Phenolic compounds are some of the most important

contaminants
present in the environment as a result of various
processes, such as the production of plastics, dyes,
pesticides,
paper, and petrochemical products .They are often found
in waters, soils, and sediments. Because of their
toxicity, phenols are included on the lists of priority
pollutants
in many countries and are required to be determined.
Phenolic derivatives are among the most important
contaminants present in the
environment. These compounds are used in several
industrial processes to manufacture
chemicals such as pesticides, explosives, drugs and dyes.
They also are used in the
bleaching process of paper manufacturing. Apart from
these sources, phenolic compounds
have substantial applications in agriculture as herbicides,
insecticides and fungicides.
However, phenolic compounds are not only generated by
human activity, but they are also
formed naturally,

Analytical techniques commonly used in the

determination of phenols are high-performance liquid
chromatography (HPLC) and capillary electrophoresis (CE)
in combination with ultraviolet detection
(UV), electrochemical detection or mass spectrometry
detection Also, gas chromatography (GC), using several
detection methods like flame ionisation detection

(FID), electron-capture detection (ECD) or mass

spectroscopy detection (MS), have been used,

) Segmented-Flow Analysis (SFA)

The reaction stream is segmented with bubbles of air or nitrogen to reduce inter-sample
dispersion.

Two factors contribute to sensitivity

Complete reaction between reagents and sample
Measuring the final reaction mixture at maximum concentration
The advantages of a complete reaction
Sensitivity is the maximum possible.
Small variations in reaction conditions such as changes in flow rate or temperature do not
affect method sensitivity.
When the method sensitivity remains constant, results stay within specification for a
longer period
Recalibration is not needed as often

Phenol, also known as carbolic acid, is an aromatic organic compound with the
molecular formula C6H5OH. It is a white crystalline solid that is volatile. The molecule
consists of a phenyl group (C6H5) bonded to a hydroxyl group (OH). It is mildly
acidic

Molar mass

94.11 gmol1

Conventional analytical method for this compound are

ofter extensive as they required numerous analytical
steps to obtain significant results

Many water treatment plants use a combination of coagulation, sedimentation, filtration and
disinfection to provide clean, safe drinking water to the public. Worldwide, a combination of
coagulation, sedimentation and filtration is the most widely applied water treatment
technology, and has been used since the early 20th century

does not remove all of the viruses and bacteria in the water
chlorine must be added to disinfect the water

Conventional treatment consists of the following unit processes: coagulation, flocculation,

clarification, and filtration, and is typically followed by disinfection at full-scale. Figure 1
describes conventional treatment. Conventional treatment is often preceded by presedimentation, may be accompanied by powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition, utilize
granular activated carbon (GAC) as a filter media, and in some cases be followed by GAC
adsorption. Conventional treatment is often preceded by pre-oxidation, or oxidation takes place
concurrently. Oxidants common to conventional treatment are chlorine, chloramine, chlorine
dioxide or permanganate. Occasionally membrane processes, either membrane filtration or
ultrafiltration, accompany conventional treatment.
In coagulation, a positively charged coagulant (usually an aluminum or iron salt) is added to raw
water and mixed in the rapid mix chamber. The coagulant alters or destabilizes negatively
charged particulate, dissolved, and colloidal contaminants. Coagulant aid polymers and/or acid
may also be added to enhance the coagulation process. Turbidity and total organic carbon (TOC)
are measures of particulates and dissolved organics impacting coagulation.
During flocculation, gentle mixing accelerates the rate of particle collision, and the destabilized
particles are further aggregated and enmeshed into larger precipitates. Flocculation is affected by
several parameters, including the mixing speed, mixing intensity (G), and mixing time. The
product of the mixing intensity and mixing time (Gt) is frequently used to describe the
flocculation process.
There are two primary destabilization mechanisms in drinking water treatment: charge
neutralization and sweep flocculation. The mechanism is dependent upon the coagulant dose.
Most drinking water treatment plants operate using sweep flocculation, which requires a higher
coagulant dose, rather than charge neutralization. In charge neutralization, the positively charged
metal coagulant is attracted to the negatively charged colloids via electrostatic interaction. Flocs
start to form during the neutralization step as particle collisions occur. Adding excess coagulant
beyond charge-neutralization results in the formation of metal coagulant precipitates. These
metal hydroxide compounds (e.g., Al(OH)3 or Fe(OH)3) are heavy, sticky and larger in particle
size. Sweep flocculation occurs when colloidal contaminants are entrained or swept down by the
precipitates as they settle in the suspension.
The optimal pH range for coagulation is 6 to 7 when using alum and 5.5 to 6.5 when using iron.
For high alkalinity water, excessive amounts of coagulant may be needed to lower the pH to the
optimal pH range. In these cases, it may be beneficial to use acid in addition to the coagulant to
reduce the amount of coagulant needed and effectively lower chemical costs. Enhanced

coagulation is now widely practiced for removing disinfection byproduct (DBP) precursors, and
it also removes inorganics, particulates, and color causing compounds. Removing these
contaminants using coagulation depends on the amount of coagulant added. It is important to
determine the optimal dose for coagulation; insufficient doses will not effectively destabilize the
particles and adding excessive doses can cause detrimental effects such as re-stabilization,
excessive sludge production, or corrosion.
Water quality parameters such as pH, temperature, and alkalinity may dictate effectiveness of the
coagulation-filtration process. The pH during coagulation has a profound influence on the
effectiveness during the destabilization process. The pH controls both the speciation of the
coagulant as well as its solubility, and it also affects the speciation of the contaminants. For high
alkalinity water, an excessive amount of coagulant may be required to lower the pH to the
optimal pH ranges (alum pH 6 to 7, iron 5.5 to 6.5). Temperature also impacts the coagulation
process because it affects the viscosity of the water. Thus lower temperature waters can decrease
the hydrolysis and precipitation kinetics. For some treatment objectives, other parameters like
iron, manganese or sulfate impact coagulation. Some of the alternative coagulants such as
polyaluminum chloride (PACl) can be advantageous over the traditional coagulants in low
temperature conditions as these coagulants are already hydrolyzed, and therefore temperature
tends to have less effect on the coagulation process.
Following flocculation, agglomerated particles enter the clarification unit where they are
removed by sedimentation by gravity or are floated and skimmed from the surface of the
clarification unit. In the sedimentation processes, the majority of the solids are removed by
gravitational settling; particles that do not settle and are still suspended are removed during the
filtration process. Sedimentation is generally accomplished in rectangular or circular basins and
is often enhanced by the addition of inclined plates or tubes which increase effectiveness of the
process by effectively increasing the surface area of the sedimentation basin. Dissolved air
flotation (DAF) is another clarification process in which air is diffused as fine bubbles and
suspended particles are floated to the surface and removed by skimming. Generally, DAF is most
effective for small, fine, low-density particles like algae and may not be effective is all instances.
Like conventional sedimentation, solids not removed by DAF are removed during filtration.
Two parameters frequently used to describe the clarification process are the overflow rate and the
detention time. The overflow rate is the process loading rate and is usually expressed in gpm/sf
or gpd/sf. Overflow rates for conventional sedimentation generally range from 0.3 to 1 gpm/sf
(500 to 1500 gpd/sf). Overflow rates for other processes can vary significantly. There are
proprietary sand-ballasted clarification systems that have been demonstrated to operate
effectively at overflow rates as high as 20 gpm/sf. Typical detention times range from 1 to 2
hours, although many states require up to 4 hours for full-scale surface water treatment.

The most commonly used filter type in the conventional treatment process is a dual-media filter
comprised of anthracite and sand; however, mono-media (sand), multi-media (garnet, anthracite,
and sand), and other media configurations, including the use of granular activated carbon, are
also used in drinking water treatment. During filtration, the majority of suspended particles are
removed in the top portion of the filter media. Filters are backwashed to dislodge and remove
particles trapped within the filter bed, to reduce head loss (pressure build up), and to keep the
filter media clean.
The filter loading rate is a measure of the filter production per unit area and is typically
expressed in gpm/sf. Typical filter loading rates range from 2 to 4 gpm/sf; however, higher filter
loading rates, 4 to 6 gpm/sf, are becoming more common at full-scale. This can be a critical
parameter because it determines the water velocity through the filter bed and can impact the
depth to which particles pass through the media. The filter run time describes the length of time
between filter backwashes during which a filter is in production mode. The filter run time is not
only an indicator of the effectiveness of prior treatment (i.e., the ability of the coagulation and
clarification steps to remove suspended solids), but also plays a role in the effectiveness of the
filter itself. Filter performance, particularly with regard to particulate contaminants, is often
poorest immediately following a backwash. As the filter run time increases and the concentration
of solids in the media increases, the filtration process often performs better with regard to
particulate contaminant removal.
Residuals generated by the conventional treatment process include coagulation solids (sludge)
and spent backwash. Spent backwash is often returned to the treatment process as a means to
minimize water loss. Sludge may also be recycled to minimize coagulant and coagulant aid doses
and improve process performance. Process solids (i.e., coagulation sludge and filtered solids)
will contain elevated concentrations of contaminants removed during the treatment process.
Depending on the source water concentration of a particular contaminant and any disposal
limitations, it may be necessary evaluate the disposal of process solids with respect to state and
local hazardous waste regulations.