Ec201 - Fundamental Programming PDF

COURSE : EC201 FUNDAMENTAL PROGRAMMING
INSTRUCTIONAL DURATION : 15 WEEKS

CREDIT(S) : 2
SYNOPSIS:
FUNDAMENTAL PROGRAMMING provides an introduction to programme design and
development. A structured, multiphase programme development process featuring a series of
steps involving understanding of a problem, formal programme definition, and programme
specification through graphic design methodologies and pseudo coding is stressed. A selected
high-level programming language, C, is used to illustrate the implementation phase of
programme development.
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
Upon completion of this course, students should be able to:1. solve various problem systematically using the 6 step procedure and specified design
tools.
2. select the appropriate data types for a particular solution.
3. perform data handling in solving a given problem correctly.
4. execute the whole process of programming, using a high level programming language,
in solving a variety of engineering and scientific problems.
5. deliver a presentation and answer questions with confidence on a well-organized
assigned group project inclusive of a report within a stipulated time frame.
MAIN OBJECTIVES:
At the end of this course, students should be able to:

1.0 INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS
1.1 Introduction To Programming
1.1.1 Define the following terms:
a. programme
b. programmer
c. programming language
1.1.2 List the various types of programming languages
1.1.3 Explain the various types of programming languages
1.1.4 Explain the following types of programming:
a. Structured programming
b. Modular programming
c. Object-Oriented programming
1.1.5 Compare between the following types of programming:
a. Structured programming
b. Modular programming
c. Object-Oriented programming
http://modul2poli.blogspot.com/
1.2 Understand Problem Solving

1.2.1 List the stages involved in problem solving.
1.2.2 List the elements of problem analysis:
a. Input
b. Process
c. Output
1.2.3 Explain the elements of problem analysis.
1.2.4 Determine input, process and output for a given problem.
1.2.5 List the design tools for problem solving:
a. Flowchart
b. Pseudocode
c. IPO chart (Input-Process-Output chart)
d. Structured chart
1.2.6 Explain the flowchart, pseudocode, IPO chart and structured chart.
1.2.7 Illustrate the various design tools.
1.2.8 Use the design tools to solve a given problem.
1.2.9 Identify the various types of error in programming:
a. Syntax Error
b. Run-Time Error
c. Logical Error
1.2.10 Explain the various types of error in programming.
1.2.11 Write programme source code.
1.2.12 Execute the debugged programme source code.
2.0 PROGRAMME DESIGN
2.1 Know Operators And Expressions
2.1.1 Explain the operand and operator.
2.1.2 Describe the different types of operator: arithmetic, relational, logical, and
Boolean operator
2.1.3 Explain expressions in application
2.2 Understand Programme Flow Control Structures
2.2.1 Identify Programme Flow Control Structures.
2.2.2 List the various types of logical structures.
2.2.3 Explain the various types of logical structures.
a. Sequence
b. Selection
c. Looping
2.2.4 Describe the different types of selection structure.
a. if, if..else, switch..case
b. Nested selection
c. Decision table
2.2.5 Describe the different types of looping structures.
a. For
b. while, do.. while
c. Nested looping
2.2.6 Solve sequence, selection and looping structure problems using
programme design tools.
a. Flowchart
b. IPO chart
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c. Structured chart
d. Pseudocode
2.3 Know Storing Information
2.3.1 Define a variable and a constant.
2.3.2 Describe the following basic data types: numeric, character, string,
logical.
2.3.3 Identify the operators used in programming.
2.3.4 Explain the operators used in programming.
a. Mathematical operators
b. Relational operators
c. Logical operators
2.3.5 Use operators in expression statements.
2.3.6 Explain the differences between a formula and an expression.
2.3.7 Convert formula into expression and vice versa.
2.4 Understand Array And Programme Design
2.4.1 Define what an array is.
2.4.2 Describe array structure.
2.4.3 Identify single-dimensional array and multi-dimensional array.
2.4.4 Compare single-dimensional array and multi-dimensional array.
2.4.5 Solve single and multi dimensional array problems using programme
design tools.
a. Flowchart
b. IPO chart
c. Structured chart
d. Pseudocode
3.0 C FUNDAMENTALS
3.1 Understand Structure Of C Programme
3.1.1 Describe the general form of C programmes.
3.1.2 Write the general form of C programmes.
3.1.3 Compile C programmes.
3.1.4 Execute the debugged C programmes.
3.1.5 Define the pre-processing directives and header files
a. #include
b. #define
3.1.6 Create header file in C programmes.
a. stdio.h
b. ctype.h
c. math.h
d. conio.h
e. string.h
3.1.7 Create block { .. } in Main function.
3.1.8 Create return statement in programmes.
3.1.9 Explain the usage of comments.
3.1.10 Create comments in programmes.
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3.2 Know Constants And Variables (Identifiers)

3.2.1 Identify the rules for naming constants and variables.
3.2.2 Declare constants and variables.
3.2.3 Identify the scope of constants and variables.
3.2.4 Build constants and variables in programmes.
3.2.5 Identify and explain keywords in C programmes.
3.2.6 Use keywords in programmes
3.3 Understand Data Types
3.3.1 List the basic data types in C.
3.3.2 Explain the basic data types in C.
a. int
b. char
c. float
d. double
3.3.3 Use data types in C programmes.
3.4 Understand Operators and expressions.
3.4.1 List the basic Operators and expressions in C programmes.
3.4.2 Explain the Operators and expressions in C programmes.
3.4.3 Use the Operators and expressions in C programmes.
4.0 DATA INPUT AND OUTPUT
4.1 Understand Input Output Statements
4.1.1 Define of input output statements.
4.1.2 Explain the function of input output statements.
a. printf() and puts()
b. scanf() and gets()
4.1.3 Use format specified in programmes
4.1.4 Modify input output file in programmes.
4.1.5 Create input output operations.
5.0 CONTROL STATEMENT
5.1 Understand Programme Controls
5.1.1 Write C programme using selection statements.
a. if
b. if..else
c. nested if
d. switch..case
5.1.2 Compare the differences between the various selection structures.
5.1.3 Write C programme using looping statements.
a. do..while
b. while
c. for
d. nested loop
5.1.4 Compare the differences between the various loop structures.
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5.2 Understand Arrays

5.2.1 Describe the steps to define an array.
a. Declaring array
b. Initializing array
c. Accessing array
d. Manipulating array
e. Passing array to function as a parameter
5.2.2 Modify a 1-dimension array in C programme.
5.2.3 Write C programme using array.
6.0 FUNCTIONS
6.1 Understand Functions
6.1.1 Define what Function is?
6.1.2 Explain the use of Functions in C programme.
6.1.3 Identify the following types of function:
a. Predefined function
b. User-defined function
6.1.4 Compare the differences between the types of function.
6.1.5 Describe the following components in the user-defined function:
a. Function prototypes
b. Function definition
c. Return statement
d. Call function
6.1.6 Compare the differences between function call by value and call by
reference.
6.1.7 Write C programme using user-defined function.
ASSESSMENT
TYPES OF ASSESSMENT
The course is assessed through 100% Continuous Assessment
________________________________________________________________________
[ Assessment Task above (ae (i)) to be executed during Lecture/Practical/
Tutorial hour ]
a. Quiz
(minimum 4)
b. Theory Test
(minimum 1)
c. Practical Test
(minimum 1)
d. Lab Work
(minimum 6)
e. Other Assessment Task
i. Presentation
(minimum 1)
ii. Project
(minimum 1)
iii. End of chapter problem (minimum 2)
10%
20%
10%
50%
10%
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1.1.1 Term
1.0 Introduction To Programming
programme
1.1 Introduction concepts
Programming
language
programmer
c) A programming language
Program:
A set of step-by-step instructions that directs a computer to
perform a specific task and to produce the required results.
Programming:
Programming is a process of designing/ creating a program.
Programmer:
Programmer is a person who writes the program.
is set of instructions that can be used to
construct a program. A notation for

writing programs, which are specifications
of a computation or algorithm.
is a language designed to describe a set of
consecutive actions to be executed by a
computer. A programming language is
therefore a practical way for us (humans)
to give instructions to a computer.
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1.1.2 Various types of Programming

Languages
There are three basic types of
1.1.3 (i) Machine language

The lowest-level programming language
Machine languages are the only languages
understood by computers.
While easily understood by computers,
machine languages are almost impossible for
humans to use because they consist entirely of
numbers.
Expressed in binary form, an instruction might
be 0111010110110011. Very difficult to use.
Lowest level of computer languages.
programming languages.
For example, a program written in Apple PC cannot

be run in IBM PC
ii) Assembly language

Second level of language.An assembler
translates assembly language.
It was developed to replace "0" and "1" used

in Machine Language.
Machine languages consist entirely of

numbers and are almost impossible for
humans to read and write.Takes a long
time to write programs
English-like abbreviations representing
elementary computer
operations (translated via assemblers)
Example: C++, C , FORTH
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1.1.4 Structured Programming

Languages
iii) High-level language
Instruction is written as a series of Englishlike words.

Translator (Compiler/Interpreter) is needed
to translate high level language to machine
language.
It is Machine-Independent.The program can
be written and executed on any computer.
E.g. Fortran, COBOL, SQL, PROLOG, C
Definition of Structured Programming

Structured programming can be defined as a
Software application programming technique that
follows a top down design approach with block
oriented structures.
It support loop such as while, do-while and for.
Structured programming
The most popular structured programming

languages include C,C++, Ada, and Pascal.
Codes similar to everyday English

Use mathematical notations
Example: if (x < 10) {

printf(too low, ry again\n);
Scanf(%d,&x);
}
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c. Object-Oriented Programming
Languages
b) Modular programming
Programming paradigm based on data types.
An object stores a data type value; variable name
refers to object.
A programming style that brakes down program
functions into modules, each of which accomplishes
one function and contains all the source code and
variables needed to accomplish that function.
Modular programming is a solution to the problem of
very large programs that are difficult to debug and
maintain. By segmenting the program into modules
that perform clearly defined functions, you can
determine the source of program erros more easly.
is one the newest and most powerful paradigms.

In object- oriented programs, the designer
specifies both the data structures and the types
of operations that can be applied to those data
structures.
This pairing of a piece of data with the operations

that can be performed on it is known as an
object. A program thus becomes a collection of
cooperating objects, rather than a list of
instructions.
Objects can store state information and interact

with other objects, but generally each object has
a distinct, limited role.
is about relation between the data and the code

operating on the data (or data operating on the
code).
is a programming paradigm that uses "objects"
data structures consisting of data fields and
methods together with their interactions to
design applications and computer programs.
Programming techniques may include features
such as data abstraction, encapsulation,
modularity, polymorphism, and inheritance. Many
modern programming languages now support
OOP
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An object stores a data type value;
variable name refers to object.

Object-oriented programming (OOP) is a
programming paradigm based on data
types.
The most popular object-oriented
programming languages include Java, Visual

Basic, C#, C++, and Python.
Object-orientated programming
languages, such as SmallTalk and

HyperTalk, incorporate modular
programming principles
1.1.5
Comparison between the
following types of programming:
a) Structured programing
The main advantage for structured
programing is that it make input easy, and
also it is better to use because it does not
merges the data we stored in strings and
variables, sometime it happens that we get
merged data if we don't use structured data.
And it also make easy to manage variables.
Structured programming is as
follows:
--Program start
var
var
var
function { ... }
function { ... }
function { ... }
main { ... }
--- Program End
You have units of code, which operate on variables, and are
called in reference to those variables, to follow a structure
acting on those variables.
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b) Modular programming
Modular Programming - Need

and Approach
-A detailed process of problem solving
Typical industry programming projects
-Break a large problem into several

smaller
Sub-sections are solved separately by
observing that all these small modules to
solve the whole problem of the origin
consist of thousands of lines of code or

more
Analogous approaches: manufacturing a
spacecraft, or a car Manufacture individual
components, test separately
Assemble into larger components,
integrate and test
Modular Programming Process
Advantages of Modular
Programming
Manageable: Reduce problem to smaller, simpler,

humanly comprehensible problems
Divisible: Modules can be assigned to different
teams/programmers
Enables parallel work, reducing program
development time
Facilitates programming, debugging, testing,
maintenance
Portable: Individual modules can be modified to
run on other platforms
Re-usable: Modules can be re-used within a
program and acrossprograms
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An Example of Code that Doesn't Use

Modular Programming
A simple example of repeated code can be seen in:
A Simple Example of Modular

Programming
The aim of the programmer is now to ensure that code is reused as much as possible. They do this by identifying the code that can be place
separate functions and subroutines:
PI = 3.14159265358979
R= 1
PI = 3.14159265358979
C = 2 * PI * R
function circumference (R)

circumference = 2 * PI * R
A = PI * R * R
wscript.echo "Radius " & R & " Circumference " & C & " Area " & A
end Function
R= 2
C = 2 * PI * R
function area (R)
area = PI * R * R
A = PI * R * R
end function
sub print_details (R)
R= 3
C = 2 * PI * R
C = circumference (R)
A = area (R)
A = PI * R * R
end sub
R= 4
print_details 1
C = 2 * PI * R
print_details 2
A = PI * R * R
print_details 3
print_details 4
Here the same functionality is repeated but does works (as can be seen in figure 1). However, the programmer can work more ef ficiently
by using modular programming.
The output is the same as before (as can be seen in figure 2), but this time the chance of the operation of the script being altered due to a
typing error is greatly reduced, and if there is an error then the task of correcting it is made much simpler. The programmer can also
use the functionality throughout their application without worrying about having to rewrite the code, thereby improving the e fficiency
of both the code and their time.
c)Object oriented
Why Object Oriented Language?
- fourth-generation language is object
oriented.
- Programmers will more tend to think of
the objects involved
the problem and the relationships
between objects.
-Examples of programming languages are
C + + Java
Reusability-Cepatkan project
- Improve the quality of
- Easily adjusted
- Flexible
- Easy maintenance
- Reduce the risk for complex projects
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c) Object oriented
is as follows:
Variables can be objects, which have their
--- Program Start

object {
var
var
function { ... }
function { ... }
function { ... }
}
own data and functions. Think like C and

structures, except structures can have
functions "in them" which operate
specificly on their own data.
var
var
function { ... }
main { ... }
--- Program end
Example 1: Object-oriented
Problem Solving Approach
Step 1: Problem Identification - Compute
the sum of two numbers and print out
the result.
Step 2: Object Identification

- Identify objects needed to solve the
problem.
Num1 - first number (object).
Num2 - second number (object).
Sum - result of the addition of the two
numbers (object).
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Step 3: Message Identification

- Messages needed to send to objects.
+ aNum - This is the message sent to the

receiver object with an parameter aNum.
The result of this message is the value (a
numeric object) of the total sum of the
receiver object and aNum. print - a message
that displays the value of the receiver object.
Step 4: Object-message sequences - Following

is the object-message sequence to solve the
problem.
(Num1 + Num2)print The message + with a
parameter Num2 (an object), is sent to the
object Num1.
The result of this is an object (Num1 +
Num2), which is sent the message print. The
parentheses are included to avoid any
ambiguity as to which message should be
activated first.
1.2.1 Stages of Problem Solving

Note: The sequence of Smalltalk evaluation
is from left to right unless is specified by
parentheses ( ). For example:
2 + 3 * 4 is 20
while
2 +(3 * 4) is 14
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The steps in programming:
1.2.2 Elements of problem analysis
1-Definitions and identify problems

- Identify and understand the problems to
be solved
i. Read the questions and identify and
understand the requirements of the question
ii. For the analysis to determine the
problem with three main areas:
* Input required
* OUTPUT issued
* PROCESS
determine the formula
to get the output from a given input
PROCESS
2 - Planning variables
3. Design a flow chart (design

software)
variable is a reference to a memory
Better known as the process of
location
Variables with a specific type of data to
determine the memory size provided
All variables must be used in the program
prior diishtiharkan
designing algorithms
algorithm - list of measures to solve
problems
Created before the actual program coding
to make sure the solution method
correct the problem that is use
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There are two ways to write the

algorithm:
Pseudo code
i. Pseudo code
-Steps problem solving
-Written to spoken language daily
Is it sufficient for the

implementation of the computer?
Example: Changing a bulb is burned

Start
Removing the bulb is burned
Replace with new bulb
End
Contoh:Mengira harga
bayarbagi buku
Example: Changing a bulb is burned (details)

Start
Place the ladder in the position of the bulb burns
Choose a suitable lamp
Take the stairs up to the light bulb that burns
Turn the bulb counterclockwise and take out the
bulb
Fit the new bulb in place proper
Turn the bulb clockwise
Down the stairs
Place the back stairs
End
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4-Writing program
5-Testing & debugging program
- Represents the implementation phase in

which the code was written and typed into
the computer
- The program should follow the syntax
correctly written on the appropriate
programming language
- Some programming languages: BASIC,
COBOL, FORTRAN, C + +,Visual BASIC
and other.
Problems ---- Pseudo Code /flow chart ----program
-The program that has been built to test /

run (run) to ensure
output produced is correct and meet the
needs of users
- Menyahsilap (debugging) --- the program
is tested with real data
-There is a possibility of erroneous
output (error) could result from a
program written
The types of programming errors

i) Syntax Error / encoding
when programmers fail to follow the rules governing how
the instruction should be written.
Example: wrong spelling of the WRITE command. The
computer will print a diagnostic message.
After all syntax errors corrected or removed compiler can
understand and translate the program.
iii. Time Error

Due to data entry is not in accordance
with the instructions written in
programming
ii) Logic errors

error occurred from instruction sequences that are not
correct.
It might be the error in logic programming.
Instruction means may be in conflict.
Example: the programmer should write direction READ but
it write WRITE
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6-Documentation Program
If the output properly certified and meet
consumer needs
- at this stage is to prepare a report for
reference and for the updates in the
future
- Facilitate the programmer to understand
the design and programmable logic
The documentation includes:

Type of problem or the specific requirements
1.2.4 Determine input, process and

output for a given problem
Understand, identify and define problems.
Determine the input requirements,
process and output (IPO)

Provide IPO
of the appropriate
Description of inputs, outputs, constraints and
formulas for problem
A tool used logic---- flow chart or pseudo
code
Example output of the program was
implemented (executed) using the test data
The steps or guidelines for using the program
Problem analysis
Problem 1
Create a program that will accept three numbers as input
from the user. Find the average number and the third show the three numbers together with the average value.
Analysis of problems
Input - 3 numbers
Process - 1. Add 3 numbers
2. 3 Divide the total number to 3
Output - 3 and the average number
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answers
Problem 2
Given the value of x = 10 and the value of
a = 12, find the equation of state revenue
under
y = 2x + a -6
1.2.5 DESIGN TOOL

Problem analysis
1) Input:
the value of x = 10
and the value of a = 12
2) the formula / process:
y = 2x + a - 6
3) output:
the value of y
It is a framework or flow that shows the
steps in problem solving.

Methods to design a program:
Flowchart
Pseudocode
IPO Chart(input-process-output
chart)
Structure Chart
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a) Flowchart
A graphical representation of data,

information and workflow using certain
symbols that are connected to flow lines
to describe the instructions done in
problem solving.
It shows the flow of the process from

the start to the end of the problem
solving
Explanation of basic
flowchart symbol:
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ContExplanation of basic
flowchart symbol:
There are few additional symbols of flowchart

used in a complicated program: GOSUB and
RETURN. Its usually used in a big program.
Example Flowchart:
Flowchart to calculate the total of fine for late
returning of library books.
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b)Pseudocode
Steps in problem solving that is written half in

programming code and half in human language.
For example, some part uses C language code and

some part uses Malay or English language.
START
Total=0, Average=0
Input a, b, c
Total = a + b + c
Average = Total / 3
Output a, b, c
Output Average
END
Advantages:
i.
ii.
iii.
Example:
Easily understood.
Easily maintained.
The codes are changeable.
Disadvantages:
Cannot be executed in the computer.
c)IPO Chart (Input Process

Output)
Chart IPO (input output processing)
Compiling information available in the Detailed get in shape with a display input,
processing and output
Problem 1
Uncle Ahmad wants to buy 5 cans of paint
to paint his house. The price for a can of

paint is RM 25.50. Calculate the price to
be paid for 5 cans of paint to buy.
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Problem 2
analysis of the problem:
1) input:
Number of cans of paint purchased, the
price of a can of paint
2) The formula / process:
5 cans of paint price = price x number of
cans
3) output:
prices for purchased 5 cans of paint
A lecturer to determine the grade a
student based on the marks obtained by

students in the special examination. If you
score between 85 and 100, grade A if the
student is not the student will receive a
grade of B. What grades will be earned by
the student if the score is 89?
Problem:
1) input:
marks obtained
2) The formula / process:
If you score 85-100, is a grade A
If the contrary is a B grade
3) Output:
grade obtained
A photostat shops charge 5 cents

for each page copied. Design
solutions to calculate the fee should
imposed if a number of pages that have
been
diphotostat.
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Example 1:
Problem: To calculate the amount of water bill
definition and identify problems

plan using the variable
Writing pseudo code
Design a flow chart (design software)
Example 2:
Problem: To calculate area of a circle
Example : Calculate the Salary of

Employee
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d)Structure Charts
Structure chart is an additional method in

preparing programs that has many sub
modules.
It consists rectangular boxes, which

represents all the sub modules in a
program and is connected by arrows.
It illustrates the top-down design of a

program and is also known as hierarchical
chart because its components are in
hierarchical form.
The advantage is that it is easy to be drawn

and to be changed.
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2.0 PROGRAMME DESIGN

2.1 Know Operators And Expressions
2.1.1 Explain the operand and operator.
As we have seen, a mathematics expression can be made up of only one element, for
example, a number, as in:
3
The above expression evaluates to three. This value of three can be represented by the
number 3.
Usually, though, expressions are much more involved than the simple one above. Let's
consider this one:
3+2
The above expression evaluates to five.
The above expression has three elements in it:
The number 3
The addition operator '+'
The number 2
Well, we have already dealt with the idea that 2 and 3 are numbers representing values
in an expression. Here, let's talk about the '+'.
Officially, the '+' in the above expression is called an operator. It is the addition operator.
Operators do not exist alone in expressions. That is, for example, the addition operator
needs some values to add. It needs some values to operate upon.
In this expression:
3+2
The addition operator works with, or operates upon, the values represented by the
numbers 3 and 2. The numbers 3 and 2 are said to be the operands for the '+', that is,
the 3 and the 2 are operands for the addition operator.
It is very handy to think of the addition operator as 'grabbing' the 3 and the 2 and,
through arithmetic, producing a value of five.
Speaking a bit more technically, we would say that the above expression evaluates to
five because the addition operator operates on the 3 and the 2, (the number 3 and the
number 2 are its operands), to produce a value of five.
So, now we know:
Mathematics expressions are made up of operators and operands.
When an expression is evaluated operators accept operands, (which are values),
and produce new values through arithmetic.
Specifically, regarding the addition operator we see:
The symbol for the addition operator is '+'.
The addition operator needs two operands, one to its left and one to its right.
The operands for the addition operator are values.
Since the addition operator requires two operands, we say that it is a binary operator.
Binary means 'consisting of two parts'.
There are other binary operators present in expressions. There is also the subtraction
operator, as in:
7-4
Here, the subtraction operator, '-', accepts the 7 and the 4, and using arithmetic it
produces a value of three.
So, we now have two examples of binary operators in mathematics expressions:

The addition operator, '+'
The subtraction operator, '-'
Now, an expression can have several addition and subtraction operators in it. For
example:
7- 4+2
The operators are going to accept values as operands, but in this case, which operator
gets the first turn at accepting these values, the '-' or the '+'?
To answer that question, it would be handy to know which operator is 'stronger'. In
mathematics, when one operator is 'stronger' than another, we say that it has
precedence over the other. That is, it precedes the other in the order of the steps taken
necessary to evaluate the expression.
2
As it turns out the addition operator and the subtraction operator have equal
precedence, one is not 'stronger' than the other. In cases like this, when two operators
are of equal precedence, evaluation proceeds from left to right.
So, in this case the subtraction operator goes first since it is left most. In detail, here is
how this evaluation unfolds, starting with the original expression:
7- 4+2
The '-' operator goes first. It accepts the value of seven represented by the number 7
and the value of four represented by the number 4, does arithmetic called subtraction,
and produces a value of three.
Since the value of three can be represented by the number 3, this work effectively
changes the above expression to look like this:
3+2
Now, the action is handed over to the '+' operator. It accepts the value of three, (which
was handed to it by the '-' operator), and the value of two represented by the number 2,
does arithmetic called addition, and produces a value of five.
The value of five can be represented by the number 5, so the above expression boils
down to this one:
At this point we know:
In math expressions there are operators and operands.
It is the interaction among operators and operands that is called the
evaluation of the expression.
The evaluation of a mathematics expression produces a final value.
Binary operators require two operands.
The addition operator, '+', and the subtraction operator, '-', are both binary
operators.
The addition operator and the subtraction operator have equal
precedence.
When two operators have equal precedence, the one to the left accepts
operands first, producing a value which is passed over to the other
operator.
2.1.2 Describe the different types of operator: arithmetic, relational, logical, and
Boolean operator
Arithmetic Operator
Operator name
Syntax
Basic assignment
a=b
Addition
a+b
Subtraction
a-b
Unary plus (integer

promotion)
+a
Unary minus (additive

inverse)
-a
Multiplication
a*b
Division
a/b
a%b
Modulo (remainder)
Increment
Decrement
Prefix
++a
Suffix
a++
Prefix
--a
Suffix
a--
Relational Operator
Operator name
Syntax
Equal to
a == b
Not equal to
a != b
Greater than
a>b
Less than
a<b
Greater than or equal to
a >= b
Less than or equal to
a <= b
Logical Operator
Operator name
Logical negation
(NOT)
Syntax
!a
a && b
Logical AND
a || b
Logical OR
Boolean Operator
Operator name
Syntax
Bitwise NOT
~a
Bitwise AND
a&b
Bitwise OR
a|b
Bitwise XOR
a^b
Bitwise left shift [note 1]
a << b
Bitwise right shift [note 1]
a >> b
2.2 Understand Programme Flow Control Structures

2.2.1 Identify Programme Flow Control Structures.
Control flow is the determinant of the direction in program implementation. Beginning
with the first command, control will determine the direction which will be held on until the
program ends.
2.2.2 List the various types of logical structures.
There are three control structures that can be used in solving the problems there are
sequence structure, selection and loop structures.
2.2.3 Explain the various types of logical structures.

a. Sequence
Sequence structure is simple structure that directs the implementation of the program
line by line in order. General form the structure of the sequence is as follows
{
Statement_1;
Statement_n;
}
b. Selection
The selection structure would be to use two types of statement whether the if-else or
switchThere are 2 type for selection structure:
1.if.
a. if
b. if ..else
c. if .. else if
d. if / if .. else nested
2. switch and break.
a. switch .. case.
c. Looping
Looping statement or repeat statement allows C is coded only once in the program but
its implementation was repeated several times. The number of repetitions should be
controlled so that the program can be terminated properly. There are two ways to
control the replication, using counters or using sentinel data provided in the expression.
Counters are used if the number of repetitions is known when the program code. Data
Sentinel is used if the number of repetitions is not known when the program coded.
Example
fund = 2;
while (fund <= 200)
fund = 3 * fund
2.2.4 Describe the different types of selection structure.
a. if, if..else, switch..case
if
if checks whether the value is true and if so, includes the code in { until the closing }
If not, that code is removed from the copy of the file given to the compiler prior to
compilation (but it has no effect on the original source code file). There may be nested if
7
statements. It is common to comment out a block of code using the following

construction because you cannot nest multi-line comments in C
Example
If (mark==A)
printf (pass\n);
if ..else
If..else statement used for cases that provide a choice of two options to be implemented
if the conditions are true and the other options to be implemented if the condition is
false. Depending on the results of the expression conditions only one of two options wil l
be executed.
The general format for these are,
if( condition 1 )
statement1;
else
statement2;
switch .. case.
Switch case statements are a substitute for long if statements that compare a variable
to several "integral" values ("integral" values are simply values that can be expressed as
an integer, such as the value of a char). The basic format for using switch case is
outlined below. The value of the variable given into switch is compared to the value
following each of the cases, and when one value matches the value of the variable, the
computer continues executing the program from that point.
Example
switch ( <variable> ) {
case this-value:
Code to execute if <variable> == this-value
break;
case that-value:
Code to execute if <variable> == that-value
break;
...
default:
Code to execute if <variable> does not equal the value following any of the cases
break;
}
b. Nested selection
When a selection structures true path or its false path contains another selection
structure, the inner selection structure is referred to as a nested selection structure
Example
if (early_reg)
{
if (teacher)
Fee = 3000;
else
{
If(group>=5)
Fee = 2600;
else
Fee = 2800;
}
}
else
{
If(coporate)
Fee = 3500;
Else
Fee = 3100;
}
2.2.5 Describe the different types of looping structures.
a. For
Statement for allowing us to repeat certain parts of the program until a specified number
of repetitions. This means that when we write a program, we can determine the required
number of repetitions. Every time the loop, the statement for counting the number of
repetitions to achieve a specified number of repetitions. After that statement after the for
will be executed!
General format for statement for
for (prefix; test; update)
statement;
Prefix - an expression that assigns the initial value of loop counter.
9
Test - conditions that determine whether the end of the loop continues to loop or not.
Updates - the expression to update the loop counter.
Example
for (bil = 1; bil <= 8; bil++)
printf(%d\t,bil);
b. while, do.. while
while
Structural repetition of the second control loop controlled conditions. This loop can be
written as a while statement. While loop will loop until a certain condition is achieved. In
fact while we do not need information on the number of loops, but just need to put
conditions to continue to loop. When these conditions are not met, the loop will stop.
General format for while statement
while (expression)
statement;
Expression - the conditions of the loop controller that produces the value true or false.
Statement - any statement that is due respect.
Example
total = i = 0;
printf(Enter one number bigger than 0);
scanf(%d, &n);
while (i != n) {
total += i;
i ++;
}
c. Nested looping
Nested looping occurs when there are two looping statements in one program. When
nesting occurs, the fact that the loop will be implemented at all until the end of the loop
at all times outside the loop.
Example
for (i = 0; i < 2; i++) {
10
for (j = 0; j < 5; j++) {

printf(%d, %d\t, i, j);
}
printf(\n);
2.3 Know Storing Information

2.3.1 Define a variable and a constant.
Variable
A variable is the storage location in memory that is stored by its value. A variable is
identified or denoted by a variable name. The variable name is a sequence of one or
more letters, digits or underscore, for example: character _
Constants
Constants have fixed value. Constants, like variables, contain data type. Integer
constants are represented as decimal notation, octal notation, and hexadecimal
notation. Decimal notation is represented with a number. Octal notation is represented
with the number preceded by a zero character. A hexadecimal number is preceded with
the characters 0x.
2.3.2 Describe the following basic data types: numeric, character,
string, logical.
Numeric
Integer data type used to represent negative numbers or positive integers. For example,
77, 0, 999, +999. Tues memory size of type integer is different - depending on computer
system.
Integer Data Type
short int
unsigned short int
int
unsigned int
long int
unsigned long int
Byte
2
2
2
2
4
4
Ranges
-32767 .. 32767
0 .. 65535
-32767 .. 32767
0 .. 65535
-2147483647 .. 2147483647
0 .. 4294967295
11
Character
Char type is used to represent characters such as letters, digits, or special symbols like
'?'. To allot a character to a variable, we need to put these characters in single quotes ie
''. For example 'A', 'z', '@'.
Char Data Type
Char
Unsigned char
Byte
1
1
Ranges
-128 .. 127
0 .. 255
Strings
In generally string refer the character which include in the symbol . For example

Hello, how are you?
If there are no character within that symbol it will known as null string.
If a string is "Hello! ". Then the string will be stored in memory in the following
circumstances:
H e l
l o ! \0
2.3.3 Identify the operators used in programming.

Refer back 2.1.2
Refer back 2.1.2

Refer back 2.1.2
Refer back 2.1.2
2.3.4 Explain the operators used in programming.

a. Mathematical operators
b. Relational operators
c. Logical operators
12
2.3.6 Explain the differences between a formula (equation) and an expression.

Equation
Expression
An expression is a
PHRASE,
a sentence fragment.
One simplifies an
expression.
An expression HAS
NO relation symbol.
An equation is a
SENTENCE.
One solves an equation.
An equation HAS a relation
symbol.
Ex.
Ex.
1. Ten is five less than a

number.
10 = x - 5
2. A number is less than five.
x<5
3. a number less than five

x
4. five less than a number
x-5
2.3.7 Convert formula into expression and vice versa.

Special Expression
Basic Expression
(Formula)
i = i + j;
i = i j;
i = i * j;
i = i / j;
i = i % j;
i + = j;
i - = j;
i * = j;
i / = j;
i % = j;
13
2.4 Understand Array And Programme Design

2.4.1 Define what an array is.
Array
The C language provides a capability that enables the user to define a set of ordered
data
items
known
as
an
array.
Suppose we had a set of grades that we wished to read into the computer and suppose
we wished to perform some operations on these grades, we will quickly realize that we
cannot perform such an operation until each and every grade has been entered since it
would be quite a tedious task to declare each and every student grade as a variable
especially since there may be a very large number.
In C we can define variable called grades, which represents not a single value of grade
but a entire set of grades. Each element of the set can then be referenced by means of
a number called as index number or subscript.
Array by definition is a variable that hold multiple elements which has the same data
type.
Declaring Arrays
We can declare an array by specify its data type, name and the number of elements the
array holds between square brackets immediately following the array name. Here is the
syntax:
data_type array_name[size];
For example, to declare an integer array which contains 100 elements we can do as
follows:
int a[100];
There are some rules on array declaration. The data type can be any valid C data types
including structure and union. The array name has to follow the rule of variable and the
size of array has to be a positive constant integer.
We can access array elements via indexes array_name[index]. Indexes of array starts
from 0 not 1 so the highest elements of an array is array_name[size-1].
Initializing Arrays
It is like a variable, an array can be initialized. To initialize an array, you provide
initializing values which are enclosed within curly braces in the declaration and placed
following an equals sign after the array name. Here is an example of initializing an
integer array.
int list[5] = {2,1,3,7,8};
14
2.4.2 Describe array structure.
m
m+4
m+6
m+8
m + 10
m + 12
m + 14
m + 16
m + 18
Score [0]
Score [2]
Score [3]
Score [4]
Score [5]
Score [6]
Score [7]
Score [8]
Score [9]
Memory
Refer to the diagram above, m represents the address of the first element in the array.
As the value of an integer array element, then the space used by each element is 2
bytes.
2.4.3 Identify single-dimensional array and multi-dimensional array.
Single dimensional array
Example
#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
const int size = 5;
int list[size] = {2,1,3,7,8};
int* plist = list;
// print memory address of array elements
for(int i = 0; i < size;i++)
{
15
printf("list[%d] is in %d\n",i,&list[i]);
}
// accessing array elements using pointer
for(i = 0; i < size;i++)
{
printf("list[%d] = %d\n",i,*plist);
/* increase memory address of pointer so it go to the next
element of the array */
plist++;
}
}
Here is the output

list[0] is in 1310568
list[1] is in 1310572
list[2] is in 1310576
list[3] is in 1310580
list[4] is in 1310584
list[0] = 2
list[1] = 1
list[2] = 3
list[3] = 7
list[4] = 8
You can store pointers in an array and in this case we have an array of pointers. This
code snippet use an array to store integer pointer.
int *ap[10];
Multi dimensional array
Often there is a need to store and manipulate two dimensional data structure such as
matrices & tables. Here the array has two subscripts. One subscript denotes the row &
16
the
other
the
The declaration of two dimension arrays is as follows:
column.
data_type array_name[row_size][column_size];
int m[10][20]
Here m is declared as a matrix having 10 rows( numbered from 0 to 9) and 20

columns(numbered 0 through 19). The first element of the matrix is m[0][0] and the last
row last column is m[9][19]
Elements of multi dimension arrays:

A 2 dimensional array marks [4][3] is shown below figure. The first element is given by
marks [0][0] contains 35.5 & second element is marks [0][1] and contains 40.5 and so
on.
marks [0][0]
35.5
Marks [0][1]
40.5
Marks [0][2]
45.5
marks [1][0]
50.5
Marks [1][1]
55.5
Marks [1][2]
60.5
marks [2][0]
Marks [2][1]
Marks [2][2]
marks [3][0]
Marks [3][1]
Marks [3][2]
Initialization of multidimensional arrays:

Like the one dimension arrays, 2 dimension arrays may be initialized by following their
declaration with a list of initial values enclosed in braces
17
Example:
int table[2][3]={0,0,0,1,1,1};
Initializes the elements of first row to zero and second row to 1. The initialization is done
row by row. The above statement can be equivalently written as
int table[2][3]={{0,0,0},{1,1,1}}
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Structure Of C Programme
General form of c programs:
3.0 C FUNDAMENTALS
Preprocessor directives
main function heading
{
executable statements;
return value;
}
Structure Of C Programme
#include <stdio.h>
General form:
Preprocessor directive #include
Example:
Preprocessor directives
#include <stdio.h>
main function heading
main()
The standard I/O library lets you read
executable statements;
printf(Hello World\n);
return value;
return 0;
}
<stdio.h> includes the "standard I/O

library" into your program.
input from the keyboard (called "standard
in"), write output to the screen (called
"standard out"), process text files stored
on the disk, and so on.
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main()
curly braces { }
declares the main function.
indicate the beginning and end of a block
Every C program must have a function
of code.
Within the braces are the statements
that make up the main body of the
program.
A group of statements enclosed within
braces are called a block.
named main.
A function is simply a collection of
commands to perform some tasks.
return 0;
The printf statement is the standard C
causes the function to return an error
way of displaying output on the screen.

The \nis the escape sequence that
stands for newline, which means that
move the cursor on your screen to the
next line.
A semicolon is added onto the end of all
lines in C.
code of 0 (no error) to the operating

system.
This return value is important to tell the
operating system whether the program
succeeded or not.
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Output
Another simple example:

#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
return 0;
Output:
Compile C programmes
Execute the debugged C

programmes
Once you write
After compiled the program, you can
your C program ,
you must run the
c program through
a C compiler to
turn it into
machine language
execute the program to see the output if

there is no error messages are displayed.
If one or more error messages are
displayed, you have to debug the program
to get rid of errors.
Debugging - Process removing errors
from a program
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Define the pre-processing

directives and header files
Preprocessor
The preprocessor is executed
automatically by the compiler when we
compile a C program.
It make first verification and digestions of
the program code
It change the program source code base
on instruction or preprocessor directives
and then used for the input for next
compilation step
Define the pre-processing

directives and header files
Preprocessor directives are the orders that
we include within our programs that are not
instructions for the program itself but for
the preprocessor.
A preprocessor directive always begins with
a hash sign (#).
The most often-used preprocessor
directives are:
a. #include
b. #define
Preprocessing
Temporary file
(C++ program)
C++
Preprocessor
C++ Program
C++
Compiler
Executable
Program
#include
instructs the C compiler to add the
contents of an include file into your

program during compilation.
An include file (also called header file)
contains the information needed by your
program or the compiler.
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#include
#define
There are two methods to specify a
serves to generate what we call defined
include file as in example below:

# include <file.h>
# include file.h
the preprocessor first looks for the

included files in the standard directory. If
the file isnt found, the preprocessor looks
for the file in the current directory
the preprocessor search included file in
current directory (directory containing
the source code being compiled) and only
in case that is not there the compiler will
searches the default directories.
Example
constants or macros.
Syntax:
#define name value
Its function is to define a macro called
name that whatever it is found in some

point of the code is replaced by value
#define
The #define directive can also be used to create function macros.
#define Max 1000

x = y* Max;
z = Max-12;
A function macro is a type of shorthand, using something simple to
represent something more complicated.

For example, the preprocessor directive
During the preprocessing, the source code

is read as follows:
x = y* 1000;
z = 1000-12;
#define HALFOF (value) (value/2)

Define a macro named HALFOF that a parameter named value.
Whenever the preprocessor encounters the text HALFOF (value)
in the source code, it replaces it with the definition text and
inserts the argument as needed. Thus, the source code line
Result= HALFOF (10);
Is replced by this line:

Result= ((10)/2);
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Create header file in C

programmes.
stdio.h
Header files contain numerous frequently-
used functions that programmers can use

without having to write codes for them.
stands for "standard input/output header".

This header file is used for declaring standard I/O
streams.
Here are some functions from this header file.
Function
printf
scanf
putchar
getchar
puts
gets
fputc
fgetc
Example:
Program:
#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
float y;
int x;
Purpose
used to sends formatted output to the screen.
used to reads formatted input from the keyboard
used to sends a single character to the screen
used to reads a single character from the keyboard
used to sends string s to the screen
used to read string s from the keyboard
writes one character to a file
returns one character from a file
ctype.h
Output:
The header file ctype.h contains
declarations for character classification

functions, returning TRUE or FALSE
depending on whether the character
meets a certain condition.
puts(Enter a float, then an int:);

scanf(%f %d,&y,&x);
printf(\nYou entered %f and %d, x,
y);
printf("\n");
return 0;
}
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Function
Return value
Example:
salnum (c) Non- zero if ( c ) is alphanumeric; 0 otherwise

isalpha (c)
Non- zero if ( c ) is alphabetic; 0 otherwise
isascii (c)
Non- zero if ( c ) is ASCII character; 0 otherwise
iscntrl (c)
Non- zero if ( c ) is control character ; 0 otherwise
isdigit (c)
Non- zero if ( c ) is a digit; 0 otherwise
isgraph(c)
Non- zero if ( c ) is a graphic character(including space); 0
Program:
otherwise
islower (c) Non- zero if ( c ) is lowercase letter ; 0 otherwise
isprint (c)
Non- zero if ( c ) is printable character ( including space ) ; 0

otherwise
ispunct(c)
Non- zero if ( c ) is punctuation character ; 0 otherwise
isspace (c) Non- zero if ( c ) is a space, tab, formfeed or new line

character; 0 otherwise
isupper (c) Non- zero if ( c ) is uppercase letter; 0 otherwise
return 0;
}
isxdigit (c) Non- zero if ( c ) is hexadecimal digit ; 0 otherwise

toascii(c)
Output:
/*read a lowercase character and

display its uppercase equivalent*/
#include<stdio.h>
#include<ctype.h>
main()
{
char lower, upper;
printf("Enter a lowercase letter:");
lower=getchar();
upper=toupper(lower);
printf("The Uppercase of the letter
is:%c\n",upper);
ASCII equavalent
tolower (c) Lowercase equivalent of c if it is latter; unchanged otherwise

toupper (c) Uppercase equivalent of c if it is latter; unchanged otherwise
math.h
Contain
functions
that
perform
mathematic
operations.
Function
Return value
acos(d)
Arc cosine of d
asin(d)
Arc sine d
atan(d)
Arc sine d
atan2(d1,d2)
Arc tangent of d1/d2
Example:
Program:
ceil(d)
Smallest integer greater than d
cos(d)
Cosine of d
exp(d)
e(i.e.,2.718) raised to the power d
fabs(d)
Absolute value of d
floor(d)
Largest integer smaller than d
fmod(d1,d2)
Remainder of d1/d2
log(d)
Natural logarithm of (d>0)
log10(d)
Base logarithm of d (d>0)
pow(d1,d2)
D1 raised to the power of d2
sin(d)
Sine of d
sinh(d)
Hyperbolic sine of d
sqrt(d)
Square root of d
tan(d)
Tangent of d
tanh(d)
Hyperbolic tangent of d
Output:
//program that uses mathematical functions

#include <math.h>
#include <stdio.h>
main( )
{
float x;
printf("\nEnter a number:");
scanf("%f",&x);
printf("\nSquare root:%f",sqrt(x));
printf("\nCosine:%f",cos(x));
printf("\nPower of two:%f",pow(x,2));
return 0;
}
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Example:
conio.h
Conio means console in/out which means ways of
getting data to and from the console device (which uses
the keyboard and screen)
Some of the functions:
Function
Purpose
getch
Obtain the next character from the console but

does not echo to the screen
putch
Output character to the text window on the

screen
gotoxy
Position cursor in text window
clrscr
Clear text mode window
main()
{
char ch;
printf("Enter a string:");
while ((ch=getch())!='\r')
putch(ch);
printf("\nThank you\n");
return 0;
}
Output:
string.h
Program1:
#include < stdio.h >
#include < conio.h >
defines several functions to manipulate C strings and arrays

and also various memory handling functions;
Program2:
#include < stdio.h >
#include < conio.h >
main()
{
char ch;
printf("Enter a string:");
while ((ch=getch())!='\r')
printf("\nThank you\n");
return 0;
}
Output:
Example:
Program:
Output:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
main()
{
char message[20];
strcpy(message, "This is fun!");
printf("message=%s", message);
return 0;
}
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Create block { .. } in Main function.

A C++ program must have at least the function main( ).
The main function consists of the name main followed
by a pair of empty parentheses () and a pair of braces
{}
Within the braces are the statements that make up the
main body of the program.
main ( )
Begin block
End block
// statements
Create return statement in

programmes.
The return statement is the command
that causes program flow to exit from the

current function and return to the calling
function.
It can also be used to return a single
value.
Syntax:
return expression;
Explain the usage of comments.
Create comments in programmes.
Comments are messages scattered
throughout your program that explain

whats going on.
The compiler ignores all comments, so
they have no effect on how a program
works.
Comments are important especially when
your programs become larger and more
complex, or when you need to modify a
program you wrote six months ago.
C comments begin with /* and end with */.

A comment can span part of a line, an
entire line, or multiple lines.
Example1:
/* A single line comment */
Example2:
int a; /* A partial line comment*/
Example3:
/* a comment
spanning
multiple lines */
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Constants And Variables

(Identifiers)
Create comments in
programmes.
Many of todays C compiler support another kind of
comment that was originally developed for C++
programs.
The new style comment begins with two slashes (//)
and ends only at the end of the line.
Example:
//Welcome program
#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
printf(Welcome to C programming); // welcome message
return 0;
}
The rules for naming constants and variables

the name can only contain letter, digits and the underscore character (_).
the first character of the name must be a letter. The underscore is also a
legal first character but its use is not recommended.
case matters (that is upper- and lowercase letters). Thus, the names count
and Count refer to two different variables.
C keywords cant be used as variable names such as int, for, goto, while
and so on.
should not contain a space
Declare constants and variables.
A variable declaration has the following syntax:
Declare constants and variables.
Typename varname;
Typename specifies the data type and varname is the variable name
Example:
Typename varname= value
int age; /*an integer varibale named age*/
Like a variable, a constant is a data storage location used

by your program. Unlike a variable, the value stored in a
constant cant be changed during program execution.
Syntax:
Example:
int count, number, start; /*three integer variables*/
float percent, total;
/*two float variables*/
OR
Const Typename varname=value
You can declare multiple variables of same type on one line by

seperating the variable names with commas:
Examples:
int count=20;
const float pi=3.14159;
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Identify the scope of constants and

variables.
Build constants and variables in

programmes.
The scope of a variable refers to the extent to which different parts of a

program have access to the variable- in other words, where the variable is
visible.
a. External variables
is a variable defined outside of any function. This means outside of main()
as well, because main() is a function, too.
sometimes refered to as global variables.
The scope of an external variable is the entire program. This mean that an
external variable is visible throughout main() and every other function in
the program.
Example:
#include<stdio.h>
main()
variable
constant
Keywords are those words whose meaning
is already defined by compiler.

Cannot used as variable name.
C keywords, also called reserved words, are
listed as below:
float pi=3.14;
printf("\nEnter radius:");
scanf("%f", &r);
area =pi*r*r;
b. Local variables
A local variable is one that is defined within a function.
The scope of a local variable is limited to the function in which it is
defined.
Identify and explain keywords in C

programmes.
{
float r, area;
printf("\n\nArea of circle =%.2f\n", area);

return(0);
}
Keyword
auto
break
case
char
const
continue
default
do
double
else
enum
extern
float
for
goto
if
int
Description
The default storage class
Command that exits for, while, switch, and do...switch statements
unconditionally.
Command used within the switch statement
The simplest C data type
Makes variable value or pointer parameter unmodifiable.
Command that resets a for, while, or do...while statement to the next
iteration
Command used within the switch statement to catch any instances not specified
with a case statement
used together with while to make another form of repeating statement
Data type that can hold double-precision floating-point values
Statement signaling alternative statement to be executed when an if statement
evaluates to FALSE
Used to declare and initialize a sequence of integer constants
Data modifer indicating that a variable will be declared in another area of the
program
represents a single precision floating point data type
Looping command that contains initialization, incrementation, and conditional
sections.
Command that causes a jump to a predefined label
used to change program flow based on a TRUE/FALSE decision
Data type used to hold integer values
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Keyword
long
register
Description
Data type used to larger integer value that int
Storage modifier that specifies that a variable should be stored in register if
possible
return
Command that causes program flow to exit from the current function and return to
the calling function. It can also be used to return a single value
short
Data type used to hold integers. It isnt commonly used, and its the same size as
an int on most computers.
signed
Modifier used to signify that a variable can have both positive and negative value.
sizeof
Operator that returns the size of the item in bytes
static
Modifier used to signify that the compiler should retain the variables value.
struct
Keyword used to combine C variables of any data type into group.
switch
Command used to change program flow in a multitude of directions. Used in
conjunction with the case statement
typedef
Modifier used to create new names for existing variable and function types.
union
Keyword used to allow multiple variables to share the same memory space
unsigned Modifier used to signify that a variable will contain only positive values.
void
Keyword used to signify either that a function doesnt return anything or that a
pointer being used is considered generic or able to point to any data type
volatile
Modifier that signifies that a variable can be changed.
while
Looping statement that executes a section of code as long as a condition remains
TRUE.
Example: switch, case, default

#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int number;
printf("Enter number 1 - 3:");
scanf("%d", &number);
switch (number)
{
case 1: printf("Number one\n");
break;
case 2: printf("Number two\n");
break;
case 3: printf("Number three\n");
break;
default : printf ("Number rejected\n");
}
return(0);
}
Example: for, if, break

// break loop example
#include <stdio.h>
int main ()
{
int n;
for (n=10; n>0; n--)
{
printf("%d\n",n);
if (n==3)
{
printf("coutdown aborted!\n");
break;
}
}
return 0;
}
Basic data types in C.

a. int
b. char
c. float
d. double
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Basic data types in C
a. int
Data type used to hold integer values.
Integers are whole numbers with a range of values
An example of declaring an integer variable called sum is,
c. Float
Data type used to hold Floating point numbers.
used to store fractional numbers (real numbers) with 6 digits of
precision.
An example of declaring a float variable called money is,
float money;
money = 0.12;
int sum;
sum = 20;
b. char
Data type used to hold a single character.
An example of declaring a character variable called letter
is,
d. double
Data type used to hold Double precision floating point number.
When the accuracy of the floating point number is insufficient, we
can use the double to define the number.
An example of declaring a double variable called big is,
char letter;
letter = 'A';
double big;
big = 312E+7;

Name
Description
Size
(Byte)
Range
char
Character
signed: -128 to 127
int
Integer
-32768 to +32767
float
Floating point
number
3.4 e-38 to 3.4 e+38
Double precision
double floating point
number
Example:
int quantity;
float price_per_kg;
float price;
Why did we
declare it as int?
1.7 e-308 to 1.7 e+308
Why did we
declare them as
float?
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Example:
Example:
int number1, number2;
int quantity;
float price_per_kg, price;
number1 = 25;
number2 = 23;
number1 = number2;
number1
25
23
?
number2
23
?
E3062- Basic Programming
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int number;
float decimal_point_number;
char letter;
printf("Enter a letter:");
scanf("%c", &letter);
printf("Enter a whole number:");
printf("Enter a decimal point number:");
scanf("%f", &decimal_point_number);
printf("\ncharacter=%c",letter);
printf("\ninteger=%d",number);
printf("\nfloating point number=%f\n",decimal_point_number);
return 0;
}
price_per_kg
price
quantity = 2;
price_per_kg = 4.50;
price = quantity * price_per_kg;
53
Use data types in C programmes.
quantity
E3062- Basic Programming
?
2
?
4.50
9.00
?
54
Operators and expressions.

An operator is a symbol that instructs C to perform
some operation or action, on one or more operands.
An operand is something that an operator acts on. In
C, all operands are expressions. C operators fall into
several categories:
a. The assignment operator

The assingnment operator is the equal sign (=).
If you write : x=y; in a C program, it doesnt mean x
equal to y. Instead, it means assigned the value of y
to x.
Syntax:
Variable=expression;
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Example:
Program:
Output:
//assignment operator
#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
int x, y;
x=1;
y=2;
i. The unary mathematical operators are so

named because they take a single operand.
printf(x=%d,x);
printf(y=%d,y);
return 0;
}
Unary operator can be placed before its operand

( prefix mode) or after its operand (postfix mode).
Prefix mode: the increment and decrement operator
modify their operand before its used.
Postfix mode: the increment and decrement operator
modify their operand after its used.
Example 1
B=3;
A=++B;
/* A contains 4, B
contains 4*/
b. Mathematical operators
perform mathematical operations such as additional
adn subtraction.
C has two unary mathematical operators and five
binary mathematical operators.
Example 2
B=3;
A=B++;
/* A contains 3, B
contains 4*/
Operator
Symbol
Action
Example
Increment
++
Increments the operand by one
++x, x++
Decrement
--
Decrements by operand by one
--x, x--
ii. Binary operators:
Operator
Symbol
Action
Example
Addition
Subtraction
+
-
x+y
x-y
Multiplication
Division
*
/
Modulus
Add two operands

Subtracts the second operand
fromthe first operand
Multiplies two opeands
Divides the first operand by
the second operand
Gives the remainder when
the first operand is divided
by the second operand
x*y
x/y
x%y
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Example:
Example:
//binary operator
#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
int x, y,z;
printf("enter an integer value for x:");
scanf("%d",&x);
printf("enter an integer value for y:");
scanf("%d",&y);
z=x+y; /*the evaluated value of the addition operation
is assigned to the variable z*/
printf("sum=%d",z);
printf("\n");
return 0;
}
Example:
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int x, y;
printf ( Enter value of x :);
scanf (%d, &x);
printf ( Enter value of y :);
scanf (%d, &y);
if (x == y)
printf( x is equal to y\n);
if (x > y)
printf( x is larger than y\n);
if (x < y)
printf( x is less than y\n);
return(0);
}
c. Relational operators
used to compare expressions, asking question
such as, Is x greater than 100?.
A expression containing a relational operator
evaluates to either true (1) or flase (0).
Operator
Equal
Greater than
Symbol Question asked

==
Is operand 1 equal to operand 2?
>
Is operand 1 greater than operand
2?
Less than
<
Is operand 1 less than operand 2?
Greater than or >=
Is operand 1 greater than or equal
equal to
to operand 2?
Less than or
<=
Is operand 1 less than or equal to
equal to
operand 2?
Not equal
!=
Is operand 1not equal to operand
2?
Example
x= =y
x>y
x<y
x>=y
x<=y
x!=y
d. Logical operators
Logical operators let you combine two or
more relational expression into a single
expression that evaluates to either true or
false
Operator Symbol Example
Evaluates to
AND
&&
exp1 && exp2 True (1) if both exp1 and exp2

are true
OR
||
exp1 || exp2
True (1) if either exp1 or exp2

is true
NOT
!exp1
True (1) if exp1 is false
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Example:
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
char x;
printf ("What is the first letter of alphabet?");
printf ("\nEnter you answer:");
scanf ("%c", &x);
if (x=='a'||x=='A')
printf("Your are right\n");
else
printf("Your are wrong\n");
return(0);
}
Example
// conditional operator
#include <stdio.h>
int main ()
{
int a,b,c;
a=2;
e. Conditional operator
The conditional operator is ternary
operator, meaning that it takes three

operands.
Syntax:
exp1? exp2:exp3;
If exp1 evaluates to true, the entire
expression evaluates to the value of exp2.
If exp1 evaluates to false, the entire
expression evaluates to the value of exp3.
OPERATOR PRECEDENCE
Operator precedence refers to the order in which
operators get used.
An operator with high precedence will get used before
an operator with lower precedence.
b=7;
c = (a>b) ? a : b;
printf("Larger number=%d",c);
printf("\n");
return 0;
}
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Example
#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
int a,b,c,d;
a= 3 * 4 / 2 + 3 - 1;
b= 6 + 2 * 3 - 4 / 2;
c= (6 + 2) * 3 - 4 / 2;
d= 20 / 5 + 5 % 2;
printf("a=%d\n",a);
printf("b=%d\n",b);
printf("c=%d\n",c);
printf("d=%d\n",d);
return 0;
}
End
Escape sequence
Escape sequence
The backslash character constant is also known

as the Escape Sequence.
Certain characters such as the backspace and
carriage return are not printable characters and
these characters pose special problems when
printing using text editor.
The backslash character constant is used
together with other character constant when
such problems are encountered.
Must used within
Sequence
\b
\n
\t
\
\
\\
\a
Meaning
Backspace
Newline
Horizontal tab
Double quote
Single quote character
Backslash
Bell (Alert)
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Output Statement - printf()
Input statements are used for accepting

data from the user.
Output statements are used for

displaying the processed data on the
screen.
Example 1
Is a function, used as a statement, to display the data on
the screen.
printf(Welcome");
Output
Welcome
Example 2
Syntax
printf("<string> <format specifier>",<variable>);
printf("My age is %d",age);

Output
My age is 16
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Output Statement - puts()
Example 1
Is a function, displays the contents stored in its
parameter on the standard screen.
puts("Hello World");
Output
Hello World
The standard form for the puts character is
puts (str);
str is a string variable.
Input Statement - gets()
Input Statement - scanf()
Is a function, used as a statement, to get the value from

the user.
Is a function, accepts the name of the string as a
parameter, and fills the string with characters that are

input from the keyboard till newline character is
encountered.
Syntax
scanf("<format specifier>",&<variable>);
Example
scanf("%d",&age);
%d f ormat specif ier
age variable
The standard form of the gets function is
gets (str)
"str" is a string variable.
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Example Of Program
Format Specified
Defines the data type of the variable to the compiler.
Format Specified
Data Type
%d
%f
%c
int
float
char
Question 1:
Modify the program below to produce the program that only
use puts() and gets().
input
input
#include<stdio.h>
void main( )
{
char input[80];
printf("Enter some text, then press enter :");

scanf("%s", &input);
printf (\nYour entered: %s", input);
printf("\n");
politeknik
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int event;
char heat;
float time;
event= 5;
heat='C';
time =27.25;
printf("The winning time in heat %c", heat);
printf(" of the event %d was %.2f", event, time);
printf(\n);
return(0);
}
Answer :
#include<stdio.h>
void main( )
{
char input[80];
puts("Enter some text, then press enter :");
gets(input);
puts(\nYour entered:");
puts(input);
}
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Answer :
Question 2:
/* Program to accept the input f rom the user and display it on

the screen */
Write a program to accept the customer id from

the user and display the same on the screen.
#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
int cus_id;
printf ("Enter the customer id : ");
scanf ("%d", &cus_id);
printf ("\n Customer id is : %d", cus_id);
}
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CONTROL STATEMENT
Selection, loop, and array structure.
(04 : 09)
5.1 Understand Program Controls

Without any logical control structure statement, the instructions were executed in the same
order in which they appeared within the program. Each instruction was executed once and
only once. Thus, these programs did not include tests to determine if certain conditions are
true or false, they did not require the repeated execution of groups of statements, and did not
involve the execution of individual groups of statements on a selective basis.
The ability to control the flow of your program, letting it make decisions on what code to
execute, is valuable to the programmer.
For examples, a realistic C program may require that a logical test be carried out at some
particular point within the program.
Branching - Depending on the outcome of the logical test, one of several possible
actions will then be carried out.
Selection A special kind of branching, in which one group of statements is
selected from several available groups.
Looping In addition, the program may require that a group of instructions be executed
repeatedly, until some logical condition has been satisfied. Sometimes
the required number of repetitions is known in advance and sometimes
the computation continues indefinitely until the logical condition becomes
true.
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a. if
A conditional branching statement
The if statement allows you to control if a program enters a section of code or
not based on whether a given condition is true or false. One of the important
functions of the if statement is that it allows the program to select an action
based upon the user's input. For example, by using an if statement to check a
user-entered password, your program can decide whether a user is allowed
access to the program.
The structure of an if statement is as follows:
if ( expression ) statement
The statement will be executed only if

the expression has a nonzero value
true,
The statement can be either simple or
compound.
Often compound statement which may
include other control statements
The expression must be

placed in parentheses.
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To have more than one statement execute after an if statement that
evaluates to true, use braces, like we did with the body of the main function.
Anything inside braces is called a compound statement, or a block. When
using if statements, the code that depends on the if statement is called the
"body" of the if statement.
For example:
if ( TRUE ) {
/* between the braces is the body of the if statement */
Execute all statements inside the body
}
Example Program : IF Statement

#include <stdio.h>
main ()
{ int age, yrs;
printf("Type in your age: ");
scanf ("%d", &age);
The answers:
if (age < 18)

{ printf ("You cannot vote yet\n");
yrs = 18 - age;
printf("You can vote in %d years.\n", yrs);
}
if (age > 18)
{ printf ("You can vote now.\n");
}
Return 0;
}
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b. if..else
Sometimes when the condition in an if statement evaluates to false, it
would be nice to execute some code instead of the code executed when
the statement evaluates to true. The "else" statement effectively says that
whatever code after it (whether a single line or code between brackets) is
executed if the if statement is FALSE.
The general form of if statement which includes the else clause is
if ( expression ) statement 1 else statement 2
If the expression has a nonzero value(true), the

statement 1 will be executed. Otherwise,
statement 2 will be executed.
Example Program : IFElse

# include <stdio.h>
main()
{
int yrs, age;
printf("Type a age: ");
scanf("%d", &age);
The answers :
if (age < 18)

{ printf("You cannot vote yet\n");
yrs = 18 - age;
printf("You can vote in %d years. \n", yrs);
}
else
{
printf("You can vote now.\n", yrs);
}
return 0;
}
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c. nested if
One property of if else statement is that they can be nested. This means
that if statement can be target of another if statement.

In a nested else statement is associate with nearest if statement. This
association can be change by used of code block. Also you should use
proper indenting in your program to make sure your remove any visual
ambiguity.
General representation of nested if in C can be
If
(condition1) statement1;
If (condition2) statement2;
If (condition3)
statement3;
else statement n+1

else statement n+2
else statement n+3
Example Program : Nested If

#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int number;
printf("Type a number:");
if(number>100)
printf("Large\n");
else if (number>0)
printf("Not large but positive\n");
else if (number==0)
printf("or zero\n");
else
printf("Negative \n");
The answers :
return 0;
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d. switch..case
Switch is a selection statement provided by C. It has a built in multiple
branch structure . The input value to the switch statement construct is a int or
char variable. Note that no float or any other data is allowed.
The input variable is compared against a group of integer constant.
All the statements in and after the case in which there is a match is executed
until a break statement is encountered or end of switch is reached.
We are also allowed to give a default case which will be executed if no other
statement match is found. Also use of standard indenting is recommended.
General representataion of switch in C can be switch ( input) {
case constant1:
Statement1;
break;
case constant2:
Statement2;
break;
...
Default:
Statement n;
break;}
Example Program : Switch Case

#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
char ch;
printf("\n Enter character A, B or C: ");
ch=getchar();
switch(ch)
{
case 'A':
printf("You Entered A");
break;
Some of the answers:
case 'B':
printf("You Entered B");
break;
case 'C':
printf("You Entered C");
break;
default:
printf("You Did Not Entered A, B or C!\n");

}
return 0;
}
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The if statement is used to select among two alternatives. It uses a boolean

expression to decide which alternative to be executed.
IF-ELSE can have values based on constraints where SWITCH can have
values based on user choice.
In the if - else, first the condition is verified, then it comes to else. Whereas in
the switch - case first it checks the cases and then it switches to that particular
case.
The switch branches on one value only, whereas the nested if-else tests multiple
logical expressions.
5.1.3 Write C program using looping statements.

Loops are used to repeat a block of code.
There are three types of loops:
a. do..while
b. while
c. for
d. nested loop
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a. do..while
DO..WHILE - DO..WHILE loops are useful for things that want to loop at least
once. The structure is

do {
} while ( condition );
Notice that the condition is tested at the end of the block instead of the
beginning, so the block will be executed at least once. If the condition is true,
we jump back to the beginning of the block and execute it again. A do..while
loop is almost the same as a while loop except that the loop body is
guaranteed to execute at least once. A while loop says "Loop while the
condition is true, and execute this block of code", a do..while loop says
"Execute this block of code, and then continue to loop while the condition is
true".
Example Program : Do..While

#include<stdio.h>
#include<string.h>
main()
{
char checkword[80] = "Rahsia";
char password[80] = "";
The answer :
do{
printf("Enter password: ");

scanf("%s", &password);
}while(strcmp(password, checkword));
return 0;
}
Note : This example prompts users for a password and

continued to prompt them until they enter one that
matches the value stored in checkword.
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b. while
The while statement is used to carry out looping operations, in which a group
of statement is executed repeatedly, until some condition has been sactisfied.

The general form of the while statement is
while ( condition ) { Code to execute while the condition is true }
Codes must include some feature that

eventually alters the value of the
expression, thus providing a stopping
condition for the loop.
Example Program : While Statement

#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int x=0; /* Don't forget to declare variables */
The answer:
:
while(x<10) { /* While x is less than 10 */

printf("%d\n",x); /*Loop prints values 0 to 9*/
x++;
/* Update x so the condition can be met eventually */
}
return 0;
}
The easiest way to think of the loop is that when it

reaches the brace at the end it jumps back up to the
beginning of the loop, which checks the condition
again and decides whether to repeat the block
another time, or stop and move to the next statement
after the block.
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c. for
FOR is one of the iteration statement provided by C. It is the most popular of all
iteration statements because it provides unmatched flexibility and power to the

program.
Loops generated by for statement is are also called entry controlled or close ended
because the condition for iteration of loop is check at the staring of the loop and
loop will not execute even once if the condition will to satisfy even once.
for ( variable initialization; condition; increment)
Statement;
For statement declaration as shown above can be divided into 3 parts

1. Variable initialization In this we initialize the loop control value to a
starting value.
2. Condition In this evaluate the condition for the iteration of the loop and
loop repeat only when this is true.
3. Increment In this determine how the value of loop control value changes
with each iteration of the loop. It can be increment, decrement or any
mathematical expression.
Also statement in above form can be a single statement, block statement or at
blank statement.
Also note that each part is separated by a semi colon.
Example Program 1: For Statement

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
float meters, feet;
printf("Meters to feet\n\n");
for (meters = 0; meters < 10; meters++)
{
feet = meters/3.28;
printf("%.2f %.2f\n", meters, feet);
}
return 0;
}
The answer:
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Example Program 2 : For Statement

#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
int x = 0;
for (; x < 10; ) {
/* display the numbers 0 through 9 */
The answer:
printf( "%d\n", x );
x++;
}
return 0;
}
This program is use a for statement in which two of the three expression are
omitted.
d. nested loop
These loops are the loops which contain another looping
statement in a single loop. These types of loops are used to

create matrix. Any loop can contain a number of loop
statements in itself. If we are using loop within loop that is
called nested loop. In this the outer loop is used for
counting rows and the internal loop is used for counting
columns.
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Example Program : Nested Loop

#include <stdio.h>
main( )
{
int n, count, loops, loopcount;
float x, average, sum;
/*read in the number of lists */
printf("How many lists ? ");
scanf("%d", &loops);
The answer:
/* outer loop (process each list of numbers */

for (loopcount = 1; loopcount <= loops; ++loopcount)
{
/* initialize and read in a value for n */

sum= 0;
printf("\nList number %d\nHow many numbers ?", loopcount);
scanf("%d", &n);
/*read in the numbers */
for (count =1; count <=n; ++count)
{ printf("X= ");
scanf("%f", &x);
sum += x;
}
/* end inner loop */
/* Calculate the average and display the answer */

average = sum/n;
printf("\n The average is %f\n", average);
/*end outer loop*/
return 0;
}
Multiple loop control variable more than 1 loop control is used

#include <stdio.h>
The answer :
main()
{
int i,j;
for (i=0,j=50; i<j; i++, j--) //print numbers 0 to 50
printf( "%d\n", i );
return 0;
}
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5.1.4 Compare the differences between the various loop structures.

In While loop the condition is tested first and then the statements are
executed if the condition turns out to be true.
In do while the statements are executed for the first time and then the
conditions are tested, if the condition turns out to be true then the statements
are executed again.
A do while loop runs at least once even though the the condition given is false
In a while loop the condition is first tested and if it returns true then it goes in
the loop - entry control loop
In a do-while loop the condition is tested at the last - exit control loop
for - Statement for allowing us to repeat certain parts of the program until a
specified number of repetitions allow to determine the required number of
repetitions.
5.2 Understand Arrays

What is an array?
Array is a very basic data structure provided by every programming language.
Lets talk about an example scenario where we need to store ten employees
data in our C/C++ program including name, age and salary. One of the
solutions is to declare ten different variables to store employee name and ten
more to store age and so on. Also you will need some sort of mechanism to get
information about an employee, search employee records and sort them. To
solve these types of problem C/C++ provide a mechanism called Arrays.
An array is a data type which contains many variables of the same type.
Each element of the array is given a number by which you can access that
element.
For an array of 100 elements, the first element is 0 (zero) and the last is 99.
This indexed access makes it very convenient to loop through each element of
the array.
In C, all arrays are stored in contiguous memory locations.
The lowest address corresponds to the first element and the highest address to
the last element.
Arrays can be, single dimensional or multidimensional.
One of the most common uses of one-dimensional arrays is to represent
strings. These are stored as an array of characters, terminated by a null.
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5.2.1 Describe the steps to define an array.

a. Declaring array
c. Accessing array
a. Declaring array
The general form of declaring a simple (one dimensional) array is
array_type variable_name[array_size];
in your C program you can declare an array like
int Age[10];
Here array type declares base type of array which is the type of each
element in array, it can be characters, integers, floating-point numbers, etc.
In our example array type is int and its name is Age. Size of the array is
defined by array size i.e. 10.
We can access array elements by index, and first item in array is at index 0.
First element of array is called lower bound and its always 0. Highest
element in array is called upper bound.
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In C programming language upper and lower bounds cannot be

changed during the execution of the program, so array length can be set
only when the program in written.
Note: One good practice is to declare array length as a constant identifier. This
will minimise the required work to change the array size during program
development.
Considering the array we declared above we can declare it like
#define NUM_EMPLOYEE 10
int Age[NUM_EMPLOYEE];
A character type array can also be initialized within a declaration always refer
as string.
Char text[] = California
String in simplest term is a one dimensional array of characters
terminated by a null character (\n).

For safe use size of this string should be one greater than the maximum
size string going to be stored in this character array.
String in C is equavialent to a real world sentence made by
combination of various characters including spaces.
The general form of declaration of string variable is char name [size];
Also string manipulation can be done very easily using some
predefined function available in header <string.h>.
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C source code below shows the general use of String.

#include<stdio.h>
#include<string.h>
main()
{
char enter[6] ="Enter";
char password[] = "Password";
char input[100] = "None";
while (1)
{
printf("\n %s %s: ", enter, password);
scanf("%s", &input);
if(strcmp(input, "MYPASSWORD"))
{
printf(" Incorrect Password\n");
}
else
{
printf("\n Welcome to the cyber world.....");
break;
}
}
The answer:
return 0;
}
The initializing values are enclosed within the curly braces in the
declaration and placed following an equal sign after the array name.
Initialisation of array is very simple in c programming. There are two
ways you can initialise arrays.
Declare and initialise array in one statement.

Declare and initialise array separately.
Look at the following C code which demonstrates the declaration and
initialisation of an array.
int Age [5] = {30, 22, 33, 44, 25};

int Age [5];
Age [0]=30;
Age [1]=22;
Age [2]=33;
Age [3]=44;
Age [4]=25;
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Array can also be initialised in a ways that array size is omitted,
in such case compiler automatically allocates memory to array.

int Age [] = {30, 22, 33, 44, 25};
All individual array elements that are not assigned explicit initial
values will automatically be set to zero.
Int digits[3] = {3, 6} the result on an element basic are as
follows.
digits[0] = 3, digits[1] = 6 and digits[2] = 0
c. Accessing array
To access an individual element of an array, use the name of the array name
followed by the index of the element in square are brackets. Array indices start
at 0 and end at size-1:
array_name[index];
For example, to store the value 75 in the third element of billy, we could write
the following statement:
billy[2] = 75;
and, for example, to pass the value of the third element of billy to a variable
called a, we could write:
a = billy[2];
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Here is how we can print the value of the second element in

the array:
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
short age[4];
age[0]=23;
age[1]=34;
age[2]=65;
age[3]=74;
printf("%d\n", age[1]);
return 0;
}
#include <stdio.h>
The
output
same as
program
using
pointer to
access the
array.
int main()
{
short age[4];
age[0]=23;
age[1]=34;
age[2]=65;
age[3]=74;
printf("%d\n", *(age+1));
return 0;
}
The answer:
Each array element occupies consecutive memory locations and array name is a
pointer that points to the first element. Beside accessing array via index we can
use pointer to manipulate array.
This program helps you visualize the memory address each array elements and
how to access array element using pointer.
#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
const int size = 5;
int list[size] = {2,1,3,7,8};
int* plist = list;
The answer:
// print memory address of array elements

for(int i = 0; i < size;i++)
{
printf("list[%d] is in %d\n",i,&list[i]);
}
// accessing array elements using pointer
for(i = 0; i < size;i++)
{
printf("list[%d] = %d\n",i,*plist); /* increase memory address of pointer so it go to the next
element of the array */
plist++;
}
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There are two ways to pass arguments from a function to
another functions : by value or by address.

Passing by value means that the value of the variable is
passed to the receiving function. C uses the passing by
value method for all non-array variables.
When u pass an array to another function, the array is
passed by address.
The receiving function then places its receiving parameter
array over the address passed. If the receiving function
changes one of the variables in the parameter list, the
calling functions argument changes as well.
Example Program : Passing array to function as a parameter

Function parameters of array type may at first glance appear to be an
exception to C's pass-by-value rule.
Program 2
Program 1
#include <stdio.h>
void setArray(int array[], int index, int value)
{
array[index] = value;
}
int main(void)
{
int a[1] = {1};
setArray(a, 0, 2);
printf ("a[0]=%d\n", a[0]);
return 0;
}
The answer:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
char change(char name[])
{
/*change the string stored at the address pointed to by name*/
strcpy(name, 12345");
return 0;
}
main()
{
char name[] = "Chris Williams.";
printf("You old password is %s", name);
change(name);
printf("\nFrom now, the password is %s.\n", name);
return 0;
}
The answer:
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5.2.2 Modify a 1-dimension array in C programme.

#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
int dayNum;
char *days[7];
days[0] = "Sunday";
days[1] = "Monday";
days[2] = "Tuesday";
days[3] = "Wednesday";
days[4] = "Thursday";
days[5] = "Friday";
days[6] = "Saturday";
The answer:
printf("Enter a number from 1 to 7: ");

scanf("%d", &dayNum);
if (dayNum>=1 && dayNum<=7)

{ printf("That day is %s\n", days[dayNum -1]); }
else
{ printf("You didnt enter a good number.\n"); }
return 0;
}
5.2.3 Write C programme using array.

#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
int my_array[5], count;
for(count=0;count <= 4;count++)
{
my_array[count] = count*2;
}
for(count=0;count <= 4; count++)
{
printf("Element %d is : %d\n", count, my_array[count]);
}
return 0;
}
The program's output would be:
Element
Element
Element
Element
Element
0
1
2
3
4
is : 0
is : 2
is : 4
is : 6
is : 8
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Multidimensional Arrays
The array we used in the last example was a one dimensional array. Arrays can
have more than one dimension, these arrays-of-arrays are called

multidimensional arrays. They are very similar to standard arrays with the
exception that they have multiple sets of square brackets after the array
identifier. A two dimensional array can be though of as a grid of rows and
columns.
*Just for information, multidimensional Arrays not in syllabus
#include <stdio.h>
const int num_rows = 7;
const int num_columns = 5;
int main()
{
int box[num_rows][num_columns];
int row, column;
for(row = 0; row < num_rows; row++)
for(column = 0; column < num_columns; column++)
box[row][column] = column + (row * num_columns);
for(row = 0; row < num_rows; row++)
{
for(column = 0; column < num_columns; column++)
{
printf("%4d", box[row][column]);
}
printf("\n"); }
return 0;
}
The answer :
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Understand Functions
A function is a block of code that has a name
and it has a property that it is reusable i.e. it

can be executed from as many different
points in a C Program as required.
Function groups a number of program
statements into a unit and gives it a name.
This unit can be invoked from other parts of
a program
A computer program cannot handle all the
tasks by it self.
Instead its requests other program like
entities called functions in C to get its
tasks done.
A function is a self contained block of
statements that perform a coherent task of
same kind.
A function can be accessed from any
location within a C Program.
We pass information to the function called
arguments specified when the function is

called.
The function either returns some value to
the point it was called from or returns
nothing.
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Structure of a Function
There are two main parts of the function
Example:
function header & function body.
Function_type function_name(parameter list)

{
body of the function
}
*function_type specifies the type of data that the
function returns. Eg : int, float, char, etc.
int sum(int x, int y)

{
int ans = 0; //holds the answer that will be returned
ans = x + y; //calculate the sum
return ans //return the answer
}
Function Header
Function Body
In the first line of the above code
What ever is written with in { } in the above
example is the body of the function.
int sum(int x, int y)
{
It has three main parts:
1) The name of the function i.e. sum
2) The parameters of the function
enclosed in paranthesis
3) Return value type i.e. int
int ans = 0;
ans = x + y;
return ans
}
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The Use of Functions

It facilitates top down modular
programming. In this programming style,

the high level logic of the overall problem is
solved first while the details of each lower
level functions is addressed later.
The length of the source program can be
reduced by using functions at appropriate

places. This factor is critical with
microcomputers where memory space is
limited.
It is easy to locate and isolate a faulty
function for further investigation.
A function may be used by many other
programs this means that a c programmer

can build on what others have already done,
instead of starting over from scratch.
A program can be used to avoid rewriting
the same sequence of code at two or more
locations in a program. This is especially
useful if the code involved is long or
complicated.
Programming teams does a large percentage
of programming. If the program is divided

into subprograms, each subprogram can be
written by one or two team members of the
team rather than having the whole team to
work on the complex program
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The order in which the functions are defined
Types of Function
in a program and the order in which they get

called need not necessarily be same.
There are basically two types of
functions:
1) Predefined function Library functions
2) User defined function Functions that
individually created by the programmer.
main ( );
{
message 1 ( );
message 2 ( );
}
message 2 ( )
{
printf (\n I am learning C);
}
message 1 ( )
{
printf ( \n Hello );
}
A function gets called when the function name is
followed by a semicolon.
main ( )
{
message ( );
}
A function can call itself such a process as
A function can be called any number of times.

main ()
{
message ( );
message ( );
}
message ( )
{
printf (\n Hello);
}
called recursion.
Any C program contains at least one
function.
If a program contains only one function, it
must be main( ).
There is no limit on the number of functions
that might be present in a C program.
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Predefined Function
Each function in a program is called in the
sequence specified by the function calls in

main( )
After each function has done its thing,
control returns to the main( ), when main( )
runs out of function calls, the program ends.
Function
ctype.h
Return value
The predefined functions used in the C standard
library, and a few of the non-standard functions,

include:
Stdio.h
Function
printf
scanf
putchar
getchar
puts
gets
fputc
fgetc
Purpose
used to sends formatted output to the screen.
used to reads formatted input from the keyboard
used to sends a single character to the screen
used to reads a single character from the keyboard
used to sends string s to the screen
used to read string s from the keyboard
writes one character to a file
returns one character from a file
Function
Return value
salnum (c)
Non- zero if ( c ) is alphanumeric; 0 otherwise
acos(d)
Arc cosine of d
isalpha (c)
Non- zero if ( c ) is alphabetic; 0 otherwise
asin(d)
Arc sine d
isascii (c)
Non- zero if ( c ) is ASCII character; 0 otherwise
atan(d)
Arc sine d
iscntrl (c)
Non- zero if ( c ) is control character ; 0 otherwise
atan2(d1,d2)
Arc tangent of d1/d2
isdigit (c)
Non- zero if ( c ) is a digit; 0 otherwise
ceil(d)
Smallest integer greater than d
isgraph(c)
Non- zero if ( c ) is a graphic character(including space); 0
cos(d)
Cosine of d
exp(d)
e(i.e.,2.718) raised to the power d
otherwise
islower (c)
Non- zero if ( c ) is lowercase letter ; 0 otherwise
fabs(d)
Absolute value of d
isprint (c)
Non- zero if ( c ) is printable character ( including space ) ; 0
floor(d)
Largest integer smaller than d
fmod(d1,d2)
Remainder of d1/d2
otherwise
ispunct(c)
Non- zero if ( c ) is punctuation character ; 0 otherwise
log(d)
Natural logarithm of (d>0)
isspace (c)
Non- zero if ( c ) is a space, tab, formfeed or new line
log10(d)
Base logarithm of d (d>0)
character; 0 otherwise
pow(d1,d2)
D1 raised to the power of d2
isupper (c)
Non- zero if ( c ) is uppercase letter; 0 otherwise
sin(d)
Sine of d
isxdigit (c)
Non- zero if ( c ) is hexadecimal digit ; 0 otherwise
sinh(d)
Hyperbolic sine of d
toascii(c)
ASCII equavalent
sqrt(d)
Square root of d
tolower (c)
Lowercase equivalent of c if it is latter; unchanged otherwise
tan(d)
Tangent of d
toupper (c)
Uppercase equivalent of c if it is latter; unchanged otherwise
tanh(d)
Hyperbolic tangent of d
Math.h
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String.h
Conio.h
Function
Purpose
getch
Obtain the next character from the console but

does not echo to the screen
putch
Output character to the text window on the

screen
gotoxy
Position cursor in text window
clrscr
Clear text mode window
User-defined function
C allows programmers to define their own
functions.
Is a self-contained program segment that
carries out some specific, well-defined task.
/* convert a lowercase character to uppercase using a programmer-defined

function*/
#include <stdio.h>
char lower_to_upper(char c1) /*function definition*/
{
char c2;
c2=(c1>='a' && c1<='z')? ('A' + c1 - 'a'):c1;
return(c2);
}
main()
{
char lower, upper;
printf("Please enter a lowercese character: ");
scanf("%c", &lower);
upper = lower_to_upper(lower);
printf("\nThe uppercase equivalent is %c\n\n", upper);
}
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Components in the Userdefined Function
Function Prototypes
All identifiers in C need to be declared
before they are used.

This is true for functions as well as variables.
For functions the declaration needs to be
before the first call of the function.
A full declaration includes the return type
and the number and type of the arguments.
Have semicolon ; at the end of the
function.
There are 4 basic components:

Function prototypes
Function definition
Return statement
Call function
A simple program with a function prototype
Having the prototype available before the
/* A simple example of a function prototype

allowing the function to be used before it is
defined. */
#include <stdio.h>
int sum (int, int);
int main (void)
{
int total;
total = sum (2, 3);
printf ("Total is %d\n", total);
return 0;
}
int sum (int a, int b)
{
return a + b;
}
Function prototype
first use of the function allows the compiler

to check that the correct number and type of
arguments are used in the function call and
that the returned value, if any, is being used
reasonably.
The function definition itself can act as an
implicit function declaration.
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This was used in the above example and was
why sum was put before main.

If the order was reversed the compiler would
not recognize sum as a function.
To correct this a prototype could be added
before main.
The prototype gives a lot of information
about the function.
[ data type] function name (argument list)

argument declaration;
{
local variable declarations;
statements;
mul(a,b)
[return expression]
int a,b;
}
{
int y;
y=a+b;
return y;
}
Function definition
Function definitions differ from function
declarations in that they supply function

bodies the code that makes up the
function.
Function_type function_name(parameter list)
{
body of the function
}
Return statement
The return statement terminates the
execution of a function and returns control

to the calling function.
When a return statement is executed, the
function is terminated immediately at that
point, regardless of whether it's in the
middle of a loop, etc.
A return statement can also return a value
to the calling function.
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The return statement has the form:

return [expression];
The expression portion of the statement is
optional.
If an expression is not specified, the return
statement becomes equivalent to:
return void;
Also, reaching the } (right curly brace) that
terminates a function is equivalent to

executing a return statement without an
expression.
In C, if a control path ends in a return
statement that returns a value that is of a
different type than that specified in the
function prototype, a warning may be
generated but compilation will continue.
#include <stdio.h>
Returning no values - Void

A return statement without an expression
can be used only in functions that do not

return a value.
This prevents their use in any expression
and helps avert accidental misuse.
Before you can use any void function, you
must declare its prototype.
void modify(int a);

main()
{
int a=2;
printf("\n a=%d (from main, before calling the function)", a);
modify(a);
printf("\n\n a=%d (from main, after calling the function)", a);
}
Void can be used as function
void modify(int a)
type when defining a function
{
that does not return anything.
a *=3;
printf("\n\n a=%d (from the function, after being modified)", a);
return;
}
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You may also declare main() as void if it does not
return a value.
Example:
Returning values
A return statement with an expression can
#include <stdio.h>
void main(void)
Declare main
{
function as void
int x;
for (x=1; x<11; ++x)
printf("\n %d", x*x);
return;
Return with no
}
value
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdio.h>
int funct1(int count);
main()
{
int a, count;
for(count=1;count<=5;++count)
{
a=funct1(count);
printf("%d\n", a);
Function prototype
Call the
function
}
}
int funct1(int x)
{
int y;
y=x*x;
return (y);
be used only in functions returning a value;

the value of the expression is returned to the
caller of the function.
Returning the value of

y to the caller function
Function
prototype
int mul(int a, int b);

void main(void)
{
int x, y, z;
x=10;
y=20;
z = mul(x, y);
printf("%d", mul(x,y));
mul(x,y);
}
mul(int a, int b)
{
return a*b;
}
Call the
function
Returning the value to

the caller
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Call function
Call by Value
A function can be accessed (i.e, called) by
This method copies the value of an
specifying its name, followed by a list of

arguments enclosed in parentheses and
separated by commas.
In general, subroutines can be passed
arguments in one of two ways.
Call by value
Call by reference
argument into the formal parameter of the

subroutine.
In this case, changes made to the parameter
have no effect on the argument.
#include <stdio.h>
In this example, the value of the argument
int sqr(int x);

void main(void)
{
int t=10;
printf("%d %d", sqr(t), t);
}
sqr(int x)
{
x=x*x;
return (x);
}
Call function by the

value
to sqr(),10, is copied into the parameter x.

When the assignment x=x*x takes place,
only the local variable x is modified.
The variable t, used to call sqr(), still has
the value 10.
Remember that it is a copy of the value of
the argument that is passed into the
function.
What occurs inside the function has no
effect on the variable used in the call.
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You can create a call by reference by passing a pointer to an arguments, instead of the argument itself.
#include <stdio.h>
Call by Reference
void swap(int *x, int *y);
Call by reference is the second way of
passing arguments to a subroutine.

In this method, the address of an argument
is copied into the parameter.
Inside the subroutine, the address is used to
access the actual argument used in the call.
This means that changes made to the
parameter affect the argument.
Example programme using

user-defines function
Here is a program that passes an integer i by value, a floating-point x by address, and an
integer array by address (as all arrays should be passed):
#include <stdio.h>
changeSome(int i, f loat *newX, int iAry[4]);

main()
{
int i=10;
f loat x=20.5;
int iAry[] = {10,20,30,40,50};
puts("Here are main()'s variables before the function:");
printf("i is %d\n", i);
printf("x is %.1f\n", x);
printf("iAry[0] is %d\n", iAry[0]);
Function prototype
void main(void)
{
Pass the addresses
int i, j;
i=10;
j=20;
printf("i=%d j=%d (from main,before calling the function)", i,j);
swap(&i, &j);
printf("\ni=%d j=%d (from main,after calling the function)", i,j);
}
of i and j
void swap(int *x, int *y)

{
int temp;
temp=*x; /*save the value at address x*/
*x=*y;
/*put y into x*/
*y=temp; /*put x into y*/
}
changeSome(i, &x, iAry);

puts("\nmain()'s variables after the function:");
printf("i is %d\n", i);
printf("x is %.1f\n", x);
return 0;
}
changeSome(int i, f loat *newX, int iAry[4])
{
i=47;
*newX=97.6;
iAry[0] = 100;
iAry[1] = 200;
iAry[2] = 300;
iAry[3] = 400;
iAry[4] = 500;
}
Call the function by

value and address
Goes back to DOS
User-defined function
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Ec201 - Fundamental Programming PDF

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COURSE : EC201 FUNDAMENTAL PROGRAMMING

INSTRUCTIONAL DURATION : 15 WEEKS

At the end of this course, students should be able to:

1.2 Understand Problem Solving

3.2 Know Constants And Variables (Identifiers)

5.2 Understand Arrays

1.1 Introduction concepts

is set of instructions that can be used to

construct a program. A notation for

1.1.2 Various types of Programming

1.1.3 (i) Machine language

For example, a program written in Apple PC cannot

ii) Assembly language

translates assembly language.

It was developed to replace "0" and "1" used

Machine languages consist entirely of

English-like abbreviations representing

1.1.4 Structured Programming

iii) High-level language

Instruction is written as a series of Englishlike words.

Definition of Structured Programming

The most popular structured programming

Codes similar to everyday English

Example: if (x < 10) {

is one the newest and most powerful paradigms.

This pairing of a piece of data with the operations

Objects can store state information and interact

is about relation between the data and the code

An object stores a data type value;

variable name refers to object.

The most popular object-oriented

programming languages include Java, Visual

languages, such as SmallTalk and

Modular Programming - Need

-A detailed process of problem solving

Typical industry programming projects

-Break a large problem into several

consist of thousands of lines of code or

Modular Programming Process

Manageable: Reduce problem to smaller, simpler,

An Example of Code that Doesn't Use

A Simple Example of Modular

function circumference (R)

function area (R)

Why Object Oriented Language?

- fourth-generation language is object

Variables can be objects, which have their

--- Program Start

own data and functions. Think like C and

Step 2: Object Identification

Step 3: Message Identification

+ aNum - This is the message sent to the

Step 4: Object-message sequences - Following

1.2.1 Stages of Problem Solving

The steps in programming:

1.2.2 Elements of problem analysis

1-Definitions and identify problems

3. Design a flow chart (design

variable is a reference to a memory

Better known as the process of

There are two ways to write the

Is it sufficient for the