is
used, it is generally agreed that the small amount of mois-
ture absorbed by the specimens will not make additional
oven drying necessary. The 24-hr curing period in labora-
tory air will suffice.
Capping Specimens. The importance of careful cap-
ping procedures cannot be over-emphasized. Brick units,
by their inherent nature, are not perfectly formed and their
bearing surfaces may not be parallel and free from sur-
face irregularities. The purpose of capping the bearing
surfaces is to assure reasonably parallel and smooth
opposite bearing surfaces; thus reducing the likelihood of
uneven bearing and stress concentrations, and the result-
ing premature failure of the test specimen.
Laboratory technicians responsible for capping com-
pressive test specimens should be thoroughly familiar with
the capping procedures prescribed in ASTM C 67. Poor
caps, resulting from careless capping techniques, can
result in erratic test results and a lowering of the apparent
compressive strengths of the specimens.

Compressive Strength
Specimen Size. ASTM C 67 requires that the speci-
men be full height and width, and approximately one-half
of a brick in length, plus or minus 1 in. (25 mm). For
example, an 8-in. (200 mm) long brick may be tested
using a piece of brick with a length between 3 and 5 in.
(75 and 125 mm). However, if the testing machine being
used is not capable of providing sufficient force to crush
the approximate half-brick, a piece of brick having a
length of one-quarter of the original full brick length may
be used, so long as the total cross-sectional area is not
2 2
less than 14 in. (90 cm ), see Figure 1.
Although ASTM C 67 does not specifically state the
method in which the samples are to be obtained, it has
been common practice to use pieces of brick which are
left over from modulus of rupture tests. If modulus of rup-
ture tests are not being performed, then sawing the units
to the desired size is acceptable. A minimum of five spec-
imens is required.
The compressive strength test specimens should be
oven-dried. The amount of moisture in the brick can
affect its compressive strength - the higher the moisture Compressive Strength Specimens
FIG. 1
content, the lower the apparent strength. Therefore, by
2

Placing Specimens in Testing Machine. The
requirement in ASTM C 67 that the specimen be centered
under the spherical upper bearing block within 1/16 in.
(1.6 mm) is not a capricious one. The introduction of an
eccentric load, if the specimen is not carefully centered,
can result in a lower apparent compressive strength for
the test specimen. It should be understood, however, that
this requirement assumes that the specimen is symmetri-
cal about both horizontal axes or its center of gravity. For
symmetrical specimens, the center of gravity will be the
geometrical center of the unit. Such is not the case with
unsymmetrical test specimens. Therefore, the centers of
gravity of unsymmetrical specimens should be determined
and marked, and it is those marks that should be aligned
with the center of the upper bearing block.
To determine the center of gravity for an unsymmetri-
cal test specimen, a small steel rod, 1/8 in. to 1/4 in. (3 to
8 mm) in diameter, may be used. The location of the cen-
ter of gravity is determined by finding the balance point of
the brick specimen. To place the specimen over the rod in
the exact position such that it balances perfectly is diffi-
cult, but a very good estimate of this location is not hard
to achieve.
Speed of Testing. The speed of testing specified in
ASTM C 67 should be adhered to, primarily for the pur-
pose of obtaining consistent results. Past experience on
the effect of the rate of loading on the compressive
strength of specimens has shown that, as the rate
increases, there can be significant increases in the appar-
ent compressive strengths of the specimens. The require-
ments of ASTM C 67, while not particularly specific, do
provide a moderate rate of loading which, if followed, will
produce consistent results that will represent more accu-
rately the true compressive strengths of the specimens.
ASTM C 67 specifies that the specimen should be
loaded to one-half of the expected maximum load, and
then the rate should be adjusted such that the test is com-
pleted in not less than one minute and not more than two
minutes. For this reason, it is a good idea to do one or
two preliminary tests to get an estimate of the maximum
strength. Figure 2 illustrates the time vs. loading criteria
of ASTM C 67.
Determination of Minimum Net Area (Percent
Voids). There are two reasons for determining the void
area of brick: the first reason is to obtain the percentage
of voids (percentage coring) in order to assess whether
the brick will be classified as solid or hollow brick; the sec-
ond reason is to obtain the average net cross-sectional
area for determination of net area compressive strength of
the units.
ASTM C 216 and C 62 for solid brick, and ASTM C
652 for hollow brick require calculation of gross area com-
pressive strength.
If the net area compressive strength is required, the
section "Measurement of Void Area in Cored Units" in
ASTM C 67 should be followed. To perform these mea-
surements, a sample of ten brick is specified by ASTM C
67. Following the procedure in this section, the cores are
filled with sand. The sand is then placed in a graduated
3
cylinder to determine the volume. Using the equation
given in ASTM C 67 for percent void area, the void area
can be determined. The net area can be determined by
subtracting the void area from the gross area.
Calculation and Report. The compressive strength
is determined by dividing the maximum compressive load
by the gross cross-sectional area of the specimen. If the
net area compressive strength is required, the net area,
as determined in the previous section, must be used to
obtain the desired results. Since five specimens are
used, the arithmetic average should be determined.
Determination of Mean Compressive Strength, f'b,
of Brick Specimens. The BIA Standard requires that,
when the coefficient of variation of the test results
exceeds 12 percent, a reduction factor must be applied to
the average compressive strength of the sample of brick.
This reduction factor is not to be used when determining
compliance with the various ASTM material standards,
such as ASTM C 216, ASTM C 62 or ASTM C 652.
The coefficient of variation is calculated as follows:
v = 100 s (Eq. 1)
X
where: v = the coefficient of variation, and
s = the standard deviation, in psi (MPa), calcu
lated as follows:
s =
√ ∑ (X - X)
n-1
2
(Eq. 2)
where: X = the compressive strength of one unit
in psi (MPa)
_
X = the arithmetic mean (average com
pressive strength of the specimens), and
n = number of measurements in the
sample.
If the coefficient of variation, v, exceeds 12 percent,
the average compressive strength, X, is multiplied by the
following to obtain f’b:
1 - 1.5
(100
v - 0.12
) (Eq. 3)
Otherwise, f’b = X. (Eq. 4)
Initial Rate of Absorption
The initial rate of absorption (IRA) is an important
property of brick because it affects mortar and grout bond.
If the initial rate of absorption is too high, brick will absorb
moisture from the mortar or grout at a rapid rate, thus
impairing the strength and extent of bond.
In the laboratory, the IRA is measured using brick

Compressive Test Loading Rate
FIG. 2
which are oven-dried to equilibrium. The IRA of a dry
brick is apt to be higher than one which contains some
moisture. The field test for initial rate of absorption is per-
formed on brick in their field condition, i.e., no attempt is
made to dry the units. The laboratory test will give an
idea of the order of magnitude of the IRA and the field test
can be used to determine if additional wetting is neces-
sary.
Laboratory Procedure. As previously mentioned,
the laboratory procedure is performed on oven-dried
specimens. Five full-size specimens are required. The
technician performing the test should be aware that the
larger the tray size, the less effect the absorption has on
the water level. ASTM C 67 requires a tray with a cross-
2 2
sectional area of at least 300 in. (1950 cm ). For a brick
2
with an IRA of 40 g/min/30 in. , the water level would drop
less than 1/100 in., which is hardly measurable.
Nevertheless, ASTM C 67 provides recommendations on
maintaining the water level. Figure 3 illustrates the tray
with a brick positioned for testing. The method is relative-
ly straightforward and easy to perform. The results are
reported in grams of water gained per 30 sq in. when the
brick are immersed in 1/8 in. (3 mm) of water for 1 min.
The calculation of IRA is as follows:
IRA = 30 W / LB (Eq. 5)
where: W = actual gain in weight of specimen in
grams,
L = length of specimen, in in. and
B = width of specimen, in in.
What some laboratory technicians fail to realize, how-
ever, is that the above equation is for specimens that are
not cored. If the test specimens are cored brick, or are
non-prismatic, the net area must be substituted for LB in
Eq. 5.
Field Procedures. Brick units on the jobsite may
have a different rate of absorption than that of the same
units tested for IRA in the laboratory. The IRA may be
4
Determination of IRA
FIG. 3
lower due to moisture which brick absorb after leaving the
manufacturing plant. Two tests are available for field
determination of brick absorption. One is an ASTM proce-
dure, described in ASTM C 67, which measures quantita-
tively the absorption rate. The other is an approximate,
but effective, test which is not covered by an ASTM stan-
dard, and yields a qualitative indication of the bricks'
absorption rate and necessity for wetting prior to use.
ASTM Field Method for IRA - This method is
described in detail in ASTM C 67, and is accomplished
through volumetric means rather than by weight measure-
ments. Using this method, the brick are placed in a pan
of water for 1 min. removed and the quantity of water
remaining in the pan is measured using a pycnometer
(Fig. 4). The pycnometer is used to measure the initial
quantity of water to be placed in the pan. The difference
in the original amount of water and the quantity remaining
after placement of the brick into the pan for 1 min is the
amount absorbed by the brick. It is very important to use
the correct size pan and to wet and drain the pan prior to
testing.
Test for Wetting Brick - The following test is useful
for determining the necessity of wetting brick prior to use:
A circle, approximately 1 in. (25 mm) in diameter, is
drawn on the bed surface of the brick, using a wax pencil
and a twenty-five-cent coin as a guide. Twenty drops of
water are placed into the circle using an eyedropper. If,
after 90 seconds, all of the water has been absorbed,
wetting the brick prior to placement is recommended.
MORTAR TESTING FOR ENGINEERED
BRICK MASONRY
Technical Notes 8 Series discusses the various types
of mortar, properties and mix designs. Also, ASTM C 270,
Specification for Mortar for Unit Masonry, gives both pre-
scriptive and performance requirements for mortar.
Another recommended standard specification for mortar,
BIA M1-72, provides recommendations on selection pro-
portions and test requirements of portland cement-lime
mortars. This section will outline the various mortar tests
which are important when designing and building engi-
neered brick masonry elements.
 Compressive Strength. Compressive strength test-
ing of laboratory-prepared mortar is required under the
ASTM C 270 property specifications. To determine com-
pressive strength, samples are to have the same propor-
tions as in the actual construction. As with the water
retention test, the amount of water to be used is not clear-
ly stated; therefore, it is recommended that sufficient
water be used to bring the flow to 110 +/- 5%. As shown
in Fig. 5, other associated ASTM standards which must
be used are ASTM C 109, C 305 and C 230.
The technician should become familiar with the proce-
dures of ASTM C 109 for specimen molding and load
application since these procedures must be followed
closely in order to obtain reliable results.
Air Content. Air content determination is the third
and last property which must be assessed for mortars
specified under the property specifications. The air con-
tent is determined using a weight-volume relationship to
determine the absolute volume of solids and water.
ASTM C 91 and ASTM C 185 are used to determine air
content, except that the equation for percent air content is
Pycnometer
FIG. 4
given in ASTM C 270. The equation for air-free mortar
density is:

D = (W1 + W2 + W 3 + W4 + VW)
Laboratory Testing of Mortar
Laboratory testing of mortar is performed in accor- W1 + W2 + W3 + W 4 + VW
dance with ASTM C 270 and other standards referenced P1 P2 P3 P4 (Eq. 6)
in ASTM C 270. The tests are performed on mortar sam -
ples which are prepared in the laboratory. ASTM C 270 is
not a specification to determine mortar strength and prop-
erties through field testing. The amount of testing
required by ASTM C 270 depends on the method in which
the mortar is specified, i.e., proportion or property specifi-
cation. If the mortar is specified by the proportion specifi-
cations, there are no testing requirements for mortar. For
mortars specified by the property specifications, water
retention, compressive strength and air content tests must
be performed.
The following sections describe the methods of tests
for mortar which are specified by the property specifica -
tions.
Water Retention. ASTM C 270 refers to the proce-
dures of ASTM C 91 for water retention determination,
except that the laboratory-mixed mortar shall be of the
same materials and proportions to be used in the con-
struction. Since the water content of mortar used on the
jobsite varies somewhat, and is not a specified quantity,
the laboratory technician should proportion the cementi-
tious materials and sand in accordance with the job speci-
fication and add sufficient water to bring the flow up to 110
± 5%.
To perform the water retention tests, the technician
should review ASTM C 91 on Water Retention, ASTM C
305 on Mechanical Mixing, and ASTM C 109 on
Performing Flow Tests. The flow test apparatus must
meet the specifications of ASTM C 230. The chart in Fig.
Related ASTM Standards for Property Specifications
5 indicates the ASTM standards relative to water retention FIG. 5
testing of mortar specified by the property specifications.
5

and the volume of air in percent is
A = 100 - W m (Eq. 7)
4D
where: W1 = weight of portland cement, g,
W2 = weight of hydrated lime, g,
W3 = weight of masonry cement (if used), g,
W4 = weight of sand, g,
Vw = volume of water used, mL,
P1 = unit weight of air-free portland cement,
3
g/cm ,
P2 = unit weight of air-free hydrated lime,
3 to be performed, then preconstruction testing of the mate-
g/cm ,
P3 = unit weight of air-free masonry cement
(if used), g/cm ,
3
3 C 780 is not within the scope of this Technical Notes;
P4 = unit weight of air-free sand, g/cm ,
Wm = weight of 400 mL of mortar, g.
The air-free unit weights of the various materials in
Eq. 6 are equal to the specific gravity of the material times
the unit weight of water (which is unity); thus, the unit
weight is numerically equal to the specific gravity. The
specific gravity for the various materials should be
obtained from the manufacturers or determined by testing.
Table 1 gives the approximate specific gravities for sever-
al mortar materials
TABLE 1
Approximate Specific Gravities of
Various Mortar Materials
Portland Cement 3.15
Hydrated Lime 1.25
Sand 2.65
In performing the air-content tests, it is very important
to weigh and measure the quantities accurately, since
errors in weights and volumes would have significant
impact upon the calculated air content.
Field Testing of Mortar
For purposes of quality control, field testing of mortar
is sometimes required. Field testing should not be con-
fused with laboratory testing, or be performed using the
standards and procedures for laboratory testing of mortar.
The appropriate standard for this type of testing is ASTM
C 780 "Standard Method for Preconstruction and
Construction Evaluation of Mortars for Plain and
Reinforced Unit Masonry". The main purposes of field
testing are to assure that mortar is proportioned properly
by the mixer operator, and to obtain an indication of vari-
ability or change in constituent materials, quality and per-
6
formance.
There are several tests which are covered in ASTM C
780, not all of which are required. Seven tests are out-
lined in the Annexes of ASTM C 780 which are: A1)
Consistency by Cone Penetration Test Method, A2)
Consistency Retention of Mortars for Unit Masonry, A3)
Mortar Aggregate Ratio Test Method, A4) Water Content
Test Method, A5) Mortar Air Content Test Method, A6)
Compressive Strength of Molded Masonry Mortar
Cylinders and Cubes and A7) Splitting Tensile Strength of
Molded Masonry Mortar Cylinders.
The testing agency and the specifier should be aware
that the compressive strength of mortar, as determined by
field testing, does not have to meet the minimum com-
pressive strength requirements of ASTM C 270.
The specifier must decide which of the seven tests is
rials can be performed in order to establish requirements
for construction site-sampled mortar.
A complete discussion of the test procedures of ASTM
therefore, the technician in charge of performing the tests
should become thoroughly knowledgeable with ASTM C
780 and its referenced documents.
GROUT TESTING FOR ENGINEERED
BRICK MASONRY
The specification for grout for engineered brick
masonry, ASTM C 476, does not require any laboratory
testing. Experience with grout mixed in accordance with
the provisions of ASTM C 476 has been extremely favor-
able, and grout, therefore, does not require extensive test-
ing if mixed with the materials and in the proportions stip-
ulated by the standard.
There is a relatively new standard for both field and
laboratory sampling and compressive testing of grout
used in masonry construction, entitled ASTM C 1019,
"Standard Method for Sampling and Testing Grout".
Sampling and Testing Grout for
Engineered Brick Masonry
According to ASTM C 1019, the use of the standard may
be to select grout proportions by comparing test values or as
a quality control test for uniformity of grout preparation during
construction. The standard specification for grout, ASTM C
476, does not contain provisions for mixing grout to property
specifications; therefore, the use of ASTM C 1019, at this
time, for grout mix design is not advised. For purposes of
quality assurance, the grout testing standard may be useful.
The specimens are prepared by using masonry units as
forms (Fig. 6). The masonry units are those which are to be
used in the project under construction or to be constructed.
The laboratory technician may find it strange to use the brick
units as forms, but the reason is to simulate the conditions of
the grout after placement into the brick masonry element.
Grout is placed with a high water/cement ratio, slump of 10 to
11 in. (250 mm to 275 mm), in order to facilitate consolidation
and eliminate voids. Due to the absorptive nature of the
masonry, the water content of the grout is reduced after
placement.
 Grout Mold Using 2 1/4 in. (152.4 mm)
High Standard Size Brick
FIG. 6

The methods of sampling and testing, as described in

ASTM C 1019, are easily accomplished; therefore, addi-
tional description and explanation will not be given in this
Technical Notes.

SUMMARY
This Technical Notes has discussed testing of brick,
mortar and grout used in engineered brick masonry. Most
laboratory and field tests are covered by ASTM standards.
Testing agencies using these tests should be fully aware
of the procedures and limitations, so that improper appli-
cation and erroneous results are avoided.
The information contained in this Technical Notes is
based on the available data and experience of the techni-
cal staff of the Brick Institute of America. The information
should be recognized as recommendations which, if fol-
lowed with good judgment, should prove beneficial to the
performance of the masonry construction.
Final decisions on the use of information, details and
materials as discussed in this Technical Notes are not
within the purview of the Brick Institute of America, and
must rest with the project designer, owner or both.

7

Technical Notes
on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
TESTING FOR ENGINEERED BRICK MASONRY
DETERMINATION OF ALLOWABLE DESIGN STRESSES
INTRODUCTION
Prior to the development of a rational design procedure
for brick masonry, it was sufficient to know that brick masonry
units and mortar used were in compliance with the standards
outlined in Technical Notes 39 Revised, "Testing for
Engineered Brick Masonry - Brick, Mortar and Grout." These
quality control tests provided assurance that the same quality
of materials were being used throughout the building project.
This did not give any assurance or knowledge as to the actu-
al performance of the masonry in the wall.
With the development of a rational design method, it
became important that the architect and/or engineer have
knowledge of the expected performance of the brick and
mortar, not as individual parts of the wall, but as the total wall
system. With this need in mind, this Technical Notes outlines
several ASTM Standard Methods of Tests for Masonry
Assemblages which will give the architect and/or engineer
the ability to predict in-the-wall performance of masonry and
determine allowable design stresses.
It is essential in all of the tests described in this Technical
Notes that the units, mortar and construction of the assem-
blage be nearly identical with the materials and methods to
be used in the actual construction process. Only in this way
can the actual performance of the masonry be accurately
predicted.
This Technical Notes will cover ASTM standards for the
determination of all necessary design stresses for brick
masonry as specified in the design standard, Building Code
Requirements for Engineered Brick Masonry, BIA, August
1969, and the model building codes in present-day usage. It
will also stipulate the revisions necessary to determine the
same properties for hollow brick units. Subsequent issues of
Technical Notes will discuss miscellaneous tests for masonry
not to be used for design stress determinations. These tests
will be used primarily for quality control, material compatabili-
ty and in-the-wall performance predictions for properties
other than strength.
STANDARD METHODS OF TESTS
The ASTM test standards with which this Technical
Notes is concerned are contained in the Annual Book of
ASTM Standards. The methods of tests described in the
ASTM standards and listed below should be strictly adhered
to; otherwise, the test performed is no longer a standard test
*Originally published in July/Aug. 1975, this Technical Notes has been reviewed and reissued with editorial changes.
39A
REVISED
Reissued*
December
1987
and erroneous or misleading results may be obtained. The
applicable ASTM standards for masonry are as follows:
Compressive Strength and Modulus of Elasticity:
Test Methods for Compressive Strength of Masonry
Prisms, ASTM Designation E 447.
Diagonal Tension (Shear) and Modulus of Rigidity:
Test Method for Diagonal Tension (Shears in
Masonry Assemblages, ASTM Designation E 519.
Method for Conducting Strength Tests of Panels for
Building Construction, ASTM Designation E 72.
Flexural Tensile Strength:
Method for Conducting Strength Tests of Panels for
Building Construction, ASTM Designation E 72.
In addition to the above listed standards, the brick and
mortar used should conform to the standards listed in
Technical Notes 39 Revised.
PURPOSE AND APPLICATION OF TESTS
General. If a rational design approach for masonry is
employed, it is essential to establish allowable design stress-
es early in the design process. Present design standard
requirements provide two methods to establish these values.
Under these requirements, the ultimate compressive strength
(f'm) may be determined by (a) prism test, or (b) an approxi-
mation based upon brick strength and mortar properties.
The prism test method is the preferred method as it provides
the designer with more exact information; whereas the
approximation method, of necessity, provides more conserv-
ative values.
Allowable design stresses may be determined under the
design standard, once an ultimate compressive strength of
masonry has been determined. However, in some cases, it
may be desirable, or necessary, to establish tensile or shear
strength to closer tolerances than is obtained by design stan-
dard values usually given as a function of ultimate compres-
sive strength or of brick strengths and mortar types. Such
conditions may occur when masonry is to be used in prefab-
ricated panels, is to be subjected to unusual loading condi-
tions or when high, early strengths are desirable.
All masonry specimens for establishing design stresses
should be built using "inspected workmanship;'' that is to say,
all head, bed and collar joints should be completely filled
(see Technical Notes 7B Revised for proper procedures).
Once strength tests have been performed and masonry
properties established, it is necessary to decide if, indeed,
inspected workmanship can be achieved at the jobsite. If
inspected, workmanship will be achieved, the ultimate stress,
f'm, need not be reduced. If, however, uninspected work-
manship is expected, the ultimate strength for "uninspected
workmanship" must be used. This value is based upon
inspected workmanship in which the ultimate strength is
reduced by 33 1/3, percent in the design standard.
Test methods for determining strengths and other prop-
erties of masonry necessary to establish allowable design
stresses are outlined below.
DETERMINATION OF f'm AND Em
The ultimate compressive strength (f'm) of masonry may
be approximated if the brick to be used have been tested in
accordance with ASTM C 67 (see Technical Notes 39
Revised) and mortar type has been established. These val-
ues of f'm are given in tabular format in the design standard
FIG. 1
Compressive Prisms
Slenderness Ratios Two Through Five
for both types of workmanship. Values from this table for a
known brick strength, mortar type and workmanship classifi-
cation may be used directly in determination of f'm, and thus
the allowable design stresses.
The ultimate compression strength of masonry is best
determined by testing of compressive prisms in accordance
with ASTM Standard Test Methods for Compressive Strength
of Masonry Prisms, E 447. There are two methods of per-
forming this test. Method A, which is used primarily for
strength comparisons of different brick and mortars, could be
used in the selection process to determine what unit or mor-
tar to use. For determination of ultimate compressive
strength of a specific brick and mortar for a specific project,
Method B of E 447 should be used. This Technical Notes
will concern itself only with Test Method B.
The test specimens for Method B shall be built to con-
form as nearly as possible with the actual wall they repre-
sent. They should have the same thickness as the wall rep-
resented; that is, if the wall is to be a solid wall of two wythes
with filled collar joint, the specimens should be the same.
Use the same joint dimensions and bonding pattern as the
wall. The length of the specimen should be equal to, or
greater than, the thickness. It has been general practice to
2
construct specimen lengths equal to 1 1/2 times the thick-
ness. The specimen height should be at least twice the
thickness of the specimen or a minimum of 15 in. (3.81 cm).
The height generally should not exceed five times the thick-
ness. See Fig. 1 for prisms with h/t from two to five. The
height of specimens may be controlled by the testing facilities
available. Not all laboratories have testing machines of
dimensions which will permit specimens of height-to-thick-
ness of five to be placed in the machine for test. Prior to
construction of specimens, a check of facilities available
should be made and the specimens constructed with the
greatest height-to-thickness ratio which the available
machine can accommodate. Correction factors for different
height-to-thickness ratios and reasons for them are dis-
cussed elsewhere in this Technical Notes. Aminimum of
three specimens representing each wall type should be con-
structed and tested. Less than three tests will not give a rep-
resentative sample. Five specimens of each type of wall are
desirable and will give the designer a more accurate ultimate
compressive strength value on which he can base allowable
stresses.
All compressive strength specimens on which design
stresses are to be based shall be tested at 28 days. The
use of 7-day tests for quality control during construction will
be discussed in a subsequent Technical Notes. Seven-day
tests should not be used for determination of design stress-
es. However, if for some reason only 7-day test results are
available, an approximation of the 28-day strength may be
made. The estimated 28-day strength can be obtained by
dividing the 7-day strength by 0.90.
When prisms with height-to-thickness ratios of less than
five are used for design determinations, a reduction factor
must be used to determine the ultimate compressive strength
of the masonry. Research experience indicates that the
mode of failure of masonry walls under compressive loading
is by vertical tensile splitting. Therefore, to accurately predict
wall strength, the prism failures should be similar. Laboratory
studies also show that masonry specimens having slender-
ness ratios (h/t) of five or greater consistently fail in compres-
sion by the mode of vertical tensile splitting and shorter
prisms do not. Therefore, a slenderness ratio of five was
selected as unity, and lesser slenderness ratio results must
be corrected by the factors shown in Table 1. Research has
shown a definite relationship between ultimate compressive
strengths of prisms ranging from a slenderness ratio of two
up to five. Table 1 is based upon this relationship.
TABLE 1
Slenderness Ratioa 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
Correction Factorb 0.82 0.85 0.88 0.91 0.94 0.97 1.00
a
Height to thickness.
b
Interpolate to obtain intermediate values.
The h/t of the specimens shall be determined by dividing
the actual measured height of the specimen by the actual
measured thickness of the specimen. These specimen
dimensions shall be determined in accordance with para-
graph 6.2 of ASTM E 447.
The cross-sectional area shall also be determined based

FIG. 2
Solid Brick Compressive Prism
Tensile Splitting Failure
FIG. 3
Hollow Brick Compressive Prism
Tensile Splitting Failure
upon actual dimensions of the specimen in accordance with
paragraph 6.2 of ASTM E 447. The cross-sectional area to
be used for determination of ultimate compressive strength
shall be the specimen thickness times the specimen length.
For masonry units in accordance with ASTM C 62 and C
3
216, the gross cross-sectional area shall be used (t x l). If
units are hollow brick (ASTM C 652), the net cross-sectional
area must be used for determination of ultimate compressive
strength. The net cross-sectional area shall be determined
as follows: the actual gross cross-sectional area (t x l), using
measured dimensions, less the area of voids in the total
cross section as measured or determined as outlined in
Technical Notes 39 Revised.
If the coefficient of variation (v) of the test results on the
specimens exceeds 10 percent, the ultimate compressive
strength to be used must be modified. This should not be
confused with the 12 percent coefficient of variation require-
ment for the test samples of individual units as covered in
Technical Notes 39 Revised. If less than 10 percent, the
average of the specimen tests should be used for (f'm) ulti-
mate compressive strength. When the coefficient of variation
exceeds 10 percent, modify the average compressive
strength of the specimens by the following equation to obtain
f’m:
[ ( 100
f’m = 1 - 1.5 __ v _ - 0.10
)] X (1)
where:
f'm = ultimate design compressive strength, psi (Mpa)
v = coefficient of variation of the specimen samples
tested, percent
_
X = average compressive strength of all specimens, psi
(Mpa)
The test report should include the average compressive
strength, the standard deviation and the coefficient of varia-
tion. If this information is not included, they may be calculat-
ed as follows:
_
Xt
X= n (2)
s= √ Σ(X - X)2
n-1 (3)
v = 100 s
X (4)
where:
X = compressive strength of individual specimen, psi
(Mpa)
Xt = total of all individual specimen compressive
strengths, psi (Mpa)
n = number of specimens
s = standard deviation, psi (Mpa)
v = coefficient of variation, percent
In many instances, it is desirable or necessary to know
the modulus of elasticity, Em, of the masonry being used.
The modulus of elasticity of the masonry can be determined
by instrumentation of the specimens to be tested for the
determination of ultimate compressive strength. General
practice for obtaining the strain of masonry in compression
requires the installation of strain gages on compressive
prisms. These strain gages, having equal gage lengths, are
installed on each end of the prism along the neutral axis of
the section (see Fig. 4). It is necessary in the case of multi-
ple wythe wall constructions and/or multiple wythes of dis-
similar materials to determine the neutral axis prior to loading
as the load should also be applied at the neutral axis. The
gage lengths should be as long as practicable. Dial strain
gages during test should be read at predetermined load lev-
els up to approximately 75 to 80 percent of the anticipated
ultimate load and then removed to prevent damage to the
gages at specimen failure. The strain in the masonry is
determined by averaging the strain gage readings and divid-
ing by the gage lengths as given by the formula:

∆V1 + ∆V2
γ = _____________ (5)
2g
where:

γ = strain, average over entire section, in./in. (mm/mm)

∆V1 = dial reading gage No. 1, in. (mm)
Compressive Prism Instrumentation
∆V2 = dial reading gage No. 2, in. (mm) for Modulus of Elasticity
g = vertical gage length in. (mm)
FIG. 4

Once the strains at the various load levels, determined

by formula (5) are obtained and stresses are calculated, a
stress-strain curve for the specimen should be plotted (see
Fig. 5). There are several methods of determining the modu-
lus of elasticity from the stress-strain curve. The most com-
mon for masonry are the initial tangent modulus and secant
modulus methods. The modulus of elasticity is the slope of
the tangent or the secant of the curve. The secant modulus
is most commonly used for masonry and is easier to deter-
mine. The two points selected on the stress-strain curve are
generally at 0 psi (Mpa) and 250 psi (1.72 Mpa) stress levels
and the modulus is calculated as follows:
f +f
m0 m250 0 + 250
Em = _______________ = _____________ (6)
γ0 + γ250 γ0 + γ250

where:

Em = secant modulus of elasticity, psi (Mpa)

fm0 = 0 psi (Mpa) stress
fm250 = 250 psi (1.72 Mpa) stress
γ0 = strain at 0 psi stress, in./in. (mm/mm)
γ250 = strain at 250 psi stress, in./in. (mm/mm)
In addition to the determination of the modulus of elastic-
ity by actual tests, the modulus may be based upon f'm of the
FIG. 5
compressive prism tests stated as a function of f'm. (See Idealized Stress-Strain Curve
Tables 3 and 4 of the design standard. )
Shear or diagonal tensile strength is of considerable concern
to structural designers, especially in geographical areas
DETERMINATION OF f'V AND EV (Vm AND G)
where seismic design is required. Until recently, ASTM stan-
There are two methods of test provided in ASTM stan- dards provided only one method of test for determining shear
dards for the determination of the shear strength of masonry. strength. The method of test is described in ASTM E 72,
4
 FIG. 7
Racking Test Frame and Specimen
After Testing

FIG. 6

Racking Test Frame and Specimen

Method for Conducting Strength Tests of Panels for Building
Construction. This method of test, referred to as the racking
load test in the standard, has been supplemented for mason-
ry by ASTM E 519, Standard Test Method for Diagonal
Tension (Shear) in Masonry Assemblages. The E 72 racking
load test provides for testing materials and constructions of
all types, while E 519 applies only to masonry.
It has long been recognized that the method of test pro-
vided for in E 72 introduces compressive stresses into the
test specimen at the tie down which cannot be measured.
See Figs. 6 and 7 for the testing apparatus used for this test
and method of failure. The tie down is required to prevent
rotation of the specimen when load is applied. In addition to
the uncertainty of the tie-down stresses, this method of test
requires a specimen 8 ft by 8 ft (2.438 m x 2.438 m) in size.
This method of test generally is available only in large labora- FIG. 8
tories active in masonry research. On the other hand, E 519 Diagonal Tension Test Instrumentation
provides a method of test which is easier to perform and pro- for Modulus Rigidity
vides very reliable data. The smaller specimens, 4 ft by 4 ft
(1.219 m x 1.219 m), plus more simplified equipment place
this method of test within the capabilities of many private
testing facilities. See Figs. 8 and 9 for test setup and loading
shoes required for this test.
The specimens for both E 72 and E 519 should be con-
structed using the brick, mortar, bonding pattern and wall
thickness that will be utilized in the construction. These
specimens should be constructed using “inspected workman-
ship” as previously described. Specimens for both tests
should be cured for 28 days prior to testing.

The E 72 method of test calls for three 8-ft by 8-ft (2.438

m x 2.438 m) specimens. The panel can be instrumented as FIG. 9
shown in the standard and the horizontal deflection plotted
against the load applied in graph form as described in the Diagonal Tension Loading Shoe
standard. It has been common practice within the masonry

5
industry to slightly modify this test. In lieu of the instrumenta-
tion shown in the standard, a series of strain gages are
placed to measure horizontal displacement of the panel
under load. These gages are placed along the vertical face
of the panel where tie downs and load devices do not occur.
The horizontal displacement or strain is then taken at various
load levels. The strain is the calculated average of all dial
readings at a particular load. The shear stress is calculated
by dividing the horizontally applied load by the panel width
times the panel thickness. From these data stress-strain
curves may be plotted. The instrumentation should be
removed at approximately 75 to 80 percent of the calculated
load and the specimen tested to failure. Data pertinent to the
determination of allowable design stresses are (f’v) ultimate
shear stress, a plotted stress-strain curve and the modulus of
rigidity at predetermined stress levels, usually 20 percent and
50 percent of ultimate shear stress.
The E 519 method of test also specifies three speci-
mens. Instrumentation of the specimens is provided along
the vertical and horizontal diagonals, as shown in Fig. 8.
The vertical diagonal instrumentation measures the shorten-
ing along that diagonal. The horizontal instrumentation mea-
sures the lengthening along that diagonal.
The calculations for shear stress for specimens con-
structed of solid units shall be based on gross area, while the
shear stress for hollow unit specimens shall be based on net
area. The shear stress shall be calculated as follows:
0.707 x P (7)
Ss = _______________
A Masonry.
where:
Ss = shear stress on gross or net area, psi (Mpa)
P = applied load, lb (N)
A = average of the gross or net areas of the two
contiguous upper sides of the specimen, sq in.
(mm2)
Formula (8) shall be used when specimens are built of
solid units and formula (8a) shall be used for specimens of
hollow units.
(8)
(t x l) 1 + (t x l)2
A = _______________
2
(8a)
A= (t x l) - Av
where:
(t x l)1 . . . (t x l)2 = thickness and length or gross area
of the two upper contiguous sides
of the specimen, sq in. (mm2)
(t x l) = thickness and length or gross area
of upper side of specimen built of
hollow units, sq in. (mm2)
Av = area of voids of the upper side of
specimen built of hollow units, sq
in. (mm2)
6
The shear strain shall be calculated as follows:
∆V + ∆H
γ = _____________ (9)
g
where:
γ = shearing strain, in./in. (mm/mm)
∆V = vertical shortening, in. (mm)
∆H = horizontal lengthening, in. (mm)
g = vertical gage length, in. (mm)
∆H must be based on the same gage length as ∆V.
The modulus of rigidity shall be calculated as follows:
Ss
Ev = _______
(10)
γ
where:
Ev = G = modulus of rigidity, psi (Mpa)
The modulus of rigidity is calculated for predetermined
stress levels, usually at approximately 20 percent and 50
percent of ultimate load.
The allowable shear stress should be determined by
dividing the ultimate shear strength of the specimens by a
safety factor selected by the designer, when E 72 or E 519
are used to determine allowable design values. The safety
factor used should be based upon the designer's experience,
type of workmanship expected, type of loading the masonry
will be subjected to, or as recommended in the design stan-
dard or Recommended Practice for Engineered Brick
DETERMINATION OF f't
At present, only one method of test is available in ASTM
standards for determining the ultimate and design flexural
tensile strengths for masonry. This method of test is covered
in ASTM E 72. Recently ASTM adopted E 518, Standard
FIG. 10
Transverse Test
Horizontal Uniform Loading (Air Bag)
Test Methods for Flexural Bond Strength of Masonry. This
test, however, is to be used only as a compatibility test for
brick and mortar or as a quality control test and should not
be used for determination of flexural or transverse design
 prevent damage to the instrument at failure.
The report of the test should provide a stress-deflection
curve and ultimate transverse strength. The transverse
stress at ultimate may be calculated as follows:
M
f't = ___ (11)
S
where:
f't = ultimate transverse stress, psi (Mpa)
M = bending moment for 1-ft (305 mm) wide strip in.-lb
(N-m)
S = section modulus of the specimen for 1-ft (305 mm)
3 2
wide strip, in. (mm )

The moment for uniformly loaded specimens is calculat-

ed as follows:
wl x 12
2
M = ____________ (12)
8
where:
w = uniform load, psf (Mpa)
l = span length, ft (mm)
FIG. 11
The moment for the concentrated loading may be calcu-
Transverse Test
lated as follows:
Vertical Uniform Loading (Air Bag)
Pl x 12
M = ____________
(13)
stresses. ASTM E 518 will be more fully discussed in a sub-
sequent issue of Technical Notes 39 series.
4
ASTM E 72 provides four methods for testing the large where:
scale panels. The specimen may be tested in either a hori- P = concentrated loads at the quarter points for 1-ft (305
zontal (Fig. 10) or a vertical position (Fig. 11). In addition to mm) wide strip, lb (N)
these methods, the orientation of the masonry panel itself
within the loading frame will have great effect on the results The section modulus for the specimen must take into
obtained. If the span is normal to the bed joints, simulating a account whether the masonry units are solid (up to 25 per-
wall supported by floor and roof framing in normal construc- cent cored) or hollow (26 to 40 percent cored). Calculations
tion, the ultimate strengths obtained will be considerably less for the section modulus of solid units would be as follows:
than those with spans parallel to the bed joints. The panel
bd 2
oriented with a span parallel to bed joints simulates a wall S = ______ (14)

which in normal masonry construction is laterally supported 6

by columns or pilasters. where:
The specimens for this method of test should be at least b = width of 1-ft (305 mm) wide strip, in. (mm)
4 ft by 8 ft (1.219 m x 2.438 m) and the same thickness as d = thickness of specimen, in. (mm)
the proposed project walls. Three specimens are required
for this method of test. The specimens should be built using The calculation for the section modulus of hollow units
the type of brick, mortar and bonding pattern proposed for
the construction project. The specimens should be built
using inspected workmanship as described earlier.
The test procedure is as follows: The specimen once
placed in the test frame, which usually has a span of 6 in.
(152.5 mm) less than the specimen size, is instrumented
only to measure the center of span deflection. The concen-
trated load method, whether the specimen is vertical or hori-
zontal, applies two equal loads at a distance of one quarter
of the span length from each support.
The uniform loading is applied in either position, using an
air bag. See Figs. 10 and 11. The loads should be applied
in increments with deflection readings taken and recorded at FIG. 12
each increment. Instrumentation should be removed at
approximately 75 to 80 percent of anticipated ultimate load to Typical Hollow Brick Cross Section

7
becomes somewhat more complicated and is as follows:

bd - (b 1d1 + b 2d2 + b 3d3 . . .b ndn )

3 3 3 3 3

S = ______________________________________
6d
where:
b1 . . . bn = width of cores, in. (mm), see Fig. 12
d1 . . . dn = depth of cores, in. (mm), see Fig. 12
The illustration for this calculation method, Fig. 12, is
based on a 3-core unit with nominal length of 12 in. (305
mm). However, the formula can be adapted to fit other sizes
of units and coring patterns. All dimensions shall be actual
dimensions.
Once the ultimate transverse strength has been deter-
mined by the test of three specimens, the designer should
select a safety factor to apply to arrive at an allowable design
stress. This safety factor should be based upon the design-
er's experience, type of workmanship expected, the in situ
loadings expected or as recommended by the design stan-
dard.

CONCLUSION
The methods of tests described in this Technical Notes
provide the design professional with methods to determine
allowable design stresses which may be used in the rational
design of brick masonry. The values derived from tests will
remain valid only so long as the brick properties, mortar
properties and workmanship remain relatively close to that
specified. The next issue of this Technical Notes series will
detail the quality control tests available to insure the designer
that he is obtaining masonry properties of sufficient quality to
achieve the performance desired.

8
 Technical Notes
on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
PREFABRICATED BRICK MASONRY - INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
The desire of the construction industry to minimize the
use of on-site labor has brought about prefabrication of
building components. The masonry industry is one of the
later entrants into the prefabrication field. Methods of pre-
fabrication of masonry have been developed by several
segments of the brick industry: mason contractors, brick
manufacturers, equipment manufacturers and others
closely associated with the industry.
This series of Technical Notes deals with the prefabri-
cation of brick masonry, including techniques, methods,
controls and a suggested standard specification. This, the
first of the series, will cover the history, method of prefab-
rication, types of mortars used, advantages, disadvan-
tages and present applications of prefabricated brick
masonry.
There are several recent developments which make
prefabrication of brick masonry possible. The most impor-
tant is the development and acceptance of a rational
design method for brick masonry. Other factors, such as
research with new and improved brick units and mortars,
have aided the rapid progress in the prefabrication
process.
This Technical Notes deals only with prefabricated
brick masonry using full size brick units. Prefabricated
elements of thin brick facing units, in conjunction with con-
crete, fiberboard or other backing, are not included
because they are usually proprietary items and are, there-
fore, beyond the scope of this Technical Notes. See
Technical Notes 28C.
HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT
Prefabrication of brick masonry had its early develop-
ment during the 1950s in France, Switzerland and
Denmark. Prefabrication in the U.S. and other foreign
countries began in the early to mid '60s.
The Structural Clay Products Research Foundation,
now a part of the Brick Institute of America, Engineering &
Research Division, as early as the mid 1950s developed a
prefabricated brick masonry system. This system, known
as the "SCR building panel" (Reg. U.S. Pat. Off., SCPI
(BIA), Pat. No. 3,248,836) was used in construction of
several structures in the Chicago area which are still in
service today.
The ability to design brick masonry using rational
engineering criteria has made prefabrication feasible. This
engineering design method is based upon much research
done by SCPRF and others. This research is continuing
*Originally published in Oct./Nov. 1973, this Technical Notes has been reviewed and reissued.
40
Reissued*
January
1987
today in search of improved methods for design and
broader applications of brick masonry.
Other factors have influenced the development of pre-
fabrication, such as improved quality control in the manu-
facture of masonry units and the development of new
units. The predictability of performance of portland
cement-lime mortar has also been a factor. The develop-
ment of several high-bond mortar additives primarily for
use in prefabrication has contributed to prefabrication
development and has also found a place in conventional
masonry work.
Most of the early methods of panelization were
attempts to mechanize the bricklaying process to produce
standard panels, using unskilled labor. Later trends,
especially in the United States, have been toward the
retention of skilled labor using conventional masonry con-
struction practices and devising various means to
increase mason productivity.
There are several different methods or systems of
prefabrication being used in the U.S. today. Several of
these are available on a local franchise basis. Other sys-
tems employ mechanized equipment which may be pur-
chased outright, while still others are not patented but are
merely methods of prefabrication developed by individual
manufacturers or mason contractors.
FABRICATION METHODS
There are several manufacturing methods presently
being used in brick masonry prefabrication. There are
five general factors which affect the manufacturing
process and properties of prefabricated brick masonry.
These factors are:
1. Hand-laying
2. Casting
3. Equipment
4. Masonry Units
5. Mortar and Grout
Hand-laying. The hand-laying method of prefabrica-
tion is achieved in the same manner as conventional in-
place masonry, except it is accomplished in an area
removed from the final location of the masonry element.
The laying may be done using any of the equipment, units
or mortar described in the paragraphs which follow. This
method is particularly adapted to a mason contractor pre-
fabricator since his regular labor force can be employed.
The fabrication operation of this method can be and has
been performed either at an off-site plant or an on-site
plant.
 Casting. The casting method of fabrication involves
the combining of masonry units and grout into a prefabri-
cated element similar to precast concrete. The casting
method is performed with the element either in a vertical
or a horizontal position. This method in general lends
itself to automated equipment which requires a form,
some method of placing units and a system for grouting.
This method of prefabrication usually takes place in an
off-site plant.
The usual practice is to place the units, either by hand
or machine, in a form or mold, either horizontal or vertical,
and fill the form with a grout at atmospheric pressure or
under moderate pressure.
Equipment. The equipment used in prefabrication as
practiced today varies widely. It ranges from simple hand
tools to highly sophisticated automated machinery. The
hand-laying method will usually employ the conventional
mason's tools: trowel, jointing tool, etc. In addition, the
hand-laying method may also utilize corner poles, jigs and
templates for special shapes. The casting method also
will use jigs and forms which provide the spacing for
joints. The hand-laying method will usually employ some
type of adjustable scaffolding. This scaffolding may be
manually adjustable, although there are available some
motor-driven scaffolds which provide horizontal and verti-
cal movements. Adjustable scaffolding can greatly
increase mason productivity and reduce fabrication costs.
In addition to the more or less conventional equip-
ment listed above, there are specialized tools used in pre-
fabrication work. The casting method requires that the
face of the unit be protected from contamination by the
grout, which is usually done by pressure. Pressure, at the
contact surface of the brick face and form, is created by
either an inflated form face or by applying a load to the
brick. There are available for use in the hand-laying
method mechanized or pneumatic mortar spreaders for
distributing mortar for the bed joints. Some prefabrication
has been done using the casting method and automated
unit placing machinery. This equipment places the unit
with proper joint width by machine in lieu of hand place-
ment of units in jigs or forms. Pressurized grouting sys-
tems have also been widely used in the casting method of
prefabrication.
Masonry Units. There have been specially manufac-
tured units made for prefabrication; however, this text will
deal primarily with standard sized and shaped units. Both
solid brick and hollow brick have been used in prefabrica-
tion. Solid brick masonry units are those which have cor-
ing of less than 25 per cent of the bedding area. Hollow
brick units are cored in excess of 25 per cent but less
than 40 per cent of the bedding area. The hollow units
are suitable for and used in applications where vertical
reinforcement may be required.
Large face size units have been used in prefabrication
work, both in solid and hollow unit coring patterns. These
units, having a finished face larger than the standard
modular unit, 2 1/4 by 7 5/8 in., provide certain advan-
tages. The main advantage of large face size units is the
economy gained by increased productivity. In a single
wythe application, placement of a 4 by 12-in. face unit
2
gives an equivalent face area of 2.25 times that of the
standard modular unit, and an 8 by 8-in. face unit pro-
vides three times the face area of a standard modular
unit. Single and multiple wythe elements of the units out-
lined above have been used in prefabrication work.
Mortar and Grout. Prefabrication may use either
conventional mortar or mortar with one of the high-bond
mortar additives. Prefabricated panels usually are sub-
jected to higher stresses during handling than when in
service in a structure. The high-bond mortars give the
needed higher tensile bond strength which may permit
earlier handling of the finished panels. Extreme care
must be taken to determine compatibility of the brick with
the high-bond mortar. Some brick may not perform as
well with high-bond mortars as others. Tests should be
performed with the mortar and brick to determine if the
combination will indeed produce the required flexural
strengths for the project. (See Technical Notes 39.)
ADVANTAGES OF PREFABRICATION
There are several advantages in prefabrication which
conventionally laid masonry does not have. By using
panelized construction, the need for on-site scaffolding is
virtually eliminated. This can be a significant cost savings
in masonry construction. If an off-site plant is used, the
work area and storage area for masonry materials at the
job site are kept to a minimum. If proper scheduling of
delivery is maintained, the panels can be erected as they
are delivered, eliminating any need for panel storage at
the site.
The use of panelization makes possible the fabrica-
tion of complex shapes. These shapes can be accom-
plished without the need for expensive falsework and
shoring necessary for in-place laid masonry of the same
shapes. Complicated shapes with returns, soffits, arches,
etc., are accomplished by using jigs and forms.
Repetitive usage of these shapes can lower costs appre-
ciably; the more re-uses of the jigs and forms, the lower
the per panel cost will be.
One of the distinct advantages of prefabrication is the
factory setup. This allows for year round work and multi-
shift work days. It permits the labor force to work under
conditions not affected by weather. The use of prefabri-
cated masonry may eliminate the need for or provide the
means of winterizing the structure.
Prefabrication requires stringent quality control.
However, this may be more easily attained under factory
conditions. Mortar batching systems can be tightly con-
trolled by automation or sophisticated equipment. The
curing conditions provided are consistent since they are
less affected by weather changes.
Panelization on some projects may save construction
time. It is possible that on some projects the masonry
panels could be built starting as early as ground breaking
for the project, thus keeping far enough ahead of the in-
place construction work to permit panel erection when
needed. In the case of multi-story structures, construction
time could be shortened due to panels already being
cured when erected. This would allow the construction
crews to immediately start erection of the next floor level
and could speed construction.
The savings in construction time could provide
economies to the building owner. Any time saving would
reduce the length of time required for high interest ''inter-
im financing''. Earlier completion would allow earlier occu-
pancy which, in the case of rental or commercial proper-
ties, would allow the owner to have income production
start sooner.
DISADVANTAGES OF PREFABRICATION
As with any construction method, prefabrication has
inherent disadvantages as well as advantages.
Prefabrication of masonry to date has not achieved the
economy of construction originally desired. In the pre-
sent-day construction market (1973) prefabricated mason-
ry costs are approximately the same or a little higher than
conventionally laid-in-place masonry on a square foot cost
comparison.
The use of prefabricated brick masonry is limited to
use with certain types of construction. The designer
should be aware of the limitations of prefabricated mason-
ry. The size of brick masonry panels is limited primarily
by transportation and erection limitations. Architectural
plan layout may in some cases preclude the use of pre-
fabricated brick masonry.
The use of prefabricated masonry is also limited to
some degree by its basic materials, brick and mortar. The
designer must be aware of the capabilities of brick
masonry to withstand loadings as they occur in the struc-
ture.
Another disadvantage of prefabricated brick masonry,
as in other panel systems, is the absence of adjustment
capabilities during the construction process. In-place
masonry construction allows the craftsman to build
masonry to fit the other elements of the structure by
adjusting joint thicknesses over a large area so that it is
not noticeable. This is not possible with prefabricated ele-
ments. The use of prefabricated elements sometimes
requires other crafts or trades to construct to accuracy
beyond the standard construction practices of those
trades.
STATE OF THE ART
The use of prefabricated brick masonry in construc-
tion has become quite widespread. Prefabricated brick
panels have some very dramatic and esthetically pleasing
applications throughout the U.S. The panels for these
projects have been built utilizing the full spectrum of meth-
ods as previously outlined. Figures 1 through 5 show
several recent construction projects using prefabricated
brick masonry panels. Most of the projects built in the
U.S. have used non-loadbearing curtain wall panels.
However, some loadbearing panels have been used and
panelized brick construction is not limited to curtain wall
applications.
The Penn Square Apartments, Denver, Colorado, pic-
tured in Fig. 1 (Michael W. Lombardi, Architect; Gerald
Schlegel, Structural Engineer; Loup Miller Construction,
General Contractor; Dach Masonry Construction, Inc.,
Masonry Contractor). This project used over 1100 4-in.
3
thick prefabricated pierced balcony railings. The exterior
brick curtain walls of the structure were conventionally
laid.
The Townsend Towers, Syracuse, New York, is shown
in Fig. 2 (Chloethiel Woodard Smith & Associates,
Architects; Severud Associates, Structural Engineers;
Paul Construction Co., General Contractor; R. H. Viau
Construction Co., Masonry Contractor). The 21-story high-
rise used 4-in. thick standard modular unit curtain wall
panels.
The Sheraton Inn, Youngstown, Ohio, is shown in Fig.
3 (Ronald S. Senseman, Architect; Joseph Bucheit & Son,
General Contractor; Masonry Systems Inc. of Ohio,
Masonry Contractor). The 24,000 sq ft of 4-in. thick cur-
tain wall panels cover a steel frame structure.
The Denver Brick & Pipe Co. Plant, Denver, Colorado,
is shown in Fig. 4 (Ken R. White Co., Architects and
Engineers; N. G. Petry Construction, General and
Masonry Contractors). These unusually shaped prefabri-
cated panels give the structure a pleasing appearance.
These panels were built, using stacked bond, soldier
coursed standard modular units.
The Philadelphia National Bank of Philadelphia, Pa.,
is shown in Fig. 5 (Ewing Cole Erdman & Eubank,
Architects; McCloskey and Co., General Contractor; John
B. Kelly Co., Masonry Contractor; H. & L. Royer, Inc.,
Panel Fabricators). Approximately 1100 C-shaped panels
were fabricated for column and spandrel covers for this
structure. These 4-in. panels were plant fabricated off-site
by a local masonry contractor, using high-bond mortar.
CONCLUSION
The designer must evaluate each project to determine
the feasibility and adaptability of prefabrication to that pro-
ject. Basic questions which he must answer prior to a
decision should include, but not necessarily be limited to,
the following for each individual project:
1. Is the building layout suitable to prefabrication?
2. Is it desirable to use off-site prefabrication because
of building site size?
3. What is the completion schedule and what time of
year is construction to take place?
4. Are structural design solutions unrealistic when pre
fabrication is used?
5. Can a reasonable level of quality control in all
trades be achieved if prefabricated brick masonry
is utilized?
6. Is prefabrication, based on answers to questions 1
through 5, an economical answer?
Prefabrication of brick masonry is a rapidly developing
field and future innovations could greatly affect its value
as a design solution. New developments or revised prac-
tices may change some of the preceding statements as
this field continues to develop.
The next issue of this series of Technical Notes will be
a "Suggested Specification for Prefabricated Brick
Masonry " .
FIG. 1 FIG. 2 FIG. 3

FIG. 4 FIG. 5

4
 Technical Notes 41
REVISED

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
February
1996

HOLLOW BRICK MASONRY

Abstract: Hollow brick were developed in response to demand for larger sized units and
for reinforced brick masonry. Hollow brick have a void area between 25 and 60 percent of the
gross cross-sectional area of the unit. Performance issues relating to hollow brick masonry
are discussed including structural, water penetration resistance, fire resistance and sound re-
sistance properties. Material selection and construction methods are addressed.

Key Words: clay brick, compressive strength, hollow brick, reinforced masonry.

INTRODUCTION 25 percent, but not more than 60 percent of the gross

Hollow brick masonry is a natural development in area. This compares to solid brick whose maximum
brick masonry construction. Several reasons led to the void area is 25 percent. Hollow brick have different re-
production of hollow brick. These include the need for quirements from solid brick and clay tile with respect to
units that can be more easily reinforced and grouted, sizes of hollow spaces, web thicknesses and face shell
and more economically constructed with large size thicknesses. Hollow brick can be efficiently used in
brick. More stringent structural requirements for build- bearing walls, reinforced or prestressed masonry and
ings in high wind and seismic regions have required walls requiring exposed brick. Typical applications of
hollow brick include commercial, retail and residential
masonry units that can be grouted and reinforced. These
buildings, hotels, schools, noise barrier walls and re-
requirements can not be achieved as easily with solid
taining walls. Figure 1 is an example of a hollow brick
masonry units.
loadbearing structure.
The development of hollow brick began with 4 by 4
This Technical Notes describes the classifications,
by 12 in. (100 by 100 by 300 mm) oversized solid units
properties and uses of hollow brick. Properties of hol-
followed by 6 by 4 by 12 in. (150 by 100 by 300 mm)
low brick masonry related to structural design, water
and 8 by 8 by 16 in. (200 by 200 by 400 mm) hollow
penetration resistance, fire resistance and sound resis-
brick. These large hollow brick are often called
tance are provided. Proper material selection and con-
through-the-wall (TTW) units because the wall is a sin-
struction procedures are discussed.
gle wythe of brick masonry. They offer a considerable
advantage in both speed and economy of construction.
Some brick manufacturers initially experienced produc-
tion problems with large TTW units with void areas of
25 percent or less. Consequently, manufacturers
changed their coring patterns to increase the void area.
The coring patterns were redesigned to increase produc-
tion recovery and also to reduce weight and permit rein-
forcing. A new classification of brick was established
— the hollow brick, whose void area is greater than 25
percent of its gross area. These units are more econom-
ical to produce due to the greater percentage of recov-
ery in production, less fuel used in production and less
expensive to ship because of their lighter weight. Larg-
er units are also more economical to place in the wall.
For example, it takes over 13 modular size brick to
equal the volume of three 8 by 4 by 12 in. (200 by 100
by 300 mm) units. Hollow Brick Casino in Jackson, MS
Hollow brick have void areas which are not less than FIG. 1
HOLLOW BRICK
The materials used in hollow brick construction do not
differ dramatically from that of other masonry construc-
tion. ASTM standards dictate many of the physical prop-
erties of hollow brick units. More information on materi-
al properties and classification can be found in Technical
Notes 3A and Technical Notes 9A, respectively.
ASTM Standards
Hollow brick should be specified to comply with
ASTM C 652 Specification for Hollow Brick (Hollow
Masonry Units Made From Clay or Shale). When it
was first issued in 1970, ASTM C 652 covered units
with void areas up to 40 percent. The standard has
since been modified to allow void areas up to 60 per-
cent of the unit’s gross area.
Grade. Two Grades exist in ASTM C 652: Grades
SW and MW. The Grade establishes requirements to en-
sure adequate freeze/thaw resistance. Grade SW units
provide high and uniform resistance to frost action while
saturated with water. Grade MW units are intended for
applications that are unlikely to be saturated with water
when exposed to freezing temperatures. The physical
property requirements are shown in Table 1. Two alter-
nates exist in the standard to provide compliance with the
durability requirements. These alternates include: a cold
water absorption less than 8 percent and passing a 50 cy-
cle freezing and thawing test. The freeze/thaw test only
applies if the units do not meet the saturation coefficient
and absorption requirements in Table 1.
Class. The extent of void area of hollow brick is sepa-
rated into two Classes: H40V and H60V. Brick with void
areas greater than 25 percent but less than 40 percent of
the unit’s gross cross-sectional area are classified as Class
H40V. Brick with void areas greater than 40 percent but
less than 60 percent of the gross cross-sectional area are
classified as Class H60V. Void areas may be cores, cells,
deep frogs or combinations of these. A core is defined as
a void having an area equal to or less than 1.5 in.2 (9.7
cm2), while cells are voids larger than a core. A deep frog
ASTM C 652 Physical Property Requirements for Hollow Brick
Compressive Strength,
Gross Area, min.1,
Designation psi (MPa)
Avg. of 5 Individual
Grade SW 3000 2500
(20.7) (17.2)
Grade MW 2500 2200
(17.2) (15.2)
1Unit in stretcher position with load applied perpendicular to bed surface.
is an indentation in the bed surface of the brick which is
deeper than 3⁄8 in. (10 mm).
Hollow Spaces - The thickness of face shells and
webs are limited by ASTM C 652. Table 2 defines the
nomenclature associated with hollow brick units and the
minimum required thickness of face shells and cross
webs.
The dimensions of the unit and the configuration of its
voids are critical for reinforced brick masonry. The cells
intended to receive reinforcement must align so that rein-
forcing bars can be properly placed. Most Class H60V
hollow brick contain two cells that are aligned when laid
in running bond. Other bond patterns, such as one-third
bond and bonds at corners may require different unit con-
figurations to permit placement of reinforcement. It is ad-
visable to check with the brick manufacturer to determine
the coring patterns available.
Type. Four Types of hollow brick are covered by
ASTM C 652: Types HBS, HBX, HBA and HBB. Each
of these Types relate to the appearance of the unit. Di-
mensional variation, chippage, warpage and other im-
perfections are qualifying conditions of Type. The most
common type, Type HBS, is considered to be standard
and is specified for most applications. Type HBX brick
is specified where a higher degree of precision is re-
quired. Type HBA brick are unique units which are
specified for non-uniformity in size or texture. Where a
particular color, texture or uniformity is not required,
Type HBB brick is specified. These applications are
usually unexposed locations.
Sizes and Shapes
Hollow brick are generally larger than solid brick and
are produced in a variety of sizes. Typical sizes and con-
figurations are illustrated in Table 3. Units with larger
face dimensions allow the mason to lay more exposed
wall area per day. Such units, when compared to standard
or modular size units, may increase the wall area complet-
ed per day by over 50 percent. However, there is a point
of diminishing return as units get larger and heavier.
TABLE 1
5 hr Boiling Water Saturation Coefficient,
Absorption, max., % max.
Avg. of 5 Individual Avg. of 5 Individual
17.0 20.0 0.78 0.80
22.0 25.0 0.88 0.90
2
 TABLE 2 TABLE 3
ASTM C 652 Hollow Brick Section Properties Typical Nominal Brick Sizes

END SHELL SOLID FACE SHELL

OR END WEB CORING PATTERN
CELL OR CORE MAY DIFFER
CELL

WEBS HEIGHT

(a) SOLID SHELL HOLLOW BRICK UNITS

CORE OR CELL IN LENGTH

CELL FACE SHELL
WIDTH
CORE IN FACE SHELL

DOUBLE
FACE SHELLS
Width, in. (mm) Height, in. (mm) Length, in. (mm)
WEBS END SHELL
OR END WEB 4 (100) 3.2 or 4 (81 or 100) 12 (300)
(b) DOUBLE SHELL HOLLOW BRICK UNITS
4 (100) 4 or 8 (100 or 200) 16 (400)

4 (100) 8 (200) 8 (200)

END SHELL CORED FACE SHELL
OR END WEB CORE IN FACE SHELL 5 (125) 3.2 (81) 10 (250)
CELL 6 (150) 4 (100) 12 (300)

6 (150) 4 or 8 (100 or 200) 16 (400)

WEBS
8 (200) 3.2 or 8 (81 or 200) 12 (300)
(c) CORED SHELL HOLLOW BRICK UNITS
8 (200) 4 or 8 (100 or 200) 16 (400)
Minimum Minimum Minimum
solid face cored or end shell or 12 (300) 4 (100) 16 (400)
Nominal width of shell double face end web
units, in. (mm) thickness, shell thickness2,
in. (mm) thickness1, in. (mm)
in. (mm)

3 & 4 (75 & 100) ⁄4 (19)

3
⁄4 (19)
3

6 (150) 1 (25) 1 ⁄2 (38)

1
1 (25)

8 (200) 11⁄4 (32) 11⁄2 (38) 1 (25)

10 (250) 13⁄8 (35) 15⁄8 (41) 11⁄8 (30)

12 (300) 11⁄2 (38) 2 (50) 11⁄8 (30)

1Cores greater than 1 in.2 (650 mm2) in cored shells shall be not less than
⁄2 in. (13 mm) from any edge. Cores not greater than 1 in. 2 (650 mm2 ) in
1

shells cored not more than 35% shall be not less than 3⁄8 in. (10 mm) from
any edge.
2The thickness of webs shall not be less than 1⁄2 in. (13 mm) between cells,
⁄8 in. (10 mm) between cells and cores or 1⁄4 in. (6 mm) between cores.
3

Hollow brick are also made in a variety of special

shapes. These may be for aesthetic reasons or for prac-
tical reasons. Special shapes include radial, bullnose,
interior and exterior angled corner units and others.
Bond beam units are often used to accept horizontal re-
inforcing bars. They may be specially made at the plant
or cut on site. Fig. 2 is an example of a bond beam that
was cut on site. It is best to check with the brick manu- Hollow Brick Bond Beam
facturer for the availability of these special units. FIG. 2
3
Compressive Strength
Compressive strength of hollow brick can be report-
ed on a basis of either the gross cross-sectional area or
the net cross-sectional area, depending on how the val-
ue is to be used. The gross area compressive strength is
used to determine compliance with ASTM C 652 for
purposes of durability. The net area compressive
strength is needed for structural computations.
A survey conducted in 1994 showed the range of
compressive strength of hollow brick based on gross
cross-sectional area is between 2,190 psi (15.1 MPa)
and 12,795 psi (88.2 Mpa), with an average compres-
sive strength equal to 6,740 psi (46.5 MPa).
PROPERTIES OF HOLLOW BRICK MASONRY
Many designers are familiar with the design, con-
struction and performance of masonry built with solid
units. Hollow brick masonry is similar in many in-
stances. Some of the more important performance re-
quirements for hollow brick masonry are discussed.
Structural Properties
The structural design of hollow brick masonry is
governed by the three model building codes and the
ACI 530/ASCE 5/TMS 402 Building Code Require -
ments for Masonry Structures, also known as the Ma-
sonry Standards Joint Committee (MSJC) Code [1].
Compression Failure of Ungrouted Hollow Brick Prism
FIG. 3
4
Hollow brick masonry can be designed by empirical re-
quirements or by rational design procedures. Where ap-
propriate, allowable stresses are different for hollow
brick masonry and solid brick masonry. The following
sections highlight some of the specific requirements for
hollow brick units.
Compressive Strength. The compressive strength
of hollow brick walls depends on unit strength, mortar
type, mortar bedding area, grouting and thicknesses of
face shells and webs. The compressive strength of the
masonry can be verified by testing prisms (prism test
method) or from tabulated values based on brick
strength and mortar type (unit strength method). Prism
tests give more accurate values for compressive
strength. Ungrouted prisms exhibit failure in compres-
sion by a splitting of the unit through the cross webs, as
shown in Fig. 3. The splitting effect is due to the lateral
expansion of the mortar. Filling the cells of hollow
brick with grout will generally increase the masonry’s
capacity; however, the result is a decrease in the net
area compressive strength. The strength of grouted hol-
low prisms is affected more by the tensile strength of
the unit and a change in mortar strength [8].
(a) GROSS AREA OF UNIT
(b) NET AREA OF UNIT
(c) NET MORTAR BEDDED AREA
(FACE SHELL BEDDING)
Hollow Brick Bond Beam
FIG. 4
 The compressive strength of hollow brick masonry is
based on the minimum net cross-sectional area. This is
normally the net mortar bedded area (face shell bed-
ding) and is used in structural calculations. When de-
termining compliance of the specified compressive
strength, the MSJC Code requires the units to be fully
bedded in mortar. Fig. 4 shows various cross-sectional
areas for hollow brick masonry.
Values obtained from prism tests must be corrected
based on the height-to-thickness (h/t) ratio of the prism.
The h/t ratio provides a uniform basis for the determina-
tion of compressive strength. Hollow units are less sen-
sitive to the h/t effects of slenderness than solid units.
Codes stipulate the correction factors to use for hollow
brick prisms. Past research has used an h/t of 5 as a ba-
sis, as do most current codes. However, an h/t of 2 is
becoming more recognized, especially for larger hollow
units.
Research shows typical values of ungrouted hollow
brick masonry compressive strength based on net area
ranging from 3,470 psi (23.9 MPa) to 6,620 psi (45. 6
MPa). Figure 5 shows typical values of the net area
compressive strength of grouted and ungrouted hollow
brick masonry prisms from the research [3,8].
Flexural Strength. The flexural tensile strength of
hollow brick masonry is influenced by mortar and unit
configurations and the use of reinforcing steel. It has
been found that hollow brick exhibits a lower flexural
tensile strength than solid brick masonry laid with the
same mortar. This is due to the relative thickness of the
face shell bedded mortar joints and the rapid drying of
the mortar before the hollow unit is laid.
Reinforcement is grouted into hollow brick walls to
7000
6500
6000
5500
TYPEM
5000
TYPES
4500
TYPEN
4000
3500
3000
8000 9000 10000 11000 12000 13000 14000 15000 16000 17000 12000
NET AREA UNIT COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH, PSI
(a) UNGROUTED PRISMS
Net Area Compressive Strengths of Hollow Brick Prisms
FIG. 5
5
increase the flexural strength, provide ductility and car-
ry tension forces. The flexural strength of a hollow
brick wall depends primarily on the amount of vertical
reinforcement because the compressive strength is
rarely the limiting factor. The reinforcement resists the
flexural tension and the brickwork resists the flexural
compression. Building codes may dictate a minimum
amount of reinforcement for improved ductility in seis-
mic regions. In reinforced masonry, the steel takes all
of the tension forces and any tension in the masonry is
neglected.
Water Penetration
The water penetration resistance of hollow brick ma-
sonry depends upon the materials and construction
used. Most hollow brick walls are single-wythe walls
and many are designed to act as barrier walls. Hollow
brick walls are not impervious to water, so a secondary
barrier to water must be used. Although the cells of the
units may act as drainage spaces, they will not provide
the excellent type of protection that a continuous
drainage cavity provides. Hollow brick are usually face
shell bedded; that is, only the face shells of the unit are
mortared. This may not provide adequate resistance to
wind-driven rain.
Increased water penetration may be obtained by re-
quiring full head joints. In many cases the walls are
grouted solid which helps the wall resist water penetra-
tion. Other methods used to increase the resistance to
water include the incorporation of an internal drainage
space in the wall or the application of a colorless coat-
ing.
In cases where water penetration resistance is critical,
a drainage space may be provided on the interior of the
4000
3500
3000
TYPEM
2500
TYPES
TYPEN
2000
1500
13000 14000 15000 16000 17000 18000 19000
NET AREA UNIT COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH, PSI
(b) GROUTED PRISMS
 resistance of a wall is the application of a clear water
repellent on the exterior face of the wall. Water repel-
lents will help deter moisture absorption. However, wa-
ter repellents must be used with caution since they may
METAL CAP cause problems in climates where freezing occurs. Oth-
er considerations include limited lifetime, trapping of
ANCHOR efflorescence or stains behind the coating, reapplication
BOLT AS and ineffectiveness on cracks in the wall. See Technical
REQ’D
WOOD ROOF Notes 6A for more information on the appropriate use
JOIST of clear water repellent coatings.
Fire Resistance
The excellent fire-resistant qualities of brick masonry
VERT.
REINF., are well known. However, there have been relatively
AS REQ’D few full-scale fire tests of hollow brick masonry walls.
GROUTED HAT CHANNEL This is due in part to the acknowledgement that brick
SOLDIER masonry is inherently fire resistant. Results from actual
COURSE RIGID
BOND INSTALLATION wall tests in accordance with ASTM E 119 are listed in
BEAM Table 4 [5]. When a 5⁄8 in. (16 mm) thick layer of plaster
BITUMINOUS
FLASHING COATING is added to these walls, the fire rating may be increased
WINDOW
by 1 hour.
OR DOOR An alternative way of determining the fire resistance
FRAME INTERIOR FINISH
of a wall assembly is by the equivalent thickness
FURRING ANCHOR
BRICK FURRING WITH
method. This approach has been approved by the mod-
BEARING INSTALLATION el building codes to determine fire ratings of walls not
WALL
FINISH FLOOR physically tested by ASTM E 119. The fire rating of
FLASHING hollow brick masonry is determined by its equivalent
SLAB ON
GRADE solid thickness. The equivalent thickness is calculated
WEEP
HOLES
VAPOR by subtracting the volume of core or cell spaces from
RETARDER
24 IN. the total gross volume of a brick unit and dividing by
(600 mm)
O.C. MAX. the exposed face area of the unit. Technical Notes 16B

TABLE 4
Fire Ratings of Hollow Brick Walls1

Fire Ratings,
Wall Assembly 2
Hours
Hollow Brick Wall Flashing
FIG. 6 4 in. (100 mm) Hollow brick masonry, 1
solid grouted
wall assembly, as shown in Fig. 6. The interior may be 5 in. (125 mm) Hollow brick masonry 1
furred out with insulation and gypsum board attached. 6 in. (150 mm) Hollow brick masonry 1
Flashing and weep holes are used to drain the space. 5 in. (125 mm) Hollow brick masonry, 2
Another precaution may be the use of a water-resistant solid grouted
membrane placed on the inside face of the wall. Water- 8 in. (200 mm) Hollow brick wall 1
proof membranes or polyethylene sheet have been used (units at least 71% solid) with combustible
to resist water that has penetrated the hollow brick wall. members framed in

Any puncture in the membrane must be properly sealed. 6 in. (150 mm) Hollow brick wall, solid grouted 3
Flashing should be provided at the wall base, below 8 in. (200 mm) Hollow brick wall (units at least 3
71% solid) with non-combustible members or
and above all wall openings and at the tops of walls.
no members framed in
Flashing and weep holes will collect water that enters
10 in. (250 mm) Hollow brick wall 3
the wall and direct it back to the exterior. Flashing is a
8 in. (200 mm) Hollow brick wall (units at 4
bond break so the tensile strength of the wall at that lo-
least 60% solid), with non-combustible
cation is zero. Also the shear stress will be reduced. members framed in, cells filled with loose fill
The structural design of the buildings should address insulation
this issue appropriately. Flashing is necessary in all ar- 8 in. (200 mm) Hollow brick wall, solid grouted 4
eas except where there is negligible rainfall. 1Adapted from Ref. 5
2Nominal wall thickness
Another alternative to increase the water penetration
6
explains the procedures for determining a hollow use of fine grout and coarse grout is limited by the size
brick’s equivalent thickness and the calculated fire re- of the space to be grouted. See Table 5. Spaces small-
sistance of various hollow brick masonry walls. er than these listed in Table 5 will not be fully filled
Sound Resistance due to congestion in the space.
Walls can be ungrouted, fully grouted or partially
Because sound resistance improves with increasing grouted. This depends on the design of the wall. In
wall weight, hollow brick masonry provides very good some cases, only those cells containing reinforcement
sound penetration resistance. The Sound Transmission are grouted. However, as the spacing of the reinforce-
Class (STC) rating is used to determine the sound insu- ment becomes less than about 30 in. (760 mm), it be-
lation of walls. Tests on units similar to hollow clay comes more economical to grout the entire wall.
brick (structural clay tile) ranged from an STC of 39 Brick masonry absorbs water from the grout, result-
for a 4 in. (100 mm) structural clay tile wall, to an STC ing in considerable shrinkage of the grout. Although
of 45 for an 8 in. (200 mm) structural clay tile wall. consolidation of the grout is required, it may not com-
Assumed values of STC ratings can be determined pensate for all of the shrinkage. Therefore, a non-
from an equation based on existing test data. The fol- shrink grout admixture is recommended [7].
lowing equation could be used to estimate an STC rat- Prior to grouting, the cells of the hollow units should
ing when existing tests are not available [6]. be cleared of mortar protrusions and blockage to allow
STC = 0.17W + 40 uninterrupted flow of the grout. This may be done dur-
ing construction with a sponge or after construction
The STC rating is a function of the weight of the with a rod to knock down hardened mortar protrusions.
wall, w, which is expressed in pcf. This equation is a A clear grout space allows the required clearances and
best fit to a curve based on the average of the data. intimate contact between grout, masonry units and steel
reinforcement. The height to which grout is placed in
CONSTRUCTION REQUIREMENTS
one operation is limited by the size of the cells to be
Mortar Bedding grouted, as shown in Table 5. Grouting after the wall
Since hollow brick have large voids, units are laid has been constructed, often referred to as high-lift
with face shell bedding. Face shell bedding consists of grouting, is more difficult the smaller the cells are in
mortar coverage on the inner and outer face shells of size. After grout is placed, and before it loses its plas-
the unit. Cross webs or end webs of the unit may re- ticity, the grout should be consolidated to completely
quire mortar bedding when grout must be confined fill all spaces designed to receive grout. Grout pour
within certain cells of partially grouted masonry or on heights greater than 12 in. (300 mm) are typically re-
the first course of brickwork. consolidated by mechanical vibration after initial water
loss and settlement has occurred.
Grouting
Cleanouts
Grout is a highly fluid mixture used to fill the cells
of units. Grout should conform to ASTM C 476 Speci- Cleanouts are required when grout pours exceed 5 ft
fication for Grout for Masonry. The proportion specifi- (1.5 m) in height. Cleanouts are typically made by re-
cation is recommended for grout in hollow brick. The moving face shells of units in the bottom course of
spaces to be grouted. These cleanouts allow removal
TABLE 5 of mortar droppings that have collected at the bottom
of a cell. Once the cleanouts have been cleared of de-
Grout Space Requirements
bris, the face shell of the unit can be replaced. The
face shell can be cut to form a wedge so that the grout
Grout Type Maximum Grout Minimum Grout
Pour Height, ft (m) Space Dimensions pressure will hold it in place. The replaced face shell
for Grouting Cells may require additional bracing against the hydrostatic
of Hollow Units1 pressure of the grout to avoid blowing out the face
in × in. (mm × mm)
shell.
1 (0.3) 11⁄2 × 2 (38 × 51)
Reinforcement
5 (1.5) 2 × 3 (51 × 76)
Fine
12 (3.7) 21⁄2 × 3 (64 × 76) Although reinforcement is not always used in hollow
24 (7.3) 3 × 3 (76 × 76) brick masonry, the large cells allow the units to be easi-
ly reinforced and grouted. The reinforcing must be
1 (0.3) 11⁄2 × 3 (38 × 76)
embedded in grout, not mortar. The maximum bar size
5 (1.5) 2 1⁄2 × 3 (64 × 76)
Coarse permitted by code for masonry is a No. 11 bar. The
12 (3.7) 3 × 3 (76 × 76)
24 (7.3) 3 × 4 (76 × 102)
size of the reinforcement is often limited by the size of
the space to be grouted and the need for adequate cov-
1Grout space dimension is the clear dimension between any masonry
er. A recommended rule-of-thumb is that the maxi-
protrusion and shall be increased by the diameters of the horizontal bars
within the cross secton of the grout space. Area of reinforcement shall not
mum bar size should equal the nominal unit thickness.
exceed 6 percent of the area of the grout space. For example, the maximum bar size for nominal 6 in.
7
(150 mm) hollow brick is a No. 6 bar.
Reinforcement is placed prior to grouting. The rein-
forcement must be accurately positioned in the wall as
designed. Reinforcing is most often positioned in the
center of the wall, but may be placed to one side to maxi-
mize the distance from the compression face. The rein-
forcement should be spaced to coincide with the spacing
of the cells of the hollow brick. Spacing is typically in
increments of 4 in. (100 mm) or 6 in. (150 mm). Rein-
forcement is sometimes held in place by the use of posi-
tioners or chairs. Positioners are typically placed hori-
zontally, no more than 200 bar diameters apart.
Splices in reinforcement must be in accordance with
building code requirements. Splices are most often
achieved by lapping the discontinuous ends of the bars
by a certain minimum number of bar diameters. Me-
chanical devices and butt welding of reinforcing is also
permitted to provide continuity.
CONCLUSION
This Technical Notes provides a discussion of the
classification and use of hollow brick. Various proper-
ties of hollow brick masonry are described. Design, ma-
terial and construction requirements are provided as a
basis for good masonry performance.
The information and suggestions contained in this
Technical Notes are based on the available data and the
experience of the engineering staff of the Brick Institute
of America. The information contained herein must be
used in conjunction with good technical judgment and a
basic understanding of the properties of brick masonry.
Final decisions on the use of the information contained in
this Technical Notes are not within the purview of the
Brick Institute of America and must rest with the project
architect, engineer and owner.
8
REFERENCES
1. ACI 530/ASCE 5/TMS 402-95, Building Code
R e q u i rements for Masonry Str u c t u re s, ACI
530.1/ASCE 6/TMS 602-95, Specifications for
Masonry Structures, American Concrete
Institute, Detroit, MI, 1995.
2. Amrhein, J.E., Reinforcing Steel in Masonry,
Masonry Institute of America, Los Angeles,
CA, 1991.
3. Brown, R.H. and Borchelt, J.G., “Compression
Tests of Hollow Brick Units and Prisms,” Ma -
sonry: Components to Assemblages, ASTM STP
1063, J.H. Matthys, Ed., ASTM, Philadelphia,
PA, 1990.
4. C o m m e n t a ry to Chapter 21, Masonry, of the
1994 Uniform Building Code, The Masonry
Society, Boulder, CO, 1995.
5. “Fire Resistance,” Technical Notes 16 Revised,
Brick Institute of America, May 1987.
6. Grimm, C, T., “Acoustical Properties of Mason -
ry Walls”, Construction Specifier, March 1993,
pp. 78-82.
7. Kingsley, G. R., Tulin, L. G., and Noland, J. L.,
“Parameters Influencing the Quality of Grout in
Hollow Clay Masonry,” 7th International Brick
Masonry Conference, Melbourne, Australia,
1985, pp. 1085-1092.
8. Whitlock, A.R. and Brown, R.H., “Compressive
Strength of Grouted Hollow Brick Prisms,” Ma -
sonry: Materials, Properties, and Performance,
ASTM STP 778, J.G. Borchelt, Ed., ASTM,
Philadelphia, PA, 1982, pp 99-117.
 42
Technical Notes REVISED

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
November
1991

EMPIRICAL DESIGN OF BRICK MASONRY

Abstract: This Technical Notes provides requirements for the empirical design of masonry structures. These
requirements are based on past proven performance. The provisions are taken from ACI 530-92/ASCE 5-92,
"Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures", Chapter 9. Subjects discussed pertaining to ACI
530/ASCE 5 are: lateral stability; allowable stresses; lateral support; thickness of masonry; bonding; anchorage
and miscellaneous requirements. Seismic considerations and material requirements are also included.
Key Words: brick, building codes, design standards, empirical design, masonry, stresses.

tions that have not been incorporated in other previous

INTRODUCTION
Empirical design is a procedure for sizing and propor-
tioning masonry elements to form an entire structure or
parts of a structure. Empirical design does not require a
rational analysis. It is based on rules of thumb and formu-
las developed over many years of experience. This
design method has been used successfully for many
decades.
Empirical design is generally used for buildings of a
small scale nature. The basic premise is that masonry
walls are incorporated into two directions of the building
along with floor and roof systems for lateral support.
Chapter 9 of ACI 530-92/ASCE 5-92 is devoted solely
to empirical design procedures. The provisions of earlier
empirical standards have been modified to reflect contem-
porary construction materials and methods. Many
requirements remain the same as earlier standards but
new restrictions have been added to reflect recent devel-
opments.
The current model building codes contain require-
ments for empirical design of masonry. Until the develop-
ment of ACI 530/ASCE 5, most of the model building code
empirical design procedures were based on the ANSI
A41.1 (R1970) document which has been discontinued.
It is the purpose of this Technical Notes to review
many of the pertinent design and construction require-
ments included in Chapter 9 of ACI 530/ASCE 5. In this
Technical Notes, sections of ACI 530/ASCE 5 referenced
are given in parenthesis.
SCOPE (9.1)
Chapter 9 of ACI 530/ASCE 5 covers empirical design
criteria which can be used for masonry components and
masonry buildings in lieu of the design requirements in
Chapters 5, 6, 7 and 8. Chapters 5 through 8 contain a
rational design for masonry based on the working stress
method. The scope of Chapter 9 has three basic restric-
empirical procedures: 1) buildings cannot be located in
Seismic Zones 3 and 4 as defined in ASCE 7-88,
"Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other
Structures" (formerly referred to as ANSI A58.1); 2) lateral
load forces, i.e. wind loads, are restricted to a maximum
of 25 psf (1.2 kPa) as referenced in ASCE 7; 3) buildings
relying on masonry walls for lateral load resistance cannot
exceed 35 ft (10.7 mm) in height.
Chapter 9 permits empirical design of masonry ele-
ments not acting as a portion of the lateral force resisting
system even though the main lateral force resisting sys-
tem is rationally designed by other chapters contained in
ACI 530/ASCE 5. Further, Chapter 9 can be used to
design masonry elements in frame structures.
DESIGN
Consideration of lateral stability and lateral support
are of prime importance in empirical design.
Compressive stresses, thickness of masonry, bonding and
anchorage requirements are incorporated in this design
methodology.
Lateral Stability (9.3)
Shear walls are necessary when lateral support is
provided by masonry construction. Shear walls must be
provided in two directions, parallel and perpendicular to
the assumed direction of the lateral load resisted. The
minimum cumulative length of shear walls in any one
direction must be at least 40 percent of the long dimen-
sion of the building. Portions of walls with openings can-
not be included when determining the cumulative length
of shear walls. BIA recommends that the cumulative
length of shear walls include only wall lengths greater
than or equal to one-half the story height of the building.
Bearing walls are permitted to serve as shear walls.
Shear walls must be a minimum nominal thickness of 8 in.
(200 mm). Figure 1 provides an example calculation to
determine the cumulative shear wall length.
 Cumulative Length of Shear Walls
FIG. 1

Shear wall spacing requirements are based on the Allowable Stresses (9.4)
type of floor or roof construction used in the building Allowable compressive stresses permitted in Chapter
under consideration. When using stiffer elements such as 9 are given in Table 2. Compressive stress calculations
cast-in-place concrete floors, the shear wall spacings are are based on gross area, not minimum net area as is the
greater. Table 1 provides the maximum ratio of shear wall case in the rational analysis chapters of ACI 530/ASCE 5.
spacing to shear wall length based on the type of floor or Gross area is based on the actual dimensions of the
roof construction. masonry unit under consideration. When multi-wythe
walls are used in construction, the allowable stress taken
TABLE 1
Shear Wall Spacing Requirements from Table 2 should be based on the weakest combina-
tion of the unit and mortar used for each wythe.
Maximum Ratio, The allowable stresses in Table 2 are considered as
Floor or Roof Construction shear wall spacing allowable average stresses, not maximum fiber stresses.
shear wall length These allowable stresses only pertain to vertically applied
loads reasonably centered on the wall. Any influence of
Cast-in-place concrete 5:1 an eccentrically applied load is limited by the minimum
wall thickness and maximum lateral support requirements.
Precast concrete 4:1
Lateral Support (9.5)
Metal deck with concrete fill 3:1 Chapter 9 contains arbitrary limits on the ratios of wall
thickness to distance between lateral supports. These
Metal deck with no fill 2:1 limits provide controls on the flexural tension stresses
within the wall and limit possible buckling under compres-
Wood diaphragm 2:1
sive stresses. Maximum h/t or l/t ratios and minimum
thickness used for determining distance between lateral
supports are consistent with past masonry standards.
2
 TABLE 2
Allowable Compressive Stresses

1,2
Construction; Allowable compressive stresses,
compressive strength of unit gross cross-sectional area, psi
gross area, psi
Type M or S mortar Type N mortar

Solid masonry of brick and other solid units of clay or

shale; sand-lime or concrete brick:
8000 or greater 350 300
4500 225 200
2500 160 140
1500 115 100

Grouted masonry, of clay or shale;

sand-lime or concrete:
4500 or greater 225 200
2500 160 140
1500 115 100
Solid masonry of solid concrete masonry units:
3000 or greater 225 200
2000 160 140
1200 115 100
Masonry of hollow load bearing units:
2000 or greater 140 120
1500 115 100
1000 75 70
700 60 55
3
Hollow walls (noncomposite masonry bonded )
Solid units:
2500 or greater 160 140
1500 115 100
Hollow units 75 70

Stone ashlar masonry:

Granite 720 640
Limestone or marble 450 400
Sandstone or cast stone 360 320

Rubble stone masonry

Coarse, rough or random 120 100
1
Linear interpolation for determining allowable stresses for masonry units having ompressive strengths which are intermediate between those given in the table is permitted
2
1 psi = 6.9 kPa
3
Where floor and roof loads are carried upon one wythe, the gross cross-sectional area is that of the wythe under load; if both wythes are loaded, the gross cross-sectional
area is that of the wall minus the area of the cavity between the wythes. Walls bonded with metal ties shall be considered as non-composite walls unless collar joints are
filled with mortar or grout.

Definitions for height (h), length (l) and thickness (t) TABLE 3
for use in the allowable lateral support ratios are as fol- Wall Lateral Support Requirements
lows: h = the vertical distance or height between lateral
supports; I = the horizontal distance or length between lat- Construction Maximum
eral supports: and t = the nominal thickness of the mason- l/t or h/t
ry wall under consideration. ACI 530/ASCE 5 does not
Bearing walls
provide guidance for computing the thickness of masonry Solid or solid grouted 20
bonded hollow walls or cavity walls bonded with metal All other 18
ties. BIA suggests that the value for thickness be the sum
of the nominal thicknesses of the inner and outer wythes. Nonbearing walls
Masonry walls should be laterally supported in either Exterior 18
the horizontal or vertical direction at intervals not exceeding Interior 36
those given in Table 3. Lateral support should be provided by
3
 Lateral Support Requirements
FIG. 2
cross walls, pilasters, buttresses or structural frame members
when the limiting distance is taken horizontally. Floors, roofs
or structural frame members should be used when the limiting
distance is taken vertically (see Fig. 2).
Cantilever type walls also have a minimum lateral
support criteria. The h/t ratio for cantilever walls should
not exceed 6 for solid masonry walls nor 4 for hollow
masonry walls.
Thickness of Masonry (9.6)
Empirical design requirements pertaining to the thick-
ness of bearing walls and foundation walls are found in
Section 9.6. Masonry walls must conform to thickness
requirements as well as lateral support and allowable
stress requirements. Thicknesses given are nominal
dimensions. These requirements are more conservative
than empirical design criteria in previous masonry stan-
dards.
Bearing Walls. The minimum thickness of masonry
bearing walls more than one story in height must be 8 in.
(200 mm). Bearing walls of one story buildings may be
reduced to 6 in. (150 mm). The height to thickness limita-
tion in Table 3 requires a wall of 6 in. (150 mm) in thick-
ness to have a maximum height of 10 ft (3.1 m)
Specific provisions are incorporated due to a change
in wall thickness between floor levels or floor and roof lev-
4
els. If a change in wall thickness between floors or
between floor and roof levels is desired, the greater wall
thickness must extend to the lower support level. Wall
thicknesses may be changed to meet fire, sound or ther-
mal requirements. Where walls of hollow masonry units
or masonry bonded hollow walls are decreased in thick-
ness, a course or courses of solid masonry should be
constructed between the thicker wall below and the thin-
ner wall above. Special units or construction are permit-
ted to be used as long as the loads from face shells or
wythes of masonry above are transmitted to the wall sys-
tem below.
Foundation Walls. Foundation walls have empirical
thickness requirements which are shown in Table 4.
Foundation walls must be constructed of either Type M or S
mortar. The height of unbalanced fill (height of finished
ground above the basement floor or inside ground level)
and the height of the wall between lateral supports must not
exceed 8 ft (2.4 m), and the equivalent fluid weight of unbal-
3
anced fill must not exceed 30 pcf (480.5 kg/m ). Most well-
drained sand and gravel backfills have an equivalent fluid
3
weight of less than 30 pcf (480.5 kg/m ). When these condi-
tions are not met, foundation walls must be designed in
accordance with Chapters 5 and 6 or 5 and 7 of ACI
530/ASCE 5.
 TABLE 4 of the code.
1
Thickness of Foundation Walls Masonry headers are typically used when bonding
barrier type walls (walls of solid units built without air
Foundation wall Nominal Maximum depth of spaces) or hollow walls composed of solid masonry units.
construction thickness, in. unbalanced fill, ft Metal ties can be used for barrier type walls (with grouted
collar joints) and drainage type walls (a clear air space
Masonry of hollow 8 4
units, ungrouted 10 5 between wythes of masonry).
12 6 The necessary requirements for bonding multi-wythe
walls with masonry headers is shown in Fig. 3. Masonry
Masonry of solid units 8 5 headers of solid units must comprise not less than 4 per-
10 6 cent of wall surface area and extend at least 3 in. (75
12 7 mm) into each wythe. The distance between adjacent
full-length headers should not exceed 24 in. (610 mm)
Masonry of hollow or 8 7 horizontally or vertically along the wall surface.
solid units, 10 8
Two options exist when bonding multi-wythe walls
fully grouted 12 8
with metal ties, the use of unit metal ties and the use of
prefabricated horizontal joint reinforcement. When using
Masonry of hollow 8 7 unit metal ties, such as Z-ties or rectangular ties (box
2 2
units reinforced verti- ties), one tie must be provided for each 4 1/2 ft (0.42 m )
cally with #4 bars and of wall area. Ties should be at least 3/16 in. (4.76 mm) in
grout at 24 in. on cen-
diameter and be corrosion resistant. The maximum verti-
ter. Bars located not
less than 4 1/2 in. from
cal distance between ties should not exceed 24 in. (610
pressure side of wall. mm), and the maximum horizontal distance should not
exceed 36 in. (914 mm). Z-ties may not be used with hol-
1
1 in = 25.4 mm low masonry units. Additional metal ties should be provid-
1 ft = 0.3048 ed at all openings, spaced not more than 3 ft (0.91 m)
apart around the perimeter and within 12 in. (300 mm) of
Parapets. Parapets are required to have a minimum the opening. These provisions are similar to those for
thickness of at least 8 in. (200 mm). Their height cannot cavity wall construction.
exceed three timed their thickness. When bonding multi-wythe walls with horizontal joint
Bonding (9.7) reinforcement, there should be one crosswire metal tie for
2 2
Multi-wythe masonry walls may be bonded together each 2 2/3 ft (0.25 m ) of wall area. The vertical spacing
by either masonry headers or metal wall ties. Limitations should not exceed 16 in. (400 mm). Crosswires should
on the area and spacing of masonry headers or metal ties not be smaller than No. 9 gage wire (W 1.7) and be corro-
for both solid and hollow units are contained in Chapter 9 sion resistant.

Multi-Wythe Bond with Masonry Headers

FIG. 3

5
 Pattern Bond. Masonry walls can be laid in either
running or stack bond. Running bond is defined by each
wythe of masonry head joints in successive courses being
offset by at least one-quarter the unit length (see Fig. 4).
It is considered stack bond if the longitudinal bond is off-
set less than one-quarter the unit length, and horizontal
joint reinforcement or bond beams with a maximum spac-
ing of 4 ft (1.2 m) vertically with a minimum area of steel
equal to 0.0003 times the vertical cross-sectional area of
the wall must be provided.
Anchorage (9.8)
Masonry elements must be anchored to various com-
ponents of the building which provide lateral support when
using empirical design. Anchorage must occur at inter-
secting walls, at floors and roofs which adjoin masonry
walls and where masonry walls abut structural framing.
Anchorage requirements for masonry walls contained in
ACI 530/ASCE 5 are as follows:
" 9.8.2 Intersecting walls - Masonry walls depending
upon one another for lateral support shall be anchored or
bonded at locations where they meet or intersect by one
of the following methods:
9.8.2.1 Fifty percent of the units at the intersection
shall be laid in an overlapping masonry bonding pat -
tern, with alternate units having a bearing of not less
than 3 in. (75 mm) on the unit below.
9.8.2.2 Walls should be anchored by steel connectors
having a minimum section of 1/4 in. (6.4 mm) by 1 1/2
in. (38.1 mm) with ends bent up at least 2 in. (50 mm)
or with cross pins to form anchorage. Such anchors
shall be at least 24 in. (600 mm) long and the maxi -
mum spacing shall be 4 ft (1.22 m).
Running Bond Masonry
FIG. 4
6
9.8.2.3 Walls shall be anchored by joint reinforcement
spaced at a maximum distance of 8 in. (200 mm).
Longitudinal rods of such reinforcement shall be at
least 9 gage (W 1. 7) and shall extend at least 30 in.
(762 mm) in each direction at the intersection.
9.8.2.4 Interior non-loadbearing walls shall be
anchored at their intersection, at vertical intervals of
not more than 16 in. (400 mm) with joint reinforce -
ment or 1/4 in. (6.4 mm) mesh galvanized hardware
cloth.
9.8.2.5 Other metal ties, joint reinforcement or
anchors, if used, shall be spaced to provide equiva -
lent area of anchorage to that required by this section.
9.8.3 Floor and roof anchorage - Floor and roof
diaphragms providing lateral support to masonry shall be
connected to the masonry by one of the following meth -
ods:
9.8.3.1 Wood floor joists bearing on masonry walls
shall be anchored to the wall at intervals not to
exceed 6 ft (1.8 m) by metal strap anchors. Joists
parallel to the wall shall be anchored with metal straps
spaced not more than 6 ft (1.8 m) on centers extend -
ing over or under and secured to at least 3 joists.
Blocking shall be provided between joists at each
strap anchor.
9.8.3.2 Steel floor joists shall be anchored to masonry
walls with 3/8 in. (9.5 mm) round bars, or their equiva -
lent, spaced not more than 6 ft (1.8 m) on center.
Where joists are parallel to the wall, anchors shall be
located at joists cross bridging.
9.8.3.3 Roof structures shall be anchored to masonry
walls with 1/2 in. (12.7 mm) bolts 6 ft (1.8 m) on center
 Corbeling Limitations
FIG. 5
or their equivalent. Bolts shall extend and be embed -
ded at least 15 in. (381 mm) into the masonry, or be
hooked or welded to not less than 0.20 in2 (129 mm2)
of bond beam reinforcement placed not less than 6 in.
(150 mm) from the top of the wall.
9.8.4 Walls adjoining structural framing - Where walls
are dependent upon the structural frame for lateral
support they shall be anchored to the structural mem -
bers with metal anchors or otherwise keyed to the
structural members. Metal anchors shall consist of
1/2 in. (12. 7 mm) bolts spaced at 4 ft (1.2 m) on cen -
ter embedded 4 in. (100 mm) into the masonry, or
their equivalent area. “
Miscellaneous Requirements (9.9)
General limitations for masonry structures such as
masonry over chases and recesses, lintels over openings,
noncombustible supports for masonry walls and corbeling
have empirical requirements for proper design and con-
struction.
Chases and recesses in masonry walls are some-
times used for visual effects or to receive pipes, conduits
or ducts. When chases or recesses are wider than 12 in.
7
(300 mm), the masonry above the chase must be support-
ed by noncombustible lintels, which could be steel angle
lintels or reinforced brick masonry lintels.
The design of lintels must be in accordance with
Section 5.6 which stipulates that the deflection of lintels
due to vertical loads should not exceed the span divided
by 600 nor 0.3 in. (7.6 mm) when supporting unreinforced
masonry. Minimum bearing for lintels is 4 in. (100 mm) on
each end of the masonry opening.
Masonry is not permitted to be supported by com-
bustible construction, i.e. wood. Even though wood con-
struction may meet the deflection requirements for lintels,
this restriction is a fire safety requirement.
Corbeling limitations are the same as those required
by the model building codes used throughout the country.
The maximum corbeled projection beyond the plane of
the wall should not be more than one-half of the wall
thickness or one-half the wythe thickness for hollow walls.
The maximum projection of any single course of masonry
should not exceed one-half the unit height or one-third the
unit thickness. Solid units are required for corbeled
courses of Masonry. Figure 5 illustrates these criteria for
corbeling masonry.
 Minimum Reinforcement Requirements for Seismic Zone 2
FIG. 6
Seismic Considerations for Empirically
Designed Masonry
Appendix A of ACI 530/ASCE 5 contains special
requirements for masonry in seismic zones as specified in
ASCE 7 (formerly ANSI A58.1). The provisions of
Chapter 9 on empirical design of masonry may be used in
Seismic Zones 0, 1 and 2, and are modified by Appendix
A. Empirical design cannot be used in buildings located
in Seismic Zones 3 and 4.
For Seismic Zones 0 and 1, all provisions of Chapter
9 apply without modification. There are no restrictions on
materials or design methods since these areas of the
country represent low seismic risk.
Masonry elements in Seismic Zone 2 must meet more
stringent requirements. Connections are strengthened
and minimum vertical and horizontal reinforcement is
required in order to provide more ductility in the structure.
All materials also are permitted to be used in the struc-
ture.
Seismic requirements for buildings or structures in
Seismic Zone 2 as contained in Appendix A are as fol-
lows:
“A.3.5 Veneer and units not specifically intended for
structural use shall not be designed to resist loads
other than their own weight or their own shear loads.
A.3.6 Masonry walls shall be anchored to all floors
and roofs which provide lateral support for the walls.
8
Such anchorage shall provide direct connection capa -
ble of resisting horizontal forces required in Section
5.2 or a minimum of 200 lb (90.9 kg) per lineal foot
(meter) of wall, whichever is greater. Walls shall be
designed to resist bending between anchors where
anchor spacing exceeds 4 ft (1.2 m). Anchors in
masonry walls shall be embedded in reinforced bond
beams or reinforced vertical cells.
A.3.7 Structural members framing into or supported
by masonry columns shall be anchored thereto.
Anchor bolts located in the tops of columns shall be
set entirely within the reinforcing cage composed of
column bars and lateral ties. A minimum of two #4
lateral ties shall be provided in the top 5 in. (127 mm)
of the column. Welded or mechanical connections for
reinforcing bars in tension shall develop 125 percent
of the yield strength of the bars in tension.
2
A.3.8 Vertical reinforcement of at least 0.20 in. (129
2
mm ) in cross-sectional area shall be provided contin -
uously from support to support at each corner, at
each side of each opening and at the ends of walls.
2
Horizontal reinforcement not less than 0.20 in. (129
2
mm ) in cross section area shall be provided: (1) at
the bottom and top of wall openings and shall extend
not less than 24 in. (610 mm) nor less than 40 bar
 diameters past the opening, (2) continuously at struc - TABLE 5
turally connected roof and floor levels and at the top Corrosion Protection Requirements
of walls, (3) at the bottom of the wall or in the top of
the foundations when doweled to the wall, (4) at maxi - Tie Type and Exposure Corrosion Protection
mum spacing of 10 ft (3.1 m) unless uniformly distrib - Condition
uted joint reinforcement is provided. Reinforcement at
Stainless steel, any exposure ASTM A 167, Type 304
the top and bottom openings when used in determin -
ing the maximum spacing specified in Item No. (4) Joint reinforcement in interior ASTM A 641, 0.1 oz/ft
above shall be continuous in the wall. " walls
Minimum reinforcement requirements are shown in Fig. 6.
Joint reinforcement, wire ties ASTM A 153, Class B
or wire anchors in exterior
"A.3.9 Where head joints in successive courses are walls or interior walls exposed
horizontally offset less than one-quarter of the unit to moist environments
length, the minimum horizontal reinforcement shall be
0.0007 times the gross cross-sectional area of the Sheet metal ties or anchors in ASTM A 525, Class G60
wall. This reinforcement shall be satisfied with uni - interior walls
formly distributed joint reinforcement or with horizontal
reinforcement spaced not over 4 ft (1.2 m) and fully Sheet metal ties or anchors in ASTM A 153, Class B
embedded in grout or mortar " exterior or interior walls
exposed to moist environ-
ments
MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION
General Steel plates and bars (as ASTM A 123 or
The provisions of ACI 530.1-92/ASCE 6-92, applicable to size and form ASTM A 153, Class B
"Specifications for Masonry Structures" have minimum specified)
material and construction requirements for masonry struc-
tures designed in accordance with Chapter 9 empirical
Procedures described represent current construction prac-
provisions. Masonry units, mortar, grout, reinforcement
tices and are consistent with model building codes now in
and accessories are included. This document should be
existence. Topics that are covered are ASTM standards
referenced in the project specifications and can be modi-
for the materials, inspection, and detailing and placement
fied as required for the particular project.
of reinforcement and accessories which include toler-
Masonry Units ances.
The products section permits the use of clay brick, Corrosion Resistance. Conventional corrosion pro-
concrete masonry units and stone masonry in empirically tection methods attempt to protect metals embedded in
designed masonry structures. ASTM standards for clay or masonry by isolating them with impervious coatings, by
shale masonry covered by ACI 530.1/ASCE 6 are ASTM using metals that are corrosion resistant or by providing
C 34, C 56, C 126, C 212, C 216 and C 652. Grade or cathodic protection. ACI 530.1/ASCE 6 provides require-
class of the units to be used in construction are deter- ments for corrosion protection for carbon steel by galva-
mined by exposure conditions and required durability. For nized coatings. The amount of galvanizing required
further information on the manufacture, designation and increases with the severity in exposure of the masonry
selection of clay masonry units, see Technical Notes 9 wall. Anchors, ties and joint reinforcement must meet
Series. minimum corrosion protection requirements. Table 5
Mortar and Grout shows the minimum corrosion protection requirements
Mortar is required to conform to ASTM C 270 Mortar needed for metal accessories used in masonry walls.
for Unit Masonry. When job site pigments are used to Construction
color mortar there are maximum percentages of color pig- Construction requirements within ACI 530.1/ASCE 6
ment by weight of the cement content which can be cover the conventional construction practices used in pro-
added. For portland cement-lime mortars, the maximum jects that involve empirically designed masonry. The pro-
content of the coloring pigment is limited to 10 percent for visions are similar to those found in the model building
mineral oxide pigments and 2 percent for carbon black. If codes. The basic premise under the construction require-
masonry cements are used, the percentage by weight for ments is to ensure proper placement of materials. Mortar
color pigments are halved. joint filling depends on the type of unit used in construc-
Grout is required to conform to ASTM C 476 Grout for tion. Solid units have full head and bed joints. Hollow
Unit Masonry. This is a proportion specification for either units are laid with face shell bedding. Requirements
fine or coarse grout used in construction. include tolerances for erection, collar joints and placement
Reinforcement and Accessories of embedded items such as wall ties and reinforcement.
ACI 530.1/ASCE 6 contains provisions for reinforce- Grout placement is also covered.
ment and metal accessories. All reinforcement and metal
accessories are required to be corrosion resistant.
9
SUMMARY
This Technical Notes reviews empirical design proce-
dures contained in ACI 530/ASCE 5. The discussion cen-
ters on the requirements which are needed by engineers
and architects to fully understand the empirical design of
masonry structures within the limits of Chapter 9.
The information and suggestions contained in this
Technical Notes are based on the available data and the
experience of the engineering staff of the Brick Institute of
America. The information contained in this publication
must be used with good technical judgment. Final deci-
sions on the use of materials and suggestions contained
herein are not within the purview of the Brick Institute of
America and must rest with the project architect, engineer
and owner.

10
 43
Technical Notes REVISED

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
May/June
1981

PASSIVE SOLAR HEATING WITH BRICK MASONRY

PART I--INTRODUCTION

Abstract: Brick masonry passive solar energy systems can be used to significantly reduce the use of fossil
fuels for heating and cooling buildings. The basic concepts and necessary considerations for the design of
passive solar heating systems are discussed. The basic concepts involve the incorporation of the passive
solar heating system into the architectural design of the intended use and operation of the building.
Consideration of environmental factors is also discussed.

Key Words: attached sunspaces, bricks, buildings, cavity wall systems, climatology, conservation, direct
gain systems, energy, masonry, passive solar heating systems , solar radiation, system operation, thermal
storage walls.

Passive Solar Building with

Thermal Storage Wall Under Construction
FIG. 1
INTRODUCTION
Energy conservation and fuel consumption have
become a major concern in recent years. Much of the
nation's fuel is used in the heating of buildings. The use
of solar heating systems will help to reduce this consump-
tion of non-renewable energy resources. Solar energy is
an immediately available renewable energy source. Most
buildings can easily be designed to benefit from solar
heating.
Two types of solar energy systems may be used to
heat buildings, active and passive. Active solar heating
systems are those which require mechanical equipment
for operation. Pumps and other mechanical devices are
required to circulate liquids or gases through solar collec-
tors, to storage media, and then to transfer the collected
heat to the occupied spaces of the building.
Passive solar heating systems do not require the use
of mechanical equipment. The heat flow in passive solar
heating systems is by natural means: radiation, convec-
tion, and conductance. The thermal storage is in the
Combined Thermal Storage Wall System
and Attached Sunspace
FIG. 2
structure itself. Although passive solar heating systems
do not require mechanical equipment for operation, this
does not mean that fans or blowers may not, or should
not, be used to assist the natural flow of thermal energy.
The passive systems assisted by mechanical devices are
referred to as ''hybrid" heating systems.
Passive solar systems utilize basic concepts incorpo-
rated into the architectural design of the building. They
usually consist of: buildings with rectangular floor plans,
elongated on an East-West axis; a glazed South-facing
wall; a thermal storage media exposed to the solar radia-
tion which penetrates the South-facing glazing; overhangs
or other shading devices which sufficiently shade the
South-facing glazing from the summer sun; and windows
on the East and West walls, and preferably none on the
North walls. Passive solar systems do not have a high
initial cost or long-term payback period, both of which are
common with many active solar heating systems.
This Technical Notes introduces the general features
and requirements for the development and application of
passive solar heating systems. Passive solar cooling sys-
tems are discussed in Technical Notes 43C. Due to the
variations in building type and environment which must be
considered, it is not normally feasible for passive solar
systems to be the sole source of heat in most climatologi-
cal areas. Construction details are provided in Technical
Notes 43G.
ENVIRONMENTAL DATA AND REQUIREMENTS
Many environmental factors must be considered to
fully utilize the concepts of passive solar heating systems.
Environmental data is given in Tables 1 and 2 of this
Technical Notes.
Temperature
Exterior design temperatures are important considera-
tions in developing passive solar heating systems. The
size of the system will depend upon daily, monthly and
annual temperature fluctuations. In mild, sunny climates,
the required glazing and thermal storage areas may be
relatively small. In temperate, cloudy climates, the
required glazing area may be small, but the thermal stor-
age requirements may be greater. In colder climates, the
amount of glazing and thermal storage is usually large.
The average monthly heating degree days are related
to exterior temperature conditions. These values are nec-
essary to determine the total monthly thermal load of the
building. Average monthly heating degree days and exte-
rior temperatures are given in Table 2 at the end of this
Technical Notes.
Sun Altitude - Winter and Summer
FIG. 3
Latitude
Latitude is important to determine the amount of solar
radiation and the appropriate summertime shading provid-
ed by overhangs and other devices. The further North the
building is to be located, the less winter solar radiation it
will receive. This is because the sun is above the horizon
for a shorter period of time and the solar radiation must
penetrate more of the atmosphere. Values of solar radia-
tion at various latitudes are given in Table 1.
At higher latitudes, the sun appears lower in the sky.
At these latitudes, where the position (altitude) of the sun
in the sky is low, larger overhangs are required to shade
the South-facing wall from the summer sunlight. Figure 3
shows how the altitude of the sun changes from winter to
summer, demonstrating how the South-facing wall may be
2
shaded from summer solar radiation and still be exposed
to winter solar radiation by using an overhang. The length
of projection required to shade a South-facing wall from
the summer sun is given in Table 3.
Solar Radiation Data
Solar radiation data is required to determine the
amount of radiation transmitted through the South-facing
glazing. Actual average solar radiation data for various
geographical locations is given in Table 2. The amount of
solar radiation is dependent on climate, elevation and lati-
tude. Clear day solar radiation for various latitudes is
given in Table 1.
Orientation
Orientation is extremely important in the design of
passive solar buildings. The best performance will usually
result when the passive solar system faces true South.
True South may be obtained from isogonic (magnetic vari-
ation) charts developed by the United States Department
of Commerce, Coast and Geodetic Survey, or by consult-
ing a local land surveyor.
When the passive solar system faces true South, the
system will be exposed to the maximum amount of winter
solar radiation. Deviations of more than 30∞ East or
West of true South are not recommended, especially
where maximum performance is desired.
Site Topography
The topography of the site is of major concern. If the
South-facing wall of the building is shaded by natural or
man-made elements, it will probably not be feasible to
consider passive solar systems. An ideal siting for a pas-
sive solar building is to be bermed into a South-facing
slope. This provides a South wall exposed to the sun,
and a North wall protected from environmental changes
by the earth berm. Berming the North wall of the building
should be done cautiously to avoid problems caused by
ground water and earth pressure.
BUILDING TYPE AND USE
In addition to environmental considerations building
type and use are very important in developing and apply-
ing passive solar heating systems. Building type and use
are flexible requirements which allow the designer to
make appropriate adaptations to the structure to provide
the desired energy performance.
Thermal Load Requirements
Thermal load requirements are important in the selec-
tion and sizing of passive solar heating systems. The
effects of building type and use on the thermal load are
determined by the interior design temperature and the
allowable temperature fluctuation. A warehouse may not
require the same interior design temperature as a resi-
dential structure. Many commercial buildings are only
occupied during daylight hours and do not have to main-
tain the higher interior working hour temperatures
overnight. In many applications, the passive solar heating
systems may provide similar performance as conventional
heating systems with night-time setbacks.
Another aspect which affects the requirements of the
building's use is human comfort. Passive solar systems
provide conditions which contribute to human comfort.
The brick storage areas of the system are warm. When
surrounded by warm surfaces, the human body receives
radiation from the warm surfaces. This permits the occu-
pants to feel comfortable at lower interior air temperatures
because heat is radiated to the body rather than from the
body.
Glazing and Lighting Quality
The amount of natural lighting required will affect the
selection of the type of passive solar heating system.
Fabrics and even the glazing material itself may suffer
from ultraviolet degradation when exposed to direct sun-
light. In applications such as studios, admitting large
quantities of diffuse solar radiation provides appropriate
lighting.
The amount of glazing for most conventional struc-
tures is typically determined by the need or desire to pro-
vide contact with the exterior or to meet building code
egress requirements. This is not usually a primary design
consideration for the passive solar heating system
Material Properties
Massive brick masonry is recommended for thermal
storage because of its inherent ability to store heat.
Typically, brick exposed to direct sunlight should be of a
dark color wherever it is to perform as a thermal storage
media. The American Society of Heating, Refrigerating
and air-conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) defines dark
colors as dark blue, red, brown and green. The properties
of brick as related to passive solar applications are dis-
cussed in Technical Notes 43D.
System Operation
Passive solar heating systems may be shaded from
the summer sun by fixed, adjustable or removable shad-
ing devices. Adjustable or removable overhangs or shad-
ing devices require operation, but permit the optimum use
of the winter sun and can completely eliminate any solar
exposure on the South-facing glass in the summer.
The performance of passive solar systems may be
greatly enhanced by the use of night insulation. The insu-
lation may be applied on the interior in the form of drapes
or panels. Insulation may also serve as reflector panels
or shading devices. Reflector-insulating panels may be
hinged at the base of the South-facing glazing so that,
when opened during the day, they reflect additional solar
radiation through the glazing and when closed, provide
night insulation. Night insulation may be operated manual-
ly or automatically.
Building Design and Appearance
There is no reason for passive solar heating systems
to have an extremely unconventional design or appear-
ance. The only required variations are: additional South-
facing wall glazing, reduced glazing on the East and West
walls, and preferably no glazing on the North wall; suffi-
3
cient overhang or some other shading device to prevent
the South-facing glazing from being exposed to the sum-
mer sun; and interior brick masonry. The interior brick
masonry exposed to direct sunlight is used as the thermal
storage component of the passive solar energy system.
Additional interior brick masonry unexposed to direct sun-
light is used to provide a thermal flywheel which reduces
interior temperature fluctuations.
Spatial Requirements
The spatial requirements may dictate the type of sys-
tem used. The depth of penetration of solar radiation into
the structure may affect the system type selected.
Buildings should be arranged with a longitudinal East-
West orientation to maximize the solar exposure of the
South-facing glazing. This minimizes the distance from
the South wall to the North wall, across which the thermal
energy from the passive solar energy system has to be
distributed. Building energy performance may be
increased by heating the North wall with solar radiation
entering through the South-facing glazing.
DIRECT GAIN SYSTEMS
The direct gain system is simple and often used. The
system consists of South-facing glazing which allows win-
ter sunlight to enter the habitable spaces of the building.
This thermal energy is stored in brick floors and walls. A
schematic of a direct gain system is shown in Fig. 4. The
South-facing glazing may be windows (operable or fixed),
or glass doors. The brick masonry exposed to the solar
radiation should generally be a dark color and 4 to 8 in.
thick. All walls or other components not exposed to solar
radiation should have light-colored surfaces.
In the direct gain system, the South-facing glazing
permits sunlight to strike the brick masonry construction.
The brick masonry, because of its color, mass and ther -
mal properties, provides the thermal storage for the sys-
tem. The brick masonry absorbs the thermal energy from
the sunlight striking its surface. The heat, which is stored
during the daylight hours, is released gradually. The heat
that is reflected from the brick masonry provides heat to
the habitable space during the daylight hours. The light-
colored surfaces reflect the heat radiated or reflected from
the brick masonry to the air and surroundings in the habit-
able space. If large amounts of heat are required during
the daytime hours and less during night-time hours, this
may be accomplished by using lighter colors of brick
masonry.
Direct gain systems provide rapid temperature
increases in the habitable space and may have large tem-
perature fluctuations. This is because such systems often
must be designed to prevent overheating. The systems
may have limited amounts of brick masonry exposed to
the winter sunlight. This is especially true in the lower lat-
itudes where the winter sun has a higher altitude. This
may be overcome by providing clerestories to obtain solar
radiation on the North wall, as shown in Fig. 4.
Ultraviolet degradation is of the greatest concern
when direct gain systems are utilized. Materials subject
to ultraviolet degradation should not be exposed to direct
sunlight. This may become an inconvenience in the living
areas heated by direct gain. The walls and floors
exposed to the sunlight and used for thermal storage
should not be covered. Wall hangings and carpet greatly
decrease the performance of the system.

Vented Thermal Storage Wall System

FIG. 5

prevent heat losses at night. Night insulation may be

required on unvented thermal storage walls and those with
Increased Building Depth Using Direct
controlled vents to increase the efficiency of the system.
Gain System with Clerestory
COMBINED SYSTEMS
FIG. 4
The best thermal performance and living conditions
result by combining the thermal storage wall system and
the direct gain system. This combination permits some
THERMAL STORAGE WALL SYSTEMS
direct sunlight into the living spaces, achieves higher inte-
The thermal storage wall system, often referred to as
rior temperatures than the thermal wall system alone, pro-
a Trombe Wall System, is schematically represented in
vides less temperature fluctuation than the direct gain
Fig. 5. The thermal storage wall may be vented, as
system alone and provides natural lighting. The combina-
shown in Fig. 5, and provide heat by radiation and con-
tion essentially utilizes the best of the two systems.
vection, or it may be unvented and supply heat by radia-
tion alone. A thermal storage wall system is shown on the
ATTACHED SUNSPACES
left of Fig. 2. It consists of glazing, usually spaced 2 to 4
Attached sunspaces are a combination of the compo-
in. on the exterior of a South-facing wall, constructed of
nents of the direct gain system and the thermal storage
brick masonry. The massive brick wall, usually 10 to 18
wall system, as shown in Fig. 2 on the right, and in Fig. 6.
in. thick, may be loadbearing, or non-loadbearing.
The sunspace is a room, or space, which typically has
The winter sunlight penetrating the South glazing
both a glass roof and a glass South-facing wall. The East
heats the brick, the heat slowly penetrates the brick wall
and West walls may also be glass. The floor is similar to
and warms the interior. Thermal storage walls may have
that of the direct gain system. It consists of 4 to 8-in.
sufficient heat storage to maintain comfortable tempera-
thick brick masonry. The North wall is a 10 to 18-in. thick
tures in buildings for periods up to three completely over-
brick thermal storage wall. The room is vented or ducted
cast days. The thermal storage wall systems have con-
to other areas of the structure. With the assistance of
siderably less temperature fluctuation than do direct gain
fans and blowers, the structure is heated by the extreme
systems, but usually do not achieve the same high initial
temperatures achieved in the sunspace. The sunspace
interior temperatures.
usually has severe temperature fluctuations and is often
The massive brick thermal storage wall prevents ultra-
unbearably hot during daylight hours. They do require
violet degradation of materials contained in the living
removable shading devices to prevent solar gains in the
space because solar radiation does not directly enter the
summer. They will also require night insulation if they are
habitable space. The performance may be substantially
to become useable living space in the evening hours.
increased by providing vents at the top and bottom of the
brick wall to provide convection in addition to the heat
CAVITY WALL SYSTEM
radiated from the interior face of the wall. Vented walls
The cavity wall system, shown in Fig. 7, is a modifica-
may be used to decrease the temperature fluctuations
tion of the double envelope system. The concept of the
and increase the maximum temperature achieved in the
cavity wall system is that the South-facing thermal storage
living space. Fig. 1 shows a vented thermal storage wall
wall heats up and creates a convective loop around the
under construction. When venting the storage wall sys-
entire building envelope. The warmed air space mini-
tem, vents with automatic or manual closures should be
mizes the temperature differential from the interior of the
used so that the system does not reverse at night, creat-
building through the inner wythe of the cavity wall. There
ing a heat loss.
are no generally accepted design procedures for this type
If controlled vents are not installed on the vented ther-
of system presently available. Some experts in the pas-
mal storage wall systems, night insulation is essential to
4
 TABLE 1
Total Clear Day Solar Radiation on
Vertical Double Glazed Surfaces
(Ground Reflectivity Assumed at 0.2)

Attached Sunspace
FIG. 6
sive solar design field feel that the increased thermal per-
formance may be accounted for by the insulation in the
interior and exterior shells of the double envelope system.
Others feel that there is no convective loop occurring, i.e.,
the air between the double envelope shells is stagnant.
The use of a properly constructed, insulated brick
cavity wall on the North side of the building could be used
to provide a moderate heat loss to drive the convective
loop through the air space in the building envelope. This
would reduce the temperature of the air being circulated
through the cavity, but the air should still reach high
enough temperatures as it passes through the air space
of the thermal storage wall system to provide a net heat
gain.
Since there is still considerable controversy regarding
this type of system, and since accurate performance
analysis is not easily accomplished, these systems should
only be designed and constructed with the appropriate
awareness of the expected and achievable performance
level of the system.

METRIC CONVERSION
Because of the possible confusion inherent in show-
ing dual unit systems in the calculations, the metric (SI)
units are not given in this Technical Notes. Table 13 in
Technical Notes 4 provides metric (SI) conversion factors
for the more commonly used units.
5
SUMMARY
This Technical Notes has provided general infor-
mation concerning passive solar heating systems. It has
described several passive solar heating systems, the
basic principles of their operation and general design con-
sideration. This introduction to passive solar heating sys-
tems hopefully provides sufficient familiarization with con-
cepts so that the design of such systems will be under-
stood. Passive solar cooling is discussed in Technical
Notes 43C. The material properties of brick masonry, as
related to passive solar energy systems, is provided in
Technical Notes 43D.. Details and construction informa-
tion are provided in Technical Notes 43G.
This Technical Notes does not and is not intended to
provide information for specific designs and applications,
but rather offers general information to assist in the con-
sideration and use of brick masonry in passive solar heat-
ing systems. The decision to use these concepts in the
design specific applications is not within the purview of
the Brick Institute of America, and must rest with the
owner or designer of any specific project.

a
TABLE 2
Environmental Data for Passive Solar Systems

a
Reprinted from the U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Environmental Data and Information Service, National
Climax Center, Asheville, North Carolina--“Input Data for Solar Systems,” by V.V. Cinquemani, J.R. Owensby Jr., and R.G. Baldwin.
b
Based on 1941-1970 Period. Zeros Appearing for all values appearing in these columns signify that 1941-1970 period normals were not available.

6
b
Based on 1941-1970 Period. Zeros appearing for all values appearing in these columns signify that 1941-1970 period normals were not available.

7
b
Based on 1941-1970 Period. Zeros appearing for all values appearing in these columns signify that 1941-1970 period normals were not available.

8
b
Based on 1941-1970 Period. Zeros appearing for all values appearing in these columns signify that 1941-1970 period normals were not available.

9
b
Based on 1941-1970 Period. Zeros appearing for all values appearing in these columns signify that 1941-1970 period normals were not available.

10
b
Based on 1941-1970 Period. Zeros appearing for all values appearing in these columns signify that 1941-1970 period normals were not available.

11
 a
TABLE 3
Length of Horizontal Projection Required for Shading Windows and Walls
(For Shading 10 ft down from Projection for April 11 through September 1)

Latitude SunTime Projection in Feet Sun Time Latitude SunTime Projection in Feet Sun Time

AM AM E SE S SW PM
E SE S SW PM

6 a.m. 6 a.m. b b 6 p.m.

b b ... ...
... ... 6 p.m. 7 5
7 b b
b b
3.6 ...
... ... 5 4
24 Deg North 8 4 48 Deg North 8 19.6 18.7 6.5 ...
16.5 15.8 1.6 ... 3
9 3 9 12.0 13.7 7.5 ... 2
10.0 10.7 2.3 ...
10 2 10 7.3 10.8 8.4 ... 1
5.8 7.5 2.7 ...
11 1 11 3.2 8.4 8.4 3.2 12 N
2.8 3.8 2.7 ...
12N 12 N 12N ... 6.0 8.4 6.0
... 2.2 2.8 2.2

6 a.m. b b
... ... 6 p.m. 6 a.m. b b

7 b b ... ...
1.7 ... 5 b b
6 p.m.
8 4 7 4.9 ... 5
32 Deg North 17.3 14.2 3.0 ... 56 Deg North
9 3 8 b b
7.8 ... 4
10.3 10.0 3.8 ...
10 6.0 7.3 4.2 ... 2 9 13.5 16.3 9.3 ... 3
11 2.8 5.1 4.2 1.2 1 10 7.9 13.0 10.4 1.4
12N 2
... 13.0 4.2 3.0 12 N 11 3.9 10.2 10.6 4.7 1
12N ... 7.5 10.7 7.5
12 N
6 a.m. b b
... ... 6 p.m.
AM W SW S SE PM
7 b b
1.8 ... 5
18.9 16.1 4.3 ... 4
40 Deg North 8
11.2 11.6 5.4 ... 3
9
6.5 9.1 5.8 ... 2
10
3.1 6.5 6.1 2.2 1
11
... 4.3 6.3 4.3 12 N
12N

a
Reprinted with permission from the 1972 ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals Volume, ASHRAE HANDBOOK & Product Directory.
b
Projection greater than 20 ft. required.

12
 Technical Notes 43C

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
March
1980

PASSIVE SOLAR COOLING WITH BRICK MASONRY

PART I--INTRODUCTION

Abstract: Brick masonry passive solar energy systems can be used to significantly reduce the use of fossil
fuels for heating and cooling buildings. The concepts of passive solar cooling systems discussed here are sim-
ple modifications to passive solar heating systems. For locations where humidity is high, or there is little exterior
temperature fluctuation, or applications where low interior design temperatures are required, passive solar cool-
ing may not be viable. Several methods of pre-cooling and the concept of dehumidifying air with these systems
are introduced.
Key Words: attached sunspace, bricks, buildings, cavity wall systems, climatology, conservation, direct gain
systems, effective temperature, energy, masonry, passive solar cooling systems , passive solar heating sys -
tems, solar radiation, system operation, temperature, thermal storage wall systems.

INTRODUCTION The actual determination of the effectiveness of pas-

The application of passive solar energy systems using
brick masonry can help to significantly reduce the
amounts of fossil fuels and electric energy currently being
used for heating and cooling buildings. Other Technical
Notes in this Series address passive solar heating sys-
tems with brick masonry. They discuss the general con-
cepts, the procedures for sizing the systems, and the per-
formance calculations. This Technical Notes introduces
the concept of passive solar cooling systems using brick
masonry.
PASSIVE SOLAR COOLING
The terminology "passive solar cooling" does not nec-
essarily refer to the actual reduction of the interior air tem-
perature of the building. "Passive solar cooling" is a
means of providing comfortable interior conditions by
properly using the natural flow of thermal energy to create
air movement. These "cooling" systems provide comfort
by controlling the effective temperature of the interior of a
building.
The effective temperature is a measure of the com-
fortable air conditions in a building dependent upon the
actual temperature of the air, the level of relative humidity,
and the amount of air movement. By properly varying any
one, or any combination of these factors, more comfort-
able interior conditions can be achieved. The American
Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning
Engineers (ASHRAE) provides methods which may be
used to determine the amount of change or fluctuation
necessary to achieve comfortable interior conditions.
These methods are described in ASHRAE 1977
Handbook of Fundamentals, and ASHRAE Standard 55-
74, Thermal and Environmental Conditions for Human
Occupancy.
sive solar cooling is complex and its performance is not
yet satisfactorily predicted with calculation procedures
alone. The type of passive solar cooling system selected,
and its performance can be greatly affected by the site
and the climatological conditions.
SYSTEMS AND OPERATION
The basic passive solar heating systems, utilizing
brick masonry, are discussed in Technical Notes 43,
These systems are: thermal storage wall systems, direct
gain systems, attached sunspaces and combinations of
these. These passive solar heating systems can be easi-
ly modified to provide interior comfort during the cooling
season. Obtaining all the necessary cooling with passive
solar cooling systems usually is neither economically nor
thermally feasible for the entire cooling season. These
simple modifications to passive solar heating systems can
be used to create more comfortable interior conditions for
at least part of the cooling season in most climates.
The necessary modifications to passive solar heating
systems to provide passive solar cooling are provisions
for 1) exhausting air from the interior, and 2) intaking exte-
rior air. Schematics are shown in Figs. 1, 2, and 3 for the
direct gain system, attached sunspace, and thermal stor-
age wall system, respectively. The principal modification
is to provide controlled openings for exhausting the inter-
nal heat gained by the passive solar heating system. The
controlled openings should be at the highest points of the
structure, preferably in the roof/ceiling, or gable. Control
of the openings may be provided with operable vents, or
registers. Similar openings can be placed at the low
points of the structure for intaking exterior air. The open-
ings for intaking exterior air may be the windows or doors
of the structure.
 The operation of each of these systems is very similar
in the cooling mode: (1) sunlight strikes the south-facing
glazing, (2) solar energy is transmitted through the south-
facing glazing to the brick masonry thermal storage
media, (3) the brick masonry absorbs and stores the heat,
(4) radiant heat from the surface of the brick masonry
rises, (5) the heated air is exhausted through the con-
trolled openings at the top of the structure, (6) as the heat
is exhausted, exterior air is drawn into the structure, and
(7) the air movement created by exhausting and intaking
air through the structure creates the effect of cooling and
provides more comfortable interior conditions.
Direct Gain System
The direct gain system, when applied as passive solar
cooling, is the most economical, but probably the least
effective. The minimum 4-in. ( 100 mm) thick brick
masonry floors and walls on the interior are exposed to
direct sunlight to absorb and store heat.
The interior brick masonry should be dark to absorb
most of the heat and radiate and reflect only a small por-
tion during the day. The gradual release of radiant heat
through the night draws the cool night air into the struc-
ture and cools the structure.
The system is only advantageous when the nighttime
temperatures consistently fall below the interior design
temperature and when internal solar heat gain can be
adequately controlled to prevent overheating in the day-
time.
A major problem with using a direct gain system is
that the interior space used to store heat is also an inte-
gral part of the habitable space of the building.
Attached Sunspace
Using the attached sunspace for passive solar cooling
is probably more effective but less economical than direct
gain cooling. In the attached sunspace, the heat storage
element is not usually part of the space that is to be
cooled. The system schematic is shown in Fig. 2.
Although the intent in many applications is to use the
attached sunspace as a greenhouse, this is not advanta-
geous in most applications because the greenhouse will
Cooling With the Direct Gain System
FIG. 1
2
Cooling With the Attached Sunspace
FIG. 2
be vented to the interior and the humidity from watering
plants may result in uncomfortable interior conditions and
condensation problems. The major disadvantage of this
system is the cost of the additional floor area which has
limited use.
The system consists of minimum 4-in. ( 100 mm) thick
brick masonry floors, south-facing glazing and preferably
a 10 to 18-in. (250 to 450 mm) thick vented brick masonry
thermal storage wall between the sunspace and the habit-
able portion of the building.
In the cooling mode, the top vents of the brick mason-
ry storage wall are closed and the bottom vents are open.
The air in the sunspace is heated by radiant heat from the
brick masonry. The heated air rises through operable
openings in the roof of the sunspace, drawing air from the
habitable spaces through the bottom vents of the brick
masonry thermal storage wall. The air drawn from the
habitable space is replaced by exterior air drawn in
through operable windows or doors.
Thermal Storage Wall System
One of the most economical and effective passive
solar cooling systems is the vented thermal storage wall,
shown schematically in Fig. 3. The greatest advantage of
the thermal storage wall is that the heat used for the pas-
sive solar cooling does not directly enter the interior
spaces of the habitable portion of the building.
The system consists of exterior glazing 2 to 4 in. (50
to 100 mm) in front of a 10 to 18-in. (250 to 450 mm) thick
vented brick masonry wall used for storing heat.
Operation is similar to that of the attached sunspace. The
operable openings for exhausting the heated air may be
located at the top of the exterior glazing. The exhaust
system may also be operable vents at the top of the air-
space from which the air may be exhausted through addi-
tional vents in the roof. When using the latter exhaust
system, additional vents from the habitable space through
the roof/ceiling component may be used to increase the
heat flow from the interior, thereby drawing additional air
into the building.
CONTROLS
These three basic passive solar heating systems, as
modified for passive solar cooling, require controls to reg-
ulate internal heat gain and the level of comfort, "cooling",
 Cooling With the Vented Thermal
Storage Wall System
FIG. 3
achieved. These controls may be automatically or manu-
ally operated vents, or registers. The controls should be
such that the system can be totally "shut down" when it is
not being effective, i.e., when exterior conditions are such
that a comfortable effective temperature cannot be main-
tained inside the building. Shading devices are required
as a means of controlling the amount of sunlight permitted
to enter the structure for operation of the passive solar
cooling system. These may also be automatic or manual
devices, but are necessary to prevent overheating that
can occur during the cooling season when the interior
temperature, i.e., effective temperature, will no longer be
within the comfort range. The entire system must be
completely shut down before mechanical/refrigeration
cooling systems are put into operation. Shading the
south-facing glazing and closing openings are required for
efficient use of any conventional cooling system.
Anticipation of when overheating or a comfortable
effective temperature will no longer be maintained is nec-
essary so that the passive solar systems can be deacti-
vated prior to creating additional cooling loads for the con-
ventional cooling system. Obviously, operation is a critical
factor in the performance of "passive solar cooling sys-
tems".
CAVITY WALL SYSTEM
A system which may be effectively used for cooling,
with less consideration of the climatic conditions, is the
cavity wall system, schematically represented in Fig. 4.
The north and south walls of the structure are uninsulated
cavity walls (see Technical Notes 21 Series). The south-
facing wall, above grade, is an unvented thermal storage
wall. The airspace in the thermal storage wall system is
open at the bottom to the cavity of the basement or foun-
dation wall, and at the top to the roof/ceiling. The cavity
of the wall is open to ductwork extended in the north-
south direction through the basement floor, or crawl
space. As shown in Fig. 4, this provides an air passage-
way within the building envelope components. A ductwork
system is provided from the base of the cavity to vents on
the exterior. Exhaust vents are provided in the roof or
gable ends.
With the cavity wall system, the south-facing glazing
3
Cavity Wall System, Cooling Mode
FIG. 4
exposes the brick thermal storage wall to sunlight, which
heats up and causes air to rise through the cavity. As the
air rises, it is vented to the exterior from the top of the
cavity, and exterior air is drawn into the cavity via the
ductwork system and exterior vents. This provides a
means of keeping the entire building envelope cooled.
Since the surfaces warmed during the daytime hours
retain heat, this continues through the evening hours, fur-
ther cooling the building envelope. The cooled building
envelope and interior require a longer time period to be
heated up to uncomfortable temperatures during the day-
time hours of the next day. The advantages of passive
solar cooling with the cavity wall system are: (1) shutdown
is not essential for conventional cooling to work effectively
(the cooling systems are isolated from each other), and
(2) since the exterior air for cooling is not brought into the
habitable space, the effects of humidity (a major drawback
in most passive solar cooling systems, depending on cli-
mate), may be reduced.
The east and west walls do not have to be uninsulat-
ed cavity walls. By keeping all walls cavity walls, the east
and west walls may perform as a buffer zone between the
north and south walls. This may increase the overall per-
formance of the system.
A schematic of the system in the heating mode is
shown in Fig. 5. The vents are closed, which creates a
convective loop around the entire shell of the building;
through the floor, wall and roof/ceiling components. This
thermal convective loop warms both the interior and exte-
rior wythes of the building envelope. Since this operation
warms the interior wythe, there is little or no heat loss
through those portions of the building envelope. This sys-
tem, properly designed and operated, may provide the
most effective passive solar heating and cooling.

Cavity Wall System, Heating Mode
FIG. 5
FACTORS AFFECTING PERFORMANCE
The effects of the environmental conditions and build-
ing use on passive solar heating systems are discussed in
Technical Notes 43. These must also be considered for
passive solar cooling systems, however, the necessary
considerations of these factors vary for passive solar cool-
ing systems. The major variations and additional effects
which must be addressed specifically are: temperature,
humidity and shading.
Exterior Design Temperature
The exterior design temperature may be such that the
effective temperature range cannot be achieved or main-
tained within the structure. Since the effects of cooling
are principally achieved by air movement, this may make
the cooling system ineffective. One option is to take max-
imum advantage of the daily temperature swing. When
the nighttime temperatures drop below the interior design
temperature, the structure may be cooled during the night,
delaying the time to heat up the next day. Caution must
be used when considering the daily temperature swing to
guard against overcooling in moderate climates.
Humidity
Humidity is an additional environmental factor not
generally addressed in passive solar heating systems. In
areas where the effects of high humidity cannot be elimi-
nated by air movement, these simple versions of passive
solar cooling systems may not be effective. Additional
complex modifications to the basic passive solar cooling
systems may be necessary to dehumidify the air.
Shading Devices
Operable shading devices are usually required in pas-
sive solar cooling systems. The shading devices are
used to control the amount of solar radiation permitted to
strike the system. This is necessary to prevent overheat-
ing, especially when the system is marginal because the
effective temperature cannot be attained by natural air
flow. In this case, the system should be completely shad-
ed from the summer sunlight.
In instances where the system is providing cooling by
4
night air intake, it may be advantageous to have the sys-
tem shaded from the morning and possibly early after-
noon sunlight. Exposure to only the late afternoon sun-
light may result in sufficient performance to draw cool
night air through the structure.
SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS
The performance of the passive solar cooling system
may be greatly increased by pre-cooling, or dehumidifying
the air before introducing it into the structure. Pre-cooling
and dehumidifying the air are both fairly straightforward
concepts. Adapting the system for pre-cooling air is usu-
ally simple, but dehumidifying the air is much more com-
plicated.
Pre-Cooling Air
Air may be cooled before it is introduced into the
structure by providing underground ductwork or piping,
and venting it to the surface as shown schematically in
Figs. 6, 7 and 8. This is easily adaptable for direct gain,
attached sunspace and thermal storage wall cooling sys-
tems. The ductwork should be corrosion-resistant and
installed for a sufficient length and at the appropriate
depth to pre-cool the air. The number of ducts and their
length and depth requirements are beyond the scope of
this Technical Notes because they are a function of cli-
mate, soil type, elevation of ground water and other relat-
ed factors, all of which affect the amount of pre-cooling,
both required and attainable. General design information
and calculation procedures may be obtained from the
References 1, 2, 6 and 7 of this Technical Notes.
Dehumidification
Air may be dehumidified by using the concept shown
in Figs. 6 through 8, for pre-cooling. Dehumidifying the
air with the passive solar system alone can be very diffi-
cult. Again, it is a function of climate, soil type, level of
ground water and other related factors. The procedure for
determining the amount of dehumidification involves fairly
Pre-Cooling and Dehumidification of Exterior
Air for Cooling with Direct Gain System
FIG. 6
 Pre-Cooling and Dehumidification of Exterior Pre-Cooling and Dehumidification of Exterior
Air with Attached Sunspace Air with Vented Thermal Storage Wall System
FIG. 7 FIG. 8

complex calculations. These calculation procedures are
similar to those in the ASHRAE 1977 Handbook of
Fundamentals and ASHRAE Standard 55-74. The tem-
perature fluctuations necessary to saturate air and con-
densate water by the natural flow of air further compli-
cates the use of passive solar cooling systems for provid-
ing dehumidification.
SUMMARY
This Technical Notes provides general information
concerning passive solar cooling systems. In addition to
describing modifications of the passive solar heating sys-
tems which may be used to supply successful passive
solar cooling, it introduces an innovative system - the cav-
ity wall system - which may be quite effectively used for
heating and cooling buildings. The basic concepts of the
passive solar cooling systems and the principles of their
operation are also discussed. The purpose of this
Technical Notes is to provide general information on pas-
sive solar cooling systems with brick masonry. It discuss-
es type, operation, advantages and disadvantages of
these systems. This Technical Notes does not and is not
intended to provide information for specific designs or
applications, but rather offers general information to assist
in the consideration of the use of passive solar cooling
systems of brick masonry. The decision to use the con-
cepts and the design of specific applications is not within
the purview of the Brick Institute of America, and must
rest with the designer, or owner, of any specific project.
3. Technical Notes 43, “Passive Solar Heating with
Brick Masonry, Part I - Introduction,” Brick Institute of
America, McLean, Virginia, Mar/Apr. 1979.
4. Technical Notes 43A, Brick Passive Solar Heating
Systems, Part II--Sizing Systems, Brick Institute of
America, McLean, Virginia, Mar/Apr 1979.
5. Technical Notes 43B, Brick Passive Solar Heating
Systems, Part III--Performance Calculations, Brick
Institute of America, McLean, Virginia, Sept/Oct 1979.
6. ASHRAE 1977 Handbook of Fundamentals,
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-
Conditioning Engineers, Inc., 345 East 47th Street,
New York, New York 10017, 1977.
7. ASHRAE Standard 55-74, Thermal Environmental
Conditions for Human Comfort, American Society of
Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers,
Inc., 345 East 47th Street, New York, New York
10017, 1977.

REFERENCES
1. Proceedings of the Fourth Passive Solar
Conference, October 3-5, 1979, Kansas City,
Missouri, published by the publishing office of the
American Section of the International Solar Energy
Society, Incorporated, McDowell Hall, University of
Delaware, Newark, Delaware, 1979.
2. Proceedings of the International Solar Energy
Society, Silver Jubilee Congress, Atlanta, Georgia,
May 1979, Pergamon Press, Inc., Maxwell House,
Fairview Park, Elmsford, New York 10523, 1979.
5
 Technical Notes 43D
on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
Reissued*
September
1988

BRICK PASSIVE SOLAR HEATING SYSTEMS

MATERIAL PROPERTIES--PART IV

Abstract: The inherent properties of brick masonry make it one of the most advantageous storage media mate-
rials for passive solar energy systems. Brick masonry may be used to provide an aesthetic effect, structural
capacity and other design considerations in addition to thermal storage. Most of these inherent properties of
brick masonry are already well understood for conventional applications. However, in order to properly use brick
masonry as a thermal storage media for passive solar energy systems additional information may be needed by
the designer. This additional information has to do with the effective thermal storage of brick masonry.
Key Words: absorptivity, brick, density, emissivity, energy heat transfer, masonry, material properties, pas-
sive solar energy systems, reflectance, solar radiation, specific heat, temperature, effective thermal storage,
thermal conductivity, thermal diffusivity.

INTRODUCTION come by using loadbearing insulated cavity walls which

Brick masonry can be used most advantageously as
the thermal storage media in direct gain systems, thermal
storage wall systems and attached sunspaces. The gen-
eral concepts, empirical procedures for sizing systems
and performance calculations are discussed in Parts I
through III of this Technical Notes Series. This Technical
Notes provides information and references regarding the
material properties of the basic components of passive
solar energy systems. This information includes the prop-
erties of brick masonry when used for thermal storage,
with major emphasis on the effective thermal storage of
brick masonry and a general discussion of the properties
of glazing materials when used as collectors.
provide a durable facade, sufficient space for insulation
and interior brick masonry which may be used as thermal
storage in direct gain systems. Cavity wall construction is
addressed in Technical Notes 21 Series.
The structural design may require reinforced brick
masonry. Reinforcement in brick masonry usually has lit-
tle if any effect on the thermal performance of the wall.
This is because the reinforcement is usually horizontal
and/or vertical in the plane of the wall, and occurs at or
near the center of the wall section resulting in very little
increase of thermal transmission through the wall.
Information regarding reinforced brick masonry is provid-
ed in Technical Notes 17 Series.

BRICK MASONRY Durability

General
Most of the design requirements and performance of
brick masonry as a general building material are discussed
in other Technical Notes. The inherent properties of brick
masonry offer many design advantages in addition to those
required for use as a thermal storage material.
Structural
Brick masonry has many applications as a structural
element in buildings. Brick masonry is commonly used as
loadbearing elements in commercial and residential struc-
tures. Brick masonry when considered as a thermal stor-
age media for passive solar energy systems may also be
considered as a structural element. Information on load-
bearing brick masonry is provided in Technical Notes 24
Series.
One of the reasons brick masonry is less frequently
considered as a structural element in one and two-family
construction is because of the difficulties in insulating solid
masonry walls to meet prescriptive energy code require-
ments for the reduction of heat loss. This can be over-
*Originally published in Sept/Oct 1980, this Technical Notes has been reviewed and reissued.
Brick masonry is an extremely durable building mater-
ial requiring little or no maintenance. It does not require
coatings or coverings which could reduce its thermal per-
formance as a storage media. Coatings and coverings
may decrease the emissivity and thermal conductivity of
the brick masonry. This is not desired when trying to opti-
mize on the available thermal storage and thermal energy
retrieval. Since coatings and coverings are not required,
brick masonry may be exposed to enhance the aesthetics
of the building. The use of coating applied to exterior
brick masonry is discussed in Technical Notes 6A.
Aesthetics
Brick masonry is normally used as an exterior facade,
not only because of its durability but also because it pro-
vides architectural freedom. Brick masonry offers many
bond patterns, colors and textures. As elements of the
building, brick masonry provides options for architectural
freedom that no other building material can offer. For
instance, not only the texture of the brick itself is available
in many varieties, but brick allows variation in wall texture,
also. The texture of the wall may be varied by using project-
ed or recessed brick or even sculptured brickwork. The typi-
cal modular sizes of brick masonry are given in Technical
Notes 10B and common bond patterns are given in
Technical Notes 30. Brick masonry used as paving is dis-
cussed in Technical Notes 14 Series. Information on the
use of brick masonry sills and soffits is provided in Technical
Notes 36 Series. The use of brick masonry arches and rein-
forced brick masonry lintels are discussed in Technical
Notes 31 Series and 17H, respectively.
Fire Resistance
Depending upon the specific application of brick
masonry in passive solar energy systems, brick masonry
may be designed and placed to offer fire protection. The
fire resistance of brick masonry is discussed in Technical
Notes 16 Series.
Sound Transmission Resistance
Brick masonry, because of its inherent properties
offers considerable reduction in sound transmission.
Thus, depending on specific design applications, strategi-
cally placed thermal storage elements may be used to
reduce sound transmission from one area of the building
to another or from the exterior to the interior of the build-
ing. Information on the sound transmission classification
of brick masonry is provided in Technical Notes 5A.
Effective Thermal Storage
The overall performance of the brick masonry as a
passive solar energy system thermal storage component
is dependent on its absorptivity, emissivity, and ability to
store heat. The ability of a material to store heat is usual-
ly referred to as heat capacity which is a function of the
specific heat and density of a material. In addition to the
heat capacity, the way the wave of thermal energy pene-
trates the material being used to store heat should also
be considered. The performance as a thermal storage
media may be estimated using the value of the thermal
diffusivity of the material. Thermal diffusivity is not only a
good value for assisting in the selection of materials but is
also useful in simplified heat flow calculations to deter-
mine the amount of heat penetrating a material and the
number of hours it takes for the heat transmission to
occur. This information is useful for selecting the thick-
ness of thermal storage. The thermal diffusivity is a func-
tion of the specific heat, density and thermal conductance
of a material.
Specific Heat. The specific heat, c, of material is the
amount of heat required to increase the temperature of a
unit weight of material one degree. The specific heat, c,
in Btu per pound per degree Fahrenheit, for brick may
vary from 0.20 to 0.26. Typically this variation is due to
the impurities in the clay used to manufacture the brick.
The greater the percentage of metallic oxides in the clay,
usually the greater the specific heat. Building brick which
usually have a low percentage of metallic oxides by
weight have low specific heats usually between 0.20 to
0.22 Btu/lb/˙F, whereas face brick which contain larger
amounts of metallic oxides, typically up to 35%, have spe-
2
cific heats ranging between 0.22 to 0.26 Btu/lb/˙F. A value
of specific heat of face brick which may be used when the
actual specific heat is not known is 0.24 Btu/lb/˙F.
For building brick or brick containing a low percentage
of metallic oxides, a value of 0.22 Btu/lb/˙F may be used.
Generally red, brown and blue brick contain high amounts
of metallic compounds.
The value of the specific heat for brick may be
assumed for brick masonry. The specific heat of grouted
hollow brick may be approximated by determining the per-
cent of the brick masonry which is to be grouted, and
averaging the specific heat, accordingly. This may be
done by adding the product of the specific heat of face
brick times the fraction of the brick which is solid, at least
0.60, and the specific heat of grout times the fraction of
the brick which is cored, less than or equal to 0.40. For
grouted hollow walls, the specific heat for the masonry
wall may be modified for the grout by using Equation 1:
cw = [(tb1 X c b1) + (t b2 X c b2) +
(tg X c g)] / (t b1 + t b2 + t g) (1)
where:
cw = Average specific heat of a grouted brick
masonry wall, in Btu/lb/˚F.
tb1 = Nominal thickness of the exterior wythe of brick
masonry, in inches.
cb1 = Specific heat of the brick in the exterior brick
masonry wythe, in Btu/lb/˚F.
tb2 = Nominal thickness of the interior wythe of brick
masonry, in inches.
cb2 = Specific heat of the brick in the interior brick
masonry wythe, in Btu/lb/˙F.
tg = Nominal thickness of the grout, in inches.
cg = Specific heat of the grout, in Btu/lb/˙F.
Consider a 14-in. thick brick thermal storage wall con-
structed of 4-in. face brick, a 4-in. grouted space and a 6-
in. grouted hollow brick wythe. Although this example is
not representative of typical brick masonry thermal stor-
age components, it is offered to include the available
combinations of brick masonry construction. The specific
heat of the wall assembly components may be deter-
mined by using Table 1 where:
tb1 = 4 in., cb1 = 0.24 Btu/lb/˚F
tb2 = 6 in., cb2 = 0.22 Btu/lb/˚F
tg = 4 in., cg = 0.20 Btu/lb/˚F
The approximate average specific heat of the wall
assembly is found by substituting these values into
Equation 1:
cw = [(4 X 0.24) + (6 X 0.22) +
(4 X 0.20)] / (4 + 6 + 4)
cw = 0.22 Btu/lb/˙F
 TABLE 1
a
Typical Material Properties of Brick

Material Face Brick Building Brick Paving Brick Hollow Brick Mortar
ASTM C 216 ASTM C 62 ASTM C 902 ASTM C 652 b or Grout

Specific Heatc 0.24 0.22 0.24 0.22 0.20

c
Btu/lb/˙F

Density
ρ 130 120 135 126 120
lb/cu ft.

Thermal
Conductivity
k 9.00 5.00 9.00 10.00 12.00
Btu/hr/˙F/ft2
per inch

Thermal
Resistivity
r 0.11 0.20 0.11 0.10 0.08
2
(hr • ˙F • ft )/Btu
per inch

Thermal
Conductance
Ca
(Btu/hr/˙F/ft2)/ft 0.758 0.417 0.758 0.833 1.042

Heat Capacity
β
Btu/cu ft/˙F 31.2 26.4 32.4 27.7 24.0

Thermal
Diffusivity
δ 0.024 0.016 0.023 0.030 0.043
ft2/hr
Emissivity ε 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93 ----
a
These values are representative of the information available to the Brick Institute of America, and are typical for brick being
manufactured today. These values may vary by plus or minus 10% depending on the specific brick being considered.
b
Hollow source brick are assumed to be 60% solid and the core space fully grouted.
c
Source is Referece 3.
d
The thermal conductivity of grouted hollow brick should be determined by dual path analysis.Typically grouted hollow brick, 60%
solid, fully grouted will have a thermal conductivity of approximately 10 Btu/hr/˙F/ft2 per inch.
are usually insignificant. Typically, the maximum amount
Density. The density, r, of brick varies with the type of mortar in solid brick or grouted hollow brick walls con-
of clay, the additives used in manufacturing and with the structed with full collar joints would be about 30% of the
extent of firing. Generally the longer the firing and the wall volume; however, considering that mortar has a den-
higher the temperature, the more dense the brick. Typical sity of about 120 lb per cu ft. this results in a less than 3%
densities for various brick are provided in Table 1. These reduction in the density of the wall as compared to the
values are average densities. The density for grouted density of the brick.
hollow brick assumes 130 lb per cu ft density brick and When considering the use of a grouted hollow wall,
120 lb per cu ft density grout. Hollow brick may range two wythes of masonry constructed with a grouted space
from 75% to 60% solid. This may significantly change the in between, the density of the wall should be approximat-
density, however the values provided in Table 1 are for ed by calculation using Equation 2:
grouted hollow brick assuming 60% solid.
The density, as the specific heat, of brick masonry is ρw = [(tb1 X ρb1) + (tb2 X ρb2) +
slightly less than that of brick, however for simplified (tg X ρg)] / (t b1 + t b2 + t g) (2)
effective thermal storage calculations these differences
3
 where:
ρw = Average density of the wall, in Ib/cu ft.
ρb1 = Density of exterior brick, in Ib/cu ft.
ρb2 = Density of interior brick, in Ib/cu ft.
ρg = Density of grout, in Ib/cu ft.
For a 14-in. thick brick thermal storage wall, con-
structed of a wythe of 4-in. face brick, a 4-in. grouted
space and a 6-in. grouted hollow brick wythe, the densi-
ties may be selected from Table 1 where:
tb1 = 4 in., ρb1 = 130 Ib/cu ft
tb2 = 6 in., ρb2 = 26 Ib/cu ft
tg = 4 in., ρg = 120 Ib/cu ft
By substituting these values into Equation 2, the aver-
age density of the wall, ρw, is found to be:
ρw = [(4 X 130) + (6 X 126) + (4 X 120)] /
(4 + 6 + 4)
ρw = 125 Ib/cu ft
Thermal Conductivity. The thermal conductivity, k,
of brick is discussed in Technical Notes 4 Revised.
Typical values of the thermal conductivity of brick are pro-
vided in Table 1. The thermal conductivity of brick varies
with density. The denser the brick, generally the greater
the thermal conductivity. The thermal conductivity of
grouted brick should be determined by the dual path pro-
cedure described in Technical Notes 4 Revised.
For hollow brick which is grouted, there are two paths
for heat flow, one path is through the webs of the hollow
brick and the other path is through the face shells and
grout. The average thermal resistivity of grouted hollow
brick may be determined by using Equation 3:
rh = [(rb X t w) / l ] + [[(rb X 2t f) + r g x (t - 2tf)] X
[(I - tw) / (l X t)]]
where:
rh = Average thermal resistivity of grouted hollow
brick, in (˙F ft 2 hr)/Btu. in.
rb = Thermal resistivity of brick, in (˙F ft2 hr)/Btu. in.
rg = Thermal resistivity of grout, in (˙F ft2 hr)/Btu. in.
t = Thickness of the brick, in inches.
tf = Thickness of the face shell, in inches.
tw = Total thickness of the webs, in inches.
/ = Length of the brick, in inches.
Considering the thermal resistivities and thickness of
a 6 X 4 X 12 grouted hollow brick:
rb = 0.11 (˙F ft2 hr)/Btu. in. t = 6 in.
r g = 0.08 (˙F ft hr)/Btu in.
2
t f = 1.25 in.
/ = 12 in. tw = 4 in.
and substituting these values into Equation 3, the
average thermal resistivity of a 6 X 4 X 12 grouted hol-
low brick would be:
rh = [(0.11 X 4) / 12] + [[(0.11 X 2.50) +
0.08 X (6 - 2.50)] X [(12 - 4) / (12 x 6)]]
rh = 0.037 + [[0.275 + 0.280] X 0.11]
rh = 0.098 (˙F ft 2 hr)/Btu in. or approximately 0.10 (˙F
ft2 hr)/Btu. in.
The average thermal conductivity is the inverse of the
average thermal resistivity. The average thermal conductivi-
ty, kh, for a 6 X 4 X 12 grouted hollow brick would be:
kh = 1/r h (4)
kh = 1/0.10 (˙F ft 2 hr)/Btu in.
kh = 10.00 Btu/hr/˙F/ft 2 per inch of thickness
The average thermal resistivity of a storage media is
the summation of the thermal resistivity times the thick-
ness of the materials divided by the total thickness. This
is expressed in Equation 5:
rw =[(r1 X t1) + (r2 X t2) + . . . ] / (t1 + t2 + . . . ) (5)
where:
rw = The average thermal resistivity of the storage
media, in (˙F ft 2 hr)/Btu. in.
r = The thermal resistivity of each component, in
(˙F ft 2 hr)/Btu. in.
t = The thickness of each component, in inches.
Thus consider again the 14-in. grouted hollow wall
constructed of a 4-in. wythe of face brick, a 4-in. grouted
space, and a 6-in. wythe of grouted hollow brick. The
nominal thickness and respective average thermal resis-
tivities of each component would be:
t1 = 4 in., r1 = 0.11 (˙F ft2 hr)/Btu in.
t2 = 4 in., r2 = 0.08 (˙F ft 2 hr)/Btu. in.
t3 = 6 in., r3 = 0.10 (˙F ft 2 hr)/Btu in.
(3)
Substituting these values into Equation 5, the average
thermal resistivity of the wall, rw, is determined to be:
rw = [(0.11 x 4) + (0.08 x 4) + (0.10 x 6)] / (4 + 4 + 6)
rw = [1.36(˙F ft 2 hr)/Btu in.] / 14 in.
rw = 0.097 (˙F ft 2 hr)/Btu per inch of thickness
Thermal Conductance. Thermal conductivity and
thermal resistivity refer to the value of heat loss for one
inch of thickness. The thermal conductance is the value
of heat loss for a specified thickness. The average ther-
mal conductance for a one foot thickness of the storage
media is used in the simplified equations of heat transfer
for determining effective thermal storage. The average
thermal conductance for a one foot thickness of the brick
storage media may be determined using Equation 6:
Ca = 1 / (r w X 12 in./ft) (6)
4
 where:
Ca = The average thermal conductance of the storage
media for one foot of thickness. in (Btu/hr/˙F/ft2) / ft.
The 4-in wythe of face brick, 4-in. grouted space and
6-in. wythe of grouted hollow brick is calculated to have a
thermal conductance per foot of thickness of:
Ca = 1 / [0.097 (˙F ft2 hr) / Btu in. X 12 in./ft]
Ca = 0.859 (Btu/hr/˙F/ft 2) / ft
Thermal Diffusivity. Typically the storage capacity of
a material is represented by the amount of heat which can
be stored in the material, the heat capacity of the materi-
al. The heat capacity may be determined by using
Equation 7:
β=c Xρ (7)
where: β = Heat capacity, in Btu/cu ft/˙F.
Typical values for the heat capacity of various brick
are provided in Table 1. Thermal diffusivity is a function of
the heat capacity and thermal conductance per foot of
material thickness. The thermal diffusivity of a material
may be determined by using Equation 8:
δ = Ca/ β or δ = Ca / (c X ρ) (8)
where: δ = Thermal diffusivity, in ft2 /hr.
The values of thermal diffusivity for typical brick
masonry are provided in Table 1. The value of thermal
diffusivity may be used to provide the designer with a bet-
ter concept of heat storage in the passive solar energy
system thermal storage component. The use of the ther-
mal diffusivity in simplified heat transfer equations may
provide a more rational approach for selecting the thick-
ness of thermal storage walls.
The average value of thermal diffusivity may be deter-
mined by using Equation 9:
δa = C a / (cw X ρw) (9)
where: δa = Average thermal diffusivity, in ft2 /hr.
Thus for the 14-in. thick wall assembly constructed of
4-in. solid brick wythe, a 4-in. grouted space, and a 6-in.
wythe of grouted hollow brick the average thermal diffusiv-
ity may be determined using Equation 9. Ca for this wall
was determined to be 0.859 (Btu/hr/˙F/ft2)/ft, rw was deter-
mined to be 125 Ib/cu ft and cw = 0.22 Btu/Ib/˙F. Thus, the
average thermal diffusivity would be:
δa = 0.859 (Btu/hr/˙F/ft )/ft/(0.22 Btu/lb/˙F X 125 Ib/cu ft)
2 wall, with ε = 0.93, may be determined using Equation 10
δa = 0.031 ft 2/hr
The value of the average thermal diffusivity is useful
in simplified heat transfer equations, however if precise
values are desired, each component in section should be
analyzed individually.
5
Emissivity. The emissivity of a surface is its ability to
radiate heat to the surroundings. This is the basis of heat
retrieval in passive solar energy systems as discussed
here. The radiant heat from the surface of the brick
masonry is what causes the useable natural flows of ther-
mal energy; i.e., surface to air conduction, convection
between surfaces and radiation to surfaces and the air,
which heat the interior spaces of the building. Typical val-
ues of emissivity for brick are provided in Table 1.
Exposed brick masonry allows the use of various
bond patterns, projections and even sculptured brick work
to increase the aesthetic value of the thermal storage
media. Although at first the idea of leaving the brick
exposed seems merely aesthetic, it does serve a function
important to the thermal performance of the thermal stor-
age media. Brick masonry does not require nor should it
have any coverings; i.e., gypsum wall board, paints, wall
papers, or carpeting which could decrease the emissivity
of the surface. The addition of coatings and coverings not
only may reduce the emissivity of the thermal storage ele-
ment but will usually decrease the thermal conductivity
thus decreasing the surface temperatures and the amount
of surface radiant heat available.
If the value of emissivity, the surface temperature of
the thermal storage element, and the surface temperature
of the interior materials being radiated to are known, the
amount of radiant thermal energy emitted may be approxi-
mated. The approximate amount of thermal radiation
emitted per square foot of thermal storage surface area
may be calculated using Equation 10:
qr = [0.174 X ε X [T r4 - Tc4]] / 10 8 (10)
where:
qr = Radiation, in Btu/hr/ft 2
ε = Emissivity.
Tr = Temperature of the radiant surface measured
from absolute zero, degrees Fahrenheit plus
459.6.
Tc = Temperature of the receiving surface measured
from absolute zero, degrees Fahrenheit plus
459.6. For most applications in passive solar
energy systems, the value of Tc is usually interi
or design temperature in ˙F plus 459.6,
typically 72˙F + 459.6 or 531.6.
Consider an average surface temperature of a radiat-
ing surface at 83˙F and an interior design temperature of
72˙F. Measuring these temperatures from absolute zero
would result in Tr = 83 + 459.6 or 542.6 and Tc = 72 +
459.6 or 531.6. The radiation from a dark brown brick
to be:
4 4 8
qr = [0.174 X 0.93 X [(542.6) - (531.6) ]] / 10
10 8
qr = [0.168 X (8.668 X 10 )] / 10
9 8
qr = (1.103 X 10 ) / 10
qr = 11.03 Btu/hr/ft2
 Absorptivity. The solar absorptivity of a material is
mostly dependent on color. The solar absorptivity is the
ratio between how much solar radiation is absorbed by a
material to that absorbed by a standard black surface.
Typically, passive solar thermal storage components (or
any finish applied to such components) should be as dark
a color as possible to provide sufficient energy absorption.
However, trade-offs do exist between color, wall thickness
and the amount of surface area exposed to sunlight.
Trade-offs also exist between darkness of color and how
much heat is desired and when the available heat is want-
ed. These trade-offs can only be adequately determined
by rigorous analysis and are not recommended for use
with rule-of-thumb approaches. Surfaces (such as frame
walls) not being used for storage should be painted light
colors in order to reflect as much energy as possible to
the darker storage material. Although black is the most
desirable storage material color from a thermal point of
view, it has been determined that the darker natural brick
colors (browns, blues and reds) will perform almost as
effectively, without deterioration problems which may
result when using paint or other coverings. Typical values
for solar absorptivity of brick are given in Table 2. Brick
with glossy glazed ceramic coatings should be avoided as
they will reflect too great a percentage of the solar radia-
tion striking them. Several brick manufacturers can sup-
ply brick with dull black ceramic glazed faces, which may
increase the solar radiation absorbed.
Although it would seem at first glance that rough-tex-
tured brick, by providing more surface area for the collec-
tion of energy, would be more effective than smooth brick
as an energy storage media, but it has been determined
that this is not the case. It appears that brick texture does
not have a major impact on the performance of passive
solar installations and that any desired texture can be
used without significant loss or gain in effectiveness.
GLAZING MATERIALS
General
Information regarding the transmittance, reflectance,
absorptance, thermal performance and durability of glaz-
ing materials for passive solar energy systems should be
obtained from the glazing manufacturer. Some general
suggestions to assist in the design and selection of glaz-
ing materials for passive solar energy systems applica-
tions are discussed.
TABLE 2
Absorptivity of Brick
Range Average
Dull Black Ceramic Glaze 0.85 to 0.98 0.92
Flashed (Blue) 0.86 to 0.92 0.89
Dark Brown 0.79 to 0.85 0.82
Red 0.65 to 0.80 0.73
Yellow or Buff 0.50 to 0.70 0.60
White or Cream 0.30 to 0.50 0.40
6
Transmittance
The glazing material used should have a high trans-
mittance, low absorptance and low reflectance of solar
radiation. The high transmittance is important so that the
maximum amount of solar energy may be transmitted to
the interior of the passive solar building where it can be
absorbed and stored in the interior brick masonry.
Generally, the higher the transmittance the lower the
absorptance and reflectance. When the glazing is desired
to provide specific daylighting requirements, it may be
preferred to use a glazing material which diffuses the
direct solar radiation.
Absorptance
Depending on the glazing material and the frame
assembly, absorptance should be a factor in selecting the
glazing material or a proper framing assembly. The high-
er the absorptance, the lower the amount of energy trans-
mitted to the interior. Typically, the absorptance of most
glazing materials is low. The amount of solar absorptance
may be important because of thermal stress that may
occur within the glazing material itself or between the
glazing material and framing assembly. The framing
assembly should be such that it allows for thermal expan-
sion of the glazing material being used to avoid structural
failure of the collector component.
Reflectance
The reflectance of the glazing material should be kept
to a minimum, so that the maximum amount of solar radi-
ation may be transmitted to the interior. In addition to the
consideration of reflectance, as related to transmittance
and maximum solar performance, reflectance might also
require consideration of exterior glare which may be
annoying or even hazardous because of impairing vision.
Thermal Conductivity
Typical values for overall coefficient of heat transmission
of glass are given in Table 3. Table 3 also provides solar
transmittance correction factors for glass. The solar transmit-
tance correction factors are based on double glass having a
solar transmittance value of 1. Information regarding plastics
or other glazing materials must be obtained from the material
manufacturer.
The basic material properties for single, double and triple
glass given in Table 3 may be used as a means of selecting
the appropriate glazing material by considering the trade-offs
between the transmittance and U value. Single glass has
about a 21% increase in transmittance and 124% increase in
heat loss, over double glass, and thus should only be used in
lieu of double glass when night insulation is used. However,
triple glass has approximately an 18% reduction in transmit-
tance and a 37% reduction in heat loss over double glass and
may be used in lieu of double glass with night insulation, to
increase economic feasibility at only a slight reduction in over-
all performance. When considering such trade-offs it is
extremely important to consider the specific environmental
factors at the site. Triple glass in lieu of double glass may be
excellent in areas of high solar radiation and cold exterior
temperatures, but not effective in areas of low solar radiation
 TABLE 3
a
Material Properties of Glass

Material U Value Transmittance REFERENCES

R Value
(SolarRadiation)
Correction Factor
Single Glass 1.10 0.91 1.212
Double Glass 0.49 2.04 1.000
Triple Glass 0.31 3.22
0.825
a
Values may vary with material, see manufacturers recommendations.
and moderate exterior temperatures. The effectiveness
should be determined by steady-state heat loss calculations
and passive solar performance analysis.
Durability
The durability of the glazing material must be such
that it resists failure due to thermal stresses and that it
does not degrade or discolor when exposed to solar radi-
ation for extended periods of time. Of course these con-
siderations will vary with economics. If a material
degrades frequently but is inexpensive to replace, it may
be more economical than a more expensive, more
durable glazing material. Additional considerations in
selection of a glazing material may be resistance to
impact, and ease of replacement due to breakage.
No matter what glazing material is selected, the
designer should be assured it will maintain an expected
condition that is not detrimental to the performance of the
passive solar energy system for its intended period of
use. Materials that discolor or degrade rapidly and have
significant reduction of solar radiation transmittance
should not be used.
METRIC CONVERSION
Because of the possible confusion inherent in show-
ing dual unit systems in the calculations, the metric (Sl)
units are not given in the examples. Table 13 in Technical
Notes 4 provides metric (Sl) conversion factors for the
more commonly used heat transmission units.
SUMMARY
This Technical Notes provides information on the
component materials for passive solar energy system
applications. This offers a designer or owner sufficient
information regarding the material properties of brick to
assist in the design and use of brick masonry in passive
solar applications. Consideration of the properties of brick
masonry could result in a thermal storage media that is an
aesthetic, durable, maintenance free, fire resistant struc-
tural component of a building that provides sound trans-
mission reduction. In addition, sufficient values of the
material properties of brick masonry are provided for pas-
sive solar energy system analysis techniques, manual or
computer calculations. The decision to use the informa-
tion and concepts presented in this Technical Notes is not
within the purview of the Brick Institute of America, and must
rest with the designer or owner of any specific project.
1. ASHRAE Handbook and Product Directory, 1977,
Fundamentals Volume, American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc., 345
East 47th Street, New York City, New York 10017.
2. Brick Masonry for Thermal Storage by Stephen S.
Szoke, a paper presented at "Passive Solar Building
Construction Program," 21-22 November 1980, Madison,
Wisconsin.
3. Brick Walls for Passive Solar Use by G. C.
Robinson, C. C. Fain, Stephen M. Jansen and Paul
Harshman, February 1980, Clemson University, South
Carolina.
4. Chemical Engineers’ Handbook prepared by a
staff of Specialists, John H. Perry, Ph.D., Editor, Third
Edition, 1950, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New
York, Toronto, and London.
5. The Chemistry and Physics of Clays and Other
Ceramic Materials, by Alfred B. Searle and Rex W.
Grimshaw, Third Edition, 1959, Ernest Benn Limited,
London, England.
6. Heating and Ventilating’s Engineering Handbook
by Clifford Strock, First Edition, 1948, The Industrial
Press, New York City, New York.
7. Proceedings of the Solar Glazing 1979 Topical
Conference 22-23 June 1979 Stockton State College,
Pomona, New Jersey, Sponsored by the Mid-Atlantic
Solar Energy Association.
8. Properties of Engineering Materials by Glenn
Murphy, C.E., Ph.D., Second Edition, 1952, International
Textbook Company, Scranton, Pennsylvania.
9. Smithsonian Physical Tables by William Elmer
Forsythe, Ninth Edition, 1956, Smithsonian Institute,
Washington, D.C.
10. Thermal Environmental Engineering by James L.
Threlkeld, Second Edition, 1970, Prentice-Hall Inc..
Englewood Cliffs. New Jersey.

7
 Technical Notes 43G

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
Reissued*
September
1986

BRICK PASSIVE SOLAR HEATING SYSTEMS

PART VII --- DETAILS AND CONSTRUCTION
Abstract: Details and construction of brick masonry for passive solar energy system applications vary only
slightly from conventional residential and commercial brick masonry construction. Typical construction details
are provided for direct gain and thermal storage wall systems. These details, with slight modifications, are also
applicable for attached sunspaces. Construction variations from conventional construction and considerations
for compliance with the major model building codes are also discussed.
Key Words: attached sunspaces, bricks, building code requirements, details, direct gain systems, energy,
masonry, passive solar energy systems , thermal storage wall systems.

intersections so that the brick masonry bears on the foun-

INTRODUCTION
Brick masonry construction and recommended details
for passive solar energy systems are similar to conven-
tional residential and commercial brick masonry construc-
tion and details. The general concepts of direct gain sys-
tems, attached sunspaces and thermal storage wall sys-
tems are discussed in Technical Notes 43. Empirical siz-
ing, rational approaches for determining the thickness of
brick masonry as a storage medium, material properties
and performance calculations are discussed in other
Technical Notes in this series. In these passive solar
applications, brick masonry may be used as a storage
medium and structural component of the building. Brick
masonry also offers the capability for esthetic designs, fire
resistance and sound transmission reduction.
These recommended details are presented in an
effort to show as many applications of brick masonry in
passive solar heating systems as possible and are not
offered as typical combinations of details. The details
may be slightly varied and different combinations of the
details may be used to satisfy the requirements of any
specific passive solar heated building design.
DIRECT GAIN
General
Details for brick masonry floors and walls used for
thermal storage in direct gain systems are provided in
Figs. 1 through 3. Each of these figures shows a typical
connection detail for the ground floor, interim floors and
roof.
Exterior Loadbearing Walls
Exterior loadbearing brick masonry walls may be con-
structed as insulated cavity walls to provide an interior
brick masonry wythe for thermal storage and an exterior
brick masonry wythe for durability, as shown in Fig. 1.
The brick masonry should be continuous through all floor
dation or foundation wall, provides adequate support and
complies with building code fire safety requirements.
Where wood joists frame into brick masonry wall construc-
tion, the wood joists should be fire cut.
The design should consider the local code require-
ments for minimum bearing. A thicker interior wythe may
be required for bearing or special provisions incorporated
into the detail so that both the exterior and interior wythes
may be used for bearing. Bearing on both wythes should
only be used when other alternatives are not practical,
since there may be difficulty in properly constructing and
detailing such a connection without interfering with the
performance of the cavity wall. Additional information on
the design, detailing, construction and insulating of cavity
wall construction is provided in Technical Notes 21 Series.
Providing clerestories with the appropriate pitched
roof in conjunction with a cathedral type ceiling and
exposed beams or trusswork may allow even the North
wall to be exposed to sunlight and used for thermal stor-
age. This type of detailing may require consideration of
exposed trusses in the roof/ceiling component. The truss-
es or other means of eliminating the thrust at the top of
the cavity wall is necessary because the building codes
do not allow lateral thrust on cavity wall construction.
When considering the use of trusses or other members to
relieve a cavity wall of this thrust, the spacing of the truss-
es or other members should be such that the interior of
the wall is subjected to only minimal shading if it is to be
used as thermal storage for direct gain.
When considering the use of insulated cavity walls,
the exterior wythe of brick masonry is thermally isolated
from the rest of the wall system. Thus, the exterior wythe
of the cavity wall is usually subjected to greater tempera-
ture fluctuations than the interior wythe used for thermal
storage. For cavity wall construction, both the interior and
exterior wythes may require expansion joints for thermal
movement.

*Originally published in Mar/Apr 1981, this Technical Notes has been reviewed and reissued.
Exterior Non-Loadbearing Walls
Cavity wall construction may also be used for exterior
non-loadbearing walls. East or West-facing walls may be
positioned in the structure so that they are exposed to
morning or afternoon sunlight for direct gain storage.
Typically, passive solar buildings require a large amount
of additional interior mass which may be unexposed to
direct sunlight. This mass provides supplementary ther-
mal storage, resulting in a thermal flywheel for reduced
interior temperature fluctuations. The interior wythe of the
cavity wall may be considered when determining the
amount of additional mass.
Interior Loadbearing Walls
Typical details for interior loadbearing brick masonry
walls are shown in Fig. 2. These details are similar to
conventional loadbearing construction. Wood floor joists
bearing on the brick should be fire cut.
A roof construction detail is provided, offering the
option to use a skylight to expose the brick masonry load-
bearing wall to sunlight. The interior brick masonry wall
may be exposed to direct sunlight through South-facing
windows and doors, or a clerestory may be used, depend-
ing on the distance from the South-facing wall.
The use of interior loadbearing brick masonry con-
struction does not require any special consideration over
and above conventional construction. The only exception
is that provisions for thermal expansion may be required.
Interior Non-Loadbearing Walls
Interior non-loadbearing brick wall construction is
quite similar to conventional brick veneer construction.
The brick veneer should be constructed as shown in Fig.
3. The brick masonry should be continuous through all
floor intersections so that all the brick masonry bears on
the foundation or foundation wall and complies with build-
ing code fire safety requirements. Additional information
on brick veneer construction is provided in Technical
Notes 28 Series.
The requirements in Technical Notes 28 Series apply
to interior brick veneer construction, except that the
requirements for the effect of weathering may be disre-
garded. The backup material; wood frame, metal stud,
etc., should be constructed as in conventional construc-
tion.
If the interior brick veneer is constructed with wood
frame or metal studs without sheathing between the back-
up and the brick veneer, the 1-in. airspace between the
brick and the backup, as recommended in Technical
Notes 28 Series, may be eliminated. If the brick veneer is
constructed with a framing system that requires sheathing
on the side to be veneered, it is recommended that a 1-in.
airspace be maintained. This provides ''finger room" to
facilitate the laying of the brick. The use of the sheathing
on the side of the backup material which is to be
veneered may be required to provide the appropriate
structural rigidity of the backup system. This sheathing
may also be used to increase the fire resistance and
sound transmission classification of the wall.
2
Interior Flooring
Typical details for brick flooring are provided in Figs. 1
through 6. The interim floor details show mortarless
paving, and the ground floor details show brick masonry
set in a mortar bed. These details are interchangeable.
The interim floor detail shown in Fig. 3 is a typical detail
for mortarless brick paving in a sand bed. The difference
in thermal performance of mortarless paving as compared
to paving units set in a mortar bed is insignificant. There
may be a slight reduction in heat transfer from unit to unit,
but this will typically have a negligible effect on overall
thermal performance of the floor system being used as
direct gain thermal storage. Paving units are used as the
flooring in the thermal storage wall details, Figs. 4 through
6. These paving units in combination with glazing incor-
porated into the thermal storage wall for daylighting and
visual contact with the exterior may be used to form a
direct gain system. The brick flooring may also be used
to achieve the additional interior mass required by many
passive solar heated buildings.
A soft joint should be installed around the perimeter of
the brick paving, mortarless or set in a mortar bed, to pro-
vide relief of the stresses due to thermal movement,
deflection and differential movement between the brick
flooring and adjacent construction. Additional soft joints
may be required for thermal expansion.
Supporting brick masonry paving on floor systems
requires sufficient stiffness of the system to adequately
support the additional weight in such a manner as to sat-
isfy the minimum deflection requirements of the brick
paving. For mortarless brick paving, the maximum deflec-
tion should be less than or equal to L/360. For brick
paving set in a mortar bed, the maximum deflection
should be less than or equal to L/600. For wood floor
systems supporting brick flooring, the sizing and spacing
of the floor joists should be adequate to support the addi-
tional weight, satisfy the floor joist structural requirements
and the deflection requirements of the brick flooring.
The floor connection details shown in Figs. 2 and 3
should be such that the top surface of the brick flooring is
level with other floor finishes. If this is not desirable, or
possible, the appropriate riser distance between the sur-
faces of the different floor finishes should be provided to
comply with the governing building code.
The use of brick paving is discussed in detail in
Technical Notes 14B. The brick flooring may also be con-
structed by laying face brick in a rowlock position.
Another option is to use reinforced brick masonry floors,
as discussed in Technical Notes 14B.
THERMAL STORAGE WALLS
General
Figures 4 through 6 show the thermal storage wall
being used as a structural component of the building, sup-
porting various floor and roof systems. These combina-
tions are not typical, but are offered to demonstrate the
various alternatives available.
The thickness required for thermal storage walls is
usually sufficient for the wall to be used as a loadbearing
component of the building without any special considera-
3
tions. However, it may be necessary to check the struc-
tural adequacy of the wall.
The thermal storage wall may be several wythes of
solid brick, as shown in Fig. 4; solid through-the-wall
units; a grouted cavity wall system, as shown in Fig. 5; or
grouted hollow units or combinations of grouted hollow
units and solid units, as shown in Fig. 6.
Details
Details for solid brick thermal storage walls are shown
in Fig. 4. Corbeling the thermal storage wall to provide
support for the exterior glazing is one way to eliminate the
need for thick foundation walls. Brick masonry may be
laid as projected headers to provide a durable support for
attaching the glazing assembly to the wall. This elimi-
nates the use of combustible materials exposed to high
temperatures for extended periods of time. Projected
headers may provide a durable non-combustible, horizon-
tal separation between individual floors for multi-story
vented thermal storage wall systems. This may be used
to comply with the building code requirements regarding
the fire-stopping of plenums. Vertical separation to pro-
vide a means of closing the sides of the thermal storage
wall air space may also be achieved with projected head-
ers.
Depending upon the structural loads imposed on the
projected headers and to avoid exposing cores, corbeling
may be required, as shown in Fig. 4. The air space
between the glazing and the thermal storage wall should
be of a thickness that satisfies the building code require-
ments for unreinforced corbeling. If these limitations can-
not be met, an alternate means of support for the glazing
will be required.
TABLE 1
Vent Area Factor, Fv
Solar Savings Fraction, Vent Area Factor, Fv
SSF
a typically be used as the actual number of vents to be
0.25 or less
0.30
0.35
0.40
0.45
0.50
0.55
0.60
0.65
0.70
0.75 or more
a
Solar Savings Fraction as determined by using Method I of Technical Notes 43B.
Additional glazing is provided in each detail to show
that the thermal storage wall need not be a solid barrier
eliminating any view of the exterior or daylighting. This
glazing may be used as a direct gain collector with interior
brick masonry floors and walls as the thermal storage.
The air space between exterior glazing and the ther-
mal storage wall may be interrupted at various intervals
and the thermal storage wall made discontinuous, as
shown in Fig. 7. This may be used to incorporate direct
gain and thermal storage walls into a combined system.
Operable or stationary shading devices may be
attached to the structural framing of the glazing assem-
blies. The glazing assemblies should be sufficiently
anchored to the brick masonry to accommodate these
additional loads.
Vents
If the thermal storage wall is to be vented, each open-
ing through the thermal storage wall should be approxi-
mately 64 sq in. The length of the opening should be
about 4 times the height of the opening. The vents
should occur as sets, one at the top of the wall directly
over one at the bottom of the wall, to facilitate air flow.
The number of sets of vents may be approximated by
using Equation 1.
nv’ = Fv [(lw X h W) / (l v X h v)] (1)
where:
nv’ = approximate number of sets of vents.
Fv = vent area factor from Table 1.
lw = length of the vented thermal storage wall, in ft.
hw = height of the vented thermal storage wall, in ft.
Iv = length of the vent opening, in inches, approxi
mately 4 X hv
hv = height of the vent opening, in inches.
The actual number of sets of vents to be installed, nv,
should be a whole number. Performance tends to
decrease as the percentage of vent area to wall area
increases. The next lower whole number to nv’ should
installed, if nví is less than nv plus 0.70. If the value of nv'
2.16 is greater than or equal to nv plus 0.70, the next larger
1.87 whole number would typically be used as the number of
1.58 sets of vents to be installed.
1.30
Both the vertical and horizontal spacing of vents will
1.01 also affect performance. Top vents should be located as
0.72
close to the ceiling as possible and the bottom vents as
0.65
0.58 close to the floor as possible. The vertical distance
0.50 between top and bottom vents should be at least 6 ft for
0.43 full story height vented thermal storage walls.
0.36 The horizontal spacing of vents, sv, may be deter-
mined by using Equation 2.
sv = l w / n v (2)
Example. A 25-ft long vented thermal storage wall
system 8 ft high is expected to supply about 35% of a
building's heating load, SSF = 0.35. Vent openings are
formed by omitting one and one-half courses of standard
modular brick vertically and two standard modular brick
horizontally as shown in Fig. 7. Thus, the opening has a
4
5
 Locating Vents
FIG. 7
height of about 4 in. and a length of about 16 in. The
dimensions of the vent opening satisfy the criteria of the
length being approximately 4 times the height and the
area being approximately 64 sq in. If other size brick are
used, the courses and number of brick omitted to meet
the area and height-to-length requirements of the vent
opening will vary.
Using Equation 1, and Fv = 1.58 from Table 1 for a
solar savings fraction of 0.35, the approximate number of
vents would be:
nv' = 1.58 (25 X 8) / (16 X 4)
nv' = 4.94
Thus, nv is 5 sets of vents to be installed.
The horizontal spacing of vents may be approximated
by using Equation 2.
sv = 25/5 = 5 ft
The result is that the 25 ft long vented thermal stor-
age wall should have 5 sets of top and bottom vents,
each having an opening of approximately 64 sq in.,
spaced horizontally at 5 ft o.c.
ATTACHED SUNSPACES
The typical details for direct gain thermal storage and
thermal storage walls may be used for attached sun-
spaces with only modifications to the glazing details.
6
Depending on the type of attached sunspace, the thermal
storage components may be direct gain floors and walls
or direct gain floors and vented or unvented thermal stor-
age walls.
CONSTRUCTION
Solid brick masonry used as a thermal storage medi-
um, as in all brick masonry construction, requires that all
head, bed and collar joints be solidly filled with mortar.
Solid brick are units which are cored less than 25 percent
of the gross cross-sectional area parallel to the bedding
plane. In typical running bond or stack bond construction,
the brick should be shoved into full bed joints. This
results in sufficiently filled cores so that there is little or no
effect on the overall thermal performance of the wall.
When soldier courses or projected headers are being con-
sidered, uncored units may be preferred.
Hollow brick are brick units in which the coring is less
than 40 percent and greater than 25 percent of the gross
cross-sectional area in the bedding plane. Hollow brick
masonry used for thermal storage requires all head and
collar joints and bedding surfaces to be solidly filled with
mortar and all cores fully grouted. Projected headers and
corbels may best be achieved by combining solid brick
masonry with hollow brick masonry construction.
Grouted hollow walls are discussed in Technical
Notes 17, 17C and 17D. When considering the use of
grouted hollow walls, constructed of two wythes of brick
separated by a fully grouted space, the only control over
thickness will be requirements for adequate thermal stor-
age. Thus, grouted hollow brick masonry walls may be
advantageous when the thickness desired is not easily
achieved by using modular sizes of brick. As in all brick
masonry construction, the brick wythes should have all
head and bed joints solidly filled with mortar.
MISCELLANEOUS CONSIDERATIONS
Thermal Expansion
For most applications of brick masonry as interior
direct gain thermal storage, the temperatures within the
brick masonry will probably range from 72 to 96˚F. Thus,
thermal expansion will not normally be a problem except
where long interior walls or floors are used. Interior brick
masonry used for direct gain thermal storage occurring in
lengths longer than 100 ft or exposed to a higher maxi-
mum temperature should be analyzed for thermal expan-
sion. The thermal expansion of brick masonry is dis-
cussed in Technical Notes 18A.
Thermal storage walls may be subjected to larger
temperature fluctuations than direct gain thermal storage
components. Usually, the difference between the maxi-
mum temperature and minimum temperature at the center
of the thermal storage wall is small and no provision for
thermal expansion is necessary. Generally, thermal
expansion need only be considered for long or high ther-
mal storage walls or for walls exposed to extreme temper-
ature fluctuations.
The maximum mean temperature of brick thermal
storage walls may be determined by using the tempera-
ture fluctuation equation in Technical Notes 43. The mini-
mum mean temperature may be determined by using the
steady-state temperature gradient through the wall as dis-
cussed in Technical Notes 7C.
Flashing
Flashing brick masonry thermal storage components
is usually not required because the brick masonry is on
the interior of the building. Cavity walls will require flash-
ing as discussed and shown in Technical Notes 21B.
Flashing may be required for thermal storage wall sys-
tems, depending on the type of glazing assembly and how
it is mounted in front of the thermal storage wall.
Reinforced Brick Masonry
Reinforced brick masonry, as discussed in Technical
Notes 17 Series, may be required depending on the struc-
tural design loads. For thermal storage walls, this is easi-
ly accomplished by using reinforced grouted hollow brick
or reinforced hollow wall construction. Reinforced brick
masonry may be designed so that the wall will be able to
sustain lateral thrust.
Typically in reinforced brick masonry construction, the
reinforcement is both horizontal and vertical, placed as
near to the center of the wall as practical. This, in combi-
nation with the minimum required spacing to sufficiently
reinforce a brick masonry wall does not result in any sig-
nificant decrease in the wall's thermal performance due to
thermal bridges.
7
Lintels and Sills
The thermal storage wall details provide several
options for constructing lintels and sills. Additional infor-
mation on lintels is provided in Technical Notes 17H and
31B. Information regarding the construction of brick
masonry arches is provided in Technical Notes 31 Series.
Brick masonry sill details are provided in Technical Notes
36 Series, however, most sills for thermal storage walls do
not require a sloped top surface or a drip since they are
not exposed to exterior weather.
Fireplaces
Interior fireplaces may be used to obtain additional
mass to decrease the interior temperature fluctuations.
Brick masonry fireplaces may be incorporated in the ther-
mal storage component in any of these passive solar
heating systems. A fireplace may be used for direct gain
storage or may be constructed in a thermal storage wall.
The design and construction of fireplaces is discussed in
Technical Notes 19 Series.
Glazing
It is desirable that the glazing component of these
passive solar energy systems be operable to facilitate
cleaning, exhausting excess heat, providing a means of
egress or a combination of these. The glazing may be
sliding glass doors, awning type windows, hinged glass
doors or other options. Hinged doors installed vertically
or horizontally may greatly facilitate the cleaning of vented
or unvented thermal storage wall collectors.
Depending upon building classification, building codes
may require a 3-ft vertical separation between openings
located vertically one above the other. This is not typically
a requirement for residential buildings, or any building
under 3 stories in height.
METRIC CONVERSION
Because of the possible confusion inherent in show-
ing dual unit systems in the calculations, the metric (SI)
units are not given in this Technical Notes. Table 13 in
Technical Notes 4 provides metric (SI) conversion factors
friar the more commonly used units.
SUMMARY
This Technical Notes provides information on the con-
struction and detailing of brick masonry thermal storage
components for passive solar energy systems. The infor-
mation, recommendations and details contained in this
Technical Notes are based on the available data and
experience of the Institute's technical staff. They should
be recognized as suggestions and recommendations for
the consideration of the designers and owners of build-
ings when using brick in passive solar energy applica-
tions.
All of the possible variations cannot be covered in a
single Technical Notes. However, it is believed that the
information is presented in a form such that specific
details are interchangeable. The final decision for details
to be used is not within the purview of the Brick Institute
of America, and must rest with the project designer, owner
or both.
REFERENCES
1. Passive Solar Design Handbook, Volume Two of
Two Volumes: Passive Solar Design Analysis,
January 1980, prepared by Los Alamos Scientific
Laboratory, University of California, J. Douglas
Balcomb, Dennis Barley, Robert McFarland, Joseph
Perry, Jr., William Wray and Scott Noll, prepared for
the U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Solar
Applications, Passive and Hybrid Solar Buildings
Program, Washington, D.C.

8
 Technical Notes 44

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
April
1986

ANCHOR BOLTS FOR BRICK MASONRY

Abstract: Anchor bolts are used extensively in brick masonry to make structural attachments and
connections. To date, a limited amount of information has been available to aid designers in the
selection and design of anchor bolts in brick masonry. This Technical Notes addresses the types
of anchor bolts available, detailing of anchor bolt placement and suggested design procedures. A
discussion of current and proposed codes and standards is also presented.

Key Words: anchors, bolts, conventional anchors (bent bar, plate, sleeve, wedge), edge dis-
tance, headed bolts, loads, proprietary anchors (adhesive, expansion), shear, tension, through
bolts.

INTRODUCTION in masonry construction and add new concerns in the

Anchor bolts are used in masonry construction with area of anchor bolt design.
few or no guidelines for the practicing designer to follow.
This Technical Notes offers basic information covering 1) Conventional Anchor Bolts
the types of anchor bolts available for structural applica- Conventional bolts are usually made to the specific
tions in brick masonry, 2) typical details of proper anchor project requirements by steel fabricators or they may be
bolt installation, 3) suggested allowable anchor bolt purchased in standard sizes (diameters and lengths) from
design loads and 4) the current and proposed codes and steel suppliers. The availability and cost of conventional
standards governing anchor bolts in brick masonry con- bolts are generally based on demand and fabrication
struction. requirements. The types of conventional anchor bolts
In new masonry construction, anchor bolts are com- most often used are discussed below.
monly embedded in walls and columns to support beams,
plates and ledgers. In prefabricated panel construction,
anchor bolts are used to facilitate connections to the
structural frame. Renovation and rehabilitation of existing
masonry structures usually require that anchor bolts be
used to attach stair risers, elevator tracks and various
frame assemblages for equipment installation. This is
only a fraction of the possible uses of anchor bolts in
masonry construction and with the increase of new, innov-
ative architectural masonry designs, the uses of anchor
bolts in masonry construction are likely to increase.
This Technical Notes is the first in a series on mason-
ry anchors, fasteners and ties, and addresses anchor
bolts for brick masonry. Other Technical Notes in this
series will address brick masonry fasteners and ties.

ANCHOR BOLT TYPES A)HEX-HEAD B) SQUARE HEAD

Anchor bolts can be divided into two major groups:
conventional (unpatented) anchors and proprietary
(patented) anchors. Conventional anchor bolts are usual-
ly embedded in the masonry during construction and
require careful attention to bolt location and grip length
requirements to avoid problems with connection alignment
and erection. Proprietary anchors, however, are typically
installed after completion of construction and therefore,
permit a larger degree of freedom in anchor placement.
For this reason, proprietary anchors are becoming popular
Headed Bolts
FIG. 1
Headed Bolts. Square or hex-headed ASTM A 307
bolts are frequently used as anchor bolts due to their wide
availability and relatively low cost (see Figure 1). Higher
strength bolts, such as ASTM A 325 bolts, are available
and can be used, but are more expensive. A washer
placed against the bolt head is often used with the inten-
tion of increasing the bearing area and thus increasing the
anchor strength. However, the actual strength increase
obtained by adding a washer is small, if any, and under
certain conditions (small edge distances), may actually
decrease the tensile strength.

Bent Bar Anchors. Bent bar anchors, frequently

used in masonry construction, are usually made in "J" or
"L" shapes (see Fig. 2). Even though the "J" and "L"
shapes are the more popular, a variety of shapes (see
Fig. 3) is available since there currently is no standard
governing the geometric properties of bent bar anchors.
These anchors are usually made from ASTM A 36 bar
stock and are shop-threaded.

Plate Anchors. Plate anchors are usually made by

welding a square of circular steel plate perpendicular to
the axis of a steel bar that is threaded on the opposite
end (see Fig. 4). There are no standards governing the
dimensions (length, width or diameter) of the plate. The
American Institute of Steel Construction does limit the fil-
let weld size based on the plate thickness (see Table 1).
Both the plate and bar are usually made from ASTM A 36
steel.

Through Bolts. As the name implies, through bolts

Other Bent Bar Anchors
extend completely through the thickness of the masonry and FIG. 3
are composed of a threaded rod or bar with a bearing plate
located on the surface opposite the attachment (see Fig. 5).
In the early 1900's, through bolts were used in loadbearing
masonry structures to tie floor and wall systems together.
Often decorative cast bearing plates were used since
through bolts were visible on the exterior masonry surfaces
(see Fig. 6). Today, through bolts are primarily used in
industrial construction where aesthetics are not a principal
concern, or in retrofitting existing structures. Through bolt
rods are usually made from ASTM A 307 threaded rod or
threaded ASTM A36 bar stock. Bearing plates are typically
made from ASTM A 36 steel plate.

Plate Anchors
FIG. 4

“L” and “J” Bent Bar Anchors

FIG. 2 Through Bolt
FIG. 5
2
 requires a solid base material to develop its full capacity.
TABLE 1 For this reason, voids formed by brick cores and partially
AISC* Fillet Weld Size Requirements filled mortar joints in some brick masonry may make the
construction unsuitable for wedge anchor installation.
Minimum Size
Material Thickness of Minimum Leg
Thicker Part Joined Dimensions

In. In.
To 1/4 Inclusive 1/8
Over 1/4 to 1/2 3/16
Over 1/2 to 3/4 1/4
Over 3/4 5/16

Maximum Size
1. Along edges of material less than 1/4 in. thick, not
greater than the thickness of the material.
2. Along the edges of material 1/4 in. or more in thickness,
Proprietary Expansion Anchors
not greater than the thickness of the material minus 1/16
FIG. 7
in., unless the weld is especially designated on the
drawing to be built out to obtain full throat thickness.
Sleeve anchors develop their strength by the expan-
*American Institute of Steel Construction sion of a cylindrical metal sleeve or shield into the base
material as the bolt is tightened. The expansion of the
sleeve along the length of the anchor provides a larger
bearing surface than the wedge anchor, and is less affect-
ed by irregularities and voids in the base material than is
the wedge anchor. For this reason, sleeve anchors are
recommended by their manufacturers for use in brick
masonry more often than wedge anchors.
Drop-in and self-drilling anchors (see Fig. 8) are two
other types of expansion anchors available, but are typi-
cally not recommended by their manufacturers for use in
masonry. The reason for this is due to the embedment
and setting characteristics of the two anchors. Both
anchors are produced to allow shallow embedment
depths and are expanded or set by an impact setting tool.
The combination of shallow embedment and high stresses
imparted by the expansion tend to cause cracking or split-
Decorative Through Bolt Bearing Plate ting in masonry. Depending on the extent of cracking or
FIG. 6 splitting, the anchor could experience a reduction in load-
carrying capacity or undergo complete failure during
Proprietary Anchor Bolts installation.
Proprietary anchors are available through a number of
manufacturers under numerous brand names. Although
the style and physical appearance of the anchors differ
between manufacturers, the basic theories behind the
anchors are very similar. For this reason, proprietary
anchors can be divided into two generic categories:
expansion-type anchors and adhesive or chemical-type
anchors.
Expansion Anchors. Two different types of expan-
sion anchors are generally recommended by their manu-
facturers for use in brick masonry: the wedge anchor and
the sleeve anchor (see Fig. 7). These anchors develop
their strength by means of expansion into the base mater-
ial. Wedge anchors develop their hold by means of a
wedge or wedges that are forced into the base material Other Proprietary Expansion Anchors
when the bolt is tightened. The wedges create large point FIG. 8
bearing stresses within the hole; therefore, this anchor
3
 There are several considerations that should be
examined when contemplating the use of expansion-type
anchors in brick masonry. These are: 1) Expansion
anchors should not be used to resist vibratory loads.
Vibratory loads tend to loosen expansion anchors. 2)
Specific torques are required to set expansion anchors.
Excessive torque can reduce anchor strength or may lead
to failure as excessive torque is applied. 3) Expansion
anchors require solid, hard embedment material to devel-
op their maximum capacities. Some brick construction
may not provide a good embedment material due to voids
formed by brick cores and partially filled mortar joints.
Adhesive Anchors. Two basic types of adhesive
anchors are currently available. The major difference
between the two is that one anchor is manufactured as a
pre-mixed, self-contained system, whereas the second
type requires measurement and mixing of the epoxy
materials at the time of installation. The more popular
self-contained types use a double glass vial system (see
Fig. 9) to contain the epoxy. The outer vial contains a
resin and the inner vial contains a hardener and aggre-
gate. The glass vial is placed in a pre-drilled hole and a Site-Mixed Adhesive Anchor
threaded rod or bar is driven into the hole with a rotary FIG. 10
hammer drill, breaking the vials and mixing the adhesive
components. The other type of adhesive anchor requires TABLE 2
that the epoxy components be hand-measured and mixed Some Chemicals That May Affect
before the epoxy is placed into a pre-drilled hole. A Adhesive Anchor Epoxies a
threaded rod or bar is then set into the epoxy mixture, as
shown in Fig. 10. Adhesive epoxies usually vary slightly Acetic Acid Hydrogen Peroxide
between manufacturers, but the steel rods or bars are typ- Acetone Lactic Acid
ically ASTM A 307 or ASTM A 325 threaded rod, or ASTM Ammonia Machine Oil
Calcium Chloride Solution Methanol
A 36 shop-threaded bar. Carbon Tetrachloride Nitric Acid
Caustic Soda Phenol Solution
Citric Acid Phosphoric Acid
Diesel Oil Saline Solution
Ethyl Alcohol Sea Water
Formaline Soda Solution
Formic Acid Sodium Hypochloride
Hydrochloric Acid Sulphuric Acid

*The manufacturer should always be consulted when adhesive anchors

are to be used in areas where contact with chemicals is likely.

Self-Contained Adhesive Anchor

FIG. 9
There are special requirements and limitations. that
should be considered when contemplating the use of
adhesive anchors in brick masonry. They are: 1)
Specially designed mixing and/or setting equipment may
be required. 2) Dust and debris must be removed from
the pre-drilled holes to insure proper bond between the
adhesive and base material. 3) The adhesive mixture
tends to fill small voids and irregularities in the base mate-
rial. 4) Large voids (due to brick cores, intentional air
spaces and partially filled joints) may cause reductions in Effect of Temperature on Ultimate Tensile Capacity
anchor capacities. This is especially true with the self- FIG. 11
4
contained adhesive anchors since a limited volume of
epoxy is available to fill the voids and provide a bond to
the anchor. 5) The adhesive bond strength is reduced at
elevated temperatures and may also be adversely affect-
ed by some chemicals (see Table 2 and Fig. 11).
INSTALLATION DETAILS
Conventional Anchor Bolts
Typical embedment details for each type of conven-
tional anchor used in grouted collar joint construction are
shown in Fig. 12. The conventional embedded anchors
(headed bolts, bent bar and plate anchors) are usually
placed at the intersection of a head joint and bed joint.
By using this location, the brick units adjacent to the
anchor can be chipped or cut to accept the anchor without
altering the joint thickness.
Conventional Anchors in Grouted Collar Joints
FIG. 12
Conventional Anchors in Multi-Wythe Brick Masonry
FIG. 13
5
Typical embedment details of conventional anchors in
multi-wythe brick construction are shown in Fig. 13. A
brick, or portion of a brick, is left out of the inner wythe to
form a cell for the embedded anchor (Fig. 14). After the
anchor is placed, the cell is filled with mortar or grout prior
to placement of the next course.
In hollow brick construction, the units are laid so that the
cells are aligned and provide continuous channels for rein-
forcing steel placement and for grouting. Depending on the
design, every cell or intermittent cells may be reinforced and
grouted (see Technical Notes 41 Revised). The anchor
embedment detail will depend on the reinforcing pattern
used in the construction. Figure 15 shows typical embed-
ment details for conventional anchors embedded between
reinforcing cells. The anchor should be solidly surrounded
vertically and horizontally by grout for a minimum distance
of twice the embedment depth (1b) (Figs. 14 and 15) for full
tension cone development. The tension cone theory is dis-
cussed in following sections. This may require that some
cells be partially grouted. A wire mesh screen can be
placed in the bed joint across cells that are to be partially
grouted to restrict the grout flow beyond a certain point.
Figure 16 shows typical embedment details for conventional
anchors embedded in reinforced cells. In this detail, the
anchor may be tied with wire to the reinforcing to secure the
anchor during the grouting process. Again, the anchor
should be solidly surrounded by grout to a minimum dis-
tance of twice the actual anchor embedment depth, both
vertically and horizontally.
Plan View of Grout Cell in Multi-Wythe Brick Masonry
FIG. 14
Two typical embedment details for conventionally
embedded anchor bolts installed in composite brick and
concrete block construction are shown in Fig. 17. As
shown, anchor bolts may be placed in the collar joint
between the brick and block wythes or placed into cells in
the concrete block wythe and grouted into place. In
details similar to Fig. 17(a), the anchor bolt type and
diameter may be controlled by the width of the collar joint.
Collar joints should be a minimum of 1 in. (25 mm) wide
when fine grout is used, or a minimum of 2 in. (50 mm)
wide when coarse grout is used (see Technical Notes 7A
Revised). When the collar joint dimension is in the 1 in.
(25 mm) range, it may become difficult to position anchor
bolts in the collar joint and maintain the recommended
 Conventional Anchors in Reinforced Hollow Brick
FIG. 15

Conventional Anchors in Partially Grouted Hollow Brick

FIG. 16

6

Conventional Anchors in Composite Brick/Block Masonry
FIG. 17
clear distance between the masonry and the anchor (Fig.
17). The practice of using soaps to accommodate
anchors larger than the collar joint is not recommended
because the reduction in the brick masonry thickness
around the anchor could lead to strength reductions. If
the anchor dimensions required are larger than the collar
joint, a detail similar to that shown in Fig. 17(b) should be con-
sidered.
Through bolts are typically installed after construction and
grouting by drilling through the completed masonry work.
When through bolts are to be installed after construction in
reinforced brick masonry, care should be taken during installa-
tion to avoid cutting or damaging reinforcement while drilling
the through bolt holes. Reinforcing bar locations can be iden-
tified by specially tooled joints or other marks made during
construction.
Proprietary Anchors
Proprietary expansion and adhesive anchors typically
require special installation procedures and equipment. The
manufacturer should be contacted to determine the appropri-
ate anchor for a particular application, the correct installation
procedure and if any special installation equipment is required.
Improper application and installation of proprietary anchors
may lead to less than satisfactory structural performance.
Typical proprietary anchor details are shown in Fig. 18. It
is suggested that proprietary anchors be embedded in head
joints when facing or building brick are used. This reduces
the possibility of placing anchors in brick cores that occur
within the thickness of the brick and adjacent to the bed
joint surfaces. Anchors set in grouted hollow brick should
be placed in holes drilled in the bed joints so that they
7
intersect grouted cells, or should be placed in holes drilled
through the faces of the units into the grouted cells. As
with conventional anchors, proprietary anchors should be
solidly surrounded vertically and horizontally by grout for a
minimum distance of twice their embedment depth.
ANCHOR BOLT DESIGN
Anchor bolts are used as a means of tying structural
elements together in construction and therefore, provide
continuity in the overall structure. In virtually all applications,
anchor bolts are required to resist a combination of tension
and shear loads acting simultaneously due to combinations
of imposed dead loads, live loads, wind loads, seismic
loads, thermal loads and impact loads. For this reason, and
also to insure safety, anchor bolt details should receive the
same design considerations as would any other structural
connection. However, due to a lack of available research
and design guides, anchor bolt designs are based largely on
past experience with very little engineering backup. This sit-
uation may lead to conservative, uneconomical designs at
one extreme, or nonconservative designs at the other.
Recently, however, research investigating the strength of
conventional and proprietary anchors in masonry has been
completed. Reports have been issued that evaluate anchor
performance and suggest equations to predict ultimate
anchor strengths. By combining the research findings with
design practices currently used in concrete design, equations
for allowable tension, shear and combined tension/shear
loads for plate anchors, headed bolts and bent bar anchors
are under consideration for adoption in the proposed "Building
Code Requirements for Masonry Structures" (ACI/ASCE
530). These equations are outlined below.
Tension
The tensile capacity of an anchor is governed either
by the strength of the masonry or by the strength of the
anchor material. For example, if the embedded depth of an
anchor is small relative to its diameter, a tension cone failure
of the masonry is likely to occur. However, if the embedded
depth of the anchor is large relative to its diameter, failure of
the anchor material is likely. For these reasons, the allow-
able tensile load is based on the smaller of the two loads
calculated for the masonry and anchor material. Thus, the
allowable load in tension is the lesser of:
TA = 1/2 AP √ f’m (Eq. 1)
or
TA = 0.2 AB fy (Eq. 2)
where:
TA = Allowable tensile load, lb,
Ap = Projected area of the masonry tension cone, in.2,
f'm = Masonry prism compression strength (In
composite construction, when the masonry
cone intersects different materials, f’m should
be based on the weaker material), psi,
2
AB = Anchor gross cross-sectional area, in. ,
 Typical Proprietary Anchor Details
FIG. 18
fy = Anchor steel yield strength, psi.
The value of Ap in Eq. 1 is the area of a circle formed
by a failure surface (masonry cone) assumed to radiate at
an angle of 45˙ (see Fig. 19) from the anchor base.
When an anchor is embedded close to a free edge, as
shown in Fig. 20, a full masonry cone cannot be devel-
oped and the area Ap must be reduced so as not to over-
estimate the masonry capacity. Thus, the area Ap, in Eq.
1 will be the lesser of:
Ap = π 1b2 (Eq. 3)
or
Ap = π 1be2 (Eq. 4)
where:
Ap = Projected area of the masonry tension cone, in.2,
1b = Effective embedded anchor length, in.,
1be = Distance to a free edge, in.
The effective anchor embedded length (1b) is the
8
length of embedment measured perpendicular from the
surface of the masonry to the plate or head for plate
anchors or headed bolts. The effective embedded length
of bent bar bolts (1b) is the length of embedment mea-
sured perpendicular from the surface of the masonry to
the bearing surface of the bent end minus one bolt diame-
ter. Where the projected areas of adjacent anchors over-
lap, Ap of each bolt is reduced by one-half of the overlap
area. Also, any portion of the projected cone falling
across an opening in the masonry (i.e., holes for pipes or
conduits) should be deducted from the value of Ap calcu-
lated in Eqs. 3 or 4.
Shear
The allowable shear load is based on the same logic
as the allowable tension load. That is, the anchor capaci-
ty is governed by either the masonry strength or the
anchor material strength. The distance between an
anchor and a free masonry edge has an effect on the
masonry shear capacity. Calculations have shown that for
edge distances less than twelve times the anchor diame-
ter, the masonry shear strength controls the anchor
 Full Masonry Tension Cone
FIG. 19

capacity. (Calculations based on masonry with f’m = 1000

psi and anchor steel yield strength with fy = 60 ksi. Reduced Masonry Tension Cone
FIG. 20
Therefore, where the edge distance equals or exceeds 12
anchor diameters. the allowable shear load is the lesser of: where:
T = Applied tensile load, lb.,
VA = 350 4 √ f’mAB (Eq. 5) V = Applied shear load, lb.
or
VA = 0.12 ABfy (Eq. 6) TABLE 3
Allowable Shear on Bolts and Anchors *1
where:
VA = Allowable shear load, lb. 2
Bolt or Anchor Minimum Allowable Shear Load, Lb
Diameter, Embedment,
When anchors are located less than 12 anchor diam- In. In. Without
3
With
4

eters from a free edge, the allowable shear load is deter- Inspection Inspection
mined by linear interpolation from a value of VA obtained 1/4 4 180 270
in Eq. 5 at an edge distance of 12 anchor diameters to an 3/8 4 270 410
assumed value of zero at an edge distance of 1 in. (25 1/2 4 370 550
mm). This takes into consideration the reduction in the 5/8 4 500 750
masonry shear capacity due to the edge distance. 3/4 5 730 1,100
Combined Tension and Shear 7/8 6 1,000 1,500
Allowable combinations of tensile and shear loads are 1 7 1,230 1,850
based on a linear interaction equation between the allow- 1 1/8 8 1,500 2,250
able pure tension and pure shear loads calculated in Eqs. * From Building Code Requirements for Engineered Brick Masonry , Brick Institute of America,
1, 2, 5 and 6. Anchors subjected to combinations of ten- August 1969.
1
In determining the stresses on brick masonry, the eccentricity due to loaded bolts and anchors
sion and shear are designed to satisfy the following equa- shall be considered.
2
tion: 3
Bolts and anchors shall be solidly embedded in mortar or grout.

T / TA + V / VA ≤ 1.0 (Eq. 7) 4
No engineering or architectural inspection of construction and workmanship.
Construction and workmanship inspected by engineer, architect or competent representative.

9
 Table 4 compared to test results for proprietary anchors, they
Allowable Shear on Anchor Bolts - From UBC appear to produce acceptable safety factors.
1985 Edition* Allowable Loads. Average factors of safety are 4.0
for tensile tests and 5.0 for shear tests on proprietary
1 anchors. The combined tension/shear interaction equa-
(a) ALLOWABLE SHEAR ON ANCHOR BOLTS FOR tion produced an average safety factor of 7.0 when com-
CLAY AND CONCRETE MASONRY pared to test results on proprietary anchors. Therefore,
based on comparison to test results, the allowable load
Diameter Total Allowable equations proposed in this Technical Notes are suggested
(inches) Embedment2 Shear3 for use in the design of proprietary anchors in brick
(inches) (lbs) masonry. The embedment depth used to calculate the
allowable load values should be equal to the embedded
1/4 4 270
depth of the proprietary anchor.
3/8 4 410
1/2 550
Edge Distance. Edge distance is of particular con-
4
5/8 4 750 cern when expansion anchors are used in brick masonry,
3/4 5 1100 due to lateral expansion forces produced when the
7/8 6 1500 anchors are tightened. These forces are often large
1 7 18504 enough to cause cracking or spelling of the brick when
1 1/8 8 22504 edge distances become small. To date, no research has
been conducted in this area. Therefore, due to the lack of
information, it is suggested that a minimum edge distance
of 12 in. (300 mm) be maintained when expansion
1
An anchor bolt is a bolt that has a right angle extension of at least
three diameters. A standard machine bolt is acceptable.
anchors are installed in brick masonry.

2
Of the total required embedment, a minimum of five bolt diameters Through Bolts
must be perpendicular to the masonry surface. There are no known published reports available
3
No reduction in values required for uninspected masonry.
addressing the strength characteristics of through bolts in
brick masonry. However, based on the conservatism in
4
Applicable for units having a net area strength of 2500 psi or more. the allowables for bent bar anchors and proprietary
anchors, the allowable load equations should provide
(b) ALLOWABLE SHEAR ON BOLTS FOR acceptable allowable load values for through bolts used in
EMPIRICALLY DESIGNED MASONRY EXCEPT brick masonry. The embedment depth used to calculate
UNBURNED CLAY UNITS the allowable load values should be taken as equal to the
actual thickness of the masonry.
Diameter Solid Grouted
Embedment2
Bolt Masonry Masonry
(inches) Current Codes and Standards
(Shear in lbs) (Shear in lbs)
(inches) At the present time, one model code and one design
standard contain provisions for anchor bolt design in brick
1/2 4 350 550
5/8
masonry. The BIA Standard, Building Code Requirements
4 500 750
3/4 5
for Engineered Brick Masonry, and the Uniform Building
750 1100
7/8 6 1000 1500 Code cover design allowables and embedment depths for
1 7 1250 18502 anchors loaded in shear. There are no provisions for axial
1 1/8 8 1500 22502 tensile loads or combined tension/shear loads in these
documents. Tables 3 and 4 show the allowable shear
loads and minimum embedment depths from the two doc-
uments. The values in Table 4(a) are based on rational
An additional 2 inches of embedment shall be provided for anchor
1

bolts located in the top of columns for buildings located in Seismic

Zones Nos. 2, 3, and 4.
2
Permitted only with not less than 2,500 pounds per sq. units.
*”Reproduced from the Uniform Building Code, 1985 Edition,
Copyright 1985 with permission of the publisher, The International
Conference of Building Officials.”
Proprietary Anchor Bolts
The allowable load equations previously presented
are intended for use with plate anchors, headed bolts and
bent bar anchors and have been proposed to the
ACI/ASCE 530 Committee on Masonry Structures.
However, when the allowables from these equations are
10
analysis and in Table 4(b) on empirical analysis. As can
be seen, the tables are very similar and are generally
more conservative than the allowable shear loads
obtained from Eqs. 5 and 6 for the same embedment
depths (Table 5).
SUMMARY
This Technical Notes is the first in a series on brick
masonry anchors, fasteners and ties. It covers anchor
bolt types, detailing and allowable loads for anchor bolts
in brick masonry. Other Technical Notes in this series will
address brick masonry fasteners and ties.
 8. Technical Notes on Brick Construction 41 Revised,
TABLE 5 "Hollow Brick Masonry-Introduction", Brick Institute of
Example Calculation of Allowable Shear on America, McLean, Virginia, 1983.
Anchors - From ACI/ASCE 530* 9. Specification for the Design and Construction of Load-
Anchor Anchor Gross Embedded Allowable
1 Bearing Concrete Masonry, National Concrete
Diameter Cross-Sectional Depth Shear Load Masonry Association, McLean, Virginia, April 1971.
(in.) Area (in.2) (in.) (lbs) 10. The BOCA Basic/National Building Code, 9th Edition,
Building Officials and Code Administrators,
1/4 0.049 4 210
International, Country Club Hills, Illinois, 1984.
3/8 0.110 4 470
840
11. Standard Building Code, Southern Building Code
1/2 0.196 4
1,320 Congress, International, Inc.. Birmingham, Alabama,
5/8 0.307 4
3/4 0.442 5 1,910 1985.
7/8 0.601 6 2,060 12. Technical Notes on Brick Construction 7A Revised,
1 0.785 7 2,200 "Water Resistance of Brick Masonry-Materials, Part II
1 1/8 0.994 8 2,340 of III", Brick Institute of America, Reston, Virginia,
1985.
*American Concrete Institute/American Society of Civil Engineers
Committee 530 on Masonry Structures.
1
Assuming: f ’m = 2,000 psi
ASTM A36 steel f y = 36 ksi
Edge Distance = 12 Bolt Diameters

The information and suggestions contained in this

Technical Notes are based on the available data and the
experience of the technical staff of the Brick Institute of
America. The information and recommendations con-
tained herein should be used along with good technical
judgment and an understanding of the properties of brick
masonry. Final decisions on the use of the information
discussed in this Technical Notes are not within the
purview of the Brick Institute of America and must rest
with the project designer, owner or both.

REFERENCES
1. Manual of Steel Construction , 8th Edition, American
Institute of Steel Construction, Inc., Chicago, Illinois,
1980.
2. Whitlock, A.R. and Brown, R.H., Strength of Anchor
Bolts in Masonry, NSF Award No. PRF-7806095,
"Cyclic Response of Masonry Anchor Bolts", August
1983.
3. Brown, R.H. and Dalrymple, G.A., Performance of
Retrofit Embedments in Brick Masonry, NSF Award
No. CEE-8217638, "Static and Cyclic Behavior of
Masonry Retrofit Embedments (Earthquake
Engineering)", Report No. 1, April 1985.
4. Hatzinikolas, M.; Lee, R.; Longworth, J. and
Warwaruk, J., "Drilled-In Inserts in Masonry
Construction", Alberta Masonry Institute, Edmonton,
Alberta, Canada, October 1983.
5. Building Code Requirements for Engineered Brick
Masonry, Brick Institute of America, McLean, Virginia,
August 1969.
6. Uniform Building Code, International Conference of
Building Officials, Whittier, California, 1985.
7. Technical Notes on Brick Construction 17 Revised,
"Reinforced Brick Masonry, Part I of IV", Brick Institute
of America, McLean, Virginia, October 1981.

11
 Technical Notes 44A

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
Reissued*
August
1997

FASTENERS FOR BRICK MASONRY

Abstract: Fasteners are used extensively in brick masonry construction to attach fixtures, equipment
and other objects. This Technical Notes discusses the different types of fasteners used in brick
masonry construction, their applications, appropriate fastener selection based on brick type, fixture
weight, environmental exposure and aesthetics.

Key Words: adhesives, bolts, brick, fasteners, fixtures, hardware, masonry, screws.

INTRODUCTION
This Technical Notes is the second in a series that
addresses brick masonry anchor bolts, fasteners and ties.
The term "fastener", as used in this text, refers to devices
for securing equipment, fixtures or other objects to brick
masonry. This Technical Notes discusses the different
fastener types used to attach these items to brick mason-
ry.
When other materials, fixtures, etc., are to be
attached to brick masonry, the procedure is relatively sim-
ple and can be executed either during or after construc-
tion. The designer or builder has a wide variety of fasten-
ing methods from which to choose. The final selection will
depend largely upon what is to be attached, when it will
be attached and the type of brick used in the construction.

TYPES OF FASTENERS Fasteners Installed During Construction

Fasteners can be divided into two general categories:
those installed during the construction of the masonry,
and those that are installed after the completion of the
masonry work.
Fasteners Installed During Construction
Nailing Blocks and Wall Plugs. Wooden nailing
blocks and metal wall plugs are placed in mortar joints as
the brick are laid (see Figure 1). Wooden nailing blocks
are not used today as frequently as they were in the past,
but do provide an acceptable means of attachment to
brick masonry walls. If wooden blocks are used, they
should be of seasoned soft wood to prevent shrinkage
and treated to inhibit deterioration. Wooden blocks should
be placed only in head joints.
Metal wall plugs are made of galvanized metal, and
may contain wooden or fiber inserts. Metal plugs are pre-
ferred over wooden blocks since problems with shrinkage
and decay are not associated with metal plugs. Metal
plugs may be placed in either head joints or bed joints of
masonry.
FIG. 1
The primary consideration when using fasteners
installed during construction is location. Their exact loca-
tion is not a serious problem when used to attach mold-
ings, such as baseboards, chair rails, etc., but it may be
difficult to predetermine fastener locations for fixtures,
cabinets, shelving, etc. For this reason, post-construction
fasteners have virtually replaced wooden blocks and
metal nailing plugs for fastening to masonry.
Post-Construction Fasteners
Screw Shields and Plugs. Screw shields and plugs
are produced in plastic, fiber, rubber, nylon and lead (see
Fig. 2). Some are advertised by their manufacturers as
vibration-resistant, chemical-resistant or water-resistant.
These fasteners are generally used for lightweight attach-
ments and are typically installed in mortar joints or may
be placed directly into solid masonry units (see Fig. 3).
Bolts and Screws. Several types of bolts and
screws are available for use in both solid and hollow
masonry. These fasteners are generally used to attach

*Originally published in May 1986, this Technical Notes has been reviewed and reissued.
 Shields and Plugs
FIG. 2

medium to heavy-weight fixtures. Toggle bolts (made of

steel or plastic), hollow wall screws, small diameter sleeve
anchors and screws are used to attach fixtures to walls
constructed of hollow units (see Fig. 4). These fasteners
may be placed in holes drilled through bed joints or
through the unit faces into hollow cells (see Fig. 5). Small
diameter sleeve anchors, wedge anchors, screws and lag
bolt shields (see Fig. 6) are used to attach fixtures to solid
masonry and are usually installed in mortar joints (see
Fig. 7).
Nails. Case-hardened cut and spiral nails (masonry
nails) are often used to attach furring strips to masonry
walls (see Fig. 8). If used, the nails should be hammered
directly into the mortar joints and not into the brick units.
Caution should be exercised when nails are used in sin-
gle-wythe walls with exposed exterior faces. The nails
could open small cracks in the mortar joints, allowing
water to penetrate the wall (see Technical Notes 7F for
problems associated with water penetration).
Fasteners for Hollow Masonry Units
FIG. 4
Powder-Driven Fasteners. Powder-driven fasteners
are hardened steel pins that are driven into masonry by
means of a powder-actuated tool (Fig. 9). The power for
the tool is provided by a powder charge typically ranging
from .22 to .38 caliber with varying charges, depending on
the material and required pin penetration. Powder-driven
fasteners are generally used on commercial or industrial
projects where large volumes of fasteners are required.
Several pin styles and lengths are produced for different
fastening requirements (see Fig. 10).

Shields and Plugs Installed Fasteners Installed in Hollow Units

FIG. 3 FIG. 5

2
 Fasteners for Solid Masonry Units
FIG. 6 Masonry Nails
FIG. 8
Powder-driven fasteners require special installation
equipment, safety equipment and inspection procedures. FASTENER SELECTION
For this reason, the manufacturer should be contacted to The selection of an appropriate fastener can usually
determine proper equipment and installation specifica- be based on four considerations: 1) the type of brick used
tions. in the construction, 2) the weight of the attachment, 3) the
Adhesives. A multitude of adhesives, such as epoxies, environmental exposure (i.e., interior or exterior) and 4)
mastics and contact cements, is produced for various bonding aesthetics.
applications. Many of these produce high bond strengths,
Construction and Attachment
have short setting times and offer versatility in bonding differ-
The type of brick used in construction will determine
ent materials. Adhesives may be used to attach furring, elec-
the choice of a fastener as either a solid or hollow wall
trical boxes, wall paneling, etc. (see Fig. 11). The manufac-
type fastener; the weight of the fixture will determine the
turer's literature should be referred to when determining the
size of the fastener required. The fastener selection chart
suitability of an adhesive for a particular application. Some
shown in Table 1 can be used as a general guide in
adhesives may not bond properly to masonry, may not have
selecting a fastener type based on the brick type, installa-
the elasticity required to accommodate movements of dissimi-
tion location and fixture weight.
lar materials and may be affected by exposure to weather,
chemicals or temperature extremes.

Powder-Driven Fastening Tool

FIG. 9
Fasteners Installed in Solid Masonry Units
FIG. 7

3
 contact with corrosive agents is likely.
Steel fasteners used for applications under normal
exposure conditions should be galvanized (zinc-coated) to
resist corrosion. Lead, copper-coated or brass fasteners
also provide adequate corrosion resistance for normal
exposures. In applications where fasteners are subject to
severe exposure conditions or exposed to chemicals,
stainless steel fasteners should be used.

Powder-Driven Pins
FIG. 10
Environment
Environmental factors may have a definite impact on
the long-term service life of fasteners and should be con-
sidered in their selection. Environmental factors do not, in
general, influence the type of fastener selected, but
should influence the choice of fastener based on the
material from which the fastener is made. Corrosion is a
major concern, especially when fasteners are exposed to
the elements or when fasteners are used in areas where
TABLE 1
Fastener Selection Chart
Aesthetics
In most applications, the fastener or fasteners
installed will be hidden by the attachment (i.e., cabinets,
baseboards, electrical boxes or furring), and the physical
appearance of the fastener (usually the head of a screw
or bolt) will not be of importance. However, when fasten-
ers are used to attach privacy partitions, lighting fixtures
or rails, the head of the fastener is usually visible and
required to match or accent the finish of the fixture. In
these cases, finished screws or bolts (i.e., chrome or
brass-plated, solid brass or painted) can be purchased to
match the fixtures. The manufacturers should be contact-
ed to determine the availability and range of finishes avail-
able in their products.

Brick Type Installation Location Fixture Weight

Fastener

Wooden Blocks √ √
√ √ √ √
Metal Wall Plugs √ √
√ √ √ √ √
Screw Shields and Plugs √
√ √ √ √ √
Toggle Bolts √ √ √ √ √ √

Hollow Wall Screws √ √ √ √ √

Screws √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √

Sleeve Anchors √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √

Wedge Anchors √ √ √ √ √ √ √

Lag Shields √ √ √ √ √ √ √

Masonry Nails √ √ √ √ √ √ √

Powder-Driven Fasteners √ √ √ √ √ √

Adhesives √ √ √ √
Surface Applied

4
 Adhesive Fastening
FIG. 11

SUMMARY
This Technical Notes is the second in a series on
brick masonry anchors, fasteners and ties. It addresses
the types of fasteners available for use in brick masonry
construction. Other Technical Notes in this series address
brick masonry anchor bolts and wall ties.
The products described in this Technical Notes may
involve the use of hazardous materials, operations and/or
equipment. This Technical Notes does not purport to
address all of the safety practices associated with the use
of these products. It is the responsibility of the user of
this Technical Notes to establish appropriate safety and
health practices and determine the applicability of regula-
tory limitations prior to the use of the products described.
The information and suggestions contained in this
Technical Notes are based on available data and experi-
ence of the technical staff of the Brick Institute of America.
This information should be recognized as recommenda-
tions and should be used with judgment. Final decisions
on the use of the information discussed herein are not
within the purview of the Brick Institute of America, and
must rest with the project owner, designer or both.

REFERENCES
1. Technical Notes on Brick Construction 7F,
"Moisture Resistance of Brick Masonry -
Maintenance", Brick Institute of America, Reston,
Virginia, February 1986.
2. Construction Sealants and Adhesives, 2nd
Edition, J. R. Panek and J. P. Cook, John Wiley and
Sons, New York, 1984.
3. Architectural Graphic Standards. 7th Edition, C.
G. Ramsey and H. R. Sleeper, John Wiley and Sons,
New York, 1981.

5
 Technical Notes 44B

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
Reissued*
September
1988

WALL TIES
FOR BRICK MASONRY
Abstract: The use of metal ties in brick masonry dates back to the 1850's. Heretofore, the size, spacing and
type of ties have been entirely empirical. An attempt to replace masonry bonders, the use of thinner masonry
walls, the use of backup systems other than masonry and a need for adjustability have resulted in ties of various
sizes, configurations and adjustability being used without a rational basis for their selection and use. This
Technical Notes addresses the selection, specification and installation of wall tie systems for use in brick mason-
ry construction. Information and recommendations are included which address tie configuration, detailing, speci-
fications, structural performance and corrosion resistance.

Key Words: anchors, brick, cavity walls, corrosion, design, differential movement, fasteners,
grout, masonry, structural masonry, ties, veneer, walls.

Typically, the structural selection (sizing and spacing) of

INTRODUCTION
This Technical Notes is the third in a series that
addresses anchor bolts, fasteners and wall ties for brick
masonry. This Technical Notes discusses wall ties com-
monly used in brick construction, their function, selection,
specification and installation. The term "wall tie", as used
in this Technical Notes, refers to wire or sheet metal
devices used to connect two or more masonry wythes or
used to connect masonry veneers to a structural backup
system.
GENERAL
The first use of wall ties in brick masonry construction
can be traced to England in the mid-nineteenth century,
where wrought iron ties were used in brick masonry cavity
walls. Use of wall ties in the United States grew after
testing showed that metal-tied walls were more resistant
to water penetration than were masonry-bonded walls.
Bonders or "headers", used in masonry-bonded walls may
provide direct paths for possible water penetration.
Testing also indicated that the compressive strength of
metal-tied cavity walls and solid walls, and the transverse
strength of metal-tied solid walls were comparable to
those of masonry-bonded walls.
The use of wall ties has continued to increase over
the years due to a trend away from massive, multi-wythe
masonry walls to relatively thin masonry cavity walls, dou-
ble-wythe walls and veneers. An increase in construction
using backup systems other than masonry, i.e., steel, con-
crete and wood, has rendered bonding with masonry
headers impossible, leading to the development of a num-
ber of different metal tie systems.
During this period of evolution, little progress was
made in the area of rational design of wall tie systems.
*Originally published in March 1987, this Technical Notes has been reviewed and reissued with editorial changes.
wall ties has been based largely on empirical information
and the designer's judgment. Recently, questions con-
cerning strength, stiffness, corrosion and the effects of
these on the long-term performance of wall ties, have
been posed. Selection of a tie system to function properly
under these conditions is further complicated by the vast
number of tie types available and the variety of materials
from which they are fabricated. Most tie systems perform
well for their intended application. Some tie systems,
however, are poorly designed and do not provide ade-
quate support for brick masonry. The distinction between
the two is often subtle and requires an understanding of
the properties and characteristics of brick masonry.
Function of Wall Ties
Typically, wall ties perform three primary functions: 1)
provide a connection, 2) transfer lateral loads, 3) permit
in-plane movement to accommodate differential material
movements and, in some cases, restrain differential
movement. In addition to these primary functions, metal
ties (as joint reinforcement) may also be required to serve
as horizontal structural reinforcement or provide longitudi-
nal continuity.
For a tie system to fulfill these functions, it must: 1) be
securely attached and embedded, 2) have sufficient stiff-
ness to transfer lateral loads with minimal deformations, 3)
have a minimum amount of mechanical play, 4) be corro-
sion-resistant and 5) be easily installed to reduce installation
errors and damage to the tie system. This listing is far from
complete; special project conditions, unusual details and
special building code requirements must also be consid-
ered. Availability and cost are always factors in product
specifications. However, cost should not have a major influ-
ence on the selection of a wall tie system since the cost of
ties is typically a very small part of the total wall cost.
 Corrugated ties are typically used in low-rise, residen-
TYPES OF WALL TIES tial veneer over wood frame construction and are not rec-
General ommended for construction incorporating brick veneer
There is a number of different wall tie systems avail- over steel studs, masonry-backed cavity walls, multi-
able for cavity, multi-wythe, grouted and veneer wall sys- wythe walls or grouted masonry walls. Typical installation
tems. These include unit ties, continuous horizontal joint details are shown in Fig. 2.
reinforcement, adjustable ties (unit and continuous) and
re-anchoring systems.
Unit Ties
Unit ties are rectangular ties, "Z" ties and corrugated
ties, as shown in Figure 1. Rectangular and "Z" ties are
usually fabricated from cold-drawn steel wire or copper-
clad wire conforming to ASTM A 82 or ASTM B 227,
respectively. Rectangular and "Z" ties made of stainless
steel conforming to ASTM A 167 are also available for use
in more corrosive environments. Corrugated sheet steel
ties are typically manufactured from steel sheet conform-
ing to ASTM A 570, Grade D, but are also available in
copper and stainless steel.
Rectangular and "Z" ties are used to bond walls con-
structed of two or more masonry wythes. "Z" ties should
only be used to bond walls constructed with solid units
(not less than 75% solid). Rectangular ties may be used
with either solid or hollow units.

Unit Tie Details

FIG. 2

Joint Reinforcement
Continuous horizontal joint reinforcement is typically
made from #8, 9, 10, or 11 ga wire, or 3/16 in. (5 mm)
diameter wire, conforming to ASTM A 82, in lengths of 10
to 12 ft (3 to 4 m). The most common configurations are
Unit Ties the ladder, truss, and tab types (see Fig. 3).
FIG. 1
Structural testing performed in the early 1960's indi-
cated that multi-wythe walls tied with joint reinforcement
2
 Adjustable Ties
Adjustable tie systems were initially developed to
accommodate the use of face brick that did not course out
vertically with interior masonry wythes. This concept has
been extended to ties used to attach brick to backup sys-
tems other than masonry (concrete, steel frames and
steel studs), resulting in the use of both adjustable unit
ties and adjustable joint reinforcement.
The use of adjustable ties has increased rapidly for a
number of reasons: 1) Adjustable ties permit the con-
struction of interior masonry wythes prior to the construc-
tion of exterior facing wythes, permitting the structure to
be enclosed faster. 2) Adjustable ties are two-piece sys-
tems. One piece is installed as the backup is constructed
and the other piece is installed as the facing wythe is con-
structed, reducing the risk of damage to exposed ties that

Continuous Joint Reinforcement

FIG. 3

performed as well as walls tied with unit ties or masonry

bonders. Test results also indicated that truss-type joint
reinforcement, in cavity wall systems, helped to develop a
degree of composite action in the horizontal span, but did
not contribute to any composite action in the vertical span.
Joint reinforcement may be used in multi-wythe solid
walls, masonry cavity walls and grouted masonry walls
(see Fig. 4). Truss-type joint reinforcement is not recom-
mended for use in insulated cavity walls. The configura-
tion of the truss diagonals can restrain differential move-
ment between wythes and possibly result in bowing of the Joint Reinforcement Details
walls. FIG. 4

3
might occur when unit ties or standard joint reinforcement
are used. 3) Adjustable ties can accommodate construc-
tion tolerances common in multi-material construction. 4)
Adjustable ties can accommodate larger differential move-
ments than standard unit ties or joint reinforcement.
The advantages offered by adjustable tie systems are
not without possible problems: 1) Mislocation of
adjustable ties placed prior to construction of facing
wythes, if extreme, can render the ties useless. 2)
Adjustable ties may encourage less than perfect layout of
the wall system since a built-in adjustment allowance is
available. 3) Large variations in construction tolerances
may not allow full engagement of ties installed before fac-
ing wythes are constructed. 4) Improperly positioned ties
may result in large vertical tie eccentricity. 5) The struc-
tural performance of some adjustable ties in regard to
strength and stiffness is less than that of standard unit ties Adjustable Unit Ties for Masonry Backup
or joint reinforcement. FiG. 6
Adjustable Unit Ties. Adjustable unit ties produced
for use with masonry backup, concrete backup, steel Adjustable Assemblies. Adjustable ladder and
frames and steel studs are shown in Figs. 5 and 6. Slot- truss-type joint reinforcement assemblies are available for
type ties (dovetail, channel slot, etc.) have been used for use in masonry-backed cavity, veneer and grouted wall
a number of years with concrete, steel frame and steel construction. This joint reinforcement typically consists of
stud backup systems, and are recognized as tie systems rectangular tab or "Z" type extensions, connected to stan-
capable of accommodating differential movement, as fur- dard joint reinforcement by means of an eye and pintle
ther discussed in Technical Notes 18 Series (see Fig. 5). arrangement (see Fig. 8). Installation details are shown
Other types of adjustable unit tie systems are available for in Fig. 9.
brick with masonry backup and other backup systems.
These ties are typically two-piece systems, consisting of a Masonry Re-anchoring Systems
single or double eye and pintle arrangement (see Fig. 6). Masonry re-anchoring systems are the most recent
Typical installation details are shown in Fig. 7. development in masonry tie systems. Three general types of
systems are being produced and typically consist of a
mechanical expansion system, screw system or an epoxy
adhesive system (see Fig. 10). These systems are primarily
used to: 1) provide ties in areas where ties were not installed
during original construction, 2) replace existing ties, 3) replace
failed masonry bonding units, 4) upgrade older wall systems
to current code levels, or 5) attach new veneers over existing
facades.

Adjustable Unit Ties for Steel,

Concrete and Stud Backup
Adjustable Unit Tie Details
FIG. 5 FIG. 7

4
 As stated, re-anchoring systems are relatively new
and many designers and contractors may not be fully
familiar with their installation or limitations. For this rea-
son, consultation with the system manufacturer is essen-
tial to assure proper application, detailing, installation,
inspection, and performance.
backup systems, 5) location of openings, 6) cavity width
and 7) applied loads.
Estimating tie loads based on tributary area can lead
to large errors, depending on the geometry and properties
of the wall system. Fig. 11 shows tie loads and deflec-
tions calculated from a simplified model of a cavity wall

TIE SELECTION
Strength and Deformation
The strength and deformation characteristics of tie
systems are not generally analyzed nor investigated dur-
ing the project design or specification phase. Building
codes and standards have typically required minimum tie
size (diameter or gage) and maximum tie spacing limits to
control tie loading and deformation. Present tie size and
spacing requirements have been derived from some test-
ing and from the past performance of traditional tie sys-
tems (rectangular ties, "Z'' ties and standard joint rein-
forcement). The growing use of adjustable tie systems
has caused some concerns in regard to tie strength and
deformation. Most adjustable ties permit vertical adjust-
ment up to approximately one-half the height of a stan-
dard brick unit, some permit greater adjustments.
Depending on the tie configuration, the deflections of
adjustable ties can become quite large as vertical adjust-
ment eccentricities are increased. This deflection is fur-
ther increased if mechanical play is present in the tie sys-
tem.
Analytical and experimental investigations of cavity
wall and veneer wall systems have shown that tie loads
and deformations are a function of: 1) the relative stiff-
ness between facing and backup materials, 2) tie spacing,
3) tie stiffness, 4) support conditions of the facing and

Adjustable Joint Reinforcement Assemblies

FIG. 8 Adjustable Assembly Details
FIG. 9

5
system. As shown, adjustable tie deflections become angles, vertical expansion joints, etc. 5) Do not specify
large as the adjustment eccentricity becomes large. ties with formed drips. Testing has shown that drips can
These values were calculated assuming that no mechani- reduce the ultimate buckling load by approximately 50
cal play existed in the tie system. Mechanical play must percent. 6) Reduce tie spacing, as shown in Table 1,
be added to these values to determine the total deflection based on the tie system and wall system. 7) Specify stiff
of the exterior wythe. Typical adjustable ties have values ties. This can be accomplished by specifying ties with
of mechanical play ranging from approximately 0 to 0.3 in. maximum deflections of less than 0.05 in. (1.2 mm) when
(0 to 8 mm). Some adjustable ties may have an extreme tested at an axial load of 100 lb in tension and compres-
amount of mechanical play when not properly installed sion. When adjustable ties are specified, the deflection
(see Fig. 12). If satisfactory performance is to be expect- limit should be satisfied at the eccentricity expected in the
ed, total tie and backup deflections must be maintained field. See Table 2 for minimum tie gage and diameter rec-
within the working range of the masonry facade under full ommendations. 8) Select an appropriate tie system for
design loads. the wall system (see Table 3).
Recommendations. At present, analysis techniques
that accurately model metal-tied wall systems are still in
the developmental stage and require further refinement
and verification through testing. Until more accurate
methods are available, the Brick Institute of America feels
that acceptable strength and deformation characteristics
can be achieved by one or more of the following mea-
sures: 1) Reduce or eliminate lateral mechanical play in
adjustable tie systems. Limit the total mechanical play to
0.02 to 0.05 in. (0.5 to 1.2 mm), see Fig. 12. 2) Reduce
or eliminate adjustment eccentricity in adjustable tie sys-
tems. This can be accomplished by installing ties as fac-
ing wythes are constructed or by using starter courses or
ledges when facing wythes are constructed over masonry
backup. 3) Eliminate possible disengagement of
adjustable ties by providing positive vertical movement
limitations. 4) Provide additional ties within 8 in. (200
mm) of openings and discontinuities, i.e., windows, shelf

Masonry Re-Anchoring Systems Calculated Tie Loads and Deflections

FIG. 10 FIG. 11

6

Corrosion
General. Awareness of possible corrosion problems
in metal-tied masonry walls has increased due to corro-
sion damage found on reinforcement in concrete highway
pavements, bridge decks and some masonry structures.
The potential for corrosion problems in masonry has
increased as construction and design philosophies have
changed and as environmental conditions have changed
over the last decades. These changes include use of
thinner masonry walls and masonry veneers that are most
susceptible to water penetration, increases in atmospheric
pollutants, use of accelerators containing calcium chlo-
ride, increased use of insulated cavities (resulting in the
relocation of the dew point within the wall section) and
combinations of different metals in brick veneer wall sys-
tems. This list is not all-inclusive; corrosion potential can
also be affected by the function of a structure, geographic
location, compatibility of construction materials, detailing
and workmanship.
Corrosion Protection. In order to provide corrosion pro-
tection, environmental factors must be controlled or metals
used in construction must be protected. Conventional corro-
sion protection methods attempt to protect metals embedded
in masonry by isolating them with impervious coatings (barrier
protection), by using metals that are corrosion-resistant, or by
providing cathodic protection in which one metal becomes
sacrificial to protect another.
Mechanical Play
FIG. 12
7
Galvanizing -- Galvanizing (zinc-coating) provides
resistance to corrosion by two methods. First, the zinc
coating acts as a barrier shielding the underlying steel
from corrosive action. Second, it acts as a sacrificial ele-
ment that is consumed before the base steel is attacked.
This sacrificial nature protects the base steel at scratches
and holidays in the zinc coating caused by fabrication,
handling or installation, until most of the adjacent zinc
coating is consumed. Studies have shown that the pro-
tective value of zinc coating is proportional to its thick-
ness. Thus, for longer periods of protection, a thicker zinc
coating is required. Also, when the protective zinc coating
is depleted, the corrosion of the base steel will progress
as if no galvanizing were present.
Two methods of galvanizing are used to protect metal
masonry ties: mill galvanizing and hot-dip galvanizing.
Mill galvanizing takes place after steel wire or sheets have
been processed to their specified dimensions and prior to
fabrication of the tie. During the mill galvanizing process,
zinc can be applied in a variety of thicknesses, as shown
in Table 4. Hot-dip galvanizing is performed by dipping
completely fabricated assemblies into molten zinc until a
specified amount of zinc is bonded to the base metal.
Hot-dip galvanized coatings are typically thicker than mill
galvanized coatings and therefore, provide longer periods
of protection.
Hard-Drawn Copper-Clad Steel Wire -- Metal ties
made from hard-drawn copper wire are available only as
unit ties since copper cannot be effectively welded to fab-
ricate continuous joint reinforcement. Due to copper's
electrochemical properties, it only provides barrier protec-
tion and does not provide sacrificial protection. Therefore,
if nicks penetrate the copper cladding, the base steel can
experience corrosion.
Stainless Steel -- Stainless steel ties are often spec-
ified for use in very corrosive environments. Stainless
steel ties are specified under ASTM A 167 and are gener-
ally made from one of the austenitic stainless steels.
Stainless steel resists corrosion well; however, if in con-
tact with carbon steel, a galvanic cell can result and actu-
ally increase the potential for corrosion. For this reason,
combining stainless steel ties or screws with carbon steel
or galvanized steel components is not recommended.
Fusion-Bonded Epoxy -- Epoxy coating is a relatively
new process used to provide corrosion protection for metal
ties. The process has been adapted from epoxy-coated rein-
forcement bars used successfully in concrete systems with
severe environmental exposures. Epoxy coating provides
protection by acting as an impervious barrier. The epoxy
coating is bonded to the base steel by a heat-induced chemi-
cal reaction through which a chemical and mechanical bond
is formed. The combination of the two types of adhesion
helps to prevent cracking of the coating due to handling,
installation or stress reversals. The epoxy coating is not sac-
rificial like zinc; therefore, nicks and holidays in the coating
can lead to corrosion of the base steel. At present, there is
no ASTM standard specification governing fusion-bonded
epoxy coating of wire or steel sheet for metal ties. Some
manufacturers are reportedly using a modified version of
ASTM A775 governing fusion-bonded epoxy reinforcing bars.
 TABLE 1
1,2
Tie Spacing Recommendations

Wall Cavity or Air Tie Maximum Area Maximum Vertical Maximum

Type Space Width System Per Tie Spacing Horizontal Spacing
(in.) (sq ft) (in.) (in.)

Cavity ≤ 3 1/2 Unit Tie 4 1/2 24 36

Std. Joint -- 16 --
Reinforcement

Unit Adj. Double 2 2/3 24 24

Eye & Pintle

Unit Adj. Single 1 3/4 16 16

Eye & Pintle

Adj. Joint -- 16 --
Reinforcement

> 3 1/2 but Unit Tie 3 24 36

≤ 4 1/2
Std. Joint
Reinforcement -- 16 --

Unit Adj. Double

Eye & Pintle 2 24 24

Adj. Joint
Reinforcement -- 16 --

3
Veneer / 1 Corrugated 3 1/4 24 24
Wood Stud 4 24 24
2 2/3

Veneer / 2 but ≤ 3 Adj. Unit 2 18 24

Steel Stud Veneer Ties

Veneer / ≤1 Adj. Unit 2 2/3 24 24

Concrete or CMU
Backup

Multi-Wythe -- Unit Ties 4 1/2 24 36

Brick Std. Joint -- 16 --
Reinforcement

Brick/Block -- Unit Ties 4 1/2 24 36

Composite Std. Joint -- 16 --
Reinforcement

Two-Wythe Grouted -- Unit Ties 5 16 24

2 2/3
Std. Joint 16 --
--
Reinforcement
1
Based on minimum tie diameters and gages listed in Table 2.
2
Masonry laid in running bond. Consult applicable building code for special bond patterns such as stack bond.
3
One and two-family wood frame construction not over 2 stories in height.
4
Wood frame construction over 2 stories in height.
5
For high-lift grouted walls. Masonry laid in running board.

8
 TABLE 2 tained in this publication must be used in conjunction with
Recommended Minimum Tie Diameters and Gages good engineering judgment and a basic understanding of
the properties of brick masonry and related construction
1
Minimum Specified Dimension materials. Final decisions on the use of the materials and
Tie System
recommendations contained in this publication are not
Diameter (in.) Gage
within the purview of the Brick Institute of America and
Standard Ties must rest with the project architect, engineer, owner or all.
Unit
Rectangular and “Z” 3/16 -- REFERENCES
Corrugated -- 22 1. DeVekey, R.C., ''Corrosion of Steel Wall Ties:
Joint Reinforcement Recognition, Assessment and Appropriate Actionî,
Ladder and Truss -- 9 Building Research Establishment Information Paper,
Tab -- 9 IP 28/79, Building Research Establishment, Garston,
Watford, England, October 1979.
Adjustable Ties 2. Fishburn, C.C., ''Water Permeability of Walls Built
Unit of Masonry Units,” Report BMS 82, National Bureau
Rectangular and “Z” 3/16 --
of Standards, Department of Commerce, Washington,
Dovetail/Channel D.C., April 1942.
Slot -- 3. Allen, M. H. , Research Report No. 10,
Wire 3/16
16 “Compressive and Transverse Strength Tests of Eight-
Corrugated --
22 Inch Brick Walls,” Structural Clay Products Research
Connector Slot --
Foundation, Geneva, Illinois, October 1966.
Slotted Plate 4. Allen, M.H., Research Report No. 14,
Wire 3/16 --
-- “Compressive Strength of Eight-Inch Brick Walls with
Slot Plate 14
-- 14 Different Percentages of Steel Ties and Masonry
Backer Plate
Headers,” Structural Clay Products Research
Joint Reinforcement Foundation, Geneva, Illinois, May 1969.
Standard Section -- 9 5. Bortz, S.A., “Investigation of Continuous Metal
Tabs 3/16 -- Ties as a Replacement for Brick Ties in Masonry
Walls,” Summary Report ARF 6620, Armour Research
1
Foundation, Chicago, Illinois, June 1960.
Thicker diameters and gages are available.
6. “Investigation of Masonry Wall Ties,” ARF Project
Recommendations -- The past performance of B870-2 (Revised), Armour Research Foundation,
metal ties in regard to corrosion has generally been satis- Chicago, Illinois, December 1962.
factory. At present, there are no widely accepted methods 7. ''Flexural Strength of Cavity Walls,” ARF Project
for predicting corrosion rates or specific levels of required B870, Armour Research Foundation, Chicago, Illinois,
corrosion protection. Until research can produce accurate March 1963.
methods of assessing corrosion potential and predicting 8. Brown, R.H. and Elling, R.E., ''Lateral Load
adequate levels of protection, the Brick Institute of Distribution in Cavity Walls,” Proceedings of the Fifth
America suggests minimum levels of corrosion protection International Brick Masonry Conference, Washington,
for metal ties and hardware, as indicated in Table 5. As D.C., October 1979.
with all other engineering considerations minimum recom- 9. Bell, G.R. and Gumpertz, W.H., ''Engineering
mendations may not be adequate in every situation, and Evaluation of Brick Veneer/Steel Stud Walls, Part 2 --
should not serve as substitutes for engineering investiga- Structural Design, Structural Behavior and Durability,”
tion or judgment. Decisions must be based on individual Proceedings of the Third North American Masonry
project conditions, performance requirements and safety. Conference, Arlington, Texas, June 1985.
10. Arumala, J.O. and Brown, R.H., ''Performance of
SUMMARY Brick Veneer With Steel Stud Backup,” Clemson
This Technical Notes is the third in a series address- University, Clemson, South Carolina, April 1982.
ing brick masonry anchor bolts, fasteners and wall ties. It 11. ''Development of Adjustable Wall Ties,” ARF
is primarily concerned with the types of wall ties common- Project No. B869, Armour Research Foundation,
ly used in brick masonry construction, their function, Chicago, Illinois, March 1963.
selection, specification and installation. Other Technical 12. Catani, Mario J., ''Protection of Embedded Steel
Notes in this series individually address anchor bolts and in Masonry,” The Construction Specifier, January
fasteners for brick masonry. 1985.
The information and suggestions contained in this 13. Catani, Mario J. and Whitlock, A. Rhett, ''Coping
Technical Notes are based on the available data and the With Wide Cavities,” The Construction Specifier,
experience of the technical staff of the Brick Institute of August 1986.
America. The information and recommendations con-

9
 TABLE 3
Tie System Selection Chart

1
Tie System

Wall System Comments

Brick veneer / wood stud X 1. 3 stories or less in height.

Brick veneer / steel stud X 1. Mechanical play limited to 0.02 - 0.05 in. max.
2. Limit tie deflection to 0.05 in. max at 100 lb.
Brick veneer / steel,
concrete or CMU X X X X 1. Concrete backup--dovetail, channel slot, ties with concrete
fasteners.
2. Steel--channel slot, weld-on ties with steel fasteners.
3. Concrete masonry--unit ties, adjustable unit ties, standard
and adjustable joint reinforcement.
4. Mechanical play and deflection limits: see brick veneer /
steel stud.

Cavity X X X X X 1. “Z” ties with solid units only.

2. Adjustable unit ties and adjustable joint reinforcement.
Limit mechanical play to 0.02 - 0.05 in. max. Limit tie
deflection to 0.05 in. max at 100 lb.
3. No truss-type joint reinforcement in insulated cavity walls.

X X X X 1. “Z” ties with solid units only.

Multi-wythe brick
2. Full collar joint.
Brick / block composite X X X X 1. Full collar joint.
Double-wythe
X X X X 1. Full collar joint.

1
See Table 1 for spacing; Table 2 for minimum diameters and gages; Table 5 for corrosion protection.

TABLE 4
Coating Requirements

ASTM Coating Galvanized Minimum

Specification Process Piece Coating
(oz/sq ft)

A 641 Mill Galvanized 3/16 in. Class 1-0.4

diameter wire Class 2-0.6
& 9 ga wire Class 3-0.8

1
A 153 Hot-dip Class B
Galvanized B-1 2.0
B-2 1.5
B-3 1.3

1
Class B -- Rolled, pressed or forged articles.
B-1: 3/16 in. and over in thickness and over 15 in. in length.
B-2: Under 3/16 in. in thickness and over 15 in. in length.
B-3: Any thickness and 15 in. and under in length.

10
 TABLE 5
Recommended Minimum Corrosion Protection

Application Corrosion Protection

Unit Wire Ties

1. Completely embedded ASTM A 641, Class 3, or
in mortar or grout. ASTM B 227, Grade 30 HS

2. Exposed in air spaces ASTM A 153, Class B-3, or

or cavities. ASTM B 227, Grade 30 HS

3. Exposed to corrosive ASTM A 167, Type 304

elements.

Sheet Steel Ties

1. Completely embedded ASTM A 525, Class G 60
in mortar or grout.

2. Exposed in air spaces ASTM A 153, Class B-3

or cavities.

3. Exposed to corrosive ASTM A 167, Type 304

elements.

Joint Reinforcement
1. Completely embedded ASTM A 641, Class 3
in mortar or grout.

2. Exposed in air spaces ASTM A 153, Class B-2

or cavities.

3. Exposed to corrosive ASTM A 167, Type 304

elements.

11
 Technical Notes 45

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
February
1991

BRICK MASONRY NOISE BARRIER WALLS

INTRODUCTION
Abstract: Because our national highway system has grown significantly over the last
few decades, public awareness of traffic noise in neighborhood communities has increased.
Neighborhood associations and governmental bodies look for ways to reduce traffic noise
without adversely affecting the surrounding environment. A solution to this problem lies in
brick masonry noise barrier walls. Brick masonry noise barrier walls can easily blend into
the environment and give residential communities protection from unwanted highway noise.

Key Words: acoustics, brick, noise barrier walls.

INTRODUCTION maintenance considerations of brick masonry noise bar-

Continued growth of our national highway system rier walls. The other Technical Notes in this series ad-
dresses the structural design of brick masonry noise
combined with an increase in public awareness of envi-
barrier walls.
ronmental issues has focused on a need to evaluate the
impact of traffic noise associated with highway systems ACOUSTICAL CONSIDERATIONS
on neighboring communities. When noise levels ex-
To understand the function of a noise barrier wall or
ceed acceptable limits, community action generally how the wall reduces the noise level perceived by a re-
alerts governmental bodies to the problem or potential ceiver, it is necessary to discuss some of the fundamen-
problems. Governmental bodies then investigate mea- tal principles involved in sound propagation and noise
sures to prevent or alleviate noise problems. reduction.
The severity of the noise and the stage at which the When there are no obstacles or barriers between
problem is identified determine the measures available highway noise sources and receivers, sound travels in a
to reduce the impact of highway noise. Measures to al- direct path from the source to the receiver (Figure 1).
leviate highway noise include traffic controls and regu- When a noise barrier wall is placed between the noise
lations, modification of the highway configuration, source and the receiver, the barrier disperses the sound
land-use planning and zoning, and brick noise barrier along three paths: a diffracted or bent path over the top
walls. of the wall, a reflected path away from the receiver and
When new highway systems are in the planning and a transmitted path through the wall (Fig. 2).
design stages, a comprehensive analysis of and consid-
eration to noise abatement measures can be given.
However, when existing highway systems are renovat-
ed or if restrictions are placed on the routing of new
highway systems or use of adjacent land, the most prac-
tical solution to noise control may be the use of noise Direct Noise Path
barrier walls to isolate the highway noise sources from
FIG. 1
the surrounding communities.
Three major types of noise barriers are currently be-
ing used in the United States: earth berms, walls, and
berm-wall combinations. Of these three, the noise bar-
rier wall is typically the most common means of
achieving noise abatement and is the primary topic of
this Technical Notes.
This Technical Notes, the first in a series, addresses Noise Path With Barrier Wall
acoustical, visual, structural, construction, detailing and FIG. 2
 Diffraction of sound over the top of the wall pro-
duces a shadow zone behind the barrier. The boundary
of this shadow zone is outlined by a straight line drawn
from the noise source over the top of the barrier wall
(Fig. 3). All receivers located within the shadow zone
will experience some degree of sound attenuation. The
amount of reduction or attenuation is directly related to
the diffraction angle Ø. As this angle increases, the
barrier attenuation increases. Thus, barrier attenuation
is a function of the wall height and the distances be-
tween the source, barrier and receiver. Two other fac-
tors also affect the amount of attenuation: the sound
transmission characteristics of the material from which
the barrier is constructed and the length of the barrier.
Noise Barrier Shadow Zone
FIG. 3
The sound transmission characteristics of a material
are related to its weight, stiffness and loss factors. The
sound transmission characteristics of materials can be
assessed and compared by means of transmission loss
values. The sound transmission loss is related to the ra-
tio of the incident noise energy to the noise energy
transmitted through the material. Typically, transmis-
sion loss values can be expected to increase with in-
creasing square foot surface weights of barrier materi-
als. Table 1 lists the transmission loss values at a fre-
quency of 550 hertz (Hz) for materials commonly used
in noise barrier wall construction. 550 Hz is the ac-
cepted frequency used to determine the transmission
loss of highway noise barrier wall materials. As a gen-
eral rule for design, the transmission loss value should
be a minimum of 10 decibels (dB) above the attenua-
tion resulting from the diffraction over the top of the
barrier. The transmission loss values for brick masonry
are at the higher end of the range and sound transmis-
sion through a brick barrier will not significantly affect
the attenuation. However, when less massive materials
are used, the transmission loss values may not be ade-
quate and the noise reduction provided by the barrier
can be severely affected.
The actual acoustical design requirements of a noise
barrier wall are beyond the scope of this Technical
Notes. A detailed discussion of noise barrier acoustical
design procedures and considerations can be found in
Reference 1.
2
VISUAL CONSIDERATIONS
General
Highway noise barriers tend to dominate the visual
environment adjacent to roadways (Fig. 4). They are
often thousands of feet long and can be as high as 25 ft
(7.6 m) above the road surface. When noise barrier
walls higher than 16 ft (4.9 m) are acoustically re-
quired, visual consideration of surrounding features
should be evaluated. Exceptionally high walls can
have an unsightly impact on the aesthetic features of
the territory and can give the driver a claustrophobic
feeling. For safety reasons, the designer should reduce
the visual impact of the noise barrier wall. The mo-
torist must pass the barrier with as little visual disrup-
tion as possible. The primary attention of the driver
should be on the road ahead and adjacent traffic condi-
tions. This can be achieved by doing one of several
things.
Brick Noise Barrier Wall
FIG. 4
For relatively low walls, the line of the noise barrier
should reflect similar lines of the surrounding environ-
ment. For instance, in rolling terrain, a straight line
will be out of place and attention will be drawn to that
line. However, in flat terrain where the horizon is visi-
ble as a straight line, a straight line in a noise barrier
wall may not appear to be visually dominant. The in-
troduction of vertical lines, such as with pilasters,
placed along relatively low walls is recommended to
achieve visual balance. Plantings such as columnar
trees can emphasize vertical lines in a noise barrier
wall. Further, shrubbery can be used to soften the tran-
sition between ground and wall. Wherever possible,
the wall should step back to open up the view for the
motorist (Fig. 5). However, this can only be practically
achieved in rolling or hilly terrain. In an urban envi-
ronment where the horizon is composed of alternating
heights of buildings, an appropriate wall may vary in
height as a reflection of the city’s profile.
Another way to reduce the visual impact on the envi-
ronment is through changes in height and location of
the wall. A wall with offsets can break the monotony
of a straight wall and create pockets which can be used
for plantings (Fig. 6). These transitions may further be
used as areas for change in texture, color or wall height.
A serpentine wall can create the same visual interest as
a wall with offsets (Fig. 7). Moreover, due to their ge-
ometry, both of these walls have the added advantage of
being more resistant to seismic and wind forces than
their straight counterparts.

Effect of Wall Placement on Sight Lines

FIG. 5

Serpentine Wall
FIG. 7

Regardless of the shape, noise barrier walls should

not begin or end abruptly. The best transition of begin-
ning and end is to tie the wall into a natural hillside or a
man-made earth berm. If no natural hills or berms are
available, the wall termination should taper down and
angle away from the roadway. Not only is this visually
pleasing, it is also functional. This transition can effec-
tively reduce the amount of noise traveling around the
end of the wall as a result of approaching traffic.
Access through noise barrier walls may be needed in
Offset Wall certain instances. Maintenance personnel may require
FIG. 6 doors for equipment or service. Firefighters may re-

3
quire access to hydrants or water sources on the oppo- variety may be achieved through the use of plants and
site side of the barrier wall. The appropriate highway trees. Foliage which changes color will impart a pleas-
and emergency agencies should be consulted regarding ing seasonal variation.
access locations and requirements. Openings through
noise barrier walls must not reduce the acoustic or
structural performance of the noise barrier
Larger openings are best located at offsets in the
wall, or with piers or pilasters at the jamb of the open-
ing. This geometry provides an easier means of accom-
modating loads and reducing sound penetration. Open-
ings in straight wall sections change the load distribu-
tion and this influence must be considered. Loose steel
lintels or reinforced masonry beams should be used to
span over the openings.
Texture
A change of texture on noise barriers helps to create
a pleasant variety for motorists, adjacent residents and
pedestrians. The requirements of each are different,
however, and must be treated separately. Since mo-
torists usually drive at high rates of speed, they have
little opportunity to examine details. To be effective,
textures along the highway need to be bold or coarse
and visible at a glance because the motorists’ attention
Brick Sculpture
should not be diverted from the highway. However,
textures on the opposite side of the highway should be FIG. 8
more detailed. The residents and pedestrians on this
side view the barrier at much slower speeds and at clos-
er distances. Bold textures can be overbearing and
monotonous to them and, therefore, should not be used.
Unlike other materials, masonry can be adapted to STRUCTURAL CONSIDERATIONS
create the bold textures for the motorist and the subtle, Structurally, brick masonry noise barrier walls can be
more detailed textures for those on the other side. Be- designed in various ways. The most popular designs
cause of its versatility, the possibilities for brick mason- though are the pier and panel, pilaster and panel, and
ry are almost limitless. Bold textures can be created by the cantilever walls.
offsetting brick in random patterns which can cast vary- Pier and Panel Wall
ing textural shadows during the day. The use of pi-
lasters, special shape brick and copings can also create The pier and panel wall is composed of a series of
bold textural interest. Further, brick sculpture can cre- single-wythe panels, usually four inches in thickness.
ate detailed textures for residents (Fig. 8). Brick can be These panels are braced periodically by piers (Fig. 9).
carved to portray a desired logo, mural or composition. This type of wall is relatively easy to build and is eco-
nomical due to the efficient use of materials. It is easi-
Color ly adapted to varying terrain and is acoustically ade-
The color of the wall plays an important role in quate for a highway noise barrier. The pier and panel
blending the wall into the surrounding environment. wall can also be built with returns of varying angles.
Since brick barrier walls are man-made structures However, the most easily constructed and economical
placed in a natural environment, their color should not return is one which is perpendicular to an adjacent pan-
match the color of trees, grass, or shrubbery because el. The panels, usually built from 8 to 20 ft long (2.4 to
they are not related to such natural features by form. 6.1 m), are placed between piers of reinforced masonry,
Earthen colors, such as browns, greys, and rusts of concrete, or steel. The panels can either be prefabricat-
varying tones, when used on barrier walls help to blend ed or built in place and can be high as acoustically or
the structures into their environment. Repetitious poly- aesthetically necessary. However, any space left be-
chromatic patterns are not recommended on the high- tween the bottom of the wall and the ground must be
way side of the barrier. These types of patterns draw adequately backfilled to prevent noise penetration un-
the motorists’ attention away from the road ahead. derneath the wall.
However, they can be used on the side of the wall op- The panels, supported on piles or clip angles at-
posite of the highway. Moreover, placing units of dif- tached to piers, essentially act as thin, simply supported
ferent color in alternating bonding patterns can also beams. The panel, which spans horizontally between
easily create visual interest. Further, color interest and the piers, will develop flexural tensile stresses parallel

4
 Pier and Panel Assembly
FIG. 9
to the bed joints due to out-of-plane wind and seismic chored to or embedded in reinforced concrete piles,
loads (Fig. 10). Horizontal joint reinforcement is re- which vary in depth due to local soil conditions. The
quired if the calculated flexural stresses exceed the al- piles must be designed to resist all shear and axial
lowable stresses found in the local building code. If loads and the overturning moment caused by the panel
horizontal reinforcement is required, it must be dis- due to out-of-plane wind and seismic forces (Fig. 12).
tributed the full height of the panel. Vertical reinforcement may be required in a panel if the
The panel also develops in-plane flexural stresses out-of-plane deflection of the pier exceeds the maxi-
due to its own dead weight and any incidental vertical
loading which may occur (Fig. 11). The in-plane bend-
ing will cause flexural tensile stresses at the bottom of
the panel. Although the building codes do not now de-
fine allowable flexural tensile values for in-plane bend-
ing, the allowable flexural tensile stresses parallel to
the bed joint for out-of-plane bending can conserva-
tively be used. Both the in-plane and out-of-plane flex-
ural tensile stresses must be calculated and added be-
cause the bottom of the panel is subjected to both max-
imum in-plane and out-of-plane moments. If the sum
of the calculated stresses exceeds the out-of-plane al-
lowable flexural tensile stress parallel to the bed joint,
the panel must be reinforced. This reinforcement is
usually placed in the bottom two or three courses of
masonry.
The piers, on the other hand, act as vertical can-
tilevers and must be designed to resist all lateral loads Out-of-Plane Deflection of Panel in Pier and Panel Wall
transferred from the panels. The piers are usually an- FIG. 10

5

In-Plane Deflection of Panel in Pier and Panel Wall
FIG. 11
mum allowable deflection of the panel. This maximum
allowable deflection for an unreinforced panel is based
on the allowable flexural tensile stress perpendicular to
the bed joints. If vertical reinforcement is required,
then hollow brick units can be used to facilitate the re-
inforcement and grouting process. However, it is rec-
ommended that the piers be stiff enough so vertical re-
inforcement in the panels is not necessary.
Out-of-Plane Deflection of Pier and Panel
FIG. 12
6
Due to the deflection requirements of the panel, the
web length of the pier may be larger than the thickness
of the panel, especially for piers made of steel. The
space between the pier and panel must contain a non-
compressible material, placed either uniformly or inter-
mittently along the height of the pier. This non-com-
pressible material ensures proper load transfer from the
panel to the pier. However, if intermittent supports are
used, a filler material must be placed between supports
to block noise transfer around the end of the panel.
Further, a clear space the entire height of the panel
must be maintained between the end of the panel and
the web of the pier. This space allows for the in-plane
expansion and contraction of the brick panel (Fig. 13).
Steel Pier/Panel Detail
FIG. 13
When reinforced concrete or masonry piers are used,
the flanges should be analyzed to ensure that the shear
and bending forces imposed on them by the adjacent
panel do not exceed allowable stresses. If, for aesthetic
reasons, an exposed steel pier is not desirable, brick can
be built around the steel in the form of a pilaster (Figs.
13 through 15). Corrosion protection of the pier should
be considered when steel piers are used.
Steel Pier and Panel Wall
FIG. 14
 Finally, the panels can bear directly on the pile or a
steel clip angle which is attached to the pier. The bear-
ing stress requirements of each material must be con-
sidered in the design.

Pilaster and Panel Walls

The pilaster and panel and the pier and panel wall
appear to be very similar. Both are composed of sin-
gle-wythe panels periodically braced by vertical ele-
ments and both are equally adaptable to varying terrain
and returns. However, there are some fundamental dif-
ferences which must be carefully analyzed. First, the
pilaster is built of reinforced masonry and, unlike the
pier and panel wall, the panel in the pilaster and panel
Steel Pier and Panel Wall with Brick Surround wall is integrally bonded to the pilaster at most inter-
sections (Fig. 16). This seemingly innocuous differ-
FIG. 15
ence actually has a marked effect on the structural char-
acteristics of the wall. The end condition of the panel
in a pier and panel wall is considered simply supported
while that in a bonded pilaster and panel is considered
fixed. Because of the fixed-end condition, the designer

Pilaster and Panel Assembly

FIG. 16

7

In-Plane Deflection of Panel in a Pilaster and Panel Wall
FIG. 17
must satisfy the negative moments which are generated
at the pilaster (Fig. 17). Depending on the geometry of
the wall, horizontal reinforcing steel may be required in
both the top and bottom courses of brick due to vertical
in-plane bending. If required, it must be fully devel-
oped and adequately anchored in the pilaster. The hori-
zontal out-of-plane deflection of the panel will also
generate negative moments at the pilaster (Fig. 18).
Any horizontal reinforcement will help resist negative
moments due to out-of-plane bending. However, the
reinforcement must also be fully developed in the pi-
laster. The pilaster should be stiff enough so the allow-
able flexural tension perpendicular to the bed joints de-
veloped in the panels due to the out-of-plane deflection
of the pilaster is not exceeded. The pilaster must be
rigidly attached to the pile below, and the pile must be
designed to resist all shear and axial loads and over-
turning moments.
Another difference between the pier and panel and
pilaster and panel wall is the placement of expansion
Out-of-Plane Deflection of Panel in
a Pilaster and Panel Wall
FIG. 18
8
joints. Since the pier and panel are not bonded togeth-
er, the in-plane horizontal movement can be accounted
for at the end of each panel. However, this is not the
case with the pilaster and panel wall because they are
integrally bonded together. A vertical break provided
by an expansion joint is necessary to permit horizontal
expansion. The best location for an expansion joint is
at the pilaster and panel intersection. The expansion
joints should not be placed more than a maximum of 30
ft (9.1 m) on center, and the pilaster must not restrict
horizontal in-plane movement due to expansion. Fur-
ther, the connection between pilaster and panel must be
able to resist the out-of-plane loads imposed on it.
Finally, because the pilaster and panel wall are bond-
ed together, the pilaster and panel wall must be built in
place. Forms or centering must support the panel dur-
ing construction and can only be removed after the wall
is adequately cured. However, a continuous footing
running between the piles could be used to support the
dead weight of the panel.
Cantilever Walls
The cantilever wall acts, as its name implies, like a
vertical cantilever supported on a continuous footing.
Unlike the panel walls, this type of wall is subjected
primarily to out-of-plane bending (Fig. 19). The can-
tilever wall must be built of either reinforced grouted
hollow or multi-wythe masonry (Fig. 20). To function
properly this wall must be supported on a continuous
foundation, usually made of reinforced concrete. The
foundation must be designed to support the weight of
the wall and be able to resist rotation caused by out-of-
plane loads imposed on the wall. The reinforced ma-
sonry wall is anchored to the foundation by steel rein-
forcement placed in the cells of hollow masonry or be-
tween wythes in a multi-wythe wall. The steel rein-
forcement should be designed to resist the flexural ten-
sion developed in the wall and be fully developed in
both the foundation and grouted masonry.
Out-of-Plane Deflection of Cantilever Wall
FIG. 19

Cantilever Wall Cross Sections
FIG. 20
Expansion joints should be placed at a maximum of
30 ft (9.1 m) on center and may be detailed in a stag-
gered fashion for multi-wythe construction (Fig. 21).
Staggered Expansion Joint
FIG. 21
9
This detail ensures that the sound from a highway can-
not pass directly through the wall if the sealants fail.
Other Load Considerations
Foundations. Additional stresses can be introduced
in brick masonry noise barrier walls by differential set-
tlement or rotation of the foundation system. Soil con-
ditions should be evaluated to keep both differential
settlement and differential rotation to a minimum in all
wall systems. However, horizontal reinforcement can
be used to resist in-plane loads resulting from differen-
tial settlement in pilaster and panel and in cantilever
walls. Further, more frequent spacing of vertical ex-
pansion joints can reduce the effect of differential set-
tlement in these walls.
Traffic Impact. The possibility of vehicles hitting a
noise barrier wall must be considered. This is of spe-
cial concern if the wall is immediately adjacent to the
shoulder. Concrete deflector barriers are recommended
in this instance, and any time such devices are used
traffic impact loads on the noise barrier walls need not
be considered. If traffic can reach the noise barrier
wall, then these additional loads must be considered.
Horizontal and vertical reinforcement may be necessary
in the brick noise barrier wall to add ductility and post-
cracking integrity.
Due to the varying traffic and site conditions it is be-
yond the scope of this Technical Notes to evaluate traf-
fic impact effects. Local highway officials should be
consulted to establish these design parameters.
Seismic. If brick masonry noise barrier walls are
built in Seismic Zones 2, 3, or 4, they must be rein-
forced with a minimum amount of horizontal and verti-
cal reinforcement. These reinforcement requirements
can be found in the local building codes. Moreover, an
analysis should be made to ensure that sufficient rein-
forcement is present to resist the seismic forces.
CONSTRUCTION AND DETAILING
CONSIDERATIONS
Good workmanship and detailing are key to the suc-
cess of all masonry assemblages, including noise barri-
er walls. Full head and bed joints and proper location
and installation of reinforcement, ties, flashing and ex-
pansion joints is required for proper performance. Any
unfilled joint will result in water penetration and will
degrade the effectiveness of the noise barrier wall.
Proper mixing and consistency between batches of
mortar and grout is necessary. All spaces to be grouted
must be completely filled, and grouting procedures
found in the local building codes must be followed.
Generally, Type S mortar as specified by proportion in
ASTM C 270 Mortar for Unit Masonry is recommend-
ed for construction of noise barrier walls. Grout should
conform to ASTM C 476 Specification for Grout for
Masonry.
Two critical details in a noise barrier wall are the lo-
cation and placement of copings and flashing. Copings
should project beyond the faces of the wall a minimum
of 1 in. (2.5 cm) on both sides. Stone or masonry cop-
ings should have a minimum slope of 15 degrees from
horizontal and contain a positive drip to keep water
from flowing down the face of the wall. It is important
that the copings be anchored to the brick wall with met-
al anchors or bolts, especially in high wind and seismic
areas. Natural stone, cast stone, terra cotta, metals, and
brick are suitable for copings. If metal copings are
used, they should extend down each side of the wall a
minimum of 4 in. (10 cm). A sealant should be placed
between the metal coping and the wall to prevent wind
uplift and water penetration (Fig. 22). When stone or
concrete copings are used, an elastic sealant should be
placed between the head joints of the coping pieces
(Fig. 23). If brick is used as a coping (Fig. 24), it may
be prudent to use units which have the same physical
requirements as brick pavers. ASTM C 902 Standard
Specification for Pedestrian and Light Traffic Paving
Brick is the specification for these units. However,
brick units which have been used successfully as a cop-
ing in the past, should be adequate.
Metal Coping
FIG. 22
Stone Coping
FIG. 23
10
Brick Coping
FIG. 24
Through-wall flashing is required directly under the
coping. The flashing should extend beyond the faces of
the wall to form a drip. All penetrations through the
flashing made by the anchors must be adequately
sealed with a compatible material.
Brick in noise barrier walls should not be in direct
contact with the ground. Salt laden ground water could
be absorbed into the brick causing efflorescence or
spalling in the lower courses. In some instances it may
be visually and functionally necessary to have the base
of the wall in contact with the ground. In these cases,
gravel instead of earth should be placed in contact with
the wall. The gravel not only keeps ground water from
being absorbed by the brick masonry but also keeps the
lower courses free from staining by rain-splashed earth.
MAINTENANCE CONSIDERATIONS
Brick masonry walls maintain their aesthetic appeal
and remain virtually maintenance free throughout their
life. The expansion joint sealant and any sealants used
in conjunction with copings are the only elements in
the wall which will require intermittent inspection and
maintenance.
In some areas the noise barrier wall may be subject-
ed to graffiti. In such an instance, an anti-graffiti coat-
ing should be considered. However, some coatings
may reduce the durability of clay brick. Also, to re-
main effective, these materials may have to be reap-
plied.
Further, sufficient rights-of-way should be estab-
lished where possible to allow for accumulations of
snow on the leeward side of the wall. The location and
alignment of noise barriers should be analyzed in order
to prevent or reduce problems of drifting snow across
roadways.
SUMMARY
Because our national highway system has grown sig-
nificantly over the last few decades, public awareness
of traffic noise in neighborhood communities has in-
creased. Neighborhood associations and governmental
bodies look for ways to reduce traffic noise without ad-
versely affecting the surrounding environment. A solu-
tion to this problem lies in brick masonry noise barrier
walls. Brick masonry noise barrier walls can easily
blend into the environment and give residential com-
munities protection from highway noise.
The information and suggestions contained in this
Technical Notes are based on the available data and the
experience of the technical staff of the Brick Institute of
America. The information and recommendations con-
tained in this publication must be used in conjunction
with good engineering judgment and a basic under-
standing of the properties of brick masonry and related
construction materials. Final decisions on the use of the
information contained in this Technical Notes are not
within the purview of the Brick Institute of America and
must rest with the project designer, owner or both.
REFERENCES
1. Noise Barrier Design Handbook, Report No.
FHWA-RD-76-58, United States Department of
Transportation, Federal Highway Administra-
tion, 1976.
2. A Guide to Visual Quality in Noise Barrier De-
sign, Implementation Package 77-12, United
States Department of Transportation, Federal
Highway Administration, 1977.
3. Guide Specifications for Structural Design of
Sound Barriers, American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials, 1989.
4. Technical Notes on Brick Constru c t i o n 5 A ,
Sound Insulation-Clay Masonry Walls, Brick In-
stitute of America, Aug. 1986.

TABLE 1
Physical Properties of Noise Barrier Wall Materials

Material Thickness, Surface Area Weight Transmission

in. (cm) lb/sq ft (kPa) Loss, dB

Wood
Pine 1/2 (1.3) 1.5 (0.01) 16
2 (5.1) 6.2 (0.30) 23

Redwood 1/2 (1.3) 1.1 (0.05) 16

2 (5.1) 4.3 (0.21) 23

Cedar 1/2 (1.3) 1.1 (0.05) 15

2 (5.1) 4.3 (0.21) 22

Metal
Aluminum 1/16 (0.16) .91 (0.04) 23
1/4 (0.63) 3.6 (0.17) 27

Steel 1/32 (0.08) 1.3 (0.06) 15

1/16 (0.16) 2.6 (0.12) 22

Concrete
Light Weight 4 (10.2) 40 (1.9) 36
6 (15.2) 60 (2.9) 39

Sand - Gravel 4 (10.2) 48 (2.3) 40

Masonry
Concrete Block 3.6 (9.2) 22 (1.0) 32
5.6 (14.3) 33 (1.6) 36

Clay Brick 3.6 (9.2) 36 (1.7) 40

5.6 (14.3) 56 (4.6) 47

Reinforced Brick
Masonry Wall1 10 (25.4) 100 (4.8) 56

1Grouted cavity is 2 3/4 in.

11
 Technical Notes 45A

on Brick Construction
Brick Industry Association 11490 Commerce Park Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191
April
1992

BRICK MASONRY NOISE BARRIER WALLS

STRUCTURAL DESIGN
Abstract: Rationally designed brick masonry noise barrier walls provide an attractive wall form with
reliable structural function. This Technical Notes addresses the structural design of pier and panel,
pilaster and panel, and cantilever brick noise harrier walls. Suggested design methodology and design
examples are provided. The information presented in this Technical Notes can be applied with slight
modifications to the many design schemes and loading demands of noise barrier walls. The result is
an attractive noise barrier wall with the durability and versatility inherent in brick masonry structures.
Key Words: brick, cantilever, noise barrier, pier, pilaster, structural design, wall system.

INTRODUCTION Fb Allowable compressive stress in masonry due to

Technical Notes 45 presented an introduction to flexure only, psi
acoustical, visual, structural, and construction considera- fm Compressive stress in masonry, psi
tions for brick masonry noise barrier walls. In continuation f’m Specified compressive strength of masonry, psi
of the series, this Technical Notes addresses structural
fs Calculated tensile or compressive stress in rein
design considerations in greater detail and provides
design examples. Recommended procedures are present- forcement, psi
ed on the structural design of the wall system assuming Fs Allowable tensile or compressive stress in rein
acoustic and visual considerations are previously forcement, psi
addressed. Design recommendations for noise barrier ft Calculated tensile stress in masonry, psi
wall footings and caissons have not been addressed in Ft Allowable flexural tensile stress in masonry, psi
this Technical Notes.
fv Calculated shear stress in masonry, psi
A design approach is presented which follows criteria
contained in the Building Code Requirements for Masonry Fv Allowable shear stress in masonry, psi
Structures (ACI 530/ASCE 5/TMS 402-92) and, where fy Specified yield stress for reinforcement, psi
applicable, the Load and Resistance Factor Design h Height of wall or panel, ft
Manual of Steel ConstructionóFirst Edition (AISC LRFD). Icr Moment of inertia of cracked masonry cross sec
Refer to Technical Notes 3 series for a discussion of the 4
ACI/ASCE/TMS document. tion, in.
4
1 Ie Effective moment of inertia, in.
NOTATION
2
Ig Moment of inertia of uncracked masonry cross
As Area of steel, in. 4
section, in.
b Width of section, in.
Ix Moment of inertia of steel pier about the strong
c Distance from extreme compression fiber to the
4
neutral axis of the cross section, in. axis, in.
d Distance from extreme compression fiber to the j Ratio of distance between centroid of flexural
centroid of tension reinforcement, in. compressive forces and centroid of tensile forces
Em Modulus of elasticity of masonry in compression, to depth
psi k Ratio of distance between compression face and
Es Modulus of elasticity of steel, psi neutral axis to distance between compression
face and centroid of tensile forces
fa Calculated compressive stress in masonry due to
M Design moment, ft-lb
axial load only, psi Mn Nominal moment strength, ft-lb
fcr Modulus of rupture, psi
Mo Overturning moment, ft-lb
fb Calculated compressive stress in masonry due to
Mpx Moment due to spanning between piers, ft-lb
flexure only, psi
1
Metric equivalents:
1 in. = 25.4 mm 1 lb = 4.448 N
2
1 psi = 0.006895 N/mm 1 ft = 0.3048 m
 Mpy Moment induced by Mpx due to plate effects, ft-lb
Mr Resisting moment, ft-lb
Mu Ultimate moment strength, ft-lb
Mw Moment due to spanning between caissons, ft-lb
n Elastic moduli ratio, E s/Em
P Design axial load, lb
p Reinforcement ratio, As/bd
r Radius of gyration, in.
t Thickness of wall or panel, in.
V Design shear force, lb
Vn Nominal shear strength, lb
Vpx Shear due to spanning between piers, lb
Vu Ultimate shear strength, lb
W Lateral load, lb/ft
x Width of footing, ft
y Depth of footing, ft
∆ Deflection, in.
øb Resistance factor
SELECTION OF A WALL SYSTEM
As discussed in Technical Notes 45, there are three
typical brick masonry noise barrier wall systems: can-
tilever walls, pier and panel walls, and pilaster and panel
walls. Preliminary consideration of design parameters can
help select the wall system that is most appropriate and
efficient without having to develop and compare three
separate designs.
Cantilever Noise Barrier Walls
A cantilever wall system is better suited for shorter
noise barriers, i.e. walls that are 12 ft (3.7 m) or less in
height. In most instances, taller cantilever walls are less
desirable because strip footings become too massive.
Cantilever walls are more efficient for shorter heights
because they are likely the easiest and most economical
to construct, and will require the least quality control and
inspection. This is because construction techniques used
are similar to building wall construction familiar to mason
contractors.
Pier and Panel Noise Barrier Walls
Pier and panel wall systems are best for quick site
erection. Brick panels can be prefabricated on or off site,
or laid in place. Also, pier caissons are typically construct-
ed faster and require less concrete than strip footings.
Strip footings under the panel are not required, as the
panel can span from pier to pier. Material costs for pier
and panel wall systems will typically be the least of the
three systems. Disadvantages of the pier and panel sys-
tem include increased construction supervision and
inspection, tight construction tolerances for pier-to-panel
connections, and increased costs to install the panels.
Pilaster and Panel Noise Barrier Walls
Pilaster and panel walls, like pier and panel walls, typ-
ically utilize caissons for quick foundation construction.
Wall construction is done on site, as the panel is built inte-
gral with the pilaster. This requires panel support between
caissons during construction. Supervision and inspection
2
are required to ensure proper construction. However, con-
struction tolerances are more liberal than those for pier
and panel systems. Generally, pilaster and panel wall sys-
tems permit longer pier spacing and taller wall height. A
pilaster and panel wall assembly is structurally more effi-
cient than a pier and panel wall assembly, as a fixed con-
dition may be developed at the pilaster-panel connection.
DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS
It has been widely accepted that masonry stress-
strain behavior is similar to that of concrete. Thus, design
assumptions made for masonry under working stress and
strength conditions are analogous to assumptions made
in concrete design. Figure 1 depicts the assumed stress-
strain relationship for masonry in flexure under working
loads. In all cases, the principles of equilibrium and com-
patibility of strains of masonry materials are assumed to
apply. Assumptions made following a working stress
design are as follows: 1) plane sections before bending
remain plane after bending, 2) moduli of elasticity of
masonry and steel remain constant, 3) reinforcement is
completely bonded to masonry, and 4) in cracked mason-
ry members, the tensile capacity of masonry is neglected.
Straight Line Stress Distribution
FIG. 1
In this Technical Notes, a number of additional
assumptions will be made to facilitate design. It is
assumed that the brick masonry will be reinforced. Most
noise barrier wall applications demand tall slender walls to
meet acoustic requirements and minimize material costs
and land use. Reinforcing is required for brick masonry to
meet these criteria. Additional assumptions placed on
both material properties and wall behavior are as follows.
Material Properties
Grout and concrete are assumed to have compres-
sive strength equal to or greater than the masonry com-
pressive strength, and elastic moduli of the masonry and
the grout are assumed to be equal. The method of trans-
formation of areas may be used in lieu of these assump-
tions.
Wall Behavior
Masonry walls are plate structures. Thus, a masonry
wall loaded perpendicular to its plane will experience
strain along its length and its height. However, the tradi-
tional masonry wall design approach is to use the strip
method. In this method, a one foot wide section of wall is
designed considering one span direction. Strains perpen-
dicular to the strip span direction are ignored. For can-
tilever walls, this method is nearly exact, as plate effects
are negligible. Pier and panel and pilaster and panel
walls, however, exhibit wall behavior which can make
plate effects significant. This does not mean a rigorous
plate analysis is necessary for these walls. Rather, a few
simple observations and assumptions can be made to
simplify design.
For pier and panel and pilaster and panel wall sys-
tems, the panel is subject to three different deflection con-
ditions: a horizontal simple span between piers or
pilasters subject to wind or seismic load, a horizontal sim-
ple span between caissons subject to panel weight, and a
vertical cantilever span subject to deflection of the pier or
pilaster. If the panel is free to deflect both in-plane and
out-of-plane, the moment due to simple spanning between
piers or pilasters, M px, and the moment due to simple
spanning between caissons, M w, are combined by vector
addition to calculate the maximum design moment for the
horizontal span of the panel. However, the panel must be
flush with the ground to avoid noise penetration under the
wall. Thus, the panel may, in fact, be supported along its
entire length by the ground. This is significant, because
the design moment in this case is solely Mpx, the moment
about the weak axis of the panel. This condition will
require the most amount of horizontal reinforcement for
the panel. In the panel design examples that follow it is
assumed that the ground supports the entire length of the
panel.
Because of plate effects, M px will induce moment
about the horizontal axis as well, denoted as Mpy. The
strip solution does not and cannot calculate Mpy, as plate
effects are ignored in this method. However, plate analy-
sis shows that M py can be significant and that the ratio of
Mpy to Mpx increases as the height to length ratio of the
panel increases. As an approximation, M py is calculated as
one tenth the height to length ratio times Mpx. M py is a
maximum at the middle of the panel. However, moment
due to vertical cantilever deflection of the wall is a maxi-
mum at the bottom of the panel. Thus, the design moment
about the horizontal axis is the greater of: 1) the moment
due to vertical cantilever deflection at the bottom of the
panel, or 2) the sum of Mpy and the moment due to vertical
cantilever deflection at the middle of the panel.
Vertical cantilever deflection of the panel is a function
of the rigidity of the piers or pilasters. If the piers or
pilasters are very rigid, cantilever deflection of the panel
will be negligible. However, optimal flexural design may
result in less rigid piers or pilasters with considerable
deflection, especially when steel piers are used. Induced
tensile stresses in the panel must be within allowable ten-
sile stresses for unreinforced masonry if the panel cannot
be reinforced in the vertical direction. Thus, deflection cri-
teria will often govern pier and pilaster design.
Reinforced brick masonry pilaster and panel and pier
and panel wall systems are typically very rigid, so deflec-
tions in many cases will be small. However, the deflection
3
of the pilaster must be calculated considering the ratio of
applied moment to cracking moment. Cracking moment is
calculated using the gross moment of inertia of the pier or
pilaster.
In the pilaster and panel design example that follows,
a two span continuous panel is assumed. Thus, the
pilaster panel interface is assumed to be a fixed connec-
tion for the middle pilaster, and a simple connection for
the two exterior supports. This allows for expansion joints
at the simple supports to accommodate horizontal expan-
sion of the panels.
Lastly, compression steel in the pilaster is usually
ignored in design. If consideration of the increased com-
pressive strength due to the compression steel is made,
the steel must be properly confined within the pilaster with
lateral or spiral ties.
DESIGN PROCEDURE
It is important to establish a set design procedure to
ensure an accurate and comprehensive noise barrier wall
design. The following nine steps are presented as a guide
to the structural design of a brick masonry noise barrier
wall. Additional criteria may be warranted for a particular
wall design scheme.
1) Determine required wall height based upon acousti-
cal considerations.
2) Determine critical lateral and axial load combina-
tions on wall elements. Loads should be determined
according to the recommendations of the local building
code or as contained in the document Minimum Design
Loads for Buildings and Other Structures (ASCE 7). For
the examples that follow, inertial wall force due to seismic
base shear is divided by wall surface area for comparison
with wind loads.
3) To determine required reinforcement, assume
j = 0.9:
As req’d = M/Fsjd
4) Calculate masonry compressive stresses and the
steel tensile stress:
2
fb = 2M/jkbd
fa = P/bkd
fs = M/Asjd
5) Check the allowable compressive stress in mason-
ry and the tensile stress in steel (Table 1). Axial compres-
sion and buckling seldom govern design of noise barrier
wall elements. However, axial compression must be
included to calculate the maximum flexural compression.
Note that allowable stresses for wind or seismic load con-
ditions may be increased by one-third over those given in
Table 1.
6) Calculate shear stress:
fv = V/bjd
 TABLE 1 9) Calculate overturning and resisting moments, and
Summary of ACI 530/ASCE 5/TMS sliding resistance (Fig.2). These are functions of the wall,
402 Allowable Stresses
1
footing, and caisson dimensions, as well as the soil pres-
sure resistance. The factor of safety is the ratio of resist-
ing moment, M r, to the overturning moment, Mo. A factor of
Allowable Flexural Compressive Stress safety of 2 or greater is recommended.
Fb = 1/3 f’m

Allowable Shear Stress for Flexural Members DESIGN EXAMPLES

Where reinforcement is not provided to resist entire shear: Design Example #1: Hollow Brick Cantilever Noise
Fv = √ f’m not to exceed 50 psi Barrier Wall
Where reinforcement is provided to resist entire shear: Type S portland cement/lime mortar, f’m = 3600 psi,
6
Fv = 3.0 √ f’m not to exceed 150 psi Em = 3.0 X 10 psi
Allowable Steel Stress Wall dimensions shown in Fig. 3, running bond, face
Grade 40 or 50 reinforcement Fs = 20 ksi shell bedding
Grade 60 reinforcement Fs = 24 ksi 6
Grade 60 reinforcement, E s = 29 X 10 psi, n = 9.7
Wire reinforcement Fs = 30 ksi
Loads: wind = 20 psf, wall weight =73 psi
1
Allowable stresses for wind and seismic loading conditions may be
increased by one-third.

7) Check the allowable shear stress in masonry

(Table 1). If exceeded, member must be reinforced for
shear and the shear stress checked.
8) Design the pier or pilaster, if applicable. If the pier
or pilaster is made of reinforced masonry, design will fol-
low steps 3 through 7. If a steel pier is used, follow the
design recommendations given in the Load and
Resistance Factor Design Manual of Steel Construction.
Flexural tensile stresses developed in unreinforced
masonry panels due to pier or pilaster deflection may not
exceed the allowable flexural tensile stresses given in
Table 2.
TABLE 2
ACI 530/ASCE 5/TMS 402
Allowable Flexural Tension Stress for
1
Unreinforced Masonry, psi

Mortar Type
Masonry cement
Portland and air entrained
cement/lime portland Wall/Footing Forces
Direction of Stress cement/lime FIG. 2
Masonry Type M or S N M or S N

Normal to bed joints Step 1: Based on acoustical considerations, the wall

Solid units 40 30 24 15 height shall be 10 ft minimum.
Hollow units Step 2: Critical load combinations result in the follow-
Ungrouted 25 19 15 9 ing design values (per ft of wall):
Fully grouted2 68 58 41 26 2 2
M = (0.5) (W) (h) = (0.5)(20 psf)(10 ft) = 1000 ft-lb
Parallel to bed joints in V = (W)(h) = (20 psf)(10 ft) = 200 lb
running bond P = (wall weight)(h) = (73 psf)(10 ft) = 730 lb
Solid units 80 60 48 30
Step 3: Calculate required reinforcement.
Hollow units
Ungrouted & partially 50 38 30 19
grouted As req’d = M = 1000 ft-lb (12 in./ft)
Fully grouted 80 60 48 30 Fsjd (4/3)(24 ksi)(0.9)(7.63 in./2)
1 2
Allowable stresses for wind and seismic loading conditions may be increased by = 0.109 in.
one-third.
2
For partially grouted masonry allowable stresses shall be determined on the basis
of linear interpolation between hollow units which are fully grouted or ungrouted
and hollow units based on amount of grouting.
Try #5 bars @32 in. o.c., As = 0.115 in. per foot of
2
Step 5: Check compressive stress in masonry and
the tensile stress in steel.
wall (Table 3).
2
pn = Asn = (0.115 in. )(9.7) = 0.0244 Fb = 4/3(1/3f’m) = 1600 psi
bd (12 in.)(7.63 in./2) fm = fa + f b = 81 psi + 744 psi
= 825 psi < 1600 psi OK
k= √ (pn) +2pn - pn
2

Fs = 4/3(24 ksi) = 32 ksi > 29.3 ksi OK

= √ (0.0244)2 + 2(0.0244) - (0.0244) = 0.198
j = 1-k/3 = 0.934 Step 6: Calculate shear stress.
kd = (0.198)(7.63 in./2) = 0.755 in. < 1.5 in., within
face shell, OK fv = V = 200 lb = 4.7 psi
bjd (12 in)(0.934)(7.63 in./2)
Step 4: Calculate the masonry compressive stress
and the steel tensile stress. Step 7: Check shear stress.

fb = 2M = 2(1000 ft-lb)(12 in./ft) Fv = 4/3 √ f’m = 80 psi, 4/3 (50 psi) = 67 psi maximum
jkbd
2
(0.934)(0.198)(12 in.)(7.63 in./2)
2 Thus, F v = 67 psi > 4.7 psi OK
= 744 psi
Step 8: Does not apply.

TABLE 3 Step 9: Neglect the soil pressure resistance to over-

Reinforcement turning. Calculate overturning and resisting moments,
and the safety factor on overturning (Fig. 2). Note:
Plaster & Pier Reinforcement Sliding must also be considered. Sliding is a function
2 of the soil conditions, and is beyond the scope of this
Rebar # Bar Diameter, in. Bar Area, in.
Technical Notes.
3 0.375 0.110
4 0.500 0.196 Mo = (W)(h)(moment arm about toe of footing)
5 0.625 0.307 = (20 psf)(10 ft)(5 ft +y)
6 0.750 0.442 Mr = [P + (footing unit weight)(xy)](x/2)
7 0.875 0.601
8 1.000 0.785 = [730 lb + (150 pcf)(xy)] (x/2)
9 1.128 0.999
10 1.270 1.267 Try a 2 ft x 4 ft footing
11 1.410 1.561
Mo = 1400 ft-lb Mr = 3860 ft-lb
1
Joint Reinforcement
Wire Size Gage Diameter, in. 2 F.S. = M r = 2.8 > 2 OK
Area, in.
Mo
W1.1 11 0.121 0.011
W1.7 9 0.148 0.017
W2.1 8 0.162 0.021 Design Example #2: Steel Pier with 4 Inch Panel
W2.8 3/16 0.188 0.028 Noise Barrier Wall
W4.9 1/4 0.250 0.049
Type S portland cement/lime mortar, f’m = 3000 psi,
6

1
Em = 2.8 X 10 psi
Area of steel listed is for one wire.
Wall dimensions shown in Fig. 4
fa = P = 730 lb = 81 psi Running bond, full bedding, spacing of piers shall be
15ft
bkd (12 in.)(0.198)(7.63 in./2)
Ladder type joint reinforcement: fy = 80 ksi,
6
fs = M = 1000 ft-lb (12 in./ft) Es = 29 X 10 psi, n= 10.4
2 6
Asjd (0.115 in. )(0.934)(7.63 in./2) Pier I-beam: Grade 50 W Section, Es = 29 x 10 psi
= 29.3 ksi Loads: wind = 15psf, panel weight = 40psf,
seismic = 25psf

5
Noise Barrier Wall Design Example #1
Hollow Brick Cantilever Wall
FIG. 3

Noise Barrier Wall Design Example #2

Steel Pier With 4 Inch Panel
FIG. 4

6
 TABLE 4
2 1

Step 1: Based on acoustical considerations, the wall Area of Steel Per Vertical Foot of Wall (in. )
height shall be 16 ft minimum.
Joint Reinforcement Brick Height
Step 2: Critical load combinations result in the follow- Size Course 2.25 in. 2.75 in. 3.63 in.
ing design values:
a) For the panel span between piers (per foot of wall): W1.1 every 0.050 0.041 0.033
alternate 0.025 0.021 0.017
2 third 0.017 0.014 0.011
Mpx = (1/8)(W)(L) = (1/8)(25 psf)(15 ft) = 703 ft-lb
W1.7 every 0.077 0.064 0.051
Mpy = (1/10)(h/L)(Mpx) = (1/10)(16 ft/15 ft)(703 ft-lb) alternate 0.038 0.032 0.026
= 75 ft-lb third 0.026 0.021 0.017
Vpx = (0.5)(W)(L) = (0.5)(25 psf)(15 ft) = 188 lb W2.1 every 0.095 0.079 0.063
alternate 0.047 0.039 0.032
third 0.032 0.026 0.021
b) For the panel span between caissons, assume the W2.8 every 0.126 0.110 0.084
panel is supported along its entire base by the alternate 0.063 0.053 0.042
ground. third 0.042 0.035 0.028
W4.9 every 0.221 0.184 0.147
c) For an interior steel pier: alternate 0.110 0.092 0.074
third 0.074 0.061 0.049
2 2
M = (0.5)(2)(V px)(h) = (0.5)(2)(188 lb/ft)(16 ft)
= 48,130 ft-lb
1
Area of steel listed is for one wire.
Mu = 1.3 M = 1.3 (48,130 ft-lb) = 62,570 ft-lb
Step 4: Calculate the masonry compressive stress
V = (2)(V px)(h) = (2)(188 lb/ft)(16 ft) = 6016 lb and the steel tensile stress.

Vu = 1.3V = 1.3(6016 lb) = 7820 lb fb = 2M px = 2 (703 ft-lb)(12 in/ft)

2 2
jkbd (0.936)(0.19)(12 in.)(3 in.)
Step 3: Calculate required reinforcement for the panel = 878 psi
for the design moment Mpx. Assume the distance
from the extreme compression face to the joint rein- fs = M px = (703 ft-lb)(12 in/ft)
forcement is 3 inches. 2
Asjd (0.077 in. )(0.936)(3in.)
As req’d = M px = 703 ft-lb (12 in/ft) = 39 ksi
Fsjd (4/3)(30 ksi)(0.9)(3 in)

Try ladder type W1.7 wire reinforcement in every Step 5: Check compressive stress in masonry and
course, with a 2.25 in. high brick. the tensile stress in steel.

2 Fb = 4/3(1/3 f’m) = 1333 psi > 878 psi OK

Therefore, As = 0.077 in. per foot of panel (Table 4).

2
Fs= 4/3 (30 ksi) = 40 ksi > 39 ksi OK
pn = Asn = (0.077 in. )(10.4) = 0.0222
bd (12 in.)(3 in.) Step 6: Calculate shear stress.

k= √ (pn) + 2pn - pn
2
fv = V px = 188 lb = 6 psi

= √ (0.0222)2 + 2(0.0222) - (0.0222) = 0.19

bjd (12 in.)(0.936)(3 in.)

Step 7: Check shear stress.

j = 1 - k/3 = 0.936
Fv = 4/3 √ f’m = 73 psi, 4/3 (50 psi) = 67 psi maximum
Thus, F v = 67 psi > 6 psi OK

7

Step 8: Assume the pier design will be governed by
deflection limitations of the panel, not the required
flexural strength of the pier. Calculate the maximum
vertical cantilever deflection the panel may undergo
without exceeding the allowable tensile stress value
for the panel found in Table 2. From Table 2:
Ft = 4/3 (40 psi) = 53 psi
2) w max = 8(M max - Mpy) = 8(1740 ft-lb - 75 ft-lb)
2 2
L (16 ft)
Therefore, w max = 13.6 lb/ft. Calculate the
corresponding deflection of the panel.
4 4 2 2
∆max = w maxL = (13.6 lb/ft)(16 ft) (144 in. /ft )
8IgEm
3
8[1/12(15 ft)(3.63 in) ](2.8 X 10 psi)
6

= 0.096 in.
The maximum moment that may be applied to the
panel within the allowable tensile stress is calculated Based on ∆max and the out-of-plane load on the pier,
as follows:
2Vpx , calculate the minimum required moment of iner-
3
Mmax = F tIg = (53 psi)(1/12)(15 ft)(3.63 in.) tia of the pier.
c (3.63 in./2) 4 4 3

= 1740 ft-lb Ixreq’d = 2V pxL = 2(188lb/ft)(16 ft) (1728 in.3/ft )

6
8Es∆max 8 (29 X 10 psi)(0.096 in.)
Calculate the maximum load per vertical foot, wmax, 4
= 1912 in.
which may be applied to the panel without exceeding
4 4
Mmax in the panel. Two locations must be considered: Try a W 24 X 76, Ix = 2100 in. > 1912 in. OK
1) the bottom of the panel where the moment due to
vertical cantilever deflection is a maximum and 2) the Check the moment strength of the pier:
middle of the panel where the combination of Mpy and
øbMn = 528 ft-kip > Mu = 62.6 ft-kip OK
the moment due to vertical cantilever deflection is a
maximum.

1) wmax = 2M max = 2(1740 ft-lb) = 13.6 lb/ft Check shear strength of the pier:
L
2
(16 ft)
2
øbVn = (0.9)(0.6)(fy)(Aweb)
= (0.9)(0.6)(50 ksi)(21 in)(0.44 in) = 249 kips

Noise Barrier Wall Design Example #3

Reinforced Brick Pier and 4 Inch Panel
FIG. 5

8
 the extreme compression face to the joint reinforce-
Vu = 78 kips < 249 kips OK ment is 3 inches.

Step 9: Sliding and overturning resistance of the cais-

2
son is a function of the lateral soil pressure and is As = 0.026 in. per foot of panel (Table 4).
beyond the scope of this Technical Notes. 2
pn = Asn = (0.026 in. )(9.7) = 0.007
Design Example #3: Reinforced Brick Masonry bd (12 in)(3 in)
Pier and 4 Inch Panel Noise Barrier Wall
k= √ (pn) + 2pn - pn
2

Type S portland cement/lime mortar, f’m = 3500 psi,

6 = √ (0.007) + 2(0.007) 2
- (0.007) = 0.111
Em = 3.0 X10 psi
j = 1 - k/3 = 0.963
Wall dimensions shown in Fig. 5, running bond, full Mpx = AsFsjd
bedding 2

W1.7 ladder type joint reinforcement in every third = (0.026 in. )(4/3)(30 ksi)(0.963)(3in./12 in./ft)
course, brick height is 2.25 in. = 249 ft-lb

6 Set the maximum allowable moment equal to the

Joint reinforcement: f y = 80 ksi, E s = 29 X 10 psi, applied moment to calculate the maximum permissi-
n= 9.7 ble pier spacing.
6 2
Pier reinforcement: f y = 60 ksi, E s = 29 X 10 psi, Mpx = 249 ft-lb = 2.5 L
n= 9.7 Lmax = 9.97 ft, try a pier spacing of 9 ft
Mpx = 2.5 (9ft)2 = 203 ft-lb
Loads: wind = 20psf, seismic = 16 psf, panel weight
= 40 psf, pier weight = 120 pcf
Step 4: Calculate the masonry compressive stress
The maximum permissible span between piers and the steel tensile stress.
will be used based on the given amount of joint
reinforcement. fb = 2M px = 2(203 ft-lb)(12in/ft) = 422 psi
2 2
jkbd (0.963)(0.111)(12 in)(3 in.)
Step 1: Based on acoustical considerations, the wall
height shall be 10 ft minimum. fs = Mpx = (203 ft-lb)(12 in/ft) = 32.4 ksi
2
Step 2: Critical load combinations result in the follow- Asjd (0.026 in. )(0.963)(3 in)
ing design values:
a) For the panel span between piers (L is in feet)(per Step 5: Check the compressive stress in masonry
foot of panel): and the tensile stress in steel.
2 2 2
Mpx = (1/8)(W)(L) = (1/8)(20 psf)L = 2.5 L Fb = 4/3(1/3 f’m) = 1555 psi > 422 psi OK
Vpx = (0.5)(W)(L) = (0.5)(20 psf)L = 10L Fs = 4/3(30 ksi) = 40 ksi > 32.4 ksi OK
b) For the panel span between caissons, assume the
panel is supported along its entire base by the Step 6: Calculate shear stress.
ground.
c) For an interior brick masonry pier: fv = Vpx = 10(9 ft) = 3 psi
bjd (12 in)(0.963)( 3 in)
2 2
M = (0.5)(2)(V px)(h) = (0.5)(2)(10L)(10 ft) = 1000 L
Step 7: Check shear stress.
V = (2)(V px)(h) = (2)(10 L)(10 ft) = 200 L
Fv = 4/3 √ f’ m = 79 psi, 4/3 (50 psi) = 67 psi maximum
P = (pier weight)(b)(t)(h)
= (120 pcf)(15.63 in.)(19.63 in.)(10 ft) = 2557 lb Thus, F v = 67 psi > 3 psi OK
Step 8: Design the reinforced brick masonry pier.
Step 3: Calculate the maximum permissible spacing Repeat steps 3 through 7 with the following design
of piers with the given joint reinforcement based on values:
the design moment, M px. Assume the distance from

9
M = 1000 L = 1000 (9 ft) = 9000 ft-lb With pier designed, check the induced vertical can-
V = 200 L = 200 (9 ft) = 1800 lb tilever deflection in the panel. Tensile stresses must
be within those given in Table 2 for unreinforced
masonry. Determine if the pier is cracked. Assume
Step 3a: Calculate required pier reinforcement. that the modulus of rupture, fcr, for solid brick masonry
is equal to 2 √ f’m = 118 psi (Ref. UBC 91).
As req’d = M = (9000 ft-lb)(12 in/ft)
3 3

Fsjd (4/3)(24 ksi)(0.9)(14.5 in) Ig = (1/12)(b)(t pier) = (1/12)(15.63 in)(19.63 in)

4

= 0.259 in.
2
= 9850 in
4
Mc = f crIg = (118 psi)(9850 in ) = 9870 ft-lb
Try 2 #5 bars, per bar (Table 3). Ignore compression c (0.5)(19.63 in)(12 in/ft)
steel.
M = 9000 ft-lb < 9870 ft-lb. Thus, the pilaster is not
2
pn = Asn = (0.307 in )(9.7) = 0.013 cracked under service loads. Calculate the deflection
bd (15.63 in.)(14.5 in.) of the pier based on uncracked section properties:

√ (pn) +pn - pn
4 4 3 3

k=
2
∆ = 2V pxh = 2(90 lb/ft)(10 ft) (1728 in /ft )

= √ (0.013) + 2 (0.013) - (0.013) = 0.149

6 4
2 8EmIg 8(3 X 10 psi)(9850 in )
j = 1 - k/3 = 0.95 = 0.013 in.

Step 4a: Calculate the masonry compressive stress Calculate the induced moment on the panel assuming
and the steel tensile stress. the panel must maintain the curvature of the pier:

fb = 2M = 2(9000 ft-lb)(12 in/ft) wpanel = 8EmIpanel∆

4

jkbd
2
(0.95)(0.149)(15.63 in)(14.5 in)
2 h
6 3
= 8(3 X10 psi)[(1/12)(9 ft)(3.63 in) ](0.013 in)
4 2 2
= 458 psi (10 ft) (144 in /ft )
= 7.9 lb/ft
fa = P = 2557 lb = 75 psi
2 2
bkd (15.63 in)(0.149)(14.5 in) Mbase = (0.5)(w panel)(h) = (0.5)(7.9 lb/ft)(10 ft)
= 395 ft-lb
fs = M = (9000 ft-lb)(12 in/ft) = 25.5 ksi
2
Asjd (0.307 in )(0.95)(14.5 in) Calculate the flexural tensile stress in the panel at the
bottom of the wall.
Step 5a: Check compressive stress in masonry and
the tensile stress in steel. ft = Mbasec = (395 ft-lb)(3.63 in/2) = 20 psi
3
Ipanel (1/12)(9 ft)(3.63 in)
Fb = 4/3(1/3 f ’m) = 1555 psi
fm = f a + fb = 75 psi + 458 psi Check the allowable tensile stress value given in
= 533 psi < 1555 psi OK Table 2 :

Fs = 4/3 (24 ksi) = 32 ksi > 25.5 ksi OK Ft = 4/3 (40 psi) = 53 psi > 20 psi OK
Finally, the combination of M py and the moment due to
Step 6a: Calculate shear stress. vertical cantilever deflection at the middle of the panel
must be checked.
fv = V = 1800 lb = 8 psi
Mpy = (1/10)(h/L)(Mpx) = (1/10)(10 ft/9 ft)(203 ft-lb)
bjd (15.63 in)(0.95)(14.5 in)
= 23 ft-lb
2

Step 7a: Check shear stress. M = M py + (1/8)(wpanel)(h)

2
= 23 ft-lb + (1/8)(7.9 lb/ft)(10 ft) = 122 ft-lb
Fv = 4/3 √ f’m = 79 psi, 4/3 (50 psi) = 67 psi maximum
Mbase = 395 ft-lb > 122 ft-lb, therefore, OK. If M is greater
Thus, F v = 67 psi > 8 psi OK than Mbase, use M to calculate ft and check the allowable
tensile stress, Ft
10
Step 9: Sliding and overturning resistance of the cais-
son is a function of the lateral soil pressure and is
beyond the scope of this Technical Notes.
Design Example #4: Reinforced Brick Pilaster and
6 inch Panel Noise Barrier Wall
Type S portland cement/lime mortar, f’m = 3000 psi,
6
Em = 2.9 X 10 psi
Wall dimensions shown in Fig. 6.
Running bond, face shell bedding, spacing of pilasters
shall be l0 ft
Ladder type joint reinforcement: fy = 80 ksi,
6 c) For the pilaster:
Es = 29 X 10 psi, n = 10
6 2
Pier reinforcement: f y = 40 ksi, E s= 29 X 10 psi, n= 10
Loads: wind= 15 psf, panel weight= 40 psf,
pilaster weight = 120 pcf
a) For the panel span between piers, assume a two
span continuous condition. The critical cross section
is at the support or pilaster. Thus, joint reinforcement
must be continuous through the pilaster.
2 2
Mpx = (1/8)(W)(L) = (1/8)(15 psf)(10 ft) =188 ft-lb/ftof
panel
Vpx = (0.625)(W)(L) = (0.625)(15 psf)(10 ft) = 94 lb/ft of
panel
b) For the panel span between caissons, consider the
panel as entirely supported by the ground.
2
M = (0.625)(W)(L)(h) = (0.625)(15 psf)(10 ft)(6 ft)
= 3375 ft-lb
V = (1.25)(W)(L)(h) = (1.25)(15 psf)(10 ft)(6 ft)=1125 lb

Step 1: Based on acoustical considerations, the wall P = (pilaster weight)(b)(t)(h)

height shall be 6 ft minimum. = (120 pcf)(11.63 in)(11.63 in)(6 ft) = 676 lb

Step 2: Critical load combinations result in the follow- Step 3: Calculate required reinforcement for the panel
ing design values: for the design moment, Mpx. Assume the distance
from the extreme compression face to the joint rein-
forcement is 4.9 inches.

Noise Barrier Wall Design Example #4

Reinforced Brick Pilaster and 6 Inch Panel
FIG. 6

11
 Step 3a: Calculate required pilaster reinforcement.
As req’d = Mpx = (188 ft-lb)(12 in/ft)
Fsjd (4/3)(30 ksi)(0.9)(4.9 in) As req’d = M = (3375 ft-lb)(12 in/ft)
2 fsjd (4/3)(20 ksi)(0.9)(9 in)
= 0.013 in 2
= 0.188 in
Try W1.7 ladder type joint reinforcement in every third
course, brick height is 3.63 in. 2
Try 4 #3 bars, As = 0.22 in per pair of bars (Table 3).
2 Ignore compression steel.
From Table 4, As = 0.017 in per vertical foot of panel.
2 2
pn = Asn = (0.017 in )(10) = 0.003 pn = Asn = (0.22 in )(10) = 0.021
bd (12 in)(4.9 in) bd (11.63 in)(9 in)
k= √ (pn) + 2pn - pn
2

k= √ (pn) + 2pn - pn
2

= √ (0.021) + 2 (0.021) - (0.021)

2
= 0.185
= √ (0.003) + 2(0.003)
2
- (0.003) = 0.073 j = 1 - k/3 = 0.938
j = 1 - k/3 = 0.976
Step 4a: Calculate the masonry compressive stress
kd = (0.073)(4.9 in) and the steel tensile stress.
= 0.36 in < 1.25 in, within face shell, OK
fb = 2M = 2(3375 ft-lb)(12 in/ft)
Step 4: Calculate the masonry compressive stress 2 2
jkbd (0.938)(0.185)(11.63in)(9 in)
and the steel tensile stress.
= 496 psi
fb = 2M px = 2(188 ft-lb)(12 in/ft)
2 2
fa = P = 676 lb = 35 psi
jkbd (0.976)(0.073)(12 in)(4.9 in) bkd (11.63 in)(0.185)(9 in)
= 220 psi
fs = M = (3375 ft-lb)(12 in/ft) = 21.8 ksi
fs = M px = (188 ft-lb)(12 in/ft) = 27.7 ksi 2
Asjd (0.22 in )(0.938)(9 in)
2
Asjd (0.017 in )(0.976)(4.9 in)
Step 5a: Check compressive stress in masonry and
Step 5: Check compressive stress in masonry and the tensile stress in steel.
the tensile stress in steel.
Fb = 4/3(1/3f’m) = 1333 psi
Fb = 4/3(1/3 f’m) = 1333 psi > 220 psi OK
Fs = 4/3(30 ksi) = 40 ksi > 27.7 ksi OK fm = fa +fb =35 psi + 496 psi
= 531 psi < 1333 psi OK
Step 6: Calculate shear stress.
Fs = 4/3 (20 ksi) = 27 ksi > 21.8 ksi OK
fv = Vpx = 94 lb = 2 psi
bjd (12 in)(0.976)(4.9 in) Step 6a: Calculate shear stress.

Step 7: Check shear stress. fv = V = 1125 lb = 12 psi

bjd (11.63 in)(0.938)(9 in)
Fv = 4/3 √ f’m = 73 psi, 4/3 (50 psi) = 67 psi maximum
Thus, F v = 67 psi > 2 psi OK Step 7a: Check shear stress.

Step 8: Design the reinforced brick masonry pilaster. Fv = 4/3 √f’m = 73 psi, 4/3 (50 psi) = 67 psi maximum
Repeat steps 3 through 7. Thus, F v = 67 psi > 12 psi OK

With pilaster designed, check the induced vertical

cantilever deflection in the panel. When determining
the flexural strength of the pilaster, the critical cross
section does not include the panel. However, because
the panel is built integral with the pilaster, the com-
12
bined pilaster and panel cross section is used to
determine if cracking will occur in the panel.
Therefore, determine if the pilaster and panel cross
section is cracked. Assume the modulus of rupture, fcr,
for hollow grouted brick masonry is equal to 4.0 √ f’m
= 219 psi (Ref. UBC 91). Refer to Fig. 6(b) for the
location of the centroid of the combined cross section.
Panel section properties are based on face shells
only. ACI/ASCE/TMS code requires the maximum
length of flange when determining stress distribution
to be 6 times the thickness of the flange, i.e. 6 (5.63
in.) = 33.8 in. in each direction.
3 2
Ipilaster = (1/12)(b)(t) + (b)(t)(7.48 in.-5.81 in)
3 tained in this publication must be used in conjunction with
= (1/12)(11.63in)(11.63 in)
2
+ (11.63 in)(11.63 in)(1.67 in)
4
= 1900 in
Ipanel = 2(1/2)(2)(33.8 in)(1.25 in)
3
2
+(2)(33.8 in)(tf.s.)(4.15 in. - 0.63)
2
+(2)(33.8 in)(tf.s.)(4.15 in. - 5 in.)
3
= 2(1/12)(67.5 in)(1.25 in) + (67.5 in)
2
(1.25 in)(3.52 in) +(67.5 in)(1.25 in)
2 Pier/Panel Case, Submitted to the Brick Institute of
(0.85 in)
4
= 1130 in
4 2. Building Code Requirements for Masonry
Ig = Ipilaster +Ipanel = 3030 in
4 530.1/ASCE 6/TMS 602-92), American Concrete
Mcr = f crIg = (219 psi)(3030 in ) = 7393 ft-lb
c (7.48 in)(12 in/ft)
M = 3375 ft-lb < 7393 ft-lb. Thus, the pilaster and
panel cross section is not cracked under service load.
Check the flexural tensile stress in the panel based
on uncracked section properties.
ft = M c = (3375 ft-lb)(4.15 in)(12 in/ft) = 55 psi
4
Ig 3030 in
The allowable flexural tensile stress, , is determined
from Table 2. The percent of grouted to ungrouted
area is used to interpolate between 68 psi and 25 psi
for fully grouted and ungrouted hollow unit masonry,
respectively, giving an allowable flexural tensile
stress:
Ft = 4/3[25 psi + (68 psi - 25 psi)(# of grouted cores)/
(# of cores)]
= 4/3 [25 psi + (43 psi)(4/22)] = 44 psi < 55 psi
Therefore, try partial grouting to increase . If 4 more
cells are grouted, the flexural tensile stress, ft ,
reduces to 49 psi, and the allowable flexural tensile
stress, Ft , equals 54 psi > 49 psi, OK.
13
Step 9: Sliding and overturning resistance of the cais-
son is a function of the lateral soil pressure and is
beyond the scope of this Technical Notes.
SUMMARY
This Technical Notes discusses the structural design
of brick masonry noise barrier walls. Design procedures
are given following working stress analysis provided in the
ACI/ASCE/TMS standard. Example designs are presented
for recommended design of pier and panel, pilaster and
panel and cantilever brick noise barrier walls.
The information and suggestions contained in this
Technical Notes are based on the available data and the
experience of the technical staff of the Brick Institute of
America. The information and recommendations con-
good engineering judgment and a basic understanding of
the properties of brick masonry and related construction
materials. Final decisions on the use of the information
contained in this Technical Notes are not within the
purview of the Brick Institute of America and must rest
with the project designer and owner.
REFERENCES
1. Anand, S.C., Brick Masonry Noise Barrier Walls,
A Refined Structural Analysis of Wall Panel for
America, December 1991, 16 pp.
Structures (ACI 530/ASCE 5/TMS 402-92) and
Specifications for Masonry Structures (ACI
Institute, Detroit, MI, 1992.
3. Guide Specifications for Structural Design of
Sound Barriers, American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington,
D.C., 1989.
4. Load and Resistance Factor Design Manual of
Steel Construction-First Edition, American Institute of
Steel Construction, Chicago, IL, 1986.
5. Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other
Structures (ASCE 7-88), American Society of Civil
Engineers, New York, NY, 1990.
6. Noise Barrier Design Handbook, (Report No.
FHWA-RD-76-58), United States Department of
Transportation, Federal Highway Administration,
Washington, D.C., 1976.
7. Technical Notes on Brick Construction 3, “Building
Code Requirements for Masonry Structures ACI
530/ASCE 5 and Specifications for Masonry
Structures ACI 530.1/ASCE 6,” February 1990.
8. Technical Notes on Brick Construction 45, “Brick
Masonry Noise Barrier Walls - Introduction,” February
1991.
9. Uniform Building Code, 1991 Edition, International
Conference of Building Officials, Whittier, California,
1991.