Sociology is the scientific or academic study of social behaviour, including its origins,

development, organization, and institutions. Sociology is the study of human social relationships
and institutions.

SUBFIELDS
Historical sociology
Criminology
Anthropology is the study of humans, past and present. To understand the full sweep and
complexity of cultures across all of human history, anthropology draws and builds upon
knowledge from the social and biological sciences as well as the humanities and physical
sciences. A central concern of anthropologists is the application of knowledge to the solution of
human problems.
SUBFIELDS

Archaeology

Archaeology examines our past ways of life through the interpretation of material culture,
organic remains, written records, and oral traditions.

Biological Anthropology

Deals with the evolution of the human body, mind and behavior as inferred through study of
fossils and comparisons with behavior and anatomy of other primate species.

Cultural Anthropology

Explores the diversity of existing human ways of life, how they work, how they change, and how
they interrelate in the modern world.

Linguistic Anthropology

Examines the structure and diversity of language and related human communication systems.
Sociology is important to study because it helps us look more objectively at our society and
other societies. It give us knowledge on how various institution have an impact on society. The
field of sociology helps us to understand social conditions and phenomenons such as the causes
of crime, poverty, and other social problems. This understanding helps us to find solutions for
such problems in a society.
The study of anthropology improves our specific knowledge of a variety of cultures and social
groups, but more importantly it encourages the development of a world-view which is open to
the possibilities of different ways of being. It challenges our taken-for-granted assumptions about
what is 'normal' and 'natural' by revealing the diversity of human experience and treating this
experience seriously and with dignity.

Different Theoretical perspective of Sociology and

Anthropology
FUNCTIONALISM

The functionalist perspective, also called functionalism, is one of the major theoretical
perspectives in sociology. It has its origins in the works of Emile Durkheim, who was especially
interested in how social order is possible or how society remains relatively stable.Functionalism
interprets each part of society in terms of how it contributes to the stability of the whole society.
Society is more than the sum of its parts; rather, each part of society is functional for the stability
of the whole society.
CONFLICT THEORY
According to conflict theory, inequality exists because those in control of a disproportionate
share of societys resources actively defend their advantages. The masses are not bound to
society by their shared values, but by coercion at the hands of those in power. This perspective
emphasizes social control, not consensus and conformity. Groups and individuals advance their
own interests, struggling over control of societal resources.
SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM
Symbolic interaction theory analyzes society by addressing the subjective meanings that people
impose on objects, events, and behaviors.
The symbolic interaction perspective, also called symbolic interactionism, is a major framework
of sociological theory. This perspective relies on the symbolic meaning that people develop and
rely upon in the process of social interaction.
EVOLUTIONISM
Evolutionism was a common 19th century belief that organisms inherently improve themselves
through progressive inherited change over time, and increase in complexity through evolution.
The belief went on to include cultural evolution and social evolution.
ANIMISM
Described by Edward Burnett Tyler as the belief that natural phenomena, such as climatic
phenomena, or rocks and stones, could possess some kind of spirit or life force so that the
apparently lifeless material world was actually animated by a host of unseen and supernatural
forces.

DIFFUSIONISM
Diffusionism is the term used by anthropologists and sociologists to account for the spread,
through time, of aspects of cultureartistic traditions, language, music, myths, religious beliefs,
social organization, technological ideasfrom one society or group to another.

Methods of Research
Content Analysis
Content analysis is frequently used to measure cultural change and to study different aspects of
culture.
Surveys: Questionnaires, Interviews, and Telephone Polls

Surveys are the most commonly used tool in sociological research, whether in the form of a
questionnaire, interview, or telephone poll. Surveys make it possible to ask specific questions
about a large number of topics and then perform sophisticated analyses to find patterns and
relationships among variables.
Controlled Experiments
Controlled experiments are very common in medical research and psychology research, although
they can be used in sociological research as well. A controlled experiment is a highly
focused way of collecting data and is especially useful for determining patterns of cause and
effect.
Ethnomethodology
Ethnomethodology is a theoretical approach in sociology based on the belief that you can
discover the normal social order of a society by disrupting it. Ethnomethodologists often
deliberately disrupt social norms to see how people respond and how they try to restore social
order.

MODULE 2:
EVOLUTION- is a scientific theory that essentially states species change over time.

NATURAL SELECTION- Individuals with adaptations that are suited to their environments will live
long enough to breed and pass down those desirable traits to their offspring.

EPOCH- a point in time beginning a new or distinctive period

ERA- is a span of time marked by character, events, changes on earth, etc.

DEVELOPMENT OF EVOLUTIONARY THEORY

Naturalists began to focus on the variability of species; the emergence of paleontology with the
concept of extinction further undermined static views of nature. In the early 19th century JeanBaptiste Lamarck (1744 1829) proposed his theory of the transmutation of species, the first
fully formed theory of evolution.
In 1858 Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace published a new evolutionary theory,
explained in detail in Darwin's On the Origin of Species (1859). Unlike Lamarck, Darwin
proposed common descent and a branching tree of life, meaning that two very different species
could share a common ancestor. Darwin based his theory on the idea of natural selection: it
synthesized a broad range of evidence from animal
husbandry, biogeography, geology, morphology, and embryology.

Debate over Darwin's work led to the rapid acceptance of the general concept of evolution, but
the specific mechanism he proposed, natural selection, was not widely accepted until it was
revived by developments in biology that occurred during the 1920s through the 1940s. Before
that time most biologists regarded other factors as responsible for evolution. Alternatives to
natural selection suggested during "the eclipse of Darwinism" (circa 1880 to 1920)
included inheritance of acquired characteristics (neo-Lamarckism), an innate drive for change
(orthogenesis), and sudden large mutations (saltationism). Mendelian genetics, a series of 19th
Century experiments with pea plant variations rediscovered in 1900, was integrated with natural
selection by Ronald Fisher during the 1910s to 1930s, and along with J. B. S. Haldane and Sewall
Wright he founded the new discipline of population genetics. During the 1930s and 1940s
population genetics became integrated with other biological fields, resulting in a widely
applicable theory of evolution that encompassed much of biologythe modern evolutionary
synthesis.
Following the establishment of evolutionary biology, studies of mutation and genetic diversity in
natural populations, combined with biogeography and systematics, led to sophisticated
mathematical and causal models of evolution. Paleontology and comparative anatomy allowed
more detailed reconstructions of the evolutionary history of life. After the rise of molecular
genetics in the 1950s, the field of molecular evolution developed, based on protein
sequences and immunological tests, and later incorporating RNA and DNA studies. The genecentered view of evolution rose to prominence in the 1960s, followed by the neutral theory of
molecular evolution, sparking debates over adaptationism, the unit of selection, and the relative
importance of genetic drift versus natural selection as causes of evolution. In the late 20thcentury, DNA sequencing led to molecular phylogenetics and the reorganization of the tree of life
into the three-domain system by Carl Woese. In addition, the newly recognized factors
of symbiogenesis and horizontal gene transfer introduced yet more complexity into evolutionary
theory. Discoveries in evolutionary biology have made a significant impact not just within the
traditional branches of biology, but also in other academic disciplines (for
example: anthropology and psychology) and on society at large.

Darwins Theory of Evolution

Darwin's Theory of Evolution is the widely held notion that all life is related and has descended
from a common ancestor: the birds and the bananas, the fishes and the flowers -- all related.
Darwin's general theory presumes the development of life from non-life and stresses a purely
naturalistic (undirected) "descent with modification". That is, complex creatures evolve from
more simplistic ancestors naturally over time. In a nutshell, as random genetic mutations occur
within an organism's genetic code, the beneficial mutations are preserved because they aid
survival -- a process known as "natural selection." These beneficial mutations are passed on to
the next generation. Over time, beneficial mutations accumulate and the result is an entirely
different organism (not just a variation of the original, but an entirely different creature)

Timeline Overview of Human Evolution

TIME(YEARS AGO)
14,000(12,000 B.C)

GEOLOGIC EPOCH
Pleistocene

50,000

FOSSIL RECORD
Earliest human in the world
Modern humans Homo sapiens
sapiens
Neanderthal Homo sapiens

100,000
250,000

Earliest Homo sapiens

700,000
1,500,000
2,000,000
3,000,000

Homo erectus
Pliocene

Homo habits
Earliest hominids
Australopithecus
Diversification of Apes

12,000,000
Miocene
22,500,000

Earliest apes
29,000,000
32,000,000

Oligocene
Earliest anthropoids

38,000,000
50,000,000
65,000,000

Eocene
Palaeocene

70,000,000

Late Cretaceous

Earliest Primates

TAXONOMY OF HUMAN EVOLUTION

The Earliest Hominids
Evidence from molecular biology strongly suggests that humans and chimpanzees last shared a
common ancestor no more than 5-8 million years ago, and in recent years researchers have
focused on finding fossils close to this divergence. The descriptions of Orrorin tugenensis (in
2001) and Sahelanthropus tchadensis (in 2002) have added to our knowledge of this period in
our history.
The Australopithecines
This large group of species comprises both the gracile and the robust australopithecines.
Recently some scientists have suggested that some species presently assigned to
the Homo clade would be better placed in Australopithecus - an example of how rapidly our
understanding of our evolutionary past is changing, and of the reviews, discussion and
disagreements that characterise scientific research.
Australpithecus afarensis
The best-known member of this species is "Lucy" , discovered in 1974 by Don Johanson & Tom
Gray and estimated to be around 3.2 million years old (afarensis lived from 3.9 to 3 million years
ago).
Afarensis remains indicate that the species was strongly sexually dimorphic, with males much
larger than females. The remains indicate that afarensis heights ranged from 107 to 152 cm, and
cranial capacity from 375 cc to 550cc (AL 444-2, a large adult male).
The face and cranium of afarensis was ape-like: a prominent brow ridge, low forehead, and a
prognathous muzzle that lacked a chin. The teeth are intermediate between ape and human: the
molars are large and the canines, though much smaller than those of living apes, are larger and
more pointed than those of humans. The shape of the dental arcade lies between the human
parabolic form and the apes' rectangular shape, and the foramen magnum, while further forward
than in apes, is not directly under the cranium as in humans.
However, their postcranial skeleton is far closer to that of modern humans. The pelvic, leg, and
foot bones clearly show that this species was bipedal, though not well adapted for running. While
the finger & toe bones are curved and longer than in humans, a feature that most scientists
consider to be evidence that afarensis still spent time in the trees, their hands are otherwise
human-like. (A recent study suggests that afarensis' wrist bones still show some adaptations for
knuckle-walking.)
Homo habilis
H. habilis, "handy man", was so called because of evidence of tools found with its
remains. Habilis existed between 2.4 and 1.5 million years ago. It is very similar to
australopithecines in many ways. The face is still primitive, but it projects less than in A.
africanus. The back teeth are smaller, but still considerably larger than in modern humans. The
average brain size, at 650 cc, is considerably larger than in australopithecines. Brain size varies
between 500 and 800 cc, overlapping the australopithecines at the low end and H. erectus at the

high end. The brain shape is also more humanlike. The bulge of Broca's area, essential for
speech, is visible in one habilis brain cast, and indicates it was possibly capable of rudimentary
speech. Habilis is thought to have been about 127 cm (5'0") tall, and about 45 kg (100 lb) in
weight, although females may have been smaller.
Homo erectus
H. erectus existed between 1.8 million and 300,000 years ago. Like habilis, the face has
protruding jaws with large molars, no chin, thick brow ridges, and a long low skull, with a brain
size varying between 750 and 1225 cc. Early erectus specimens average about 900 cc, while late
ones have an average of about 1100 cc (Leakey 1994). The skeleton is more robust than those of
modern humans, implying greater strength. Body proportions vary; the Turkana Boy is tall and
slender (though still extraordinarily strong), like modern humans from the same area, while the
few limb bones found of Peking Man indicate a shorter, sturdier build. Study of the Turkana Boy
skeleton indicates that erectus may have been more efficient at walking than modern humans,
whose skeletons have had to adapt to allow for the birth of larger-brained infants (Willis 1989).
Homo sapiens (archaic) (also Homo heidelbergensis)
Archaic forms of Homo sapiens first appear about 500,000 years ago. The term covers a diverse
group of skulls which have features of both Homo erectus and modern humans. The brain size is
larger than erectus and smaller than most modern humans, averaging about 1200 cc, and the
skull is more rounded than in erectus. The skeleton and teeth are usually less robust than
erectus, but more robust than modern humans. Many still have large brow ridges and receding
foreheads and chins. There is no clear dividing line between late erectus and archaic sapiens,
and many fossils between 500,000 and 200,000 years ago are difficult to classify as one or the
other.
Homo sapiens neanderthalensis (also Homo neanderthalensis)
Neandertal (or Neanderthal) man existed between 230,000 and 30,000 years ago. The average
brain size is slightly larger than that of modern humans, about 1450 cc, but this is probably
correlated with their greater bulk. The brain case however is longer and lower than that of
modern humans, with a marked bulge at the back of the skull. Like erectus, they had a
protruding jaw and receding forehead. The chin was usually weak. The midfacial area also
protrudes, a feature that is not found in erectus or sapiens and may be an adaptation to cold.
There are other minor anatomical differences from modern humans, the most unusual being
some peculiarities of the shoulder blade, and of the pubic bone in the pelvis. Neandertals mostly
lived in cold climates, and their body proportions are similar to those of modern cold-adapted
peoples: short and solid, with short limbs. Men averaged about 168 cm (5'6") in height. Their
bones are thick and heavy, and show signs of powerful muscle attachments. Neandertals would
have been extraordinarily strong by modern standards, and their skeletons show that they
endured brutally hard lives. A large number of tools and weapons have been found, more
advanced than those of Homo erectus. Neandertals were formidable hunters, and are the first
people known to have buried their dead, with the oldest known burial site being about 100,000
years old. They are found throughout Europe and the Middle East. Western European Neandertals
usually have a more robust form, and are sometimes called "classic Neandertals". Neandertals
found elsewhere tend to be less excessively robust. (Trinkaus and Shipman 1992; Trinkaus and
Howells 1979; Gore 1996)
Homo floresiensis
Homo floresiensis was discovered on the Indonesian island of Flores in 2003. Fossils have been
discovered from a number of individuals. The most complete fossil is of an adult female about 1
meter tall with a brain size of 417cc. Other fossils indicate that this was a normal size

for floresiensis. It is thought that floresiensis is a dwarf form of Homo erectus - it is not
uncommon for dwarf forms of large mammals to evolve on islands. H. floresiensis was fully
bipedal, used stone tools and fire, and hunted dwarf elephants also found on the island. (Brown
et al. 2004, Morwood et al. 2004, Lahr and Foley 2004)
Homo sapiens sapiens (modern)
Modern forms of Homo sapiens first appear about 195,000 years ago. Modern humans have an
average brain size of about 1350 cc. The forehead rises sharply, eyebrow ridges are very small or
more usually absent, the chin is prominent, and the skeleton is very gracile. About 40,000 years
ago, with the appearance of the Cro-Magnon culture, tool kits started becoming markedly more
sophisticated, using a wider variety of raw materials such as bone and antler, and containing
new implements for making clothing, engraving and sculpting. Fine artwork, in the form of
decorated tools, beads, ivory carvings of humans and animals, clay figurines, musical
instruments, and spectacular cave paintings appeared over the next 20,000 years. (Leakey 1994)
Even within the last 100,000 years, the long-term trends towards smaller molars and decreased
robustness can be discerned. The face, jaw and teeth of Mesolithic humans (about 10,000 years
ago) are about 10% more robust than ours. Upper Paleolithic humans (about 30,000 years ago)
are about 20 to 30% more robust than the modern condition in Europe and Asia. These are
considered modern humans, although they are sometimes termed "primitive". Interestingly,
some modern humans (aboriginal Australians) have tooth sizes more typical of archaic sapiens.