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939
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
THEORY AND APPLICATIONS
VOLUME
SHORT-CIRCUIT CALCULATIONS
AND
STEADY-STATE THEORY
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
THEORY AND APPLICATIONS
VOLUME
SHORT-CIRCUIT CALCULATIONS
AND
STEADY-STATE THEORY
BY
0. G. C.
DAHL,
S.B.,
S.M.
First Edition
Impression
Thiiii>
Inc.
Inc.
PA.
PREFACE
The purpose
of circuit theory.
and
modern power-circuit
problems.
and
to
many
Numerous
Mor eland,
Cambridge Masb.,
,
July, 1928.
CONTENTS
Page
Preface
Chat.
I.
II.
34
Example
p.
p.
p.
p.
p.
p.
p. 66.
111.
Unbalanced Circuits
68
Ohm's and
the
vii
CONTENTS
vjji
_
Chap.
IV.
Page
Tnl
'
V.
Y-Y
Motorp.
Diagram p.
167.
169
in the Steady State
Introductionp. 169; Capacitance Lumped at Center
(Nominal T) p. 170; Capacitance Lumped at Ends (Nominal
H) p. 171; Capacitance Lumped at Center and at Ends p.
of a
172; Example 1 Comparison of Calculated Performances
the
on
Based
arc
Solutions
the
when
Line
Transmission
Short
Exact and on the Various Approximate Methods p. 173.
VI.
VII.
Constants
p. 215.
178
CONTENTS
Chap.
VIII.
ix
Pao
216
Harmonics
The Behavior of Harmonics on a Line p. 216; Example 1
Third Harmonic In a Feeder Circuit with Metallic Neutral
p. 219;
p.
p.
p.
p.
246
p. 246;
X. Transmission-line Charts
265
Circles
p. 273;
Angular Relations
p.
286;
p. 279;
Loss Circles
p.
p.
Evans and
XL
Sels
Sels
Chart
p. 299.
Synchronous-machine Charts
306
CONTENTS
Paok
with the
Tirrill
Case p.
5Solution
Example
by Charts
One Generating
and Two
Involving
Scries,
Station,
Installations,
mission
Problem Discussed
Indkx
in
Example
6 p. 377.
379
SHORT-CIRCUIT CALCULATIONS
AND
STEADY-STATE THEORY
CHAPTER
OF
CALCULATION
SHORT-CIRCUIT
CURRENTS
IN
NETWORKS
There are, in general, two problems in network solution with
which the electrical engineer has to deal, namely, (1) the determination of voltages, currents, and power for normal operating
conditions and (2) the determination of voltages and currents
during short
circuits.
may
works
a network
press.
The method
Herzog,
of solution
by
and C. Feldmann, "Die Berechnung Elektrischer Leitungsund Praxis," Julius Springer, Berlin, 1921.
Woodruff, L. F. "Principles of Electric Power Transmission and Distribution, Chap. XIV, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 1925.
1
J.
netze in Theorie
Woodward, W.
R., R.
2.
more
in
detail, as it is
short-circuit calculations.
is
Thomalen,
A.,
beliebiger Leitungs-
pp. 149
SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENTS
By
With some
reached.
practice
in
the
is
eventually
trial-and-error method,
So -far, the discussion has been devoted to the solution of networks for normal operating conditions. When it is desired to
determine voltages and currents during short circuits, the same
general methods may be applied. x Usually, however, the solution
for short-circuit conditions is a good deal simpler than for normal
conditions.
The determination
of short-circuit currents
is
a frequently
It is necessary to
recurring problem in electrical engineering.
know the short-circuit currents at various points in the network
Even
initially.
An
so,
networks
is
"tJberstrome in Hochspannungsanlagen," by
J.
Biebmanns,
Bekku, S., "Calculation of Short-circuit Ground Currents on Threephase Power Networks," Gen. Elec. Rev., p. 472, 1925.
Lewis, W. W., " Single-phase Short-circuit Calculations," Cen.Elec. Rev.,
p. 479, 1925.
install the
ingly complicated
It is further
of the short
a short circuit is always considered to be a
"dead short circuit" in the true sense of the word.
If the network on which the short circuit occurs were supplied
by one generating
i.e.,
station only,
it is
in
and capacitance
of lines
and
SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENTS
feeders
and to consider
Similarly, the
The reactance
assigned to the
Since the entire
network contains reactances only, the handling of complex quantities is avoided during the process of simplification, a fact which
evidently reduces the amount of labor in no small degree.
Simplification of Networks.
There are three transformations
available which may be used during the process of reducing a
network to a single equivalent impedance between two points.
Usually it is necessary to simplify the network by steps through
a repeated application of transformations. The three methods
A-F
Transformation.
Whenever
or a three-cornered mesh,
it is
The two
or a three-cornered star. 1
be
Fig.
1.
Equivalent
Y- and
Fig.
2. Equivalent Y- and
A-admittances.
A-impedances.
This means that the two circuits will offer identical impedances
between any pair of terminals and will, for the same applied voltage, absorb the
same amount
of active
Zi
Z31Z12
=
Z\2
ZsiZi2
+ Z%z + Zzi
Z12Z23
Z12Z2Z
Z\%
z3 =
1
in
Kennellt, A.
-f-
Conducting Networks,"
2/23
_
2/31
(2)
SZ
Z23 H~ Zz\
ZjzZ zx
Z\2
(1)
2Z
Z23Z31
(3)
2Z
XXXIV,
p. 413, 1899.
2),
become
2/12^23
2/232/31
2/312/12
, .,
"
2/23
2/122/23
s-
2/23
2/232/31
+ _
2/312/12
^12^23
"
AT
2/31
'
(5j
2/31
2/232/31
iV
2/312/ 12
,-.
v
2/12
2/12
^12
ZiZ*
ZiZ 2
Z/23
+ Z7Zz
+ Z Z = -iV
+ Z Z + Z,Z = N
z
Z\Zi
-y~
2/31
\tS)
"2/1
-2/i
2/2
2/3
2/22/3
2/2
2/3
_
_
2/32/1
2/2
become
2/12/2
nm
(10)
2/22/3
nn
(U)
^
_
-
2/3
{V)
y"
in terms of admittances
"2/1
,,
2,23
#3^1
+ ^2^3
+
2/i2/2
2/12
,_,
-y
^31
,_,
(7J
2JT
2/32/1
19
(12)
Any
Star-mesh Transformation.
mesh
circuit
The number
of
its
equivalent mesh
is
~ (n
1).
cir-
In
1
See the paper "A New Network Theorem," by A. Rosen, Jour. I.E.E.
(London), Vol. 62, p. 916. In this paper, Mr. Rosen proves the general
conversion from a star circuit to a mesh circuit. He derives the necessary
formulas and also shows that the mesh, in general, cannot be converted to a
star.
SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENTS
mesh
are
(13)
(14)
zmn = zm z n {^
+y+
+ ) =
ZmZn
(15)
z34
Fig. 3.
star circuit.
yn ~
Vmn
yjya
a/13/3
Vl
Vi
y,
2/2
+ v* ~
_
VrnVn
+ yn
sy
VmVn
?y
n7
U7;
N
(IfO
J
K
Since these equations are general, they will obviously also hold
It is easily shown that, if applied to
for the Y-A transformation.
equations reduce to equations
impedance
general
this case, the
(7) to
(9), inclusive,
EXAMPLE
method
of simplification.
Statement of Problem
Figure 4 shows
and substations.
simplified, are as follows:
is
11,000 volts.
ft.
Rail return.
Neglect resistance of
In computing trolley inductance, consider return to
be equal diameter conductor spaced 40 ft. Note that substation 3 is fed by
a single transmission feeder, while substations 1 and 2 are fed by two identical feeders.
These feeders may be considered to be on separate pole lines.
rail
and ground
return.
16'
12'-
POWER
<.....
8m
4/w,..^.
-'-
STATION
'-Feeder System
~5ulF
5UB-
SUB
m.No.2
STA.M
-J^--,
-k-'6-
13'
TPosition
of Train
Trolley-Track
System
Fig. 4.
Simplified layout
><--j /
!-
Consider train in the position shown and with controller set so that
impedances are those corresponding to maximum input. Compute voltage,
current, and power at the train when the bus voltage at the power station
is strictly
44,000 volts.
Solution
Circuit Constants:
Resistance 1
Reactance
= 2^741
0.326
ohm /loop-mile
logi
j +
80.5)l0-
(40-^^
V
741 logio
12
\
80.5
10-
0.404 ohm/loop-mile
1
Values taken from tables in "Handbook for Electrical Engineers," by
H. Pender, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 1917.
SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENTS
Substation Transformers
,
/rated
-o
Resistance
X 1,000 1Q1
18L8c am P^QQQ
44,000
ao ohms
io X 0.04 = 9.68
=
_
Referred
=
8,000
181.8
Reactance =
.
44,000
-
0.07
,__
= 16.92
ohms
1,000
KAa
= 546am
P-
1P1
to
,.,
high-ten-
sionside
Train:
6,000
/rated=
Impedance
Resistance
=
=
Reactance
11,000
11
g ??
20.14
20.14
/cos- 1 0.8
X
X
0.8
0.6
=
=
ohms
20. 14/36. 9
16.11
12.09
ohms
ohms
and to
Zab
Z ae
Zbe
Zbf
Zcd
Z de
Zeh
Z gh
By adding
obtained.
series
The two
by the dotted
lines.
Conversion of abc
9.864
Z ae =
Zbe =
3.288
Zab
SZ =
6.576
+ j'7.560 =
+ ./2.520 =
+ J5.040 =
4.U/37-.5
Za
12.44/37.5
4.14/37.5
8.30/37.5
24.88 /37.5
12.44/3r.5
24.88/37.5
=
12.44/37.5
Zbi
'
Zc
_
i
8.30/37-.5
+ ./1.261
-
24.88/37.5
4.1*/3r.5
1.644
8.30/37.5
24.88/37.5
3.288
+ J2.522
1.096 +.70.842
10
rSMion Bv
aS76+/S.040
13.152+^10.08
9.68 +J 16.92
OS
di
41.76+JSI.68
3/.32+J 38.76
(a)
Train--
3l.32+j38.76-~^ZG5tj4.46
(b)
.*s
(f)
"S
^
^
>
.
^
6
5?'
^
^
&
>
*M
<5S
<\i
I
'
Fig. 5.
Fig. 4 to a single
SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENTS
11
Conversion of beh
Zbe =
Zbh ~
Zrt -
31.32
SZ =
116.03 +^147.28
ft,
9.68
75.03
+ ./16.92 =
+ J91.60 =
+ j38.76 =
X
19.50 /60.2
49.77 /51.!
187.2/51^8
118.6/50^7
" 12-35/59J
irT^ra
X
118.6 /50.7
*w
19.50 /60.2
118.6 /50.7
49.77/51^
=
_
31.55/50^0
20.28
+ J10.60
6.34
187.2/51.8
49.77 /51.l
19.50/60.2
+ ./24.19
2.63
+J4.46
Z i(ct)i =
ZiWi =
2Z
55.17 +J73.90
9.63 +J13.12
=
=
92. 2/53,2
64.80 +./87.02
108.7 /53.3
92.2 /53,2
(Fig.
5c)
which
d.
16.27/53.7
16.27/53,7
"l0"8.7/53j
ODrt/MO/,
-^
13 80/
'
8.19 H-jll.ll
Substituting this impedance for the two parallel branches gives the circuit
(Fig. 5e).
By addition of the series impedances, the final circuit / is
obtained.
The equivalent impedance between the high-tension bus of the
generating station and the train is, hence,
Z =
30.11
+ ./36.56 ohms
Z -
+/36 56 =
'
Power
1.882
at Train.
+ ,2.284 ohms
referred to
Zo
= Z +Z =
t
1.882
+ j2.284 +
+ j'14.374
17.992
16.11 +./12.09
= 23.00/38^6 ohms
Train Current:
Tt
11,000/0
_
=
V,
23.00 /38^6
477-7\38.6 amp.
Train Voltage:
V =
t
ItZ t
=
=
477.7/38.6
20.14/36^9
9,620/fV7 volts
Train Power:
Pt
477.7 2
16.11
10" 3
3,680 kw.
12
flow
when a
will
short circuit
is
from an
initial to
In general, there
is
^WW
The
during the
s^,
x~>oor\
o^
transition
quite
Q) e=Em sin(wt+9)
current
first
flowing
instants of the
may
period
easily be
by synchronous
currents delivered
mac hines,
it
is
helpful
first
to
resistance
is
up as
readily set
follows
Lj
As
seen, this
is
Ri
= Em
sin (at
sum
of
two terms. 1
function and
is
it
it
(i t ) is
may
(20)
is
In terms of electrical
(i) is
The
treatise.
(19)
the
9)
is
SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENTS
It is well
the
first
13
differential
equation
is
of
order, the
exponential.
equation becomes
Lp
where p represents the
+R =
(21)
operator.
differential
The exponent,
hence, becomes
The
is
-\
(22)
readily established
written
i
The constant
vTO
of integration
8in
is
(",
+ *- ta"'i)
initial conditions.
(23)
becomes
y^-r-
A =
and the
tan- 1
VflM^wL)
(d
tan-'
(24)
given by
final solution is
~Em mi(d=
sin
^
'-
'
e"~^'+
Em
V#
+(coL) 2
sin
(<d+d\
tan" 1
~\
R
(25)
14
maximum
the switch
If,
Fig. 7.
The curve shows the steady-state current which will be set up immediately in the circuit in Fig. 6 when the switch is closed as the applied voltage
passes through one of its maxima.
the
maximum
is
set
up immediately.
In the
In the
Fig. 8.
The curve shows the current which will flow in the circuit
when the switch is closed as the applied voltage passes through zero.
in Fig. 6
Mathe-
sinusoidal current.
If the short circuit occurs at values of voltage
intermediate between zero and maximum, a "partly offset" curve
of total current evidently results.
If the reactance of the synchronous machine 1 were a constant
quantity, the character of the transients produced by a short
SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENTS
15
Fig.
an alternator.
maximum
Short
value.
16
except,
perhaps,
in
salient-pole
if
The reactance finally becomes equal to the synchronous reactand steady-state conditions are obtained.
If the short circuit is applied in such a manner that the tran-
ance,
wave
will
Fig. 11.
Dissymmetrical
by an
alternator.
This curve
of a
is
is
applied as
the voltage of the phase involved passes through zero, a comIf the
pletely offset wave is obtained, as illustrated in Fig. 10.
short circuit occurs when the voltage has a value between zero
and maximum, a
Fig. 11.
partially offset
wave
will result, as
shown
in
SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENTS
Although the complete story of a short-circuit current
only
when the
17
is
at various times,
it
given
known
values exclusively.
Curve
ofAlternating-Current Component
ofPositive
Crests
Fig. 12.
component
in a dissymmetrical
wave
Direct Component
Time
Fig. 13.
termed curves
of 'positive crests
and
12.
By
component
is
then assumed to
Obviously this
18
is
The effective value of each of these halfby dividing the maximum amplitudes with
the direct-current component by \/2. Considering
an approximation.
cycles
is
calculated
respect to
the
first
maximum
component
is
given by
h.
= AB
(26)
(27)
is
Alternating Component
R. M. S. or Effective Value
Fig. 14.
Alternating-current component
Fig. 12.
direct-current
ofAlternating Current
Obviously,
the effective value of the total current is equal to the square root
of the sum of the squares of the effective values of the compo-
nents.
Uu = VIL.+
Decrement Factors.
The
is
applied at
its
H*.
(28)
into
SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENTS
the manufacturers, particularly
by the General
Electric
19
Company
2.
3.
Time
from
I.
System Short-circuit Current Factors Applicable
Three-phase Short Circuits on Three-phase Systems
instant
of
short
5
per
seconds cent
circuit,
0.00
0.05
0.08
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.70
1.00
1.50
2.00
3.00
35.00
21.18
18.15
16.50
13.48
11.90
10.54
9.56
8.33
7.30
5.94
4.60
3.42
2.72
2.00
8
per
cent
10
per
cent
12
per
cent
22.00
13.60
11.65
10.70
8.85
7.86
7.10
6.50
5.80
5.15
4.35
3.55
2.90
2.43
2.00
17.75
11.10
9.50
8.81
7.36
6.56
6.00
5.55
4.96
4.48
3.84
3.24
2.70
2.34
2.00
14.90
9.40
8.15
7.52
6.32
5.66
5.20
4.85
4.38
3.99
3.48
2.98
2.56
2.27
2.00
15
20 30 40 50 60 75
per per per per per per per
cent cent cent cent cent cent cent
100
per
cent
20
maximum
possible values.
In
all
these tests,
Oscillograms of this
current was obtained in at least one phase.
current were taken and analyzed for their root-mean-square
In this
values of current in the manner previously described.
root-mean-square
of
way, it was possible to plot a series of curves
values
short-circuit
of
current
versus
time
different
for
values of reactance.
Different types
somewhat
and
sizes of
The
tests
Table
Time
from
instant
of
short
circuit,
seconds
0.00
0.05
0.08
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.70
1.00
1.50
2.00
3.00
5
per
cent
8
per
cent
35.00 22.02
21.80 14.00
18.53 12.02
16.93 11.10
13.92 9.32
12.30 8.36
11.08 7.66
10.18 7.15
8.96 6.45
8.01 5.89
6.73 5.15
5.46 4.42
4.41 3.81
3.69 3.40
3.00 3.00
10
per
12
per
cent
cent
40
50
60
75 100
20 30
15
per per per per per per per per
cent cent cent cent cent cent cent cent
17.82
11.46
9.90
9.18
7.80
7.09
6.55
6.15
5.62
5.20
4.63
4.08
3.62
3.30
3.00
14.88
9.69
8.43
7.85
6.75
6.19
5.76
5.45
5.04
4.71
4.27
3.84
3.48
3.23
3.00
12.00
7.95
7.01
6.56
5.87
5.31
5.00
4.79
4.48
4.24
3.92
3.61
3.35
3.17
3.00
9.01 6.00
6.07 4.12
5.38 3.69
5.07 3.50
4.50 3.16
4.21 3.00
4.00 2.89
3.86 2.82
3.67 2.73
3.51 2.66
3.31 2.57
3.12 2.48
2.95 2.40
2.84 2.35
2.73 2.30
4.52 3.54
3.15 2,49
2.84 2.25
2.70 2.16
2.47 1.99
2.36 1.90
2.29 1.86
2.25 1.82
2.19 1.79
2.15 1.77
2.10 1.73
2.05 1.70
2.01 1.68
1.98 1.66
1.95 1.64
2.95
2.08
1.90
1.80
1.67
1.60
1.56
1.54
1.51
1.49
1.47
1.45
1.43
2.36 1.74
1.67 1.23
1.51 1.11
1.44 1.06
1.35 0.98
1.29 0.94
1.26 0.92
1.24 0.90
1.21 0.89
1.20 0.87
1.18 0.86
1.16 0.84
1.15 0.83
1.41 1.14 0.82
1.40 1.13 0.81
SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENTS
21
form of tables and curves are now available for the engineer who
has to perform calculations of short-circuit currents in networks.
1
Table
III.
System Shobt-circtjit Current Factors Applicable to
Single-phase Line-to-neutral Short-circuits on Three-phase
Systems 1
Time
from
.instant
of
short
5
per
seconds cent
circuit,
0.00
0.05
0.08
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.70
1.00
1.50
2.00
3.00
Note
8
per
cent
52.90 33.40
33.00 21.25
28.50 18.40
25.70 16.90
21.30 14.40
18.80 12.87
17.10 11.90
15.80 11.10
13.90 10.06
12.60 9.32
10.60 8.19
8.71 7.14
7.17 6.27
6.11 5.67
5.10 5.10
the limited
Some
app
10
12
15
per
cent
per
cent
per
cent
20
30
40
50
60
75 100
per per per per per per per
cent cent cent cent cent cent cent
27.10
17.48
15.20
14.05
12.10
10.95
10.10
9.50
8.83
8.20
7.42
6.63
5.98
5.53
5.10
22.70
14.80
12.89
12.06
10.50
9.60
9.10
8.60
7.96
7.50
6.88
6.22
5.77
5.43
5.10
19.30
12.80
11.30
10.52
9.35
8.58
8.10
7.80
7.28
6.89
6.46
6.00
5.61
5.35
5.10
icabilit; / of
1924.
of
22
cation
in
practice.
It
Practical short-circuit
of Decrement Factors.
making use of the experimentally determined decrement factors involve, as already stated, several assumptions. At
Application
calculations
2.
may
is
neglected,
3.
4.
The
short circuit
is
at
(lagging).
inside the generators and, for higher values, 15 per cent inside the
generators and the remainder external to the generators.
1
cedure will obviously be as follows:
The total reactance to the point of short circuit is first determined. This reactance equals the sum of the external reactance
and the transient reactance of the machine. In adding these
reactances, they are both expressed in per cent, preferably on a
base corresponding to the kilovolt-ampere rating of the machine.
Woodward, W.
R.:
cit.
"The Application
of
Decrement Factors
Iqc. cit.
in Short-
SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENTS
If it is desired to
determine the
initial
23
and
/rated
initial
100
(29)
Xn
That
ciated from the following consideration: If the reactance were 100 per
cent, evidently rated current would
flow, assuming that the internal voltage of the machine has its rated value.
When the reactance is different from
100 per cent and the internal voltage
normal, the ratio of the current which
Substation
Bus
100 per cent reactance.
Rointof
When a short circuit occurs on Short
Circuit
a network, the short-circuit current
will, as a rule, be supplied from several
Fig. 15. Simple two-station
generating stations. l There are two system used in discussing applica-
methods
currents.
24
line
step-up transformers.
Figure 16 shows a diagram of the reactances involved. Both
stations are connected to a common hypothetical bus at which the
is assumed to be
The reactances Aa and Be represent the transient reactances of the two
The reactances ab, cd, and ed repstations.
banks
of transformers; the
AB
Fig.
16.
Reactance
diagram
of the
in Fig. 15.
Fig. 17.
in
Fig. 15.
system
all
The
suitable size
method
of application of
Method
Lumped.
1.
Application of
It will
SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENTS
25
base be
a single decrement factor is to be applied to the two stations
combined, the per cent total reactance must be converted
to a
base equal to the combined capacity of the two stations.
When
the voltage is unchanged, the per cent reactance is directly
pro.
If
yr
_ y
Y A +B
The proper
table or curve
time
(to)
selected.
The
to
2.
(k)
short-circuit current
is
which
will flow at
then given by
la.c.
Method
now
is
Application of
Aerated
(31)
Decrement Factors
to
Each Generat-
amount
7T0(A)
_/T
is
X
____
Bd
XAd
Making use of the initial symmetrical short-circuit currents, .an
equivalent reactance between each station and the point
of short
circuit is calculated as follows:
Z7ratedU)
o(4) =
y= X
100
X
X7rated(B)
o(B) =
100
0(A<\
i0(B)
(34)
(35)
26
by
is.o.(A)
la.c.(B)
~
=
#A-*raled(X)
V^/
^B-tratedCB)
()
ia.o.(A)
(38)
-^B.o.(B)
suitable
scheme
Table
IV.
Short-circuit Calculations
Amperes at normal
voltage
At time =
equivalent
Station
Rated
Initial
symmetrical
to
seconds
Per cent
reactance
Decrement
Shortcircuit
factor
amperes
A
B
Evidently, of the two methods described above for the application of decrement factors, the first one in which the decrements
The second
are applied to the system lumped is the easier one.
one involves a good deal more labor. The question then arises
which one is preferable in a practical case.
Neither method is rigorous even if the general assumptions
on which these short-circuit calculations rest are disregarded.
When the single decrement factor is applied to all stations combined, the fact that large and small stations, in general, have widely
Hence,
different decrements is not properly taken into account.
SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENTS
inaccuracies are obviously introduced
If, on the other hand, a separate factor
27
by lumping the
stations.
It
may
may
it is
which
is
in
practice.
and C.
Fortescue, "Calculating
Part I of this article (byWoodward) discusses testing with miniature networks.
Lewis, W. W., "A New Short-circuit Calculating Table," Gen. Elec.
loc.
L.
cit.
Corbett, L.
J.,
World, p. 985,
1922.
Dillard, E. W.,
p. 797, 1923.
"A
in Electric
28
reactances.
used, the
If values
initial
SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENTS
manufacturers and consulting-engineering
offices
29
have calculating
In order to
make
tem must be built up of impedance units instead of merely resistances, and alternating currents must be used instead of direct
currents.
The loads in such a system are represented by impedances.
The generating stations and other synchronous machines,
such as motors and condensers, cannot, in this case, be simulated
merely by impressing an alternating voltage of the correct
magnitude. It must be ascertained that the voltages also have
the correct phase displacement relative to each other. This can
be done by using phase shifters 2 to represent the synchronous
machines. By these phase shifters, voltages of the correct
currents,
short-circuit problems.
EXAMPLE
Statement of Problem
in the
'
1923.
'
cit.
30
Equipment in Station A:
Two
One
One
The
each of the three-circuit transformers has 5.7 per cent reactance between the
66- and 22-kv. windings; 6.3 per cent reactance between the 66- and 4-kv.
windings; and 5. 7 per cent reactance between the 22- and 4-kv. windings.
5.5
5.S
66 Kv.
[7.73 *-
7.1
Wk
7.1
nJo ^!
1
,'
SUBSTATION E
STA TION D
13.0
1.7
13.0
j.j
Figures indicate
Per Cent Reactance
66Vfv.
3.3
Ml/,,
STATION C
O Synchronous Generorhr
Synchronous Condenser
Group ofSynchronous
2.6
66 XV.
-66Kv.-
WWWW
1.5
WW
VUMV
65AV.
www
jkfCv.
^Feeder
2^6js_/Jsl4
AWMA
22Kv.\
Machines
~TL
L _J
STATIONS
STATION A
Equipment in Station B:
The transformers
in this station
Equipment in Station D:
Total capacity of synchronous machinery 134,500 kv.-a. with combined
reactance of 2.13 per cent.
Four of the seven 6 %i-kv. transformers have 58.6 per cent reactance
each, two have 19.8 per cent reactance each, and one has 12.9 per cent react-
SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENTS
ance.
The seven
31
cent reactance.
Equipment in Substation E:
The two
2 -kv.
each.
The various
all
nected to one
common
bus.
Solution
6.18 percent
25.6^18^85.4
Each of the three-circuit transformers in this station may be replaced by
an equivalent Y-connected network (see Chap. II, equations (70), (71), and
Designating the 66-kv. winding as No. 1, the 22-kv. winding as No.
(72)).
2, and the 4,000- volt winding as No. 3, the reactances to be assigned to the
branches of the equivalent Y become
Zi
= 5.7+6.3-5.7 =
!
Z2 =
5.7
Zz =
6.3
+ 5.7 -
'
. __
2.55 per cent
+5.7-5.7 =
n
.
3.15 per cent
6.3
iy
Jl+JL+JL
T 19.8 T 12.9
58.6
Total reactance of the group of four
2
$i
2 %].-kv.
transformers in station
iyz =8.0
x -kv.
transformers in station
per cent
Using the values calculated above for machine and transformer combinations in conjunction with the rest of the data given on the layout (Fig. 18),
the circuit diagram (Fig. 19a) results. By going through the steps indicated
in Fig. 19a to g, the circuit is reduced to a single reactance between a hypoThis reactance is 4.63
thetical 22-kv. bus and the point of short circuit.
per cent.
__
20,000
= 525
-pA
amp.
Base current =
.
V^X22
^gg =
11,340 amp.
32
2.7S
ISff 6.S0
14.36
5.78
Fig. 19.
Diagrams showing successive steps in reducing the system in Fig.
18 to a single equivalent reactance between the hypothetical bus and the point
of short circuit.
I'
2
%
16
a)
10
20
30
60
50
40
Cen+ Reac+ance
10
80
90
100
Per
Fig. 20.
Decrement factors for symmetrical three-phase short circuits and
single-phase line-to-line short circuits plotted versus reactance for a definite time
to = 0.2 sec.
Data for these curves have been obtained from Tables I and II.
SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENTS
1.
Application of Decrements
to
33
The
From A and
".^
From B and C
7,460
' ,TO
From A
From
4.63
=
4.51 _
X """
=
^
^Q &mp
3,880 amp.
4,340 amp.
=3,120 amp.
*^j^ ==
From B
From C
2 310
am P-
1,570
amp.
'
Obtaining the decrement factors from the curves (Fig. 20) plotted from
data in tables I and II, the short-circuit currents supplied by each station
at the end of 0.2 sec. are calculated in the table below.
Amperes at
Three-phase
Line-to-line
22 kv.
short circuit
short circuit
Per cent
equivalent
Stations
Rated
664
985
1,236
3,530
B
C
Calcu-
Factor
reactance
at 0.2
at 0.2
at 0.2
sec.
sec.
sec.
sec.
lated
4,340
2,310
1,570
3,120
at 0.2
3,120
1,970
1,420
2,900
4.7
15.30
42.6
78.7
113
1.15
0.82
3,450
2,170
1,530
2,900
2.2
1.24
0.82
10,050
9,410
Total
The
52
0.2 sec.
9,400 amp.
10,000 amp.
Total
/rated
= 664
985
Equivalent reactance
From
+
=
1,236
'
ii
3,530
^In
6,415 amp.
56,6 per cent
the decrement curves (Fig. 20) are obtained the following decrement
factors at
0.2 sec.
1-55
1 69
The
6,415
6,415
X
X
1.55
1.69
=
=
9,940 amp.
10,830 amp.
CHAPTER
II
exist
circuit has
= BA +!-,
+ *,,*
+ *,.+
dt
"-" dt ^'""
dt ^
=
Srf,
* +J
M" Si
+ ,
f*+
+ Ma
H ++ *
Si +
+M
jhiJ4
T
"
m
+Jf
+M
*"Tt
'
(1)
(2)
(3)
viz.,
ln
nl , etc.
34
TRANSFORMER IMPEDANCE
35
The magnetic fluxes which give rise to the flux linkages corresponding to the self- and mutual inductances may be divided
into two components, one which is confined to the iron core and
another which wholly or partly exists in air. The former is by
far the greater portion of the total flux, but the latter and smaller
part determines almost entirely the operating characteristics of
the transformer. It will now be assumed that the flux confined to
the iron core depends only upon the value of the magnetomotive
force producing it and is entirely unaffected by the position of
this magnetomotive force with respect to the core.
While this is
not precisely true, the error should be very small indeed. In
other words, the iron flux is assumed to be the same whether
produced by a given number of ampere turns in circuit one, two,
three or n.
Also,
assume
mutual
have
of the
t>i
vn
+ (M
= R*i
v2
ffiti
Xn
M ^ + (M - M ^ + (M
-M )^ + M & + * + *+
(Lx
12
c)
(L,
c)
M ^ + (M -M )^ + (M
21
c)
+ (M u -M.)^ + M,^(i +
1
= RJ n
(Mn3 -
(L
-M )|+ (M
c
M ^+
c)
'
nl
t,
c)
*i+
-M
+**)
(4)
-M)
^+
2S
^ + (M
+ M ~ (tx + t, + it +
13
n2
c)
+ *)
^+
(5)
- M )^ +
c
+ in)
(6)
c ),
(M 12
c ),
etc.,
quantities, since
36
+ MLi - M )U + MM - M )I
+ jco(M - M )I n
+ jco(M - M )I +
+ In) (7)
+ jaM (h + h +1* +
V = RJ2+ML2 - M )h +MM21 - ilf )Ji
+ j<(M 2n - M )I n
+ jco(iW - M )U +
+ In) (8)
+ jM (/i + U + U +
=
Vi
fli/i
12
13
ln
23
'
M )I
c
+ju>(M nl
-M )h
+ ja(Mn2
+
V n = RJ n +jw(L n -
jt*M e (I x
M )h
c
'
+
+
h
h
+
+
M )I
M
M
M
M
jo>(M nS
/)
(9)
Introducing, in general,
X nn
X nl
X n2
=
=
=
u>(L n
X
X
ln
2n
c)
= <o(M nl = u(M n2 -
e)
c)
= (M ln = co(M 2n -
(10)
e)
(11)
c)
(12)
In)
(13)
and
E = jwM
c
(h
+h+h+
V =
l
(#!
+ il u )/i + jXnh + jX
13
++ iX
/3
ln 7 n
+E
(14)
F =
2
(R 2
+ jX
22 )/ 2
+ jXaJx + jX
23
/3
+ jX 2n7 n + E
(15)
7n =
(#
+ jX nn )I n + jX nl /i + jX n2I + jZ n3/ +
2
+#
(16)
Here,
and
i2 is
the
mutual leakage reactance between circuits 1 and 2. These reactances are due to fluxes which wholly or partly exist in air. Hence
they are very nearly constant and independent of saturation.
The significance of the other reactances is at once apparent.
By subtracting each of the above equations from the preceding
one, Ec is eliminated and a new set obtained giving the difference
TRANSFORMER IMPEDANCE
37
-V
= [Rv+j(Xn - Xn)]h -
[R 2 +j(X 22 - J 12 )]/ +
- X 23 )h +
+ j(X ln - X 2n )I n (17)
- V = [R + j(X 22 - X 32 )] h - [R + j(X 3s - z 23 )]/ +
j(X 2l - X zl )h +'+ j(X 2n - X 3n )I n (18)
j(X ls
V\
Vx
7n -
[Rn
X nl )]h +
(19)
other.
winding
1,
and, in general,
(X nn
Xmn )
is
= Ri
Z 2W = R
( 2)
Z n (m) = R n
+ jX
+ iXj
1{2)
"f"
(1 )
= R,
= R2
]X n (m) = Rn
+ j(X n - X,i)
+ j(X - X
22
~\~J\X nn
(20)
(21)
12 )
X mn
\^^J
Zn m
(
38
Substituting
abbreviations,
these
equations
j(X ln
V%
Vz
Z2(3)l2
#3(2)^3
+ ^(-^21
X3i)Zi
= Z n (l)In
V\
Zl( n )Ii
j(X 2n
Vn
'
The sum
+ j(X n X^Ii +
j(X n3 - X )h +
(19)
(23)
'
(24)
is
(25)
equal to the
exciting current.
Ii
many
2n )I n
'
- X Sn )I n
13
In
to
(17)
become
inclusive
I.
+ It+
+ J.-7.
(26)
ignored, since
it is
sum
/1
/2
+ /3+ +/ =
is
On
(27)
(14) to (16)
or (23) to (25) inclusive) used in conjunction with one of the
current equations (equations (26) or (27)) suffice for the solution
Of course,
of
and
will
of terminal
be specifically applied
four-circuit transformers.
Two-circuit Transformers. Application of the General Equations. In. the case of a two-circuit transformer, the general
equations (14) to (16) inclusive reduce to
V =
V =
x
(R x
(#2
+ jX^h + jX
+ jX22)h + jX
12
I2
21 Ii
+E
+E
(28)
(29)
7 X
V2
Here,
windings
effective
and
2,
TRANSFORMER IMPEDANCE
39
Equation
V - V = Z I - Z 2I 2
2
If excitation is
(30)
(31)
h+U=L
Combining equations
and
(31)
- V =
Vx
(Z x
(32)
(32) gives
+ Z )h - ZJe
+ Z )I + ZJ
= -{Z
(33)
Vi-V
= {Z + Z 2 )h = -(Zx
= Z 12 I = -Z12/2
x
+ Z )I
2
(34)
Z i2
Here,
equal to the
sum of the
quantity
test
and
is
is
This
taken into
ance is at once apparent from the following equation
Z12
Re
+ jX = R + R + j(X + X
e
(35)
2)
(31)
is
make up
The
given by
Z =
D
Vl
IlZl
(36)
J-e
In general, the separate leakage impedances of the two windand the equivalent T-circuit representing the
transformer will consequently be dissymmetrical. Very often,
however, it is assumed that the equivalent impedance splits
equally between the two windings. This assumption is freings are not equal
40
written
Zc
which again
= E
+ /**' =
may
be modified to
Zc =
^^ + MM
*
12
|s
+ jXlt
c)
(37)
= ja>M 12
(38)
%l
W\A-f5tfd
Z3
VW-^
4
Fig. 21.
Equation (38) shows that, basing the constants of the equivaon the general theory, the pillar impedance Z c contains
reactance only. Furthermore, the value of this reactance corresponds to the mutual inductance between the two windings. It
is a
will be constant, therefore, only when the mutual inductance
constant quantity or, what amounts to the same thing, where the
magnetization curve is a straight line. Hence, the representaFor iron-core
tion will be exact for air-core transformers.
lent circuit
is,
of necessity,
more or
less
fundamentally small.
It is
customary,
TRANSFORMER IMPEDANCE
41
of hysteresis
circuit, therefore,
in the iron.
The equivalent
derived directly from this theory, makes no
loss.
This
be accounted for by assigning also a resistance to the
pillar impedance.
This resistance is given such a value that the
fictitious copper loss developed in it by the exciting current is
equal to the core loss. Obviously, exact correspondence is also
here obtained only at some particular value of voltage, since the
relation between core loss and saturation is not exactly quadratic.
In practice, the pillar impedance, or excitation impedance
(admittance), as it is commonly termed, is determined by an
open-circuit test; i.e., one winding is excited while the other is
left open and, hence, carries no current.
For this condition,
equation (36) becomes
loss
may
Z = l c
Zi
(#!
+ jcoLO -
Zi
(39)
*-e
is
negligible
compared to the
impedance R\
Obviously, it is
immaterial whether this impedance is considered to be 1,995 or
2,000 per cent, the difference between the two values being but
one-quarter of 1 per cent. Hence, the excitation impedance is
found by simply dividing the normal impressed voltage by the
exciting current, giving
Z = R
c
(40)
+jX -v\
(41)
+ jX =
c
and
Yc
~ Rc
42
circuit,
is
the transformer
in general, the
When
T representation is
more convenient.
is
As examples
of
Vi
V*
Vz
=
=
=
+ jXu)Ii + jXiJi + jX
+ jX )/ + jXJi + jX
(Rz + jX )I + jX Ii + jX
(fii
(J2,
22
ss
31
ls
Is
23 I s
S2 I 2
+E
+E
+E
(42)
(43)
(44)
2; circuits 2
the
and 3
p. 508, 1924.
Peters,
J. F.,
1925.
Discussion
"Three-winding Transformers,"
by W. V. Lyon
and
71,
TRANSFORMER IMPEDANCE
V - 72 -
[R x
F - F3 =
[12,
y _ y =
3
[ij 3
The sum
current,
+i(Zu -
*2i)]/i
+ j(X - X
22
32 )]/ 2
+ j(x - X
13 )]/ 3
[JR.
[,
[fix
43
+ j(X - X
22
12 )]/ 2
-X )/
- X )]/
-X )I
-X
-X )h
j(X 13
+ j(X 33
j(X 12
+ j(I u
j(X 23
23
23
ls
3 x)]/i
12
+
(45)
+
(46)
+
(47)
viz.
Ix
+h+
= h
I3
(48)
these
13 - X 23 )I
12 - X)I.
23 - X 12 )J
+ j(Xu - X + X - Xi,)]7i
- X + Xia - X ))h + j(X
[Rt + j(X
y -V = [R + j(X - X + X - Xx )]/
[R + j(X - X + X - Xi,)]I, + j(X
F - Vi = [A. + j(X - Xx + X - Xu)]I*
- X )]Ix + j(X
[Rx + j(Xxx - Xtx + X
Vi
- V =
2
[Rx
23
22
22
23
33
2s
lt
12
x2
23
12
33
13
32
will
(49)
now be introduced
(50)
(51)
to represent
Zx
Ri
Z2 = R2
Z 3 = R3
+ j(Xxx - Xx2 + X - X
+ i(X - X + X - X
+ j(X - X + X - X
23
13 )
(52)
22
32
13
12 )
(53)
33
13
12
23 )
(54)
transformer problem.
44
Another interesting feature is the possibility of negative effecAgain referring to the impedance Z h it is conceivable that the circuits might be so arranged that the mutual
reactances between circuits 1 and 2 and between circuits 1 and 3
are relatively large in comparison with the mutual reactance
between circuits 2 and 3. If the former are sufficiently predominant in magnitude, the effective reactance of Zi may become
negative and have the effect of a capacitive reactance.
The difference between the mutual reactances appearing in
tive reactance.
inclusive
jyXis
J (^12
J\Xz3
-^13)
=
=
X12)
X23)
Z2
Zs
Z\
^2(1)
^1(2)
Zz( 2 )
Z\(Z)
^3(1)
2 (Z)
Z\
Z
Zz
(55)
(56)
(57)
V -V 2 = ZJ - Z 2I 2 +
V - V z = Z 2 I 2 - Zzlz +
V -V = Zzh - Z I +
1
2
s
(Z 2
{Zz
(Z 1
- Z )J
- Zz 2))Ie
- Z IW )I.
2(1)
(
(58)
(59)
(60)
normal saturation.
rent flowing
It
calculations.
As a rule, it is neglected. When this is the case,
the currents in the three circuits add to zero, and equations (58)
to (60) inclusive reduce to
- V = ZJi - ZJ
Vz = 2/2 - Z3/3
Vz- Vx = Zzlz - ZJx
Vx
V 2
(61)
(62)
(63)
TRANSFORMER IMPEDANCE
Determination
Impedances.
of
The
45
impedances
effective
impedance
two-circuit
transformer.
condition
two windings
under test are equal and opposite. Assuming that power is
supplied to circuit 1 with circuit 2 short-circuited, then to circuit
2 with circuit 3 short-circuited, and, finally, to circuit 3 with circuit
1 short-circuited, equations (61), (62), and (63) give
is
=
F2 =
73 =
7i
(Zi
(Z 2
(Z 3
+ Z )/ =
+ Z )/ =
+ ZJh =
2
Z 12h
Z 23 I 2
Z 31 h
(64)
(65)
(66)
from
Z
Z2
Z
x
+Z =Z
+Z =Z
+ Z! = Z
2
12
(67)
23
(68)
31
(69)
= Z X% +
Z3!
- Z 23
(7Q)
Z
Z2 =
+ Z -
Z
Zy =
+Z
Zi 2
3i
23
(71)
.
(72)
It is
imprac-
by an exact
46
Fig. 22.
Fig. 23.
It
z2
j
vw^-
-X-X
YlG.
22.
Equivalent
network
a three-circuit
neglected.
of
transformer,
Phase
WW-ffl5>1
Excitation
VW\A-CTtfv>-
13
Zz
Zi
Phase b
Z3
13
Z?
WWW-
Zt
4
z3
Fig. 23.
Three-phase
Phase c
IT
arrangement
transformers.
EXAMPLE
Statement of Problem
2, 300- volt
TRANSFORMER IMPEDANCE
47
transmission lines are both three-phase, and their voltage ratings are 110
The transformers are connected A-A-A.
kv., respectively.
The nominal voltages of each single-phase transformer are as follows:
and 22
Winding 1
Winding 2
Winding 3
Fig. 24.
The equivalent
2,300 volts
22,000 volts
110,000 volts
for
Example
1.
is
disconnected.
Solution
Ratios of Transformation:
Winding 2
22^
y0D
2.3
Winding 1
Winding 3 _ 110
= 47.8
2.3
Winding 1
Winding
110
22
Winding 2
The
circuit layout is
shown
(70), (71),
and
in Fig. 24,
Xx =
X, =
6.10
6.15
6.59
+
+
+
6.59
6.10
6.15
6.15
6.59
6.10
=
=
1. Consider the nominal voltages and the base currents calculated from
the full rating at the nominal voltages to be the 100 per cent values of voltages and currents, respectively.
48
circuit is given
Vm = V - jI X
3
=
=
13
cos fa
Using
sin fa
0.527
as standard phase,
Vm =
+ 0.5(0.85 - j'0.527).;3.32
+ j'1.41 = 100.9 per cent
100
100.88
A/VW-ffi5Wd-
at 30%p. f.
^ 3-& kv-a.atSS%p.f.
Fig. 25.
Equivalent network
also given
is
by
V m = V - jhX
,
= 50 X 100 per
i
2
cos
<f> 2
t?
Using
(b)
0.90
sin
< 2
0.436
as standard phase,
100.9/a
= V2 +
"r
/
- j0.436)j2.83
(0-9
t/
_l
611
_l
127 2
-
Squaring gives
100.9 2
= V\
122.2
l2
61
-^r'
127.2 2
V\ - 10,050 V\
The
20,008
V = V5,025 -s/25.23 X
2
\/~5,025
point
As
circuit
22
5,021
is,
10
0.02
fiP
therefore,
1.002
Vm
is
22.04 kv.
is still smaller.
It is sufficiently
accurate, therefore, particularly since the resistances have been neglected,
to consider the phase angle of the currents with respect to the junction-point
voltage as being the same as with respect to the terminal voltages.
/1
(c)
TRANSFORMER IMPEDANCE
The generator voltage
49
given by
is
V^Vn+jhXi
Using V3 as standard phase,
7i = 100.88 +J1A1
The
102.45 +J4.23
voltage at generator is, hence,
+
=
(d)
- j0.481)j3.27
102.5 per cent
(0.864
= F2
Fi
Using
+ UZ n = V - hZ
2
(e)
12
as standard phase
102.5/0
= V 2 +^(0.9
v
-j0.436)./6.10
= 72 +
*|?
+i^
v
Hence,
= V\
102.52
+ 266 +
^ + ^^-
which reduces to
V$
The
solution of this
+ 93,100
10,230 V\
=
r^0^9~X~10~
V = V5,115 V2 6U9 X
10<
= \/57ll5"
The
5,108
regulation of the 22-kv. circuit
The
is
JT 1
it
is
by
given
I&
V,
therefore,
'
1Q02
voltage of the 110-kv. windings
V =
is,
(/)
50 X 100
~Trfpj
7 =
102.5
101.8
The regulation
- 0.494(0.9 - j0.436)i3.27
- j'1.45 = 101.9 per cent
101.9
100
is,
hence,
Four-circuit Transformers.
tions.
In
(73)
(74)
(75)
(76)
See discussion by
/1
+h+h+
W.
V.
Lyon
Ii
(77)
50
These
five
of ways.
Since there
will
first difference,
V - V2 =
x
difference.
12
12
23
ls
V - V =
2
I 2 [R 2
I 3 [R 3
+ j(X 22
+ j(X 3 3
+ i(X
/4IR4 + j(^44
J 3 [i2 3
33
24 )]
24
23
12
13 )]
23
i2
3 )]
34
13
V3 - F4 =
24 )]
X - X + X
X + Xu - X
j(X - X + X
-X - X +X
X + X Xi
j(X - Z + X
- Xu - X + X
X + X X24)]
i(X - X + X u
IJLRi
2i
23
34
24)]
23
24
14
X U )I
be
Then
differ-
(78)
X1O/4
(79)
- X u )Ii
(80)
+
-
ances.
In the first equation, Ri + j(Xu X i2
i4 +
24 ) is the
impedance that would be assigned to the first winding if the first,
second, and fourth windings were considered as a three-circuit
transformer. This impedance will be represented by Z
The
impedance R 2 +j(X 22 i2 + X14 24 ) is that which would be
assigned to the second winding if the first, second, and fourth
were considered as a three-circuit transformer. This will be
represented by Z214. The first subscript shows to which winding
the impedance is attached. The second and third subscripts
indicate which of the other windings are grouped with the first
to form a three-circuit transformer. The order of the second and
third subscripts is unimportant; that is, there is no difference
between Z124 and Z U2
It will also be noticed that the coefficient
of I 3 in equation (78) is Z 2X3 Z 2U that the coefficient of 7 4 in
equation (79) is Z 3i2 Z 3 n, and that the coefficient of 7\ in
equation (80)
differences
is
may
V - V2 =
V2 - V =
V Vi =
x
IxZxu
I 2 Z 231
I 3 Zu 2
- hZ 2U + 7,(Z,i, - Z 214
- I Z 32 + / 4 (Z 42 - Z 3l2 )
I\Zi 32 + I\(Z\\ 3 423)
)
(81)
(82)
(83)
TRANSFORMER IMPEDANCE
51
There are some other interesting relations between these impedFor example,
ances.
Z124
Z134
Z42I
Zl23
Z132
Z423
= Z2IA +
= Zsu +
= Z241 +
^213
(84)
Z312
(85)
^243
(86)
manner.
Having obtained by
impedances of
impedances are calculated
by
Z 124 =
Z 214 =
Zl2
+ Z ~ Zu
41
2
Z24
"
24
+ Zn
T
* -
Z\2
Z
12 ~
Z%\
Zsl
Z\\
(88)
Z23
Z 213 = Zn
+
+
Z31
Zsl
Z S21 =
(87)
(89 )
2
-f-
Z23
Z
23 ~
Z\2
Zl2
(90)
2
Z34
Z23
Z24
(91)
2
Z24
Z432
7
Z413
-f-
.Z34
^
2
Z34 ~r ^41
Z\\
^34
-g
^23
(
~Z
Z3I
n
92 )
no .
(93)
developed.
fa
52
same proportion,
of Transformer
Wind-
ings,"
by
O, G. C, Dahl,
loc. cit.
TRANSFORMER IMPEDANCE
Evidently,
it is
53
Hence,
which determine them at a high
from
From the standpoint of precision of measurement, therefore, the best tests are either those which involve
metering of pure waves of either fundamental or higher-harmonic
frequency or those where any distortion likely to occur will be
third harmonic.
exact determination
one which
only
The latter,
of the leakage
of transformation.
54
auxiliary transformers
ratio
7b Oscillograph
tip-
Fig. 26.
by meas-
=
V =
For 7 2
0,
Vi
(Ri
(Rt
+ jX u )Ii + jX I + Ec
+ jX )h + jXnl.i + E
lt
22
(94)
(95)
Vi
- V =
2
[#!
+ j(Xn -
Xti)]Ii
Zi/i
(96)
Hence,
(97)
As
determined.
Both the measured current and the voltage drop will contain
harmonics. Since the equations are applicable to quantities of a
single frequency only, oscillograms must be taken and the desired
harmonic components separated out by analysis. Figure 27
TRANSFORMER IMPEDANCE
55
shows an oscillogram taken during a test of this type. The fundamental component of the exciting current will always be the
largest.
Usually, also, the fundamental component of the
voltage drop will be larger than any of the harmonics, except,
perhaps, at very high saturations where the third-harmonic
component may be the greatest. As a rule, therefore, maximum
precision should be obtained
Fig. 27.
-MSiSlSlSiSi^
Fig. 28.
Single-phase determination of separate leakage impedances by the
series-opposition test.
Oscillographic measurements are not necessary in this
case, as both voltages and currents are sinusoidal.
Series-opposition Test.
in series opposition
windings in opposition,
Vx
V*
=
=
(R,
(R 2
may
+
+ jX
iX)Ji
22 )I 2
be written
- jX l2h +jo>M
- jX l2Ix - juM
(I 1
(Ii
70
h)
(98)
(99)
56
I2
i.e.,
since
(100)
the last term in equations (98) and (99) is zero, which means that
These
there is no net magnetization of the core as a whole.
equations, therefore, reduce to
= (J2i+jXi)J = Z I
=
V 2 (R 2 + jXi)I = ZJ
Vi
(101)
(102)
which show that the terminal voltage of each winding is directlyequal to its separate leakage-impedance drop. The total voltage
impressed on the two windings in series evidently equals the
equivalent leakage-impedance drop. Thus,
V =
7i
+F
(Zi
Z 2 )I = Z n I
(103)
Vo/f&gre across
One Winding
Approx.B=0
Fig. 29.
Oscillogram
of the voltage
by the series-opposition
and current waves. Circuit
is sinusoidal,
from leakage-impedance
When
test
two windings,
will also
be
Exact
the flux in the core is
current
involved
are
and
the
voltages
measurements of the two
readily obtained, and oscillograms can
be omitted. From the standpoint of
sinusoidal,
suppressed.
since
^yi
joj-fe
Single-phase deter-
v=Vj=Vg
satisfactory.
Fig. 30.
It gives,
,
however, the
1
parallel-conjunction test.
c.
Parallel-conjunction
Test.
With
TRANSFORMER IMPEDANCE
57
=
=
+ jXu)Ii + jXnh + E
+ 3X22)12 + jXnli + #
(Ri
(R 2
(104)
(105)
(i^
+ jXx)/! -
ZJi -
+ jX )7 =
(# 2
Hence,
r,
This test
may
Z2I2
(106)
voltage.
Equation (107) is, in general,
applicable to a single frequency only, and, since the currents in
this test will
always be more or
less distorted,
oscillographic
The
nent
when the
saturation
is
1
It might be thought that, with the windings in parallel opposition, the
current would divide inversely as the leakage impedances and also that,
with this connection, the impressed voltage would equal each of the leakage
impedance drops. This is erroneous, however, as the following analysis will
show. The equations for this case are
Vt
V*
=
=
(J?!
(R 2
+jXu)h - jX 12 I +ja M
2
+jX n )I -jXtJi
t
(Ii- h)
(a)
(6)
+jaMc(Ii
I,)
Vt
V,
= 2V =
Ztlt
+ ZJ,
(c)
or
y^Z_Jt
Z_J,
Hence, the impressed voltage is equal to one-half the sum of the separate
leakage-impedance drops of the two windings.
By equating equations (a) and (6), the current division is given by
h
h
= R*
+ J( X + X ") +
+X
2jwMe
{6)
Rt +j(X n
21 ) +2juMa
which is entirely different from the inverse leakage-impedance ratio.
Only when the two windings are identical in every respect and perfectly
symmetrically arranged with respect to the core will the currents divide
inversely as the leakage impedances.
The ratio of the currents in such a
case would evidently be unity, and the windings would have the same
impedance. The last term in equations (a) and (&) would be zero (i.e., the
core as a whole completely demagnetized), and the impressed voltage equal
to the impedance drop of either winding.
58
in practice,
In this particular
case, the ratio of the effective values of the distorted current will
Current in
Voltage across
Winding No. 2
Winding No.2
Voltage across
Current in
(Winding No. J f Winding No. 1
Current in
Winding No. J
.Curreniin
Winding No.2
Voltage across
Winding No. 2/
^o/tage across
^Winding No.l
Single-Phase Trans-former
Approx.
B moix= I0,200gausses
1\
AV2
QV
0A2
-y" f
-A.
xf
T"
x
iff'
(108)
TRANSFORMER IMPEDANCE
59
+
+
)2
2
)
Substituting for
I'i
and
!'{'
(109) reduces to
h
72
by means
w+
(/r)
(/n
(109)
= x*
(110)
vKS'+^W"*
The
formers
The
is
available.
principle of the
method
is
60
To
Fig. 33.
Diagram
Oscillograph
leakage-impedance test on
two- winding transformers.
is
scarcely of practical
interest.
As a
rule, it will
TRANSFORMER IMPEDANCE
in the delta is sensibly third
61
transformers themselves
is
present.
The diagram of connections and the third-harmonic vector diagram are given in Figs. 33 and 34, respectively. One to one ratio
Fig. 34.
Vector
diagram
"two-
winding method."
of transformation
is assumed.
If the transformers have another
the quantities in the various equations given below should all
be referred to the same side. Figure 35 shows an oscillogram
taken during a test of a bank of experimental transformers.
ratio,
Line Voltage,
Voltage Primary Neutral
to
Current in
Secondary Delta
Neutral of Resistor
Bank
Y-A Connection
Approx.B
=l2,800gciusses
m|)lx
Winding*! Primary
Winding*3 Seconda ry
Fig. 35.
If
R is
of the voltmeter,
vr =
n''(i
+ 1)
(in)
62
(112)
now found by
To Oscillograph
To Oscillograph
Fia. 36.
Diagram
This
X'l' is
leakage-impedance test on
three-winding transformers.
leakage reactance.
By
winding
Fig. 37.
may
Vector diagram
winding method."
Multi-winding Transformers.
TRANSFORMER IMPEDANCE
63
The other
delta
is
ing across the open corner of this delta may, therefore, be meas-
ured and will, for balanced conditions, be equal to three times the
third-harmonic electromotive force per phase. Recording these
two quantities makes it possible to determine the leakage reactPrimary Line
Current
Voltage across
Open
J^
Current in
Closed
Approx.B
Fig. 38.
max
JN
=l3,800gciusses
Circuit connections
shown
test on three-winding
in Fig. 36.
ance of the closed delta winding with respect to the open delta
winding. In many cases, oscillographic records are unnecessary
when the transformers are well balanced, as both the voltage and
the current will be sensibly third harmonic.
The connections are shown in Fig. 36, and the third-harmonic
vector diagram in Fig. 37. An oscillogram from a test at this
type is shown in Fig. 38.
Solution of the vector diagram exactly as in the preceding case
gives the leakage reactance of winding 3 with respect to winding 2.
Statement of Problem
Three small three-circuit transformers having unity ratio of transformation are used in a research laboratory.
The windings are designated 1, 2,
and 3. It was desired to determine the separate leakage reactance of winding 3 with respect to winding 2.
In order to do this, the transformers were connected as in Fig. 39. Power
was supplied to the primary Y-connected winding and oscillograms taken of
the primary line current, of the voltage appearing across the open corner of
64
winding
2,
and
Harmonic analysis
by the 11-coordinate schedule method 1 gave the following
of the oscillograms
results:
WindingZ
Winding 2
Winding t
AVjU/ne)
To
Fig.
39.
Oscillograph
Diagram
To
Oscillograph
To Oscillograph
of
Sine Coefficients
Expressed in Arbitrary Units
Curve analyzed
31.09
2.77
Ix
j
Ta3
As
Ai
-9.29
#A2
0.55
32.53
37.87
As
A7
A,
An
3.42
0.89
0.56
-0.38
-0.05
-0.21
0.08
-0.20
0.02
0.10
1.20
-0.19
Cosine Coefficients
Expressed in Arbitrary Units
Curve analyzed
Ii
EA2
Bi
Bi
0.23
0.66
0.15
-1.41
-0.99
0.16
Bn
Bi
B7
B>
-0.89
-0.01
-0.61
0.30
0.28
0.11
0.41
1.63
-0.17
Co
C7
3.53
0.89
0.63
0.48
0.28
0.21
0.10
0.08
Resultant Coefficients
Expressed in Arbitrary Units
Curve analyzed
Co
31.30
32.70
39.20
Ii
JA ,
E&2
Harmonics
Curve analyzed
II
JA ,
in
Ci
31.10
2.85
9.29
C3
0.57
32.60
37.88
C\
99.4
8.71
29.8
C3
C5
Ci
1.83
99.7
96.4
11.28
2.72
1.60
0.87
0.54
1.54
John Wiley
TRANSFORMER IMPEDANCE
The actually measured values were
= 234
volts
=
8.32 volts
=
1.785 amp.
Fi(iine)
Em
Im
The
65
was
sufficiently
high so that negligible current would flow in this winding. The total metering resistance in the corner of winding 3, including the resistance of the
thermocouple ammeter, was 0.66 ohm. The resistance of winding 3 was
ohm
per phase.
the above data, calculate the separate leakage reactance of winding
3 with respect to winding 2. Base the calculations on the third-harmonic
components and also on meter readings alone and determine the discrepancy
between the two values so obtained.
0.466
From
Solution
E"A
8.32
0.964
8.02 volts
1.781
iZ =
E"A
wT,
1.785
0.997
8.02
sxim
amp.
_
ft1
= 1501
ohms
,
1.501*
(0.466
+ ^Y =
of
1.336
ohms
therefore,
3(2)
"^o
0.445
ohm
E A2
8.32
37 A3
in
Xa(2)
= \j
1.5542
z 3 (2)
(o.466
-^-
1.554
+^Y
ohms
= 1395 ohms
= 0.465 ohm
1.785
n per cent+
4.50
.
0.445
The discrepancy, as seen, is not large. This shows that, when the
impressed voltages and the transformers themselves are well balanced, fair
accuracy may be obtained from meter readings alone without resorting to
oscillogram analysis.
66
EXAMPLE
Statement of Problem
In order to determine the possible variation with saturation of the leakage
reactance of winding 3 with respect to winding 2 of the laboratory transformers referred to in the preceding example and to obtain, if necessary, an aver-
age value, additional tests were carried out (see Fig. 39). These were
performed at four values of impressed voltage so as to give flux densities of
from 11,000 to 14,000 gausses approximately. As seen, this range covers
what might be termed the operating region of the transformers.
The data obtained are given in Table V.
Table
Connections
GO
closed A.
OQ
11
fl
> h
8"
a S
"o
<
11
Winding 1,
primary Y.
Winding 2,
open A.
Winding 3,
si
S
c
.2
O,
11M
c
3 $
So
GO
0)
go
6.3
ft"S
>*
o 3
.fe
111
in
SMS
A3
J'"
Third-harmon
amperes
^. ,?
.tj o <u
i
SS
delta
11,300
192.0
3.22
0.691
3.10
0.689
0.66
12,300
210.0
4.60
0.987
4.43
0.984
0.66
13,100
222.0
6.10
1.310
5.88
1.308
0.66
13,800
234.0
8.32
1.785
8.02
1.781
0.66
in
Example
2.
Table VI
Oscillogram
number
2
3
4
Average
Line volts
impressed
192.0
210.0
222.0
234.0
Approximate
Ohms
Ohms
impedance
impedance
Tpl"
flux density,
gausses
11,300
12,300
13,100
13,800
3/ A ,
31'"
1.554
1.553
1.552
1.554
1.500
1.502
1.500
1.501
1.553
1.501
^3
TRANSFORMER IMPEDANCE
It appears
67
of leakage
impedance
CHAPTER
III
UNBALANCED CIRCUITS
In the operation of polyphase systems, it is usually attempted
all loads and, hence, the voltages and currents as nearly
balanced as possible. In spite of this fact, there are systems
where quite severe unbalance may exist. This may particularly
be the case where heavy single-phase loads, such as electric
Unbalance is also caused by disymfurnaces, are connected.
to keep
The
frequently quite laborious. When sufficient data are at hand, such problems can be solved by the
application of Ohm's and Kirchhoff's laws. This method, however, is often inconvenient and may even lead to considerable
voltages,
and currents
difficulties
when
is
A much more convenient scheme is the method of symmetricalThis method, which is due to C. L. Fortescue, 1 is
coordinates.
one for handling problems of unbalance.
powerful
an extremely
that in any n-phase system the actual
the
fact
upon
depends
It
and currents may, in general, be
symmetrical n-phase systems of voltages and
currents and one single-phase system. The angular displacement
between the vectors belonging to consecutive phases will be
k(2r/n) in the fcth of the n 1 symmetrical systems. Hence, if
the circuit has an odd number of phases (n is an odd integer), the
n 1 symmetrical systems will all be balanced n-phase systems.
The phase sequence of these balanced systems will, of course, not
be the same. The essential point, however, is that they really
sinusoidal unbalanced voltages
replaced by n
On the other
are balanced systems and may be treated as such.
hand, if the circuit has an even number of phases (n is an even
integer), the n 1 symmetrical systems will not all be balanced
n-phase systems. In many cases, the circuit connections are such
that the single-phase system disappears, leaving only the symmetrical polyphase systems to be considered.
1
Fortescue, C. L., "Method of Symmetrical Coordinates Applied to the
Solution of Polyphase Networks," Trans. A.I.E.E., p. 1027, 1918.
68
UNBALANCED CIRCUITS
69
circuits.
This
illustrate the
basis.
All
-romj>-=^!
%Za
gr-.n
Fig. 40.
Unbalanced
Trnpedance
No
neutral connection.
70
By
equations
may
be written:
+ Z.) - h(Z + Z
+ Z - Ic(Z + Z
+ Z - I (Z + Z
Vu = UZt
F 23 = h(Z
=
7,i
Since there
zero.
is
b)
(1)
e)
(2)
a)
(3)
b)
Ie{Z z
c)
Hence,
h + h + Ic =
Combining equations
7l2
and
(4)
(4)
(1) gives
+ Z + Za + Z +
Ia{Zy
7 C (Z 2
h)
by making use
Zb )
(5)
of equation (3),
becomes
= L Z
7i2
Z*
Za
+Z +
(Z x
Z a )(Z + Z
z3 + z
2
b)
+
yVn Z + Zh
z +z
(6)
or
7
la
7 12 (Z +
3
(Zi
+Z +
tt
Z,)
- F 31 (Z 2 + Z )
b
+ Z )(Z, +
6
e)
(Zi
Za )(Z 2
Z)
w;
and
ib
become
V u (Zi + Za) - 7
=
(Z 2
r
ic
_
~
(Z + Z
+ Z + Z + Z )(Zi + Za) + (Z + Z )(Z + Z
7 i(Z + Z - 7 (Z + Za)
+ Z + Z + Za)(Z + Z.) + (Z, + Z )(Z! + Z.)
3
Equations
c)
23
b)
(Z 3
12
and
(9),
(8)
e)
(7), (8),
w
.
end of
the feeder and the line and load constants. Knowing the currents, the voltages to neutral and the line voltages at the load are
readily computed.
Thus,
V an = hZa
Vbn = hZb
V cn = IcZ
(10)
(11)
(12)
and
(13)
Vab
or unbalanced.
applicable to
any
The formulas
case.
(14)
(15)
balanced
and
UNBALANCED CIRCUITS
71
Fl
^20
730
Vl
^g X150
vl
Combining equations
solution
is
=
5
= h(Z
7e(Zs
(16),
(4),
Zb )
Zc)
Fn0
+ V
7n0
(16)
(17)
(18)
(17),
Za)
/o(Zl
V n0
points:
v
When
*&+%&** + %&&
V3
the voltage
from equations
V n0
Z
Zb
Zi + Z.
+ Z%
+Z
lm
(19)
is
(16), (17),
>*
+
+ Zi
Zi +
and
(18) as follows:
V3
+ z.
V
^150 -y.0
Z2 + Zi
z,
(20)
h -
^/9qo _ yn0
L =
Having obtained the
Zz
+Z
(21)
(22)
72
impressed voltages.
This
is
longer add to zero but are equal to the neutral current reversed.
Thus,
/
+L+
Ib
In
(23)
a
Pa Unbalanced
n Impedance
z%K Load
b
Fig. 41.
Neutral connection.
Vn0
neutrals
Vn
is
now
given by
= -I n Z n
(24)
Evidently, equations (16), (17), and (18) still hold, and by combining these with equations (23) and (24) the following expression
is
In
V3
Z\
\3
Za
Z\
Za\-TE7\o
^T^\
+ Zn
150
Z\
Z<l
+
+
Z\
~\-
Z a /90
+ z7t^
i
Za
\Z\
-\-
Zb
Z%
-f-
Za
Z
(25)
Upon determining
UNBALANCED CIRCUITS
Unbalanced
Feeder.
Three-phase
on
may
V u = hZ
^23 = IbZ2
Vti = LZt
is
+ UZ^ - I Z
+ IbcZbc IcZz
+ I Z - IaZl
b
"+"
Ica.Z C a
Ic
= lab- lea
= Ibc lab
= La ~ he
&
lb
(26)
(27)
(28)
ca
ca
IbcZbc
~t~
la
(29)
(30)
(31)
(32).
Ia
^\g
ab
ct
*-v,'*
Fig. 42.
Unbalanced
IabZab
Load
A-connected
73
Unbalanced
Zbc
on unbalanced
feeder.
By
expressions for the load currents in terms of the line currents are
obtained*
j
lab
i-a^ca
J-b^bc
lj
~T~~7
V
>ab ~T &bc "T "ca
i-b^ab
j
c
~ Z
k
*-*ab
ca
\y
J~c"ca
~ 7
"ab
(1A\
4Zk 4- "ca
Z
r "be
'
J-c"bc
/QQ\
A
*-a"ab
/QKN
W^v
j_ y
T" ^6c "T ^ca
ZlT~7
(28), these
V 12 =
la
Zl
-\~
~y
rr
+ ^ Tst^y
"be "T ^ea/
(36)
/\ Z +7-xt7-)
"ab -T ^6c
^ca/
(37)
*M ^2
\
^23
^6
#2 4"
~r/
_i_
r/
r/
(Zjbc"
7
y
"3
"T"
_j_
Z/a6 -f-
/>a&
"t"
ca
y J
Z&c -r "caj
i_
Zc
IafZr 4,
Z*
(38)
74
and (3)
Y-connected load without neutral shows
complete similarity in form. As a matter of fact, equations (36),
(37), and (38) might have been written down immediately if the
Za =
Zab
Zab
Zbc
~\-
(39)
c
ZbcZCa
tJab
Zdb ~T~ tJbc
Zbc ~T~
ZcaZgb
7
"c
rr
to replace the
A by
its
Hence, the
this basis.
_l
V* 1 )
<7
-J- ilea
I
(40)
Zc
Uca
equivalent
by equations
(7)
to (9) inclusive.
After having determined the line currents, the load currents
(A-currents) are calculated
by equations
by
(33),
(34),
and
(35).
EXAMPLE
=
=
IatZ*
(42)
hcZbc
(43)
V ca == J-ca^ca
\"^J
Vab
Vbc
1
Statement of Problem
Two identical
The
Volts
Amperes
265
9.1
Generator
Transformers
Watts
1,004
Loads
Fig. 43.
Diagram
of
1.
UNBALANCED CIRCUITS
75
of 119.5
Assume that
Solution
Ratio of Transformation:
000
-239
MJi
460 "
Transformer constants referred to primary
a
= I1
Z = |^ =
e
29.1
B = ^r
=
9.1 Z
<
'
ohms
12 -!
= V29.P -
ohms
12.12
26.5
ohms
7,1
Ia
= 119.5
"X'q =
23.
T
Ib
7L7
= g3g
= On
3.0 amp.
5.0
(c)
(d)
amp.
Va = Va/0 = Va +J0
Vb = Vb/B =
Ia
Ib
=
=
=
=
VB
=
5.0 \25.8
3.0 /0
(cos d
4.50
36,9
3.0[cos (0
(e)
+ j sin
6)
(f)
- J2.18
+ j sin (0 - 36.9)]
+ 0.6 sin + j(0.8 sin B -
36.9)
3.0[0.8 cos 8
3.0 /0
= (7a
7i 2
= Vb
+ 2.99 sin -
(cos
+j sin
0)
6.0 cos 6
-f-
3.0 /0
130.7)
36,9
2.236/63^4
j(6.0 sin
36.9 (14.1
(d) gives
108.2)
(4.5 -i2.18)(1.0
(Vb cos
6.82)
(g)
+ J2.0)
(&)
76
These equations
at
first
that
is
now be
will
by a
Then
solved
= 0.866
sin
Substituting these values in equation
F,i
11,2002
trial-and-error process.
Assume
= -0.5
cos
gives
(g)
+ J104.5
from which
VA =
With
11,063.2 volts
becomes
Vn =
7 i2 =
11,2002
11,200/0
= (-0.5VB -
= V%
174.27b
94.5) +;'(0.866Fb
94.5 2
+ 46.0)
46.02
from which
VB =
11,112.7 volts
Using this value of Vb, the vector expression for 7i2 becomes
7i2 = -5,650.9 +^9,669.6 = 11,200/120^3 volts
The
a.
120.3
0.6
7 i2
and
is
3i
119.7 deg.
This angle, however, should be exactly 120 deg., since the generator voltages
The original assumption in regard to the phase angle between
are balanced.
120.3 deg.
Hence,
=
Vn =
0.8634
11,200/a
VA =
Vn =
11,063.2 volts
sin
11,199.5
Vn = 11,200/0 =
(-0.50457b
174.47b
+jl04.5
136.3)
+il04.5 = 11,200/0^6
and
ll^OO2 = V\
= -0.5045
cos
- (VA +
94.82
94.8)
volts
+ ./(0.86347b +
45.6)
+ 45.6*
from which
VB =
The vector
The
11,112.6 volts
is
now
which
is
voltages
exactly correct.
Va and
239
11,112.6
._
u
= 465 volts
23 9
The amounts of power absorbed by the two loads are, hence,
VB =
Jr
p =
Pa
462.5
p
P
=
465
119.5
mmx)
71.7
1^00
0.8
0.9
= 498 kw
,_
=26.7kw.
UNBALANCED CIRCUITS
77
Method
of
components is equal to the particular voltage which they repreNothing at all is gained, however, by such resolution,
unless the component voltage systems can be handled more
It
readily than the original unbalanced voltage system itself.
will now be shown that the unbalanced voltages whose sum is
different from zero may be replaced by two balanced three-phase
systems of opposite phase sequence and one single-phase system.
This is the most appropriate resolution and gives a maximum of
convenience of handling, since, as a rule, most circuits are susceptible to easy solution where nothing but balanced three-phase
sent.
Va =
V =
V =
+ +
+ +
+
x
z
(45)
y
cz
ax
by
(46)
dx
ey ffz
(47)
c
It will be noted that the components of Vb and V e have been
written as a factor times the corresponding components of Va
This is perfectly permissible and does not reduce the generality
of the resolution if the coefficients a, b, etc., are considered to be
complex quantities which, at the present, may have any arbitrary
magnitude and angle consistent with each equation's being
b
Mr. Fortescue,
separately satisfied.
method
and determines
their
systems.
Va + Vb + V =
c
(1
+ a + d)x +
is
3F
(l+c+/)* =
or
V = H(V a
-F
Hence,
+ b + e)y +
(1
V + V
b
c)
3Fo
(48)
(49)
78
If this
it is
Thus,
(Va
Vo)
(Vb
- 7 +
)
(7.
Vo)
(50)
This is equivalent to considering a single-phase (uniphase or zerosequence) component Vo to be present in each of the original
voltages.
Let x be this component. Consequently,
x = V = H(Va
Vb + V.)
(51)
and since the single-phase components in the three phases are
From
and
+ +
b
(1
e)y
unity,
viz.,
(52)
now follows
+ c +f)z =
it
(1
all
that
(53)
b
c
The ^-system
is
=
=
l\i20
1 /120
=
and / =
and
1/120
(54)
1\120
(55)
system and has the same phase order as the original unbalanced
This assumes that the phase order of the latter is a-b-c
in a counterclockwise direction, an assumption which will be
vectors. l
is
UNBALANCED CIRCUITS
desired system of unbalanced voltages whose
79
sum
is
zero.
The
problem is next to determine these components when the unbalanced voltages are known.
The symbol Vq has already been introduced for the x-system or
zero-sequence components. The symbols V+ and V~ with
appropriate subscripts representing phase will be used for the yand 2-systems, or positive- and negative-sequence components,
respectively.
Equations (45), (46), and (47) may, therefore, be
written in a more convenient nomenclature, as follows:
Va =V+ + V- '+ V
Vb =
+ V> + V
Vc = Vt + V- + V
(56)
(57)
(58)
or
Va =
Vi/0
V-/0
vb ^ vt\m +
F = 7+/120 +
c
+V
y-/i2o
F7\l20"
(59)
+v
+ Fo
(60)
(61)
/.=/+ + I' +
h = n + /r +
I = 7+ + /J +
/o
(62)
Jo
(63)
(64)
or
=
=
h
7 =
7a
+ 77/0 + 7
7+\l20" + 77/120 + 7
7+/120 + 77\120 + 7
7+/0
= H(h
(66)
(65)
of current is given
+h+7
C)
(67)
by
(68)
may
is
preferable.
80
of
is
The
Va
=Vt+V-
Vb
= Vt
= 7+/0 + y-ll
V b = VfW5 + V-/90
h
The most
neutral, in
(69)
(70)
by
= 7+ + la = 7+/0 +
= It + K = ifW
'a/0
(71)
(72)
7 q/90
which
Since in a
Va
Vb
Ve
= V++V~+ VI + 7
= Vt + V> + V*b + V
= V++V7+ V: + V
vd =
n+
y~*
V*
^o
(73)
(74)
(75)
<
76 )
or
Va
Vb
V
7d
c
The
current equations
h
/6
7C
/<*
=
=
=
=
n+
+
+
+
it
It
(78)
(79)
(80)
become
/-
it
1+
(77)
/7
'7
+ io
+ n + Jo
+ It + Jo
+ Ia + Jo
si)
/:
<
82 )
(83)
(84)
UNBALANCED CIRCUITS
81
or
=
h =
7 =
7d =
+ r /0 + h
7+\90 +
+ I*J9(F + 7o
7+/180_ + 7-/0 + 7:/180 + 7
7+/90 + 7- /180 + 7:\90 + 7
7+/0
/-/0
(85)
7- /180
(86)
(87)
(88)
Components in a Three-phase
is given by equation (49).
equations (59), (60), and (61), these
System.
The
zero-sequence voltage
become
(89)
(90)
(91)
-nV \m +
a
%n\120 _
HVa +
is
V~ is
V-
(92)
and the
eliminated,
hv + hv \W
- Hv.xm 5 -
= V+a - V+JWV
be written
+ V3IV90 -
\/SVc/Z0
F+
may
Solving for
= F+/120
equation (89),
obtained
HvSW - y v
V3F\30
K7 \l20
= 3\/3F+\30
(93)
(94)
gives
(95)
y- may now
HV - HV.\m
C
-V~a
(96)
giving
V- =
H(Va +
76X120
+ F /120)
c
(97)
Equations (95) and (97) give the positive- and negativesequence voltages in terms of the three unbalanced voltages. If
the latter add to zero or if the zero-sequence component be
subtracted from the original unbalanced voltages so that the
remaining vectors form a closed triangle, the positive- and negative-sequence componentsjnay be expressed in terms of two of the
AND APPLICATION
82
voltages only. :
zero
by
may be written
= Va -Vo = V+J_0 + V-/0
= Vb -V = 7+\120 + 7- /120
V^
V'b
- F =
To
7+/i20_
+ v-xm
(98)
(99)
(100)
^\I20 = V+/J2F
7-/0
(101)
V~
and leaves
- 7 '\120 =
V'm
7+/0
7+/120
(102)
or
V'a
7+
Solving for
+ 7 '/60
6
VSV+W
(103)
gives
Ft =
4= F +
V3
7+
v a = Ya ~
n/60)/30
(104)
~ ^k
'
^h
(105)
V~a =
^3
(7 -' +
7*W)W
106 )
Determination of the positive- and negative-sequence components by means of equations (104) and (106) is particularly
convenient when no zero-sequence components are present. In
this case, the original voltages Va and 7& are used in the formulas,
since obviously
Va =
The components
rents
may
V'b
of a three-phase
The formulas
Method:
Voltage components:
V = H(Va + V + 7
y+a = H(Va + V /120^ + 7 \l20")
V- = HiVa + 7>\120 5 + 7 /120)
b
6
Lyon, W.
1920.
V.,
"Unbalanced Three-phase
C)
(107)
(108)
(109)
UNBALANCED CIRCUITS
83
Current components:
h = H(h + h + Ic)
= HV* + ^/i2o + iSJW
I~a = M(h + /6\120" + 7 /120_)
it
(110)
(in)
(112)
Second Method:
Voltage components:
Vo
^
V'b
= H(Ya + Vb
= F a - Fo
=V
+F
(113)
c)
(114)
Vo
(115)
n = ^= (^ + nV60)/30
7" =
(7
Vl
(116)
^W)W
(117)
Current components:
h = HVa + h + Ic)
h-
I'b
It
/a
^ = -L
EXAMPLE
(118)
=
=
/o
(119)
7o
(120)
(/
jfteo
)^
(121)
(122)
Statement of Problem
In a 230-volt, three-phase, Y-connected circuit, one of the permanently
connected line voltmeters reads low, thus indicating the presence of unbalance.
In order to check up on the conditions, the three-line voltages and
two of the voltages to neutral are accurately recorded as follows
Vab =
V =
be
Voa
200 VoltS
230 volts
230 volts
Van
Vbn =
1.
What
2.
is
133 Volts
133 volts
Vcn ?
of the
voltages to
neutral.
3.
Solution
Figure 44
1.
The
2.
cos
a =
1(
>%33 = 0.752
1002
and phase
207.1
a = 41.2 deg.
voltages.
87.6
119.5 volts
84
Using Vab as standard phase, the vector expressions for the voltages to
neutral are
Van
Vbn =
Vcn =
133\41.2
133\138^8
119.5/90^
of these voltages
become
Vca
"-Vab
ZOOvolis
Fig. 44.
Vector diagrams
of line voltages
and voltages
to neutral
(Example
2).
Check
Vo
Vt
9.8
- j5.6
V~b = V3
F^W
V3 X
11.3
\T50^2
\3~0~5
19.6
\180^2
volts
Check
V+b +
Vol
219.6
19.6
+ J0.07 =
200
+ J0.07 ^ 200 =
Vat
UNBALANCED CIRCUITS
85
scale.
VC#0^V6 \720*
Fig. 45.
indicated in
determined.
as
c,
vj+vtfsd
Va '+V6 '\m
[30}va
Va'+Vb 'l60?-\
Fig.
components
is
in
86
Figure 46 illustrates a graphical solution applicable to unbalanced vectors whose sum is zero. It is based on equations (116)
and (117). The former calls for rotation of the vector 7 & through
V3
This quantity is now
76/60.
through 30 deg. in a positive direction. Construction of an
isosceles triangle with 1 to 4 as the base line by laying off the two
30-deg. angles immediately accomplishes this end and locates
Vt in magnitude and phase.
In order to obtain the negative-sequence component, the
construction is carried out in accordance with equation (117).
to be divided by
The
The
line 1
to 5
is
is
now
constructed as indicated in
thus rotated 60 deg. in a negative direction.
equilateral triangle
b.
and rotated
on V'b
is
+ 7 \60,
and by constructing an
by laying off two 30-deg.
magnitude and phase, as indicated.
equal to V'a
angles 7
As
is
obtained in
scheme
is
extremely simple.
It is
These lines divided by V% give the magnitudes of the positiveand negative-sequence components, respectively.
Analytical Determination of the Components in Two-phase and
Four-phase Systems. As already stated, there is no necessity of
considering any zero-sequence components of voltage and cur-
The two
and negative-sequence
and (70). Operating
equations
(69)
by
indicated
as
components,
/90
gives
by
equation
(70)
on
(123)
7 b /90 = 7+/0 + Fq/180
Adding this to equation (69) eliminates 7", and the following
solution for
Vt
is
positive
obtained
Vt = H(Va
+F
/90_)
(124)
sequence components
V~a
my
+ IV\W)
(125)
UNBALANCED CIRCUITS
87
current.
Hence, in order to cover the general case, these components must be considered. The zero-sequence voltage is given by
V = H(V a + Vb + 7 + V d
C
(126)
4c
4c
7+/180
- HV a - Hv -KV. + %v d =
(129)
By
(131)
- V2 7 a*\45
(132)
nv + y v - y v - y v = V2 v+ W + V2VZ/45
- Av + y v + y v - y v =
a
\/2 7+/45
\/2
ya \45" + V2 7
/45
- a/2F
\45^
- V27d /45_ =
4V2nW
from which
Vt -
Fd\go*)
(133)
(134)
HVa -
yv + y v -y2 v
b
= 27^ /o
(135)
Hence, 77 becomes
Fa
= K(7
+ 76/180 + 7 + 7d /180
C
7: =
(136)
(137)
Four-phase Systems.
may be
88
systems.
Fiq. 47.
used
Graphical
is
V b is rotated
shown
through 90 deg. in
in
Vcim"
Vd\90
vb Mo'
4Va
Vd/M
-it..
Vdim
td)
Fig. 48.
le)
Graphical
Va
as indicated in
phase.
In diagram
b.
c,
Thus, Vt
the vector
is
is
UNBALANCED CIRCUITS
89
in a negative direction.
this
manner
is
vectors after
Power
Unbalanced
in
unbalanced
Circuits.
circuit evidently
of that phase.
In general, the power
developed or utilized in the various phases will not be the same
when unbalance is present.
These statements are perfectly general and hold for any number
The
of phases.
cally
confined
power
in phases a,
to
b,
and
Pa
Pb
Pc
The
more
unbalanced three-phase
the
are given
specifi-
circuit.
The
by
= VJa COS da
= VhIb cos 6b
= VJc cos 6
(140)
(141)
(142)
When
vectors.
phase a
Pa
may
= Vtli
the. voltages
positive-, negative-,
be written
COS
d^ +
'a
Vah
cos d
Va
T
la
V+Io cos d
+ VI
/+
Valt cos
lo
J-0
VoI+ cos e Tl
la
cos d
i0
T
ij
+
+
(143)
The
total
phase powers.
Thus,
P =Pa + P +Pc
b
(144)
90
component
and power-factor angles by adding equation
(143) and the corresponding equations for the two other phases.
In performing this addition, it will be found that the sums of the
terms involving unlike components are zero. Since the magnitude of like components is the same in all three phases, the subscripts referring to phase may be dropped and the expression for
the total power written as
p = 3(7+7+ cos 0+ + V-I- cos 0" + V h cos O )
The
total
power
is
voltages, currents,
= 3(P++P-+Po)
(145)
produced by positive- and negative-sequence components only. In such cases, the power in at least one phase will be
greater and in at least one phase less than
the average power per phase. The effect
of the negative-sequence components is
thus to transfer power from one phase to
power
is
zero-sequence currents in a
D^
three-phase system.
three-phase system,
Paw = Hra =
Phcu,
P C(CU
If there is
loss in this is
+ + hYu
dt+ IT + hYn
(It + I' + Io)*r,
(It
I~a
(146)
(147)
(148)
Pn^=
1
= Hn =
= I\r =
IlTn
= (h + h + /)* = 9PQT n
of Single-phase
(149)
UNBALANCED CIRCUITS
91
Assume that Fig. 49 is the vector diagram of component curMaking use of this diagram, equations (146), (147), and
rents.
may
+
[(It)* +
=
=
[(It
2[ltla
be written
+
+ (7a
(la)* + n\Ta +
cos a + Itlo cos
+ 777
la cos
7 cos 0) 2
sin
cos
Zo/o sin
Pko)
[{It
/? cos (240
a)
+ 7 cos
sin 0) 2 ]ra
a cos +
a sin 0]ra
(120
jS)}
(150)
+I
a)
c 7)
[{7+
77 cos (120
a)
a) sin (120
+7
cos (240
(151)
0)]ri
2
/3)}
a)
The
a) sin (240
may
0)]re
(152)
be obtained by
becomes
neutral)
*V> =
3[(7+) 2
(7-) 2
+ 7 ]r +
cos(120
2{7+7"[cos a
7+7
7"7
[cos
[cos
cos (120
a cos
0)
cos (240
a)
+ cos(240 -
cos (240
a) cos (120
+
+
0)]
- 0) +
a)]
7~7
The sum
zero.
[sin
Hence,
Picuy
The
sin
3[(7+) 2
(7-) 2
due to the
is
(7
2
)
(154)
]r
positive-, negative-,
and
sum
zero-
92
When these
is
given
by
(Ctt)
3[(7+)V+
also
(7-)V-
+ Pr
(155)
component systems
for the
of current.
Fig.
'
V a = IaZ a
V b = hZ h
Vc
(156)
(157)
IcZ c
(158)
From
V =
y (V +
V + V
Vt =
H(Va +
76 /120
Va
+ 7 \120
VsiVa
(159)
e)
+ F \120)
+ y /120)
(157),
(160)
(161)
and
(158)
in equation
+ ZJ +
la + h)Z +
= Hidt +
= H[It(Z a
Z6 \120
__ + 77
+ U)Z +
(7+ /120 + 7a/W + U)Z
+ Z /120) + l7(Z a + Z>/120 +
Z \l20) + Io(Z a + Z + Z
(7+\120
/120
7Z+
C\
= HZ.
hZo
c )]
(162)
where
5
Z+ =
Z_
y (Z + Z/120 + ZM20
= y (Z + Z \l20" + Z /120)
3
Zo
= H(Za
Zb
e)
(163)
(164)
(165)
UNBALANCED CIRCUITS
By
(160)
93
drops in phase a
may be written
Vt = ItZ + IaZ_
Va = ItZ+ + IaZ
+ hZ+
+ 7 Z_
(166)
(167)
ances in the ordinary sense, i.e., in the sense that each should be
used exclusively with the current of the corresponding sequence.
They are named equivalent positive-, negative-, and zerosequence impedances merely because they are evaluated from the
unbalanced impedances (equations (163), (164), and (165)) by a
process exactly similar to the one used in determining the symmetrical components of a system of unbalanced voltages or
currents (equations (159), (160), and (161)).
It is seen that, in
general, all three current
impedances
while
Z =
Z+ and Z_
Z.
In such a
circuit, there-
drop is *%"
caused by a positive-sequence current Fig- 51. A-connected
unbalanced impedances,
only, the negative-sequence drop by a
negative-sequence current only, and the zero-sequence drop by a
zero-sequence current only.
When the Y-connected circuit has no neutral connection, the
zero-sequence current is suppressed. If, "at the same time, the
circuit is symmetrical, the zero-sequence voltage must always be
zero, independent of whether or not the line voltages are balanced.
fore,
the
positive-sequence
voltage
94
U =
for
zero-sequence
the
-- +
current
7 Z+
(168)
Equations (166) and (167) still hold for the positive- and negaSubstituting, however, the value of I
tive- sequence voltages.
equations
in
(166) and (167), the positiveequation
from
(168)
and negative-sequence voltages may be written in terms of
impedance drops due to positive- and negative-sequence currents
only.
Thus,
Vi = tt(z
V~a = Ii(z+
^) +
-0
-^)
I*(z_
-^) + Ia(z
(169)
(170)
the A-circuit
symmetrical
Degree
polyphase
is
circuit.
of Unbalance.
When
by
definition.
When the
seems
logical in
an unbalanced
numerical ratio
(Degree of unbalance)
(Degree of unbalance)
1
= y+
(171)
= y^
(172)
UNBALANCED CIRCUITS
Similarly, the degree of current unbalance at
circuit is given
95
any point
in a
by
(Degree of unbalance)
(Degree of unbalance)
=
=
j^
(173)
y^
(174)
simultaneously.
96
negative-sequence currents.
(Degree of unbalance)
7+
7T
Vca
a
^Vab
Fig. 54.
Fig. 53.
Fig. 53. Vector diagram of voltages and currents in tho circuit in Fig. 52.
Diagram of a circuit in which a pure inductance and a pure capaciFig. 54.
tance are connected line to neutral. The values of inductance and capacitance
are such that the two branches have the same numerical reactance.
circuit is
mined by equations
and become
U =
55.
Vector diaof voltages and currents in the circuit in Fig.
54.
Fig.
Con-
gram
it
^W +
^(I\90
(110), (111),
/\30)
^\60
Hd \9o + / /<xn
Z\150)
=^7|\ 12
and (112)
Hence,
UNBALANCED CIRCUITS
(Degree of unbalance)
(Degree of unbalance)
I-
j+
7
j^.
I-
~^
jc
97
when phase a
voltage unbalance
Taking the
is
short-circuited.
standard phase,
be written
may
Va =
Vb =
i.e.,
Vab
7/0,
7/180
V = 7/120
a
f
!
Short
"""*
Circuit
In
kb
Fig. 56.
Single-phase line-toneutral short circuit on a three-
phase Y-connected
Fig.
57.
Unbalanced
three-
circuit.
Since the line is balanced, the magnitude of the positivesequence phase voltages is V/y/S and the negative-sequence
components are
zero.
Vo
= H(Ya
+7 +7
6
C)
1
=
= ~(7+7\60)
V3
\30
100
= yp~^ 10 =
is
98
to single phase.
It is desired to
flow.
The phase
currents are
=
=
Ic
7a
7/0
7 /180
1,
la
The degree
+ 7\60)
^(7/0
= ld/0
in phase a
= -^=\30
V3
+ 7/60 =
-4=/30 c
is,
conse-
quently,
(Degree of unbalance)-
100
7+
'
100
7/V3
easily be
These give
Vo
Va
+ IaZ+ =Hl (Z - Z
+ iz_ = y3 i (z + z \60)
ItZ+ + IaZ = }iIa(Z + Z /60)
= 7+Z_
vt =
itZo
b)
(167).
UNBALANCED CIRCUITS
The degrees
(Degree of unbalance) -
T7
(Degree of unbalance)
become
V+
99
1^0
V+
+ Z /60
Z a + Z \60
Za
Z a Zj,
Z a + Z6\60
components
become
of voltage to neutral
Vi = ^L\30
N
V3
T7
The degree
of voltage unbalance is
(Degree of unbalance)
t
ytz 100
v+
now
,,IZ/\/S
100
-fl>"0'0'0'0>
Fig. 58.
phase Y-connected
on a three-
circuit.
Va =
V = Vbc = -V/0
V =
h
100
Fo=-|/0
n = ^\6o
VZ =
The
(Degree of unbalance)
(Degree of unbalance)
As
^ /60
V~
= ^+
100
= V/3
yrjo
= -^
100
100
y/jr 100
It is possible
Short
C/'rcvf'-f
Fig. 59.
Single-phase
also to
Consider,
Ie
la
on the
(Fig. 59).
from which
It
/o
= g/O
y^ 100
jjo 100
CHAPTER
IV
These, however, will serve to illusand the mode of attack, which then
concerned.
unbalanced.
This
this connection,
is
of
to a considerable
JL01
102
all.
1.
A single-phase
(J)
Fig. 60.
Single-phase line-to-neutral
Y-Y-connected bank
The
following equations
= ZJ la - Z I 2a
= Znli* + Eb
Vu = ZiJic + E
Vu =
Vzb = jxiJib + Eb
F 2c = jx 12 I lc + E
Ea = Z 22 ha - jx 12I la
Ila + lib + hc =
7io5 + Vxbc + V lca =
Via
(1)
Vxh
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
V
V Ua
lbc
(10)
(11)
(12)
103
Vm - V lM =
(2Z X .+ Zu)I la
2Z 2J 2o - (Eb
+E
c)
(13)
necessary to introduce an
empirical mathematical expression for the magnetization curve of
the transformers; in other words, express the induced voltages as
a function of the exciting currents. The well-known Frohlich's
equation 1
it is
-m.
- < x
io
-vfip!
< i5 >
Since, however,
lish
it is not possible from equation (15) to estaba simple vector relation between a voltage and current of the
used.
Assume a straight-line magnetization curve and a true
quadrature relation between induced voltage and exciting current, the latter being equivalent to ignoring the core-loss current.
The following equation embodies these assumptions:
E = jkl
(16)
Then,
Eb + E = jk(I +
lb
I u)
= -jkl la
(17)
V lab - V lca =
(2Zi
+ Z n + jk)I la
2Z 2/ 2a
(18)
current Iiae
written
V lab - V lca =
(2Zi
+ Zn + jk)I
lae
(2Z 12
Zn
+
jk)I 2a
Circuits," p. 42,
et seq.,
(19)
104
(20)
=
jXnha
jXlthae
Zwlta
jMiae
By
=
or
j(k
X^hae =
7i%I% a
-Z
Combining equations
[
tr
(2^1
2 Ita
(19)
jXnllae
(
and
Zl1
21 )
(21) gives
MZ
4-97
4-7
4-
*1
7o
(22)
From
I 2a
is
obtained.
If
Vi*
where
- V lca = V37\30
(23)
as
is
then calculated by
Jla
hae
~ ha
(24)
The
appropriate formulas.
The heaviest current will flow in phase
a,
at least
when
the line
In other words,
in this transformer to collapse to almost zero.
posisymmetrical
its
from
travel
will
point
neutral
the primary
tion toward line a, almost coinciding with the latter.
The accuracy of the results evidently depends on the correctIf
ness of the assumption in regard to the magnetization curve.
knee,
the transformers normally operate considerably below the
the straight-line representation may be proper and lead to correct
Modern
105
line.
and
c,
respectively.
Vv>
Vic
(25)
(26)
= ~ha =
~(/l6
+ he)
(27)
Vv>
Vic
= 7 /180
= 7 /120
(approximately)
(28)
(approximately)
(29)
(fci)
may
of the actual
magnetization
The coefficient (fc) for the two other transformers may be determined by means of a straight line drawn between the origin and a selected
point well up on the actual magnetization curve.
This point should correspond, as nearly as possible, to the voltages across phases 6 and c and assumes
that these voltages are equal. This, however, will not be the case when the
curve.
impressed line voltages are unbalanced. When the primary line is balanced, the voltages across the non-short-circuited transformers have strictly
the same magnitude and are very nearly equal to the line voltage.
When different values of k are used, equations (21) and (22) become
j(k!
and
+ Xi
2 )/la e
= Z 2I ia
+ 23" + Z n + j*l J-
(21a)
(22a)
106
phase-displaced 60 deg.
the short-circuited phase
is,
Iu =
and
is,
of the current in
therefore,
V3/ = VSI
16
(30)
l0
will
now be
considered.
(2)
S Load of
^Impedance
y\
v
Fig. 61.
Equations (2), (3), (5), (6), (8), and (9), previously given, may
be used also in this case. In addition may be written the general
equations
Via
V 2a
= Z U I la
= Z 22/ 2o
+ jXuha + Ea
+ jXnha + Ea
(31)
(32)
= -IzaZ
Via
(33)
give
Zil la
(Z 2
+ Z)l2a
(34)
and
Ea = - (Z 22 +
Z)Ua
~ jX 12I la
(35)
By
V lab - V lca =
(2Z'i
Z u )Iia - 2(Z 2
Z)I 2a
(Eb
+E
c)
(36)
Again, in order to obtain an explicit analytical solution, straightline magnetization curves will be assumed.
Equation (36) may
then be written
V lab - Vua = (2Z X
= (2Z l
11
lae
12
(37)
107
Vua
(2Zl
K^t
This equation
+ z) + 2Z - + 2Z+ z +jk
may
(39)
1
Different values of k may be used for the transformer in phase a and the
transformers in phases b and c, also when a single-phase, line-to-neutral
load is supplied. The procedure is the same as that discussed in the footnote on p. 105 for the line-to-neutral short circuit.
Since the voltages across phases b and c depend upon the load impedance,
the straight line representing the magnetization characteristic of the transformers in these phases cannot be located as definitely as in the short-circuit
case.
With
y- - v- -
2Z
+ xu)l
la,
'^*.+'*i r'
and
(Z 2
(39)
become
+ Z)I*
2z "
(38a)
2z
+ z " +*j'(39a)
108
Since the
Y-connection, however, eliminates the possibility of any uniphase
currents' flowing in the primary windings, no uniphase or circula-
order to exist, must have an equivalent component in the corresponding primary winding. Hence, since there are no uniphase
currents, there can be no uniphase voltages and, consequently,
no displacement of the neutral point.
It should.be noted, however, that there is a triple frequency
displacement of the neutral point, due to the third-harmonic
component of the exciting current which circulates in the secondary delta. This third-harmonic voltage, however, is quite small,
being equal to the secondary third-harmonic leakage-impedance
drop.
Short
Circuit
bank
of
Short Circuit.
Consider a Y-A-connected
1. Single-phase
bank, as shown in Fig. 62, with a dead single-phase short circuit
on the secondary side.
Neglecting magnetizing current, the general equations for the
primary and secondary terminal voltages may be written
V 2b
v
may
be written
Fi6
2c
In addition to these
ZJ + Ea
ZJ + E
Zxlu + E
-Z Zia + Ea
-Z /i6 + E
-Z I + E
=
=
=
=
=
=
Via
2
2
2
Vxa*
lc
+ la + Iu
+ + lie
+ Vac + Vua
-^26
(41)
b
c
Ila
1 2a
(40)
la
lb
=
=
=
V ia + F 2& + 7 2e =
<
(42)
(43)
(44)
(45)
(46)
(47)
(48)
(49)
109
Ea = ZJ la
(50)
V la = Z l2 I la
(51)
and
Fi6 C
lb
lc
lb
le )
(52)
(53)
(54)
and
- (Eb
(52)
V lab - V lca = 2Z 12 I la - Zi (I + I )
= (2Z 12 + Z )I la - (E + E
lb
lc
From
= V 2b
(54) gives
+E
c)
(55)
e)
-Z
+E +
Z 2 I la
+E +E
b
(56)
which gives
E + E = -Z
b
2 Ii a
(57)
/
lO
lab
= 3Z 12 7 la
Ua
(58)
/rr\\
{0\f)
W7y
OZ/i 2
Evidently,
lib
= he
(60)
lib
= Iu
(61)
hence, also,
h
The
= Iu =
(62)
j __
i
j
J-
2a
lib
oI 2a
n~
Vlab
Vua
fTy
s
,
an .
(OoJ
.._vg^!
(66)
110.
carried
two
by the
others; in
other words, the current in the two latter are of one-half the
of phase with the current in the
On
extremely simple.
is
the equivalent
Load of
Impedance Zi
Y-A-connected transformers
on a bank
Single-phase impedance load
primary neutral.
of
Fig. 63.
without
may
may still
be used.
In
be written:
F 2o = - (I 2a ~ I)Z = HhaZ
(66)
Ea =
From
this, in
(Z,
+ %Z)I
(67)
la
(40), is
V la = (Z + %Z)Ii*
obtained
(68)
+ %Z
111
T
lla
lab
/
<
cn \
69
)
mm
K lco
lob
2(Z 12
for the general case, and,
lca
+ %Z)
3(Z 12
(70)
+ %Z)
balanced,
Iu =
F^
V3(x2
= -
(71)
+ ^Z)
V3y\3o
2(Z
r72 ;
+ %Z)
The
three-circuit transformer
will
be
=
=
Tic =
V 2a =
V21, =
^2c =
V 3o =
F 86 =
F 3c =
Via
Vib
-f jXi I
+ jXisIsa + E
+ jxnly, + jxulsb + E
Zulie + JXiJ + JXuIzc + E
Z I + jXi I + jX I + E
Z I + i^i /i6 + jx Isb + E
Z
+ JX I U + ,7X23/30 + E
Z / + JXiJ + yX /2a + Ea
Z33/36 + jX U I
+ .7X23/26 + E
Z Z +
/i + .7x23/2* + E
Znlia
2c
22
2a
22
2h
2 2i"2 C
12
33
33
Via
3a
- V 2a =
-V
Fie Vu F 3c -
=
F 36 =
Vib =
V 2c =
Vzc =
Vu =
bank
V Vsb
2b
2Z
(73)
(74)
(75)
(76)
(77)
Sa
2S
23
lb
;'xi 3
3c
Vib
la
la
Zilia- Z 2I 2a
Zzlza
/ 3o
ZJi a
Zilib - Z2/2*
Z 7 26 - Z3/36
Z hb - Zihb
Zilu - Z 2/ 2c
Z / 2c - Z I
Zzlzo - Zili
V 2a V 3a = Z
F a - 7l. = Z
circuit,
2a
Z nIib
I 2a
(78)
(79)
(80)
(81)
(82)
(83)
(84)
(85)
(86)
(87)
itself
(88)
3c
(89)
(90)
represents a symmetrical
112
Y-A-Y Connection. It
transformers connected in
Y on the
(D
is,
therefore, usually
(V
(3)
*
1
Short
Circuit"
/
i
Fig. 64.
Single-phase
bank
of
of a
and it becomes of considerable importance to predetermine with precision the performance of such a bank when it
supplies an unbalanced load or is subjected to dissymmetrical
required,
short circuits.
1.
to
Neutral.
Consider
first
V lab + V + Vua =
=
Vza + F + V
(91)
lbc
3&
(92)
3c
should be remembered that, neglecting exciting currents, the sum of the current in the three windings of any one
phase must be zero. Hence, without reference to phase,
Also,
it
/i
+U+h
(93)
Eo
(94)
113
(95)
2o
F10
and
Vw
(96)
30
30
Introducing this in
Since winding 3 is a closed delta, F30 = 0.
equation (96), an expression for E the uniphase voltage induced
per phase due to the flux exclusively existing in the iron core, is
,
obtained.
E = Z33/30 Q
jxulw
JX23I20
(97)
+
+
must be
zero; hence,
Since there
no
is
/10 + ho + ho =
no neutral connection on the primary
uniphase
can
currents
flow
in
the
(100)
side,
primary
however,
windings.
Therefore,
/20 = -/30
This relation inserted in equations (98) and (99) gives
F10
1^20
From
may
=
=
[Z 33
23
[Z 33
(101)
(102)
(103)
readily be
may
The
following equations
ha
ha
lib
+
+
+
/
/
+
+
+
he = 3/20
ho = 37 3
times 7 2 o.
The sum
of the
(105)
(106)
positive-
and negative-sequence
two times /20. The
sum
given
is
+
+
/ t + / 7 + 7 =
ht
12
2
2o
(109)
114
voltage divided
zero.
Positive-Sequence
Currents
Negative-Sequence
Currents
r+.r
//
lga' Ji>a
Fig. 66.
Zero-Sequence
Currents
r- -r
* 2a ~*20
Vector
of the
component systems.
a,
F + = V& - ZJd + Z h+
F = Via - Zl/l + Z / a
F 20 = Fio - Zx/io + Z /
2
20
(110)
(111)
(112)
opposite.
77 =
Via
V10
V20
+ Z l
+ 2/20
(114)
12
(115)
is
V& +
V2I:
+V
20
(116)
Vit
ZiJ w
Via
12/20
Z 2 3/ 20 =
(117)
115
Hence,
I20
2Zi2
(118)
Z23
Also,
The other
-12a
3720
I la
2/on
1 3a
1 30
+ Vu)
+ Z23
2(7i+ + Vu)
2Z12 + Z23
3(Fx+
(119)
2Z12
-t20
2Z12
(120)
Z23
readily be determined
may now
Load of
Impedance Z
If
and
Viab
(119), (120),
1 20
1 Za
Ila
F\30
\/3(2Z 12 + Z 23 )
\/S F\30
2^12
1 3a
(123)
Z23
2F\30
V3(2Z 12
(122)
+Z
(124)
23 )
F\30 c
(125)
V3(2Z 12 + Z 23 )
116
still
hold.
a,
winding
2,
may
be
V& +
gives
Fit
Hence,
Z12/20
+ Vz +
t
/2
The
12/20
~ ~ 2Z 12
+
la
23/20
3Z/ 20 =
(127)
*_la
~l~
+Z +
23
OCA
(128)
/""I
3Z
then given by
3(Klo + 'la)
t
_
3i 2 o _
I*
- 07
- - 2Z + Z + 3Z
12
23
2 ("^l + V)
-977
2i2 .Il
2Z 12 + Z 23 + 3Z
/3a
/30
/20
KI7
/lOf^
(1Z9j
fion\
(W0)
ny
(131)
^23 ~f" ^^
When the line voltages are balanced, these equations may, as
in the previous case, be reduced, the result being
i2
/2
ila
t
i3a
"J
ZZ/12 T"
"
V3(2Z 12 4^23 +
V3F\30
= "
2Z 12 + Z 23 + 3Z
=
"
-
(132)
3Z)
fl33>
(133)
2F\30
*
V3(2Z 12
(134)
+^3 + 3Z)
n3o
V3(2Z 12 + Z 2
+ 3Z)
__.
n
(W5)
-
Consider next a
3. Single-phase Short Circuit, Line to Line.
single-phase line-to-line short circuit on the secondary side, as
This problem actually reduces to a twoproblem for the following reason Since there
is no neutral^ connection on either the primary or the secondary
side, there can obviously be no uniphase currents in any of these
Hence, no uniphase current can. exist in the tertiary
circuits.
delta in which then, since it is unloaded, no current of fundamental frequency will flow. In this case, therefore, the two neutral points will remain fixed in spite of the short circuit.
indicated in Fig. 67.
circuit transformer
117
components
only.
=
1 2b =
he =
1 2a
may
be written
+ 1 2a = lib
I t + Ifr = 1 2a
I t + h7 =
(136)
Iia~
2
(137)
(138)
satisfied
in Fig. 68.
(Z)
a,
Short
Circuit
%,
Fig. 67.
All
other.
Single-phase
line-to-line short circuit on the secondary side of aY-A-Yconnected bank of transformers without primary neutral.
circuit divided
The
by ^/%.
In*
Fig.
68.
Vector
diagram of positive- and negative-sequence current components in the secondary of the transformers in Fig. 67.
therefore, will be
this
device.
V2a
From
Vv,
is
zero,
(139)
V 2a = V la + Z 12/ 2a
F 6 = V + Z 12I 2b
2
(140)
(141)
lb
V la - V lb = -Z 12 (h a -
7 26 )
(142)
or,
Vub =
-2Z 12 J
2il
(143)
118
Hence,
I*a
I la
= lib
lie
V lab
Iw>
(144)
2Z\2
Vlab
(145)
2Zi2
= -ho =
(146)
test.
4.
connected
line to line
to
Line.
on the secondary
If
a single-phase load
side, as
shown
is
in Fig. 69,
load of
Impedance Z
Fig. 69.
Single-phase
the solution
is
bank
and
Via
~ F =
26
-U Z
(147)
v lah = -(2Z +
12
Z)I%a
(149)
Hence,
Iza
= 1 2b
Ila
-lib
he = -ho =
Via*
2Z 12 )+ Z
(150)
v lab
2^12
~\~
(151)
(152)
119
circuit is
ha = ht + ha + ho
hb = hf\i20 o + f 2 q/120
he
(153)
+I
5
+ haVM + ho =
7 2/120
'
(154)
20
(155)
results
ha/6V
(156)
-*20
(2)
a.
Short
Circuit
K/6
Fig. 70.
Since the tertiary delta carries no positive- or negativesequence currents, the secondary terminal voltages of these
sequences of phases a and b may be written
Vd = Vd + Zuht
= Via
=
V&
V
V 2J = Vlb
Via
The zero-sequence
(157)
+Z I
+ Z n I +\120
+ Z ha/120
12
(158)
2a
(159)
(160)
12
all
equal
to
V = Z 237 20
(161)
20
as previously given
by equation
(103).
V 2t + V a +
V& + Vj + F20 =
2
V+
+ Vi +
-g-
+Z J
2
20
(162)
Z 12 7 2+\l2r
12/2* /120
+Z
23
ho
(163)
v++
+W + /
2 q/60)
2Z 23 /2o
(164)
120
Substituting equation
in
(156)
-IAI^IAI
+ 2^23
Vi+W* + ^la/60
2*12 + 2Z23
Z\%
I& =
V,+ + Z
23 /2o/60
(166)
Vu + Z 23 /20\60
Fig.
Two
71.'
(167)
The
and
(154),
in the tertiary
/30
= 1 20
I la
= (lia
Fit\60
Z12
and phase a
+ 7^/60
+ 2Z2
(153)
of the
(168)
(169)
Iza)
I20
v lab
VZ(Z 12 + 2Z 23 )
(Z12 +
ht= -
Z 23 )V lab\Z0
\/SZi2(Zl2
I"La
(170)
(171)
2Z23)
z it v Xab \Jm
v3Zi2(Zi2
"I"
(172)
2Z23)
When the
Single-phase Loads, Line to Neutral.
6. Two
transformer bank supplies two single-phase loads connected line
to neutral, as shown in Fig. 71, equations (153) to (161) inclusive
=
TRANSFORMERS WITH UNBALANCED LOADING
121
Z a Iia ~
V + Vrh + Z
12
72+\l20*
Eliminating 7 20
be written
12
/2-/120^.
Zalta
Zalw
(173)
=
20
may
Fit
= -[Z 12
Vig
Za
+ Z )W)ht -
(Z 23
12
+Z
23
(175)
(176)
23
12
23
or,
+ 7ia = -fcj + - / ^
y$ + V* = - Kht - Kh~a
Yit
fc 2
(177)
(178)
_ h(Vii
+ vd - uvt +
fc 2 fc 3
i2a
*,*,
may
which also
+
i2a
r
_
-
fj)
(179)
kiki
(180)
AJfc 4
be written
(*4
*/60)7,+
,
j- = _ (fci +
fc 1
/60)F 1+
&2&3
(*
+ A^W^x,
, 1Q1 ,
r-
j-j
(*,
&1&4
+ fc.W^u
(181)
(182)
rent is found
m=
<*'
Mgnn.
_
(h
V3(fc 2 /c 3
7.
General
Neutral.
(183)
+
V60)7,*W'
\/3(k2k 3
T
-i2o
(156).
Case of Unbalanced
fcifc 4 )
,
1<M ,
(184)
kiki)
to
Z a Zb and Z
,
c,
connected
122
line to neutral, as
this case, as
any
may
shown
in Fig. 72,
be expected,
is
of
can be handled with comparative ease by the method of symmetrical coordinates. Without resorting to this scheme, the
solution would be very laborious indeed.
It is
make use
impedances
III)-.
(185)
(186)
(187)
'(1)
h
t
Vlab
V
Fig. 72.
The
of
Y-A-Y-con-
of these
1 2a ~T 1 2a + /|
=
I%b
ht\l20 + 72a /120 +
5
he = J /120 + I2AI2O +
(188)
1 2a
72
(189)
(190)
v = -Zohi - z-i 2a - z +i
V^ = -Z+I + - Zolza- - Z_7
-
Vw =
-ZMt -
20
(191)
20
(192)
Z+ha - Z I iQ
(193)
123
Similar equations may be written for the other phases but are
not necessary for the solution. Substituting equation (191) in
equation (113) and equation (192) in equation (114) gives
V& =
(194)
(195)
Xa
The displacements
Ii0
Z_/ 2a
y
^0
+
,
"T
Z+
7"
/m\
(196)
2o
y
^23
Vit
=
=
~Zo{J~^r
\Aq T" ^23
Z
( Zo
Z23
Z
+ + (
V
y }7
\4o
/
- Z_V -
+ (z7+l "
Z 12
T" -"23
z+)i*t
Zo
These equations
(197)
be written
fc
(199)
(200)
where
ki
k2
kz
jrh---Z*-Z
a
^0 T ^23
= y-^y- - -ZAq "T ^23
= t-4^7- ~ Z +
^0 T" ^23
(201)
(202)
(203)
kiVia
- k*r
T _ = kiVia k Vit
ha
T +
hi
=
kiVit
ror\A\
(204)
ki
iFwr
3
/rrvc\
(205)
Vit and Via are determined from the impressed line voltages.
Hence, equations (204) and (205) can readily be solved. The
uniphase current 7 20 is then computed by equation (196), and the
actual secondary currents by equations (156), (157), and (158).
124
The primary
by
ha = ht + ha = ~ (IJ + ha)
I =
+ hb = -(7,t\120 +
/n = Ixl + hi = -(/it/120^ +
(206)
W120
(207)
/ 2a\120)
(208)
ha = / = 7 8 c =
Having solved
70
= -1 20
by means
0.
desired,
while Fia
(209)
if
= V/=\30
JJ
-&
(210)
V
^3-^X30
V<5
(211)
/C2/C3
/Cj
The solutions just worked out for the general unbalanced load
evidently also hold for special cases such as a single-phase load or
a short circuit from line to neutral and also for a balanced threephase load. It is inconvenient, however, to apply them to the
former, since, when one or more of the load impedances are zero
or infinite, they lead to indeterminate expressions which have to
be especially evaluated. They are readily applicable to a
balanced load, as illustrated below. This also gives a check on
the correctness of the general formulas.
When
the load
is
balanced,
Za = Zb = Z = Z
(212)
Furthermore,
Z+ = Z_ =
and ZQ
= Z
(213)
Hence,
fci
= - (Z
Z) and k 2 =
_
I*
(214)
=0
vW
In =
(215)
(216)
125
Statement of Problem
A three-phase,
Winding 1
Winding 2
Winding 3
The
66,000 volts
22,000 volts
4,000 volts
The
point
is
1.
Symmetrical short
2.
3.
circuit.
line.
Solution
Ratios of Transformation:
Winding 1
Winding~2
_
"
66
22
66
4
22
Winding 1 _
=
Winding 3
Winding 2 _
Winding 3 ~ 4
zV 2 =
Zu +
Z\z
g
Z23
~
+ Z12
Z23
w
,
Z\3
w
W
...
+ Ziz Z\%
ZZiz
=
g
a
Hence,
5.7
X\
+6.3-5.7 =
^
x2
5.7
6.3
Xa
+5.7-5.7
=
=
t
3.15
per cent
5.7
6.3
Q 1 . per cent
3.15
.
_ __
126
I
1.
20,000
-
V3 X
inn
100.4
lines
amp.
115
(d)
V^7
Primary currents
\r
|/io|
\r
= 1004r?X
=..r..i-ir..i-l:
|/id| = |iie|
it-
loo
amp.
1,761
5.7
Secondary currents
|/ 2 |
|/|
\hc\
1,761
5,283
amp.
Tertiary currents
Iia
I&>
lie
Fio =
Single-phase Short Circuit, Line
1 10
F 20 =0
to
Neutral.
2^30"
+Z
V3(2Z 12
Flo
F20
=
=
(e)
23 )
Z3/20
(/)
23/20
(ff)
Primary currents
|/i*l
100.4
1/101
Ir
100
\hc\
%i
5T
2X5.7 +
1ly
X ' 174
amp
587 amp.
Secondary currents
|/|
la =
(1,174
/2c
587)3
5,283 amp.
Tertiary currents
|/ia|
|/|
|/i|
587
16.5
9,680
amp.
3.15X587
1Q
1UU.4
F20
-^joo"4
Hence,
3.
F 20 =
7,380 volts
= 2Z~
Primary currents
|r
\Iia\
he =
lr
|/i6|
\/3
X
2
100.4
5.
X
7
100
KO -
,
'
'
127
Secondary currents
\ha\
\hb\
1,525
4,575 amp.
he =
Tertiary currents
I a
lib
Ize
V l0 =0
F 20 =
The results are gathered in Table VII so that they may be readily compared.
Table
VII.
Short
on a Bank
Transformers
Circuit
(Example
op
Y-A-Y-connected
1)
Single-
Quantities calculated
Symmetrical
Single-phase
three-phase
line- to-neutral
short
short circuit on
circuit
phase a
phase
line-
to-line short
circuit
between
phases a
and
Primary currents:
Phase a
Phase b
Phase c
Secondary currents:
Phase a
Phase b
Phase c
1 761 amp.
1,761 amp.
1,761 amp.
1,174 amp.
587 amp.
587 amp.
5,283 amp.
5,283 amp.
5,283 amp.
.5,283 amp.
amp.
amp.
525 amp.
525 amp.
amp.
4,575 amp.
4,575 amp.
amp.
Tertiary currents:
Phase a
Phase b
Phase c
Displacement of neutral points
Primary
Secondary
amp.
Oamp.
amp.
volts
volts
9,680 amp.
9,680 amp.
9,680 amp.
12,210 volts
7,380 volts
amp.
Oamp.
amp.
volts
volts
this connection
128
AND APPLICATION
may
be written:
V -
V20 = ZJ W
^30 = Zzlm
^20
7 - V = ZI 10
10
3o
/10
S0
Z2/20
-F
Z$Iw
==
V 20
Z1/10
(217)
20
(218)
(219)
ho + In =
(220)
Zz
Zi+
nT
1 20
Z,
(221)
I:
(2)
"(I
Jl
Fig. 73.
\short
\Circuif
Single-phase
-(* + )
(222)
line-to-neutral
short
Hence,
These components
the secondary
circuit.
component.
Vxa
is
Positive-
+
ZJ +
ZiZjJ + Z ha = Vu + Z 12l
2
(224)
Fit
+ V iT + (s2Z12
-+-
Z2
Z Z S\
1
-+-
(225)
ZnJ
from which
120
7l+
Z2
2Z12
Via
Z1Z3
Vi
2Z12 ~r
Z2
Z1Z3
~r
(226)
short-circuit current
1 2a
SI 20
129
becomes
3F 1o
(227)
"
2Zi2
2/2
Z\Zs
Z\z
Z V la
(228)
Zu[ 2Zi2
<
-\-
Zi
-\-
ZiJ
Also,
Iza
Iao
(1 10
+ I20) =
Zx
fjIiQ
&1Z
Z{Vu
(229)
Zwi 2Z12
+ z
J
(2Z + Z )F
=
<\Zz
Z\A 2Z12 + Z +
ZuJ
<
Z%
13
Jla
= 2/20
13
/l0
la
(230)
When the primary line voltages are balanced, the negativesequence voltage (Via) is zero and the positive-sequence voltage
Fig. 74.
Single-phase
A
line-to-neutral
bank
of transformers.
V*t
+ V^ +
720
= V,t
Via
+ Uz n +
Z2
+ ^V
-3Z/20
=
(231)
13(>
Hence,
X20
V,t
2Zi2
Z2
+ 7ta
+ M? +
3Z
2Z12
The load
i2a
3i
current
20
Z2
consequently, given
is,
(232)
^- + 3Z
3
by
3F la
(233)
2Z 12
Z2
+ %^- +
3
3Z
and
z T
-n3 -/20
z v la
(234)
A 2Zi2
Iza
/ 30
Z2
-2/20
(235)
2Zi2
<
3.
+
+ z + ^Z13
+ Z )V
3
(2Z 13
+ ZlO =
Zi 3 ( 2Z 12
3Z
la
(236)
+ + ^- + 3Z
Line
Line. When a
3
Z2
phase
>
-*20
si
3Z
Zl
- If
7
^13
/la
+
+^^13
3
to
on the secondary
single-
side, as
Short
Circuit
Fig. 75.
-Single-phase line-to-line short circuit on the secondary side of a A-A-Yconnected bank of transformers.
shown
in Fig. 75, the tertiary delta can carry no current of fundamental frequency. This is obviously true, since neither the
primary nor the secondary currents can contain zero-sequence
components. Very little is gained in this case by resolving the
voltages and currents into symmetrical components, and the
solution will be worked out without resorting to this device.
The secondary voltages of phases a and b may be written
7 2 a = 7i + Zi 2 / 2 a
(237)
F 26 =
Vv,
Z12I26
(238)
F 2a
= V u ~ V* +
F 26 =
131
2I 2a Z 12
(239)
from which
Iia
= lib =
I la
v la - v
lb
(240)
2Zi2
Also,
lib
Via ~ 7l6
2Zi2
(241)
he = ~hc =
(242)
When the primary line voltages are balanced, the voltage difference in the above equations may be written, using the voltage of
phase a as reference vector,
V^ - V a = V37 lo /30
(243)
-U =
Ila
4.
V37ia/30
VSVla/S0
Fig. 76.
(245)
2Zi2
connected
(244)
2Zu
If
a single-phase load
Single-phase
line-to-line
is
can be
bank
of
- V = -Zha =
Via
Vu,
2Z 12 J 2o
(246)
Hence,
lla
lib
Ila
lib
lie
= -z 2c =
Via
2Z 12
Via
2Z 12
Vlb
(247)
VU,
(248)
(249)
132
When
become
1 2a
~I%i
I la
~I\b
-n/3Fi/30
2Zi2
V3>
(250)
+Z
lo /30
2Z X2
(251)
Consider
5. Two Single-phase Short Circuits, Line to Neutral.
next single-phase short circuits from line to neutral on two phases,
shown
as
in Fig. 77.
(3)
(1)
Short
Circuit
Fig. 77.
=
=*
Fia
V{b
Fi+
F 16+ +
+Z
12 J 2
Zi 2 / 2+\120
Z 12I 2 a
= V
+
l
(252)
7i
Vit
Z 12 7 2 q /120 o
z
Adding equation
Z +
+ (*
xr))ho
(252)
+
Z1Z3'
+ ir)
(253)
Vit
Zx^+XoO 5
+ Z / q/60 +
+ ^A/ (254)
2
12
2 (z 2
20
7i+
7uT
+ V +
Vit
[z 12
+ 2(1Z
+^Aj/
20
(255)
from which
X20
v tW + vweo
Z 12
+ -^\
+v
+ 2^Z +
Vla
Z 12
lb
(256)
133
positive-
7+ +
V3
(z*
(Vu
+ ^)/2o/W
+F
16
/60)/30
+ (* + **)/
n/60
(257)
Zl2
*2a
r*
-^(Fia
+7
lft
\60 )\30
(z 2
^V
2o\60
(258)
The zero-sequence
by
r
t
Z
_
_ raT
10
r
J-
20
ZziVSW +
Zr
Z 12
^13
^ia/ 6 0)
+ 2(* +
]+ F
Z 3 (F la
7an
-*3a
Zx
1 20
Z (F t\605
1
Zi
zu
2(z,
lb )
(259)
7-/60)
+ *g)]
(260^)
The secondary
and
given by
(153)
(154).
The primary
Ua=
found by equations
+ Ir)+/l0
-<7.+'
(7 +\120 + 7^/120) +
7,
(262)
7!
(263)
-(Irf
2
Iu = -(7 2+/120
7te\120)
(261)
134
When
F la \60
1 20
(264)
(z 12
ht = -
+Z +
2
[z tt+a (z,
Vu
(265)
^)]
/20=
(266)
Z 12 [Z 12+ 2(Z 2
^)]
7W
(I)
I
Vja
Fig. 78.
Two
phases
giving
V +
7i6
may now
V{-a
a A-A-Y-con-
z 12 ht
+Z
12
z 12 i^
7 2 +\l20
+Z
-Z
+ ^V =
-Za (J + ha +
7 /120 + fz +
12
(z %
6 (J 2 +\i20"
7 2 a/120
/*>)
^\
+
7 20 )
(267)
7 20
(268)
change to
Vit
+ vi
1
Fit
7i6
which
I"
+ Za +
= -F(Z
(Zi,
may
^
+^
= -\z l2 + za + (z 2
[Z
(Z 2
+ Z )/120 + U +
2
z)
W] hi -
+ Za\ /Wl ha
Z6 )\120 5
135
(z 2
^+
Z6)
/60^1
7^
(269)
]/,+
(270)
be written
V la = V +
7 = V&
x
+ 7* = -Jbi7,t - kJto
+ 7u = -A^J - kj^
(271)
(272)
When
*
20 ~
Yi
i
k k ~r
kiki
_ (k + fei/60)7i,
ktki - kxkt
2
_
Iaa
273 )
(274)
diagram
Making use of the equivalent positive-, negative-, and zerosequence impedance of the unbalanced load, this problem can be
handled by the same general method used in connection with the
unbalanced three-phase load on the Y-A-Y-connected transformer bank. Evidently, equations (185) to (195) inclusive
apply also in this case.
Equating
of the secondary
is
136
+ Z+Iu
+ Z + Z1Z3
Z-Ijfc
(275)
Z + Z_
(276)
(277)
Fig. 79.
Unbalanced
nected transformers.
three-phase impedance load on a bank of A-A-Y-conneutrals of the transformer secondaries and the load
The
are interconnected.
which
may
be written
V = kj+ + kjfa
(278)
(279)
Where
hx
Z+Z_
=
z
fc 2
+z +
2
Zq
Z\Z%
Z\
(280)
z.
(281)
z.
(282)
Z13
Z1Z3
+ Z + Zn
2
Z\z
Z 1
Zn
Z1Z3
z\
Z
k3
137
(200).
by equations (204) and (205). The secondary zero-sequence currents are determined by equation (275).
The primary zero-sequence current is given by equation (221)
therefore, are given
and
is,
hence,
T
ilO
The
total
and the
I 3a
^3
j
~y-l20
Zj{Z-J^
Zl3
ZufZo
Z+7 2 o)
T rr K
Z2 +
\
/OQQ\
{1&6)
J = -(J\120
lie
tertiary current
U=J
3c
(284)
+ 7 -/120) + Zio
- -(//120 + 7 -\120) + 7
7 30
becomes
= -|^7 20 =
Zu
(285)
(286)
10
^^+ + +
Z+
zJzo
z%
l^ x
^\
(287)
Fi7
*2+a
7
- =
k\
k 2k 3
*F&
(288)
(289)
CHAPTER V
INDUCTION MOTORS ON UNBALANCED VOLTAGES
SINGLE-PHASE OPERATION
General
Discussion. When
unbalanced
voltages
are
impressed on a three-phase induction motor, the currents which it
takes will also be unbalanced.
Assuming that the motor is either
A-connected or Y-connected without neutral, which is always the
case in practice, no Uniphase currents of impressed frequency can
possibly flow.
The unbalanced current vectors, therefore, form
which
and rotor
currents,
rotor will
come
is
to rest.
When
formance
Lyon, W.
V.,
"Unbalanced Three-phase
1920.
Slepian,
J.,
p. 313, 1920.
p. 30, 1925.
138
139
revolving field in the air gap. Obviously, these fields, viz., the
positive- and the negative-sequence fields, will rotate in opposite
directions and will, hence, in conjunction with the currents they
losses.
100
Fig. 80.
motor operating on
bal-
When the rotor turns over at synchronous speed, the positivesequence slip, which is the actual slip of the motor, is zero, while
the negative-sequence slip has its maximum value, namely, 2 or
200 per cent. If the slip (i.e., the positive-sequence slip) is s, the
negative-sequences lip is evidently 2 s. Figure 80 shows the
speed-torque or slip-torque curve of a polyphase induction motor
V Negative
Sequence
Fig. 81.
of a polyphase induction
in the region
from
balanced voltages. The range between 100 per cent slip (standstill) and 200 per cent slip is obtained by driving the rotor in the
Assuming that the motor
reverse direction by external means.
operates on unbalanced voltages and that slip-torque curves, as
in Fig. 80, are available for values of balanced voltages equal to
140
become unbalanced.
is
for positive-
From
the values of
Fig. 82.
Positive- and negative-sequence current and power-factor curves
plotted versus slip of a polyphase induction motor operating on unbalanced
voltages.
current and power factor, the power due to positive- and negativesequence components may readily be calculated, and the net
power determined for any slip. In order to determine the unbalanced currents, the positive- and negative-sequence currents
must be combined
Assuming that the
vectorially in the
component
The
may
amount
more than
141
When the
copper
by
loss, therefore,
calculating, separately,
is
obviously obtained
losses due to
Care should,
the positive- and negative-sequence rotor currents.
of course, be taken that the correct rotor resistance is used for
each frequency.
V+ / +
c
vb'J~,
Fig. 83.
Vector
loss
may
and negative-sequence
current, it is given by
positive-
Pen
where r\ and
[r~ are
currents.
3[(/+)V+
(I-yr~]
(1)
142
and windage
loss will
discussion below:
I\, I2
phase
per
phase
impressed
at
frequency
Ti
r'i
=
=
frequency
Xi, X2
stator
impressed
at
frequency
Zi
Z =
e
ri
+ jxi
stator
impedance
In subsequent formulas,
all
s.
P =
2
I 2Z e
1
Ilr
2'2"
ri
+ j+jCsi +
2
r2 ) 2
+s
(F{) (1
(sn
a*)]"
its
(2)
(3)
s)sr 2
(zi
+xy
2
(FI) (1
)(4)
Vi
1
Lawrenck, R.
R.,
+ jY +
(xt
"Principles of Alternating-current
Inc.,
New
x*Y
Machinery,"
York, 1916 and 1920.
7-2
Wi
r2
?.
P(Vi) 2
Mi
143
sr 2
("i
r2 ) 2
a'fo
x2) 2
^2
p(7i) 2
(5)
the motor.
s,
however,
is
ohmic rotor
resistance;
and
two systems.
The
rotor resistance,
For the
positive, the
reactance (x x
x t ) is usually considered the same for the two
systems and taken equal to the reactance at impressed frequency,
as determined by a test with the rotor blocked.
Strictly, the
negative-sequence rotor reactance may be slightly less than its
positive-sequence reactance, due to a small decrease in inductance
effect.
This, however, will be neglected.
The exciting currents may be taken into account for both the
caused by skin
positive- and the negative-sequence system, for the positivesequence system alone, or they may be completely ignored.
Since the positive-sequence exciting current is quite appreciable
144
it is advisable to take
hardly worth while, however, to
take the negative-sequence exciting current into account, since
This is due to the fact that the negativeit is always very small.
sequence equivalent impedance for values of slip in the stable
operating range is very small and seldom exceeds 15 per cent of
the equivalent impedance for the positive-sequence system.
This, in connection with the fact that the impressed negativesequence voltage is usually much smaller than the positive-sequence
voltage, causes the induced voltage of negative sequence to be quite
low.
Consequently, the negative-sequence flux is small; and the
It is
it,
negligible.
n=
II
may
n-itz,
n + -7 + j(xi + x
(6)
t)
p-^
Pt =
(7)
dtYrJ^
(8)
i^-CW'4^
The
(9)
total internal
P =
The unbalanced
(13)
ha = ht
= ht
ho = hi
7l5
and the
(12)
Wt
+ Ila
+ hi
+ Iu
= let + ht + ha
= ht + I + hb
= hi + hi + Iu
(14)
(15)
(is)
becomes
2
It) ri
2
(/) r 2
The
is
large
compared
the
If
to the load,
is
sequence
line
by
As a consequence of this, the negativedrops decrease, and an improvement in the voltage
resultant negative-sequence current carried
reduced.
Before the induction motor is added, the positive- and negativesequence voltages at the load are given by
V = V% -
IL tZ
(18)
VLT = -IL JZ
The degree
V7
vL t
T
See paper by
W.
V. Lyon,
loc.
-IjIZ
vt - I+Z
eiU
(19)
is,
thus,
(20)
146
The motor
is
now connected
to the circuit.
If it is
assumed
is
V Lt = 7+ - {ILt + IZ)Z = I M Z M
ViZ = - (hi + Im)Z = ImZm
(21)
(22)
V
^
V Li
Vl t
7+
Z+
ZM
Z + ZM
" Z
{Z6)
(24)
(23)
and
Thus,
Vm _ VLT Z Z u 4~ Z MZ M
vLt
vLt'zz M + z M z~M
This equation shows that there
,__.
^ 0)
1m
li
(QfW
+ Zm
147
also zero.
Balance would be completely restored. Hence
the smaller the negative-sequence impedance of the motor is the
more effective it is as a balancing agent.
is
EXAMPLE
Statement of Problem
What
2.
line currents
is
feeder before
by the
and
Solution
7 200
~-tj~ = 3.
2,400
The positive- and negative-sequence components of the unbalanced currents are determined graphically in the diagram, Fig. 85.
Only the magnitude of the components is required.
1.
a.
\
I
Vq~
^_t
VG
J?
71.4
23.1
[Ti
698,000
1,386 volts
X
X
3
3
=
=
69.3
214.2 amp.
amp.
- 785
shl
'
- 214.2(0.785 -./0.618)(0.5
- j34.8 = 1,222 volts
= -69.3(0.5 +J0.Q) = -34.7 - j41.6 =
=
-IiTiZ
"^ 3
(positive sequence)
V3X 7,200X71.4
00
' 618
+J0.Q)
1,222
54.1 volts
148
Degree
of voltage
6.
is
X/
y"
Fig. 85.
Graphical
+ \=7/.4amperes
(Example
Fig. 86.
\l
Vector diagram
1).
motor
is
added.
HZ
may be
written
1,222
[a =
VL+ +
= VlX
75(0.1
j0.995)(0.5 +./0.6)
+ 48.5 + j'33.0
Hence,
1,222*
= {VlX
+ 48.5) + 33.0
2
Vm,
gives
VlX
1,173 volts
= VlT Z
ViT,
ri
= 01
=
Substituting in equation
F ,r =
=
54
(6)
54.1
0.175
slip
2-
J'
gives
0-175
+Z-
Z =
149
^ =
+_$*__, =
54
0.175
+ j0.6
24.6 volts
F4 100 -
1,173
91 _ percent
-- 2-10
Hence, the floating of the induction motor on the circuit in parallel with
the unbalanced load reduces the degree of voltage unbalance from 4.43 to
2.10 per cent.
2.
and
The ratio
motor
is
$/-The
is,
added
is
given
by
Z
z + z-M
r y
therefore,
jz 100
Resume
The
circuit in parallel
improvement
The
An
opened.
150
of
one phase
rent,
and
be accompanied by an increase
and a decrease in efficiency.
will
losses
Sfaior
(2)
(I)
Fig. 87.
Circuit diagram
of a three-phase
ing single-phase.
slip.
They
by the applied
Iu = hi
+ hi
= h+\120 + JW120
he = hi/120 + Iia\120
ha + h b + ho =
he =
I lb
(27)
(28)
(29)
(30)
(31)
See paper by J. Slepian, he. cit. It is stated in this paper that, if the
degree of unbalance (unbalance factor) of the three-phase line exceeds 70
per cent of the -percentage reactance of the motor, the output is reduced to
Hence, better continuous performless than 70 per cent of normal output.
ance will be obtained by opening one phase of the motor.
1
satisfied
by the system
151
shown
of currents
in
Fig. 88.
by \/3,
|/rl
is
equal to
viz.,
(32)
In deriving the formulas required for the calculation of singlephase performance, the positive-sequence exciting current may or
may not be taken into account. As in the unbalanced threephase case, the current necessary for negative-sequence excitation
It will
The equa-
tions so far established for the stator currents are valid, whether
-30'
*60'
*Ja
Fig. 88.
Vector diagram
U
JC
of stator currents of the induction
motor
in Fig. 87.
(33)
(34)
= I laZ+
haZ- = I la (Z+
Z~)
(35)
152
Vab
z+
zri
+ + j(xi+x
t)
+ri
+ g-Z-^ + J(x +
i
&)
F6
2ri
-2
+ #(*! +
+ -^~
^
o
(36)
x.)
(If)Vl
L_!_( /r )v4
-m-sfi-^\
=
=
Since
is
3P|" (/+).!!
(37)
iT )i
i^[?-^i]
very
much
(38)
"
smaller than
phase operation) is principally due to the decrease of the positivesequence power and torque. This is due to the fact that the
positive-sequence current, when operated single phase, is less
than the current taken during three-phase operation on balanced
voltages of the same magnitude as the single-phase voltage.
This
is
<
-^-
(39)
Z~)
V3Z+
The total copper loss during single-phase operation when
exciting currents are ignored becomes
V3
Pcu
=
=
(Z+
+ r.) +
+r +
2
3[(/l) (ri
7!(2n
2
(7T) (r!
rj)]
(40)
r't )
When
153
Va
Vb
Yc
When
(41)
+ Z7^150 Z+ + Z-\60
Z + + Z~
V3
vjw z+ - zV
V3
Z+
V3
174-
/7i
(42)
(43)
y =
1^0
rt
Vb
= F
V =
c
(44)
V3
^ 150
(45)
V3
Ko6
~-
(46)
\/3
Fully balanced voltages, as indicated above, will never be
obtained in actual practice, even if the motor would operate at
exactly synchronous speed. This is due to the fact that, even at
synchronous speed, the motor must draw a certain single-phase
current, part of which will obviously be of negative sequence and,
When
ya = ^f
Vi = ^f
V =
c
As
(47)
(48)
(49)
appears across each of the active phases, while the voltage across
the idle phase
is
zero.
154
+ Z-/120
_~~
+z
Z+/120 + Z-\l20
V -V = Vj ~^ ^
+
Vbc = Vh
=
Yea
-V
Z+\120
Vab
z+
(50)
(51)
V = V ab\120 o
V ca = TW120
(52)
bc
At
=V
Vbc
EXAMPLE
(53)
=-^
ca
(54)
Statement of Problem
Compare the line currents and the internal torque developed by the
three-phase induction motor described in Example 1 when operated on a
balanced three-phase, 2,200-volt circuit and on a single-phase 2,200-volt
circuit.
The
each case.
Solution
h-* =
n +
(o)
+j(xi
fc 2 )
V
.
h -+ = z++z- =
'
Torque, three-phase
Torque, single-phase
(d)
2,200/^/3
V(-
_lz27p_
o ocw
+o^)"+
oib amp.
-'
>/(<"++&)*
+**"*
Ti-#
598
X
2
378
0.08
0.025
08 _
f^025
0.15
]
1.975 J
Three-phase current
Single-phase current
Three-phase torque
Single-phase torque
_
~
378*
9.6
598*
378
- 0.632
598
2
378 X 9.6
598*
3.124
3.124
=
~
22
'
fee.
*te
If Components
Fig. 89.
/ Components
1+
let-
split
up
in a similar
manner, as shown
iri
It
AND APPLICATION
156
tt
(7*T
(72r
+ ha)Z~
+ Ig)Z~
(55)
(56)
Subtraction gives
V* = Vla - Vlb =
=
From
(/
- U)Z
IJiZx
+_
(72+
- i pz+
+_
Iib)Z ~\(7 2a
7 2a (Z+
Z~)
Z~)
(7 3a
Isb)Z
(57)
this follows
T
=
ha
Vab
+
+ Z-
Iea(Zl
Z+
Z~)
,_
C
Q
58
)
7 2o
+ 7^/60).
Va,
V3
or,
IeaiZi
V3(Z+
Z~\
X
Z-)
/+2
The
= Jl^ =
total
-t|
Yl
V3
- mzi +
z+
negative-sequence
z-)
zcurrent
=
in
Kl
z+
(60)
{
J
phase
za
is
now
determined by
'=7i
(61)
(62)
is large,
= V(It) 2 +
P,
(It)
(approximately)
(63)
= 3[(/t)V,i-=^ -
(/7)V;
i^il
(64)
-f,K7-^ 4-J
(65)
a _. p.__4_]_ iS L=L!
ft
rp
_ V
i,
(63), the
(66)
r'2
t|>8
"I
r2
optimistic.
When exciting currents are taken into account, the total copper
loss
becomes
Pcu
3[(/+)V 1
(7+)V,
2
(/T) (r x
+ rQ]
(68)
Again introducing the approximate relation expressed by equation (63), the total copper loss may be written
Pcu
EXAMPLE
= H(2n +
r2
7|r2
(69)
Y-connected induc-
ri)
Statement of Problem
A three-phase,
tion
circuit
and
constant-torque load.
One of the lines feeding the motor is suddenly opened and the motor
continues to operate single-phase. Determine to engineering accuracy the
slip, the power output, the efficiency, and the line current
taken and compare
with the corresponding quantities for three-phase operation.
Stator effective resistance at 25 cycles
0.075 ohm per phase
Rotor ohmic resistance referred to stator
Rotor effective resistance at 25 cycles referred to
stator
0.083
ohm
per phase
0.095
ohm
per
158
Rotor
50 cycles referred to
effective resistance at
0.140
stator
+ Xt)
0.626
amp.
kw.
8.0 kw.
75.1
15.2
Solution
Three-phase Operation:
The internal power per phase
given
is
by
(Fl)-(l
)?
Pa =
(ri
which
may be written
+ P t (xx + xtf
[P*r\
r
+ ^Y
+
(Fi)V 2
S2
(xi
(a)
+xy
[2P 2rir 2
- (F^s + P*\ =
(6)
slip gives
- --2 W(4)'- B
(c)
where
A =
2P 2rir 2 - (K)V 2
2 [r?
On
+*
2)
P*[r\
(X!
+*
2)
+ (T^i
(e)
(V^r,
Assuming the leakage reactance to divide equally between stator and rotor
gives
Zi
=
=
x 2 = 0.313 ohm
jO.313 = 0.314
0.075
Vl
^ =
yj[
Vi
Xi
V3
p2 =
_
~
D m
s
=
=
ohm
i )2 70 volts
IeZi
746_+l8
1,270
75.1
0.314
1,246 volts
251.33 kw.
2
251,330 X 0.075 X 0.083 - 1,246 X 0.083
1,246 2 X 0.083
0.626 2 )
251,330(0.075*
3,125 - 128,800 = _ 125,675 = _
4Q
228,600
12p00
99,800
2X
251,330 X 0.08*
228,600
0.0754 - 0.007565
0.2745
0.0143 or 1.43 per cent
0.2745
0.2602
P^I^r
=
_
rT-^~ = .SEEMI
~ \(1
\
X
(/)
r
12
The phase
s)r 2
0.9857
0.083
209.5
P
amp.
a = tan-
tan"*
3.1 deg.
by
voltage, depends
Core
loss
cos#;
=
=
=
=
=
Copper
Core
loss
on the core
15.2
x 1246
59
~i
+
loss.
8.0
5, 930
T
/core
__
1.59
75.P
0.075
10~ 3
5.93 kw.
amp.
0.0212
<t>'
88.8 deg.
209.5 (cos a
209.5(0.9986
jO.0523)
It
+
+ 1.6
+ jll.O
209
3(/
It
</>
3(227.5*
+ 209.5 X
2
0.075
0.083) 10~ 3
and windage
Total losses
,;'
<f>'
ri -f I\rt)
loss
Friction
159
746
746
Efficiency
X
,
100
36 5Q
=
=
=
=
22.57 kw.
5.93 kw.
8.00 kw.
36.50 kw.
__
95.4 per cent.
.
Single-phase Operation:
v
(Z++Z~)* Vs
/o,
2rj
Equation
r*
{1 ' }
V "
++2 -
-s)
At
*"
"*"
s)
"'2 -
22-sV
X2 '^A
(ft)
- V(/+)
is
^ ;
2-
(A)
approximately correct:
(7+) 2
IT
tf)
cannot be solved for s explicitly. A solution may be
obtained by computing
for assumed values of s and plotting the values
versus slip.
From this curve the exact slip may be obtained.
Since, however, the effect of the terms involving the reverse-phase slip
s' =2 s is comparatively small, this slip may be assumed constant for
small changes in s without introducing appreciable error.
Equation (ft) may be written
Equation
(ft)
[JJC
[(* +
(It)*
j]
(It)*
{(*i + f)
J)2r 2 (2n
+4
Xl
+*,)>}+ (Fj>|. +
+ j)-
Crt)*,].
+ (K + (/!)* J)r|
(,')
-f^/(I)
^T
Assume
s'
it
Zi
=
=
Z~ =
75.1 amp.
0.075 +j0.313ohm
0.075
+ 5^|?
160
Zy
y;
Z~ = 0.2205
t {Z + Z~)
+^
0.15
939
r -i_ - ^0 _
? " 2 - s ~ 1.984 ~
2ri
j'O.
0.964
1,270
ohm
X 0.964 =
75.1
1,198 volts
-705
+ 0.0705 =
+ -J* = 0.04865
= 0.626 =
(xi + x
0.392
(y[)*~,
1,1982
0.0705
(Fi')V
1,1982
0.083
0.2205
\2n
2)
209.5
r V._
xr_~ Tr
^
=
=
101,100
119,100
0.083
O0T4T
K+
(i+)
^ =
254,700
+ 75. 1* X
25 5,100
D =
s
Z+
Z+
=
=
=
'
0.0705
0.166
0.2205
C ~
255,100[0.04865
_
~
_ 254 700
255,100
119,100
0.392]
101,100
109,655
9345 - 119,000
513,500
412,400 + 101,100
266 1
088_
= Q 00343
513,500
WBX0
_ n oi*7
= n
r
+ j + j(xi + x
t)
0.075
4.795
^^
+
+ jO.626
+ jO.626
+ Z~
'
(approximately)
P =
2
Power output
995 hp.
The exact single-phase core loss is not known, and there is no data from
which it can be accurately computed. It will be assumed, however, that
the core loss increases by 50 per cent when the motor operates single-phase.
It will be noted below that, since the core loss in this case makes up only about
1 1.5 per cent of the total losses, some error in the core loss is not serious unless
the efficiency is desired with a great deal of precision.
loss
=
=
I\(2ri
+r +
- Hr *
r'%)
161
0.14)
0.083
0.075
8
3 X 75.1* X 0.083]10" = 69.40 kw.
= 8.90 kw.
C!ore loss = 5.93 X 1.5
= 8.00 kw.
Friction and windage
Total losses = 86.30 kw.
Efficiency
Hiinciency
[427*(2
742,3-X
742 3
g6 3
r>
89.5 per
f cent
Comparison op Results
Single-phase
Single-phase
Three-phase
Items calculated
operation
operation
227.5 amp.
1 43 per cent
95 4 per cent
Slip
.
.-
99.5
187.7
123
93.8
Efficiency
three-phase
995 hp.
427 amp.
1 76 per cent
89 5 per cent
1,000 hp.
Power output
Line current
in per cent of
phase
is
given by
T*
p(7i)
Wi
rt/s
(70)
2\
ri+^Y+
/ ri+
to
(xi
s,
xj*
r2
Vr\
(* x
(71)
*2 ) 2
T =
4tt/i
As formerly
2[ ri
Vr\
(x x
+x
(72)
t )*]
See paper
by
J.
Slepi an,
loc. cit.
162
The
2
T 2 - P(F *>
(z+
is
then given by
^
~
+ z-y
' (an
Neglecting the term
+?+
r ^)
+ 4fe + ^
of equation (73),
which does not introduce any appreciable error when the slip is
not large, the slip at single-phase breakdown may be determined
by
Sm
The maximum
The
Wr\ +
Zi
PiV'i)
4xfx
(74)
+W>
T =
result is
is
given by
4[n
+ Vr\+
{xx
(75)
xtf]
motor
three-phase operation.
The Single-phase Induction Motor. Throughout the preceding discussion of single-phase operation, the induction motor in
(1)
Rotor
Sfator
Rotor
(1)
(2)
(2)
aa
coffitiZpn |tfffi>
?Gflfr
%b
Three- Phase
90.-
Equivalent
its
three-phase equivalent.
the relation between the impressed voltage and the current taken
is given by
Vai
= Iu(Z+ + Z~) =
= 2Z lc (r + jx ) =
e
7 l0 [2n +-2r,
2I la Z e
+ j2(x +
x
*,)]
(76)
by
V
Z =
e
re
27
(78)
272
= VZi -
r*.
(79)
164
The equivalent
resistance r e
is split
rotor,
EXAMPLE
Statement
The
Problem
of
Voltage.
2,200 volts
60 cycles
Frequency
Number
of poles
[
No
load
7.36 amp.
Power
1,875 watts
[
f
Blocked
2,200 volts
Voltage
Current
I
I
620 volts
Voltage
Current
21.6 amp.
5,300 watts
Power
900 watts
and windage
Ohmic resistance between stator terminals
Friction
f
I
[
60 c
Stat r
cles
f
\
120 cycles
when
ohms
L1
6.307
Rotor
Rotor
1.2
1.8
same side.
Determine the pulley torque, the output, the power factor, and the
ciency when this motor operates on a 2,200-volt line at 2 per cent slip.
Stator reactance
rotor reactance
referred to
Solution
2 X 21.62
2 X P
'
Xe
(ohmic)
912
=
^
r' (effective)
1.842
r2
At a
slip s
=
z*
1.842
ohms
3.316
1.8
ohms
2 per cent
+ z- = VO^.+^+^h)' + *^ + Xi)
= Vl0,143
694.8
104.1
ohms
'
effi-
>
Wil
=
4x
s]
21.122 [~ 1.84 2
3.316 1550
60 1.0.02
6 X 21.12* X 550
4ir X 60 X 746
Friction and windage torque
1.98 J 746
mi
L674]
236 5
ft _ lb
..
Tf+w =
Pulley torque
.
Pf+w
4*fZ -s)
6 X 900 X 550
4ir X 60 X 0.98 X 746
= 236.5 - 5.4 = 231.1 ft.-lb.
,.
5.4 ft.-lb.
Power output
Wi,,
-.
(1
P
P
No-load copper
Core
231.1
7.362
=
=
+r +r
7 2 (2ri
21.12>(2
2)
3.468
1.842
+ 3.316)
loss
and windage
Friction
,_ ,
K1
5L7
hp
Pc = 1,875
Operating at 2 per cent slip
loss
X 0.98 X
X 550
60
loss
Copper
loss
2l\n
Core
4x
xm
s)T
Total losses
X
=
^-^^
=
=
=
5,395 watts
600
900
6,895 watts
9.23 hp.
n-
Efficiency
100
51.7
51.7
2.
Zx+Z- =
+ ^ S + j(2xi +
2n
V[
=
_.
'*
=
=
8.61
Vi
xt)
+ M + j3 X
3.468
+ ./19.77
- I.(Z + Z-) vectorially
- 7.(2*1 + xt) algebraically
Vi
2,200 - 7.36
V\
V3(Z++Z-)
19.77
2,054.5
V3X
'
2,054.5 volts
= 1L39 amp
'
104.1
1
Since, for this particular motor, the resistance part of the impedance
Z\
Z~ is exceptionally high, being 43.6 per cent of the reactance, it might
perhaps be doubted that algebraic subtraction of the no-load reactance
166
It appears, from the approximate solution, that the reverse torque is less
than 2 per cent of the direct torque. Great accuracy in the negativesequence current is, therefore, of little importance as far as torque and output
are concerned.
It affects, however, the efficiency and the power factor.
7i
U + 1.
Vi
~VT
= \A\/3
x,
(approximately)
/7.36V
It) 2 +,(/e ) 2
V147.8 =
-&!> ? -^]
X 6 X 550 f ll.39 X 1.842 _
0.02
X 60 X 746|_
2
4tt
I X Solc^
1 ' 948
Pulley torque
"
247
206.0
0.98
1]
12.152
5.4
3.316 1
J
1.98
206
ft - lb -
200.6
ft.-lb.
Power output
p =
Copper
Core
loss
4tt
60
200.6
6 X 550
+
3[(J 2 )V 2
/f2rx
=
=
2
3[(/r) (2r!
3[12.152 (2
+
+ rj) +
3.468
(Jr)
44 8 h
r- 2
'l
(It)^]
+ 3.316) +
loss
Friction
and windage
Total losses
drop'
1.842]
5,257 watts
600 watts
900 watts
6,757 watts
9.05 hp.
is insignificant,
In order to
the no-load
07c
8in dn - " 33
= 2,200X7.36 - - 1158
= 2,200 - 7.36(0.1158 - i0.9933)(8.61 +^19.77)
= 2,048.3 +J46.1 = 2,048.4 volts
i
V[
=
=
=
=
=
11.392
The discrepancy
in Vi is, hence,
2 048 4
2 054
100 =0-30 Per cent
onl
a ;
2,048.4
negUgible.
which is
Subtracting the impedance drop algebraically gives
-
'
V[
The
=
-
2,200
7.36
2,200 - 7.36
discrepancy in this case is
2,048.4 - 2,041.4 1ft _
-i
V8.61 2
21.55
+
=
19.TP
2,041 volts
100 = n
0.34 per cent
_ - n
2,048.4
This discrepancy is also negligibly small. It seems, therefore, that it
makes very little difference which method is used for the calculation of 7j.
'
44.8
44.8
+ 9.05
100
44.8
100
53.85
Power
factor
V3
Solution
Items calculated
Line current
Pulley torque
Power output
Efficiency
considered
amp
231.1 ft.-lb.
51.7 hp.
84 9 per cent
97 7 per cent
.
Power factor
2,
neglected
Solution
exciting current
21 12
i.
1,
exciting current
21.05 amp.
200.6 ft.-lb.
44.8 hp.
83.2 per cent
86 9 per cent
.
If the voltage
another, the scales will no longer be correct but can readily be
adjusted so as to correspond to the new value of voltage. The
current readings should be multiplied by the ratio of the actual
is
properly corrected.
The
is located by means of
point e in the diagram.
The negative-sequence operating point is located where the slip
This would be at point j, for instance. Having located
is 2 s.
at, say,
the operating points the current, power, torque, and power factor
may be read. Since the negative-sequence
See,
R. R. Lawrence,
loc. cit.
Machinery," by
168
is negligible,
S//p(t-s)--jf
Power Oufput~ef
Torque
Current
Fig. 91.
may
~eg
~oe
=&/e
is sufficient
in
many
instances.
It
CHAPTER
VI
IN
THE
STEADY STATE
The leakance
is
The
power transmission
is
usually
over the insulators and the corona loss. The former is quite
The latter will only
insignificant and need seldom be considered.
and
even there only
lines,
high-voltage
come into effect in very
critical voltage. 1
disruptive
the
when the operating voltage exceeds
configuration
of the line.
the
only
on
The capacitance depends
The
short
extremely small.
contained
resistance
if
they
as
treated
are
Such lines, therefore,
considered
they
are
words,
other
In
only.
and inductance
is
^ee, for instance, F. W. Peek, Jr., "Dielectric Phenomena in Highvoltage Engineering," McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1920.
169
170
may
chapter.
an aerial
Hence, only with very short cables (say, below 2 miles in
length) can capacitance be neglected. For lengths between 2
miles and 5 miles (approximately), the calculations of performance may be based on the nominal T- or n-circuits. For cables
longer than specified above, exact methods of solution should be
employed.
In the following are presented analytical solutions for the
nominal T, the nominal n, and for the case where two-thirds of the
capacitance is lumped at the center and one-sixth at each end of
particularly the latter, are considerably higher than for
line.
the
line.
Lumped
Capacitance
shown
in Fig. 92.
VWVAr-6~Q~CRfe-
of each
arm
circuit is
of the
is
Z/2
/p
'S
Fig. 92.
The
>Load
line.
J.
= YVr
(l
+ ^jlr
(1)
(2)
load
is
Fig. 93.
is,
ls S
Fig. 94.
is
100
(4)
X*=F?rXLoacl
Capacitance
II-circuit is
Lumped
shown
in Fig. 92.
9
*R
->VWV\A-ir"0W0>
fc=r=j
is
(3)
hence,
Regulation
rises to
ZY
The per
171
line.
in Fig. 94.
II-circuit replaces.
Fig. 95.
Vector diagram
of voltages
and currents
ZF
>.-(i+)*
+ ZI
J.
= y(i
+ ?f)v +
r
(5)
(l
is
?f)l.
(6)
172
and
(4)).
Lumped
Capacitance
trates a circuit in
is
z/2
Is S/J
VtlrR
AVWV^75>->^
J/
-
J- 9->VWWV -61^
,J2
Yz
Ir
y>
fy\Loact
^L
Fig. 96.
Improved
impedance
tance
of the architraves on each side of the midpoint admitone-half the impedance of the line (Z/2).
voltage-current equations for this circuit become
is
The
V,
/.
-( . +
-*( +
Fig. 97.
V- + z(
a. +
+ ?S-V.
5ZY
36
lr
(7)
ZY Z Y*
1+ "2+ -36~
216
(8)
When
Z Y
2
the load
is
is
shown
in Fig. 97.
rises to
v-
=
1
ZY Z Y
+
^6 ^ 36
2
regulation
(9)
(4),
the
173
Statement of Problem
A three-phase,
=
=
=
x
y
0.78
ohm
ohm
j5.5
0.52
10"* 6
mhos
factor (lagging)
b.
c.
d.
e.
/.
g.
h.
2.
3.
at the center.
One-half of the admittance lumped at each end.
Two-thirds of the admittance lumped at the center and one-sixth at
each end.
4.
exact solution
i.e.,
by smooth-
line theory.
Solution
Pr =
4,500
0.8
3,600 kw.
Receiver current
7r
1.
a.
IB
/*'
ouu
(0.8
V3 X
vs =
1
7Y
+ ^- =
=
'(
- j0.6) =
(i
(per wire)
+ jZ9)
0.97855
(a)
+ J0.0143
0.97865
\
1+ ZY
T")
M L -tq^i _i_i
=(52+j78)(l-K
5 5
50.886
Vs = (0.97855 +^0.0143)66,000
VS (40.722
- J23.62 amp.
at the Center,
+ j5.5 X
=
=
31.49
66
+il,784.6)
+ J77.Q35
+ V3(50.886
10" 4 (52
+;78
\
/
174
AND APPLICATION
Sending Current:
b.
Js
j5.5
X10~
66,000
V3
(0
97g55
+y
= ,- 3,796.7 X 100
= ftn
99.52 per, cent (lagging)
cos 0s =
7=
Is
X 70,600 X 31.20
s
e. Efficiency of Transmission
OQ Per Cent
= PR = 3,600 X 100 = 94 82
'
c.
V3V
V3
"
Ps
/.
3,706.7
7T?Z
1
+
,
72 1/ln
14 V u
ltS
'
..
Vb - Vr
Regulation = ~=
- =
,
70,600
0^97865
72,140 - 66,000
66 000
per c
#.
V3
V3
h.
YVs
r(,^\
20.96
^7865
2.
a.
b.
'
Each End.
+ ?P) VR + VSZIR
= (0.97855 + ./0.0143)66,000 + a/3(52 + j78) (31.49 - J23.62)
= a/3 (40, 768 + j 1,772.9) = 70,679 volts (between lines)
Vs =
Vs
at
= 01
2L4An amp
(l
Sending Current:
/.-r(i +
Y(l+%)
,5.5
10-<(l
+ (i +
+ J5-5X
^>
10-^(52
(c)
(,)
+i78)^
= (-0.0393 +^5.4410)10-*
Is
= (-0.0393 +j5.4410)10~* X
=
c.
d.
^^
+
V3
(0.97855
./0.0143) (31.44 - j'23.62)
31.003 -j'1.930 = 31.06 amp.
Total Sending Power:
ps = 3(40,768 X 31.003 - 1,772.9 X 1.930)10"3 = 3,781.5 kw.
Sending Power Factor:
3,781.5 X 100
Ps
= 99.45 per cent (lagging)
VsVsIs
X 70.679 X 31.06
Efficiency of Transmission
= PR Pi
/.
3,600
t,
..
Regulation
Per Cent
= Vr T . VR =
Vr
72,200
-___66,000 in
100 =
66,000
_
'
.,
+^YZ*
= y(i
= (-0.0393
_ .
+ j5.4410)10- X
^~
20.74 amp.
r(i+g)r
=
3.
_ on
= n952
h.
100
3,781.5
g.
175
20.74
/f^^Y\
0^7865
Lumped
" 2L19
21iq amp
Each End.
a.
Sending Voltage:
Vs =
ZF
+ w) Fs +
=;5.5
Z2 F =
2
^0 + ^)
Vs =
=
b.
+ ^\
+ jO.0142 =
0.97858
(52
j78)(l
+
+
(2,840 -^6,816)10-8
0.9787
0.00715
+ j0.'00477) =
51.256 +./77.69
(0.97858
.70.0142)66,000
V3(51.256 +J77.69) (31.49
70,560
;3,078 = 70,627 volts (between lines)
+ llW
ZY Z*Y*\
,MYZ*Y*\Vr + ( 1 + ~2+ -w + "2i6 ;
+ ~W) Ir
v
vs
+ f^) = j5 5 X 10 ~ 4(1 ~ 000596 + J0-00397 +
- Y (\1
- \
0.00000079
= (-0.02183
+ j5A672)10~
66, ^
+
X
(-0.02183
+ ./5.4672)10-*
- jO.0000019)
V3
= -^(53.814
c.
=
Is
- j23.62)
Sending Current:
Tv
Is
(e)
(-429 +j"286)10-*
Ir
-J3.174)
3,078
- j23.62)
31.12 amp.
3.174)10-*
3,787.4 kw.
Ps
cos 0s
e.
3,787.4
V3VsIs
a/3
70.627
100
(lagging)
ss e;
31.12
Efficiency of Transmission
n
/.
176
d.
Pr
X 100
77 4
3,600
p-
__ ._
95 -o per cent
_
v'
Vr
~
Regulation
Vs
Hl^Ir
70,627
7~ZT~Z^
09787
._
= 701
72 165 Volts
'
. 72,16^-86,000^ _
Q 3 , per
gr.
/i.
= -0.0832
+ ./20.833 =
r
76
4.
a.
"
1+
36
V3(l +
20.83 amp.
T*
216
20.83
^+^)
0^787
= 2L28amP-
Sending Voltage:
Vs = cosh
=
Zo
VZY
_
VR + Z
= V(52
7fl
sinh
( ff )
+;78)j5.5
Vf V^xHH
412
=
=
10"
0.227 /73. 15
0.0658
+ j'0.2173 hyp.
A18T86 ohms
VII gives
=
=
=
sinh
=
7s =
cosh
j'0.0658 X 0.2155
1.0022 X 0.9765
0.97865
jO.0141 = 0.97875
0.0658 X 0.9765
jl.0022 X 0.2155
0.0643
jO.216 = 0.2254/73^45
(0.97865
VS X
412.A16.85
b.
+ jO.0141) 66,000 +
70,562
Sending Current:
T
Is
0.2254/73.45
/5=
Vr
sinh d
66,000
- J23.62)
-/=
+ cosh
.
n T
IR
(h)
= -*=(53.771
c.
+ j3,082.6 =
"
-J3.22)
31.10 amp.
3,082.6
3.22) 10~
3,784.3 kw.
177
d.
cos ds
Ps
3,784.3
100
VS X
70.629 X 31.10
Efficiency of Transmission:
= P 3,600 X 100 = 95.13 per cent
VsVsIs
"
PS
3,784.3
/.
Ration
*Ljl: -
*%" - ^ P
cent
9-
Is
sinh 9
Vr
To
V3
0.2254/73^.45
V3 X
36.047
66,000
412.7\16 .85
/90.3
20.81
V3
h.
amp.
=-
Is
0.97875
\/3Z o cosh0
21.27 amp.
Table VIII shows the results which have been calculated above using four
Comparison of the figures for the approxiwith the corresponding ones for the correct
circuit with distributed constants shows that the agreement is very good.
In the case where the capacitance is lumped at three points, almost exact
When the nominal T-circuit or n-circuit is used, the
results are obtained.
discrepancies are not large and the accuracy would undoubtedly be sufficient
mate lumped-constant
for
circuits
Table VIII
Circuit arrangement
Admittance
Item calculated
lumped
at
center
(nominal T)
d.
Sending
Sending
Sending
Sending
e.
Efficiency
o.
b.
c.
voltage
current
power
power
of
factor.
Two-thirds of
admittance
lumped
at
Exact
center, one-
sixth at each
end
70,600 volts
70,679 volts
70,627 volts
70,629 volte
31.20 amp.
3,796.7 kw.
99 52 per cent
31.06 amp.
3,781 5 kw.
99 45 per cent
31.12 amp.
3,787.4 kw.
99 47 per cent
3,784.3 kw.
99 47 per cent
95 05 per cent
9.34 per cent
20.96 amp.
20.74 amp.
20 83 amp.
20.81 amp.
21 40 amp.
21.19 amp.
21.28 amp.
21.27 amp.
31.10 amp.
.
trans-
g.
h.
/.
One-half of
admittance
lumped at each
end
(nominal n)
CHAPTER
VII
capacitance
If
is
and
electrically long,
It
the line
alternating-current line
may
be electrically-long.
The
steady state:
Kennelly, A.
E.,
"The Application
trical-engineering Problems,"
Inc.,
New York,
Kennelly, A.
pany, Inc.,
New
York, 1917.
179
shown
= r ohms
= L henries
= g mhos
= C farads
Resistance
Inductance
Leakance
Capacitance
At a point x miles from the receiver end R, the following differmay be established by considering the change in
voltage and current in a differential element dx
ential equations
ri
Tx
+ L dt
(1)
&*
)
'+**{*
In the alternating-
!k
dx
Fig. 98.
Section
^=(r+jL)J.*7.
(3)
^=
(4)
(g
+ jcoC)Ex =
yEx
two
parallel
wires;
in
will
line.
be obtained for a
180
polyphase
lines) as
constants.
By
is
and
with respect to x
(4)
obtained
d 2E x
~dtf
d 2I x
x
=Z dl
^x
,-.
(5)
dE x
,>.
=V ~dx
(6)
equation
(6)
gives
= zyE x =
^=
(3) in
a*E.
(7)
zyI x =a*I x
(8)
where
-\/zy
(r
+ juL)(g + jwC)
9)
The quantity a
hyperbolic functions. 1
tions
and may
The
latter
is
be written
Ex = A
Ix
The constants
= C
cosh ax
cosh ax
+ B sinh ax
+ D sinh ax
(10)
(11)
by making use
of
When
Hence
0, E x = E r and I x = I r
and C are immediately obtained as
A = E r and C = I r
In order to determine
and D, equations
(10)
and
(11) are
-r^
= Aa
sinh ax
-r-^
= Ca
sinh ax
ax
ax
Substituting equations
gives,
(3)
and
+Ba
-f-
(12)
a cosh ax
(13)
(4) in
when x =
Ba = zl r
Da = yE
1
cosh ax
(14)
r
(15)
181
from which
Jj
I
a
Zq1 t
a
where
-
r
(16)
~\v~\\Ig + ju)C
Ix
I r cosh ax
sinh ax
yf
Zo
(18)
If the conditions at the sending end had been used in determining the constants of integration, the following equations
would have been obtained:
Ex = E
Ix
cosh a(l
18 cosh a(l
x) Z Is sinh a(l x)
x) - sinh a x)
(I
(19)
(20)
Zo
Equations (17) to (20) give the voltage and current distribution
along the line with reference to voltage and current at the receiver
*-
P^
TT-
fs
Fig. 99.
Single-phase representation
impedance
with an
a.
They
and
182
Ex =
Er cosh ax
I r cosh ax
Ix
Introducing a quantity
load defined
sinh ax
-\
sinh ax
+ -=Zo
(21)
(22)
0',
by
6'
and
in equations (21)
Ex = E
= E
=
=
=
_
~
= tanh"
(23)
(22) gives
[cosh
sinh
sinh (ax
Sffi"?
sinh
0')
0'
0'
^
slnhT'
8X
(24)
0'
,
_*
9
~ ^cosh^7
cosh"?
The 5's are termed position angles and represent the total
hyperbolic angle at the point considered (distance x from receiver
end), being equal to the sum of the hyperbolic angle 0' of the load
and the hyperbolic angle ax of the portion of the line between the
Ir
by placing x
Ea
T
Is
I.
Hence,
F sinh (al +
_ Er
~
sinh0'
_
~
lr
cosh (al
cosh
00
+ 0')
0'
_ w sinh 8,
~ ^imhT'
cosh 8
_ ir
T
" cosh 0'
a
f
(26)
^n
183
In a similar manner, the voltage and current at any point maybe written in terms of the voltage and current at any arbitrary
point.
It is evident that the following general rule will hold:
The ratio of the voltages at two 'points of a line is equal to the ratio of
the hyperbolic sines of the position angles at the two points
and
the
same position
The
angles.
by making use
readily obtained
or equations (28)
T7-
and
Vector
and
is
(25)
(29)
rir = t, t smn
~
Pr>x = EJ
ErI sinh
X
r
_
~
As
sinh 28
^7 'sTnW
COSh
8X
0'
cosh
0'
= EJ
power at a point
&x
sinh 28 x
(30)
-stih28 8
is
reactive
sinh 8X
Zx =
= ^
^
^=
cosh
I
sin
Ir
a coth 0'
tanh
5,
= Z
tanh
5*
(31)
8X
cosh
0'
Z = Z tanh
s
line
5S
(32)
Line Grounded.
is
tanh- 1
(29),
mhfc _ E sinhS,
sinh
_
T
lx
T
is
C0S k
cosh
88
^
"
8,
T
is
COSn
cosh
A*
'
W
/OA\
where
0*
= ax and
al
(35)
184
The
is
receiver voltage
is
grounded
for the
is
Zs = Z
line
tanh
(36)
The
evidently zero.
receiver current
given by
lr
Zosinhfl
The current at any point in terms of the receiver current
cosh
becomes
Ix
I r cosh
(38)
tanh -1 co
j-
Using equations (28) and (29), the voltage and current at some
point on the line are obtained in terms of the voltage and current
at the sending
end
sinhf
Em
= E *bJ =
E
~".
8 ~
"sinh
cosh
8X
cosh
The
by
tanh
receiver-end current
is
is
may
/.
.A
for the
zero.
'
this equation
.tt\
.-....
('+4)
\
zl
~
U + j\
E ~
From
(39)
sinhffl+^J
cosh
Z = Z
U = E~ bh
cosh
.
/a
_ T
'wiTs " U
_
+ j|]
open
= Z
The
t
ia
smn
(A(\\
{W)
sinh
line
coth
(41)
receiver voltage
is
given
Ai
(42)
effect of
the
cosh
is
voltage
always
is
less
than unity.
appreciable.
any point
at
185
in
becomes
Ex = E
Load Impedance Equal
Line.
When
impedance
cosh
(43)
0*
Surge Impedance.
to
The
Infinite
is
tanh- 1
~ = tanh"
oo
sinh (6X
_
~ w sinh (0
*
_
~
cosh
(6X
cosh
Making
(0
+ 6')
+ 0') ~
+ 0') _
+ 0') ~
these equations
in
0'
6X
'cosh
cosh
0'
cosh
0'
'
0'
0'
0'
cosh
sinh
-cosh
Limit (sinh
cosh
sinh B x cosh
may
0')
Limit (cosh
0'
00
0')
00
0'
and
+
+
+
+
(46)
,..
l
But
sinh
cosh
e -e
e e _|_ e
-9
|-
s
2
*9
'
Ex = Eu = E.-=
IX
0 is
#*-<->
I.e-<-'>
= E
=
e-<*-*
Z.e-0-*>
=E
e- e
7 a e-
(48)
(49)
here the hyperbolic angle of the line from the sending end to
The equations show that the voltage and
attenuation 1
Such a
line is said to
is
have normal
normal
called the
Evidently, in the general case, the attenuation factor is given by the ratio of two hyperbolic functions.
1
See Dr. Kennelly's "Artificial Electric Lines," loc. dt.
attenuation factor.
186
As a
rule 6U will be a
eu
eul
may
be written
+ jdu2
(50)
Eu =
Ia
Here the
(51)
(52)
Za = Z
tanh
(0
oo )
= Z
tanh
= Z
oo
(53)
Also,
Zx = Z tanh
(0 X
oo )
=Z
tanh
oo
= Z
(54)
be
On
infinite,
load impedance
is
* - '-mr - *-^
cosh
+ e~
7
WT0 = 7V+7^
6X
Ix
**
s5 >
<
e*
(56)
Eu =
E~ = E.e-f-M = E es
I~
I s e->-^
I s e-
(57)
(58)
187
These equations for the infinite line and equations (48) and (49)
by an impedance equal to the surge impedance
including the
line,
For
instance,
Z = ZQ
s
tanh
(fi t
6')
Z tanh
-f $')
= Z
tanh
Wave
qo
=
(59)
6U 2
2t
(60)
A line of length X is a one-wavelength line, of length X/2 a halfwavelength line, and of length X/4 a quarter-wavelength line.
These lines, which are all beyond the length used in power
transmission today, have their peculiar and interesting characteristics.
It should be noted, however, that, although quarterwavelength effects, half-wavelength effects, etc., are not realizable
in practice for the fundamental frequency, they may easily obtain
for some of the harmonics.
The space in this treatise, however,
does not permit a detailed discussion of these features. An idea
of the length necessary to produce quarter-wave effects may be
had from the following example:
A certain 220-kv. transmission line has an attenuation constant
at 60 cycles per second of
a = ai + ja 2 = 0.000167 + jO.002075
The length necessary to make this line a quarter-wave line is
consequently
= 757 mileS
(61)
2 X 0.00 2075
A Few Remarks on the Hyperbolic Functions. Some Conversion Formulas. The hyperbolic functions are most conven**
2^2
iently defined
by
sinh x
cosh x
*-ir~'*
~t
viz.,
(62)
(63)
188
By making
+x+
^.= l_
|j
|j
(64)
+ |?_|!+...
(65)
may
easily be
formed.
sinh 3
+ 31 + 5-1+
cosh x
|j
'
'
66 )
(67)
I-,
series
the trigonometric
of
functions are
/j3
/v5
re
^+^-
cosz
sin
|j +-|j
(68)
(69)
from which,
^=l+jx-^-jf +
(70)
*--=
1-jx-^+j^ +
(71)
sm x =
cos x
(72)
e ix _|_ j>
2
(73)
From
equations
may
be obtained
jx __ cos
j sin x
(62) and (63) may be derived
cosh 2 x sinh x = 1
which
may
(74)
(75)
+ cos
(76)
189
By making
=
=
=
sinh 2x
cosh 2x
sinh (x
cosh (x
2 sinh x cosh x
sinh 2 x + cosh 2 x
2
1 = 2 cosh x
2 sinh 2 x
(79)
2 cosh 2 k
cosh
(80)
y)
y)
(x
jV)
jy)
sinh (x j2r)
sinh (x jt)
sinh (z
cosh (x
sinh
sinh
cosh
cosh x sinh y
sinh x sinh #
(82)
=
=
=
j sin y
cos y
(84)
j tan y
(86)
= smn # cos
= cosh x cos
= sinh
= sinh
j cosh
j sinh
2/
cosh
(88)
(93)
(94)
a;
(a;
jy)
(87)
(92)
sinh
cosh x
sinh
2/
(91)
a;
j cosh
tanh!
2
sm
sin
(90)
H)H
#
a;
(89)
a:
= j
(83)
(85)
(a:
sinh x
(81)
[a;
[x
?/
tanh x tanh i/
^ tanh x tanh y
= +J
(*4)
a:
cosh x cosh y
cosh
cosh
sinh x cosh
= cosh x
= cosh
[a;
cosh
j|j
cosh (x j2ir)
cosh (a; + jV)
[a;
sinh
(78)
cosh x
tanh jy
fa;
sinh jy
cosh jy
sinh
2 sinh 2 ~
....
y)
tanh
(77)
(95)
(96)
(97)
(98)
(99)
(100)
(101)
a;
tanh x
Vl ~
(102)
tanh 2
190
(103)
Vl
tanh 2 x
x
2 tanh ~
sinh x
=
1
+ tanh
(a;
jy)
(z
iv)
(xjy)
H[e z (cos y j
sin y)
-x
.e
sinh x cos y
e-*(cos y
+2 e~x Sm
j sin y)\
cos y
For instance,
equation (87)
sinh
(104)
*3
j cosh
x sin y
In determining the position angle of the load, it is often conmake use of a formula which will be developed below.
First, however, it is necessary to derive a few auxiliary relations
which then will be used in obtaining the desired formula.
The logarithm of a complex quantity is given by
venient to
log (a
jb)
log
tanh" 1 u
This relation
is
= hog
\^
u
tanh -1 u
then
x
u = tanh x
= e-rq
e~ x
e
c
2x
^T1
from which
ix
tanh x
tanh x
u
u
log
l-
-z
is
(105)
u (where u
(106)
*.
follows.
191
jb) =
=
V log { *
2
3^[log (1
log
(a
jb)
vTl +
a) 2
a) 2
l0g
Vd ~
a) 2
(l
jb)
a + jb)]
can be taken care of
log (1
j%
this expression
b2
jtan-
+b
+b
in this
a
a) 2
1+a
-z
+T
^ tan
jtan-
1-
'
-a
~,
(m
(1 7)
formula
V(l tan -1
2
2
log
1,
may
+h a
,1
tan -1
be modified, giving
tan -1
,
(108)
It is evident that
obtained.
192
cal Tables. 1
nificant
The values in this table are carried out to five sigThe Smithsonian Mathematical Tables also
places.
may
Fig. 100.
The
arguments.
when
minus
infinity
of the cosine
is
1
Published by the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.
Reprinted 1920.
C,
1909.
193
complex hyperbolic
sines, cosines,
little
as ordinarily used
may,
it is
Dr.
Kennelly, however, outlines methods for more accurate interpoin certain cases, lead to error.
important to keep this fact in mind and make use of it in obtaining numerical values. To do this is much easier when the
imaginary part is kept in terms of quadrants, since the changes
occur at integral multiples of one quadrant. If, on the other hand,
the imaginary part is given in terms of radians, it is necessary to
1
Kennelly, A. E., "Tables of Complex Hyperbolic and Circular FuncHarvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1914. Reprinted
tions."
1921.
194
quite obviously,
and
(66)
is
by equations (87) and (88). The latter (equaand (88)) involve hyperbolic and trigonometric funcreal arguments only, which, when the proper tables are
(67)) or
tions (87)
tions of
number
EXAMPLE
of significant figures.
This example shows the application of the hyperbolic theory to the computation of voltage, current, and power distribution on an alternating-current line.
when
an idea
electrically
very long.
Statement of Problem
The constants
=
=
g =
L =
C =
Length
Compute and
active
power
250 miles
0.127
1.47
ohm
10 -8
mho
0.00212 henry
0.0142 X 10- farad}
J
of tooth-harmonic frequency
is free.
Solution
The values
2ir60
29
+juL =
+j*>C
=
=
= 10,930 rad./sec.
0.127 +.710,930 X 0.00212
0.127 +J23.18 = 23.18/89^68 ohms/mile
(1.47
(1.47
a = y/^j =
=
=
=
+ .710,930 X
+jl5,520)10-8
250
Ji
X
=
102
+ jO.060 =
a = 0.0525
0.0142)
155.2
23.18/89^68
155.2
10~ 8
lQ- 6 /89l)2
0.060/89^8 hyp/mile
23. 18/89.68
155.2
10-/89.92
=
=
10 3 V0.1492\0.12
386.2\0.12
ohms
195
o
<1
o
z
Oh
cy
S
eg
S
O
O
OS
00
CO CO IN
H
HWO
^ [CO
o
to CO
to
tO l>
"*
CO
NH
it
00
CO to 00
CO
i-i
t-
to
MN
O
H <*
b- OS
OHH00O00
T*
rt
i-l
Tt<
Ttt
tO|rJ4 <N
"* *
CO
* * *
b. CO N- l> 1> CO h-
^^ ^
<NC<l0(N(N(N<Ni-i(Ni-i^HlNr-<
Ph
8 * t^
^\^
OS
00 00
>
T-l
1-H
i-H
r^.
l>
CO r^ 00 r^ CO h- 00 1^ CO
(N CO CO CO -n to to >o
r- r^ t>.
to to to <* CO CO
i 001
(N i T-H i-H
00 I
t>-
r>-
00
^^
CO
TjliHT(lOTf(iO0>^OJNHl01>MM5>0(N
COtO
NNi-iO)MMNtOWacOOMO
H ** 00 CO i^ 00 CO
00 "5
ii
00
00 00
o
o
;o
'
1
1^-
to
^i CO
*>
<N
o
-*
00
00
o
O
o o n o n
1^ to to CO *
to to
Oi CO CO CO
i-H
Tt<
00
n
to
t^
CO
00
CO
M* CO i-H <N (N
o
t>. t^ 1^
i-H
"*
hns
00
^
8(NtOi-HOl-l00Ot^.(NTHD00tOr-lr-HO5T-l
(OOffiOHHiOO^iMHONM^OO^e
C^C0OTt<00t^.
1^
W
K
It-1
r-f
ii
r-i
to
to
1 g"
2 fc
3 ^
i-H
to
tH
co
to
1 to
00
o
<*
o
o o to
00 1^ t^
2
S
00 g <N 51 <N CO <* *
*
o
i-H
to
' '
T-i
' '
o 00 o <N o to
CO o on o CO
* 00
(N CO CO <N o
* to t^ 00 00 00
tH CO
tO CO OS
<N 00
00 *
(N CO _
CO ^
O l>
to
i-Hi-HOl-H0rHOi-Hi-HO
IO
<*<
5 S
Tt<
00
CO
to
i-H
1-H
i-H
i-H
S
o <
>
'o
o So
(>
a"
CO
00
r^ t^ CO N. b t>- CO t^ 1^ t^ CO t* 00
CO NT-H CN |(M <N CO rH TtH * to CO | CO r^ a>
00 00 00 00 r^ CO CO CO to <tf
IM ;<N IN
00
00
CO
l>-
fc5
ft
i-H
t>.
<N
GO
<
CO
tO
-H
CO
00
{5
S
W j
<
2
o X
10
i-H
O O
z o
o
M h5
H
J
So
hhNNMWt(I^i5iO(D(0
'^
+ H- + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
to
CNtotOOOOtoOOCOtotOOOO
tO CO IO tO
tOtOi-HtOr- N N H M
80rtHHHNNNNMM CO00 <N <* t^ OS <Nto
I
^>
-<
&^
o
a
<
"" *'-
* "^
<" *<*
't->
ffl
<*<
OOOOO OOOOO
oooooooooooo
1
'"tl
tJ<
tJ<
bO
rt
^3
o
h
.5
ji
a
s
HJU5HOMOW001U5U30
ONM115W3NCCOONM10
^HrHrHrHT-I^Hr-HININfNNCN
196
Za =
E =
_0.761/897.4
386.2\0.l
0.650/813.5
Z coth
'-
'-
'
,_
Vs
635 volts
452.5/83.8
(of
ohms
tooth-harmonic frequency)
635/0
Fig. 101.
7=
Vs
1.405\83.8
amp.
line,
&X =
t
lx
Vector power
where
<j>
is
referred to
at
by
cosh Ox
-"8
1
^
cosh e
sinh 9X
t
la
sinh 9
Px = E x /0 X
The voltage
Example 1).
I x /4> volt-amp.
(a)
(6
(c)
Ex /0.
Active power
P>
= EX I Z
cos
<j>
watts
(d)
197
It will
175
100
125
150
Fig. 102. Voltage and current distribution along an electrically long transmission line, whose distant end is open, plotted versus distance measured along
the line (for calculations, see Example 1).
same
spiral.
Figure 102 shows the voltage and current distribution plotted in rectangular coordinate versus distance measured along the line. This diagram
gives a good picture of the very great variation in voltage and current which
It may be noted
occurs from point to point on an electrically long line.
that both voltage and current go through five maximum and five minimum
This will be the case whenever the line subtends a hyperbolic angle
values.
whose imaginary part lies between nine and ten quadrants.
The wave length (as previously defined) corresponding to tooth-harmonic
frequency on this
line
would be
2t =
250
is
actually jf^j,
27
104.8 miles
0.060
2.385
wave
lengths long.
198
"
The
distributions of vector
175
150
50
15
100
125
25
EXAMPLE 2
Statement
of
Problem
The
line described in
If
<f>
Solution
>
2202
220, 000/
^3
0.8
V3
60,000
X 220 X 0.8
/cos- 1 0.8
is
given
/cos" 1 0.8
645.3 /36.86
60
The linear impedance and admittance of the
line at
ohms
60 cycles per second
become
z
=
=
=
=
+jo,C =
+jo>L
=
The
0.127
+JS77 X
0.127
+ jO.799 =
0.00212
0.809/80^96
ohm
(1.47
+JS77 X
of the line
is,
mhos
hence,
0.809/80.96
-a/*
"Y
5.35
by
10-V89^85
388.5\4.45
ohms
|-
Zo
1.660/41.31
+ j'1.096
1.246
388.5\4.45
The angle
0'
645.3/36.86
199
of the load
= tanh"
given
0' is
by
tan" 1 (1.246
246*
.246*
El
+
+
,
1-096*
1.096*
In
2.224
= log ooo,
jr- tan"
1-/
.ir
+j
,
tan
_,
2.050
2.246
_, -0.246
xtan 1 , nn
1.096
1.096
2
* ,
+3
tan" 1
-0.2243)
262
+ J1.096)
~+
1.1175
0.2204
.__
1100
0.400 +jl.l22
.
hyp
Above, the angle corresponding to a negative tangent was considered negaand less than x/2 radians. This should always be done if the angle
corresponding to the positive tangent is taken in the first quadrant, which
presumably usually will be the case. It might be noted, however, that the
two angles may be taken in the third and second quadrants, respectively,
both being considered positive. The results would then be
tive
6'
0.400
- j'2.019 hyp
a-)
radians, the
computed
voltage, current,
and power
distributions will
still
Direct-current Lines.
may
As
be looked upon as a special case of the alternating-current problem. Hence, the formulas which have been
derived are all applicable to direct current when the frequency is
considered zero. In general, therefore, the direct-current problem is simpler, since, in the steady state, the effect of inductance
and capacitance is eliminated, resistance and leakance only
having to be considered. Furthermore, all quantities involved,
including the hyperbolic functions, become real rather than
rent problem
complex.
200
line,
is
real
The
y/rg
now
(109)
may
appropriately
be termed
= J-
#o
(HO)
voltage, current,
0'
tanh -1 ^Ho
= tanh -1
number >
(real
1)
(111)
0'
This
is
?-
tanh-i
+ f- =
0"
+ j|
(112)
tanh
0'
-=r
Rn
coth
('>!)
Hence,
e'
j% =
coth- 1
tanh- 1
when a > R
The voltage and current distribution
hyperbolic functions
(28)
is
now
given by equations
and (29)
sinhffl,
?*.
+ jl)
0"
*.-*.>
sinh
/ n
(
+
,
,/
0"
cosl/k-f- 0"
j
"
coshf a
+
,
an
0"
7T
:*+?
+ 0")
cosh
(113 >
(0
^J
j^\
2/
^
co
-t\
3 ^ )
r8
sinh(0
a;
sinh (0
+ 0")
+ 0")
rm
(1M)
201
Z = Z
a
tanh (d
+ 8'>";1) = Z
coth
(0
(32))
B")
(115)
functions.
EXAMPLE
Statement of Problem
A ground-return telegraph line, 320 km. long, has the following constants:
r = 8.5 ohms/km.
g = 2.4 X 10~ 6 mho /km.
Calculate and plot the voltage and current distribution on this line when 1
is impressed at the sending end and the load resistance is
6,430 ohms.
Solution
R = Jr =
>o
8.5
1,881
ohms
\2.4X10-
200
100
Kilometers from Sending End
Example
3).
resistance.
0"
tanh" 1
tanh" 1
=
^4S
6,430
tanh" 1 0.293
0.303
hyp
J*
Table
E. tanh (0
Ro
+ 0")
tanh 1.7494
0.9413
1,881
1,881
0.500
10 -3 amp.
202
Table X.
ax
8"
8x
80
160
240
320
EXAMPLE
8"
hyper-
hyper-
hyper-
bolic
bolic
bolic
radians
radians
radians
0.3616
0.7232
1.0848
1.4464
0.303
0.303
0.303
0.303
0.303
0.3030
0.6646
1 0262
1.3878
1.7494
kilo-
meters
0x
cosh
(0*
8')
sinh
8")
0.3077
0.7147
1.2160
1.8782
2.7886
1.0462
1.2291
1.5744
2.1279
2.9625
(&
Ex
Ix,
,
volts
0.353
0.415
0.532
0.718
1.000
milli-
amperea
0.055
0.128
0.218
0.337
0.500
Statement of Problem
series
es,
Af
r'WWV
Fig. 105.
P\*
.JU
Ground-return telegraph
**
2L
fwwv
line
(Example
4).
v\
1. Establish a general expression for the current through the relays, the
current at the middle of the line, and the voltage above ground at the middle
Treat both the case where the batteries act in conjunction and
of the line.
the case where the batteries act in opposition.
2. Introducing the following numerical values:
I
90 miles
100 volts
2
<T2
= 400 ohms
20 ohms per mile
5 X 10 -s mhos per mile
E =E =
x
<t\
=
=
Solution
Derivation of Formulas:
The voltage and current at the point
1.
Vx = Vb
cosh ax
Ib cosh ax
P are
+ IbRq
sinh ax
VB
K
ax
+-
-=- sinh
(a)
(6)
203
where
R "
o
The voltages
at
"Sj-,
and
Vrg
by
Va=Ei- <tJa
Vb = (E
(c)
+ n/a
a)
(d)
(a)
and
by
(6)
minus
substituting x
sign
I.
Hence,
Va = Ei aj a (Et <t2/b)
( Ei ~
Ia
Solving equations
Ib cosh cd
and
(e)
(/)
sinh
(e)
oil
sinh al
(/)
/to
and
for I a
#i( cosh
+ IbRo
cosh al
g2/B)
cd
-Tb
gives
+ ^ sinh od\ - #
(
2)
(9)
(cti
<r 2 )
El
7b
cosh aZ
sinh aZ
(-S 2 )( cosh aZ
*
.
+<rn) cosh aZ
(ffi
+ ^p + Ro )
+
2
Cjf
^
Ro
sinh ad
+ -Ro
(h)
sinh al
Im =
Multiplying equation
/at
cosh
(6)
by sub-
1/2 giving
(i)
Ib cosh ^r
Ib cosh2
^ + ~ sinh -^ cosh
-jf (cosh
aZ
&
+ 2\ Ib
jf
(i)
sinh
+ 1) + jy^
ZJXq
cosh "*
-^r
sinh cd
+ IT
sinh
"0 =
"^"2
Hence,
/
7*
+Ia
2 cosh
Substituting equations
CJ)
(g)
and
(A) in
equation
(J)
the midpoint
{Ei
-E,) +
~cd
2 COSh -~-
As
(
before, the
(<ri
{Ei
<r 2 )
for conjunction.
- E) cosh od + ~
cosh aZ
is
Ta~o 2
(
-jt-
sinhoZ(^i - E,)
+ #o )
for opposition of
sinh aZ
Ei and
2,
204
z cosh
2
cosn
and
also,
Vm =
2 cosh
C#i<r 2
(E!
+ E )+
^[(E 1 +E 2)
2.
coshoZ - (E 1
o" 2 )
cosh ad
+ (~ + R
2)
Jh?
The value
0-2)
-Vr^?= 90\/20 X
l\/rg
sinh al
=
=
=
cosh |?
1.1030
al
2 000
'
10~ 6
and
(h)
0.90
hyp
1.0265
+ tep + R
sinh al\
800
lOO^cosh al
becomes
=
1.4331+ 2,080
+ 2^) sinh
Ia
1.0265
263.82
o qq
2
3,280.0
should be
100
0.0804 amp.
(h)
Ib
0.0804 amp.
(f)
lT
From equation
al\
3,280
From equation
ohma
equation
1.4331
COSh al
al
\ sinh al
Numerical Computations:
cosh al
From
E ^P sinh
+a IB - <nI A
2 cosh
(<ri
(<ri
(I)
M =
Ia
Ib
at
,
2 cosh g
- 0804
,
al
o.0730 amp.
*
cosh r
(ra)
VM =0
Note. In the particular case of equal battery voltages and equal resistances of the relays, i.e., where complete symmetry exists with respect to the
midpoint, the problem can be readily solved without resorting to the general
expressions derived above.
It is evident
by inspection
that,
when such
205
symmetry is present and the batteries act in conjunction, the voltage at the
midpoint must of necessity be zero, while with the batteries in opposition
the current at the midpoint must be zero.
Recognizing this fact, solutions may be obtained by considering the line
split at the midpoint, and treating each half separately, or, still shorter, by
treating just one-half of the line, since the numerical values of voltage and
current will be the same in the two halves, although their directions (or signs)
may be
different.
worked out
With the
IA
=IB =
<r
VA = E -
*IA
aI
^~~^\
=E/l
E( 1
=
a
im
=~I
jjr
+ Ro tanh -^
-^
cosh -y
With the
(n)
+ Rq tanh -~
<r
cosh
-K-
Ro sinh
(0)
(p)
al
-~
= -Ib =
a
+ Ro coth -~5
= a\
VM =
cosh
~n
+ Ro COth -^
^^-
=
<*
sinh
--
(9)
+ Ro cosh
GO
and
62 of
206
The
6'
At C the
position angle
given by
is
= tanh-
--
(116)
given by
is
5C
9'
(117)
Sw
Fig. 106.
At C
Two-section composite
is
is
in voltage, current,
Zc
This impedance
section of the
first
may now
line
Zo 2 tanh5 c
tanh- 1
8A
total sending-end
distribution of voltage
the line
is
0i
(119)
is
obviously
(120)
8b
impedance
ZA =
The
p-
and the
(118)
The
no discontinuity
at
line
Zoi tanh 8 A
(121)
first
section of
given by
where
8u
du
8B
aiu
8B
(124)
Ex -
E%mh
T
x
cosh
cosh
6X
section.
(125)
8c
8X
(126)
5C
where
8X
207
0'
a 2x
0'
(127)
it
is
If
is
BC
&j
is
as before, except
Zoj
Fig. 107.
Two-section composite
first section.
Thus,
-^r
(128)
tanh- 1 p-
(129)
ZB =
and
8B
Z 01
Ib~
(130)
208
By making
i-
= -
Zjb
<J\
i-
&c
in
(i3i)
i&e
is
The
They
z
Z/>
Equivalent
ww-t'OWWi)
Z/g
vwwfliWITO
Y'
J3C,
Equivalent
Z"
\
T*
Fig. 108.
Equivalent T and
smooth
short transmission
II Circuits.
line,
Fig. 109.
Equivalent T at x representation of a long transmission line.
tion of a
line,
line is
By
latter.
Referring to Fig. 109, let Z, Y, and 6 represent the total impedand hyperbolic angle of the smooth line. Let
Z'/2 and Y' represent the impedance of the arms and the admitance, admittance,
209
For
T-circuit,
tanh
7
z
=z7
(132)
~w
= Y sinh
(133)
For n-circuit,
Z" = Z?
(134)
tanh =
Y =
Y-^
(135)
The
by
its
The proof
be given here
be worked in a
similar manner, or simply by transformation of the T(Y)- circuit
value for
for the
conditions of loading.
all
will
may
to a II(A)-circuit.
The
E =E
a
I.
For the
line,
cosh 6
I r cosh 6
+
+
Ir sinh 6
f- sinh
(136)
(137)
+ ?P) +
E,
Er (l
I.
Ir(l+^P)+ErY'
hZ' (l
+ Zf)
(138)
d39)
210
a
,
v/
tLJL
ZY tanh
=
*'(^) =
=
sinh
^-vsinh
-\
cosh
N
ZF tanh
2Z tanh | /
| sinh
20 2
,_
cosh
/t
^^Inh-F-^ 1 +
v _ y
,
The two
= sinh 8
sinh
cosh
1\
L
)^
~
= Z
ZoSmh
.
a
9
sinh
and
currents
Next it
impedance
will
is
is free,
end.
Line Open:
**
o~ ~r
'
vi
Y'
f"
'
sinh
-ap^^nr')-*-*'
which
is
Line Grounded:
z
Z =
-g
=
which
1
is
y,
2+rTT^
+
'
+
2
tan ^
^-
Z7coth-0
Y'
/cosh Zo
( sinh0
cosh
Zo tanh
smhTc-osh^j =
grounded
line.
See equations (83) and (101) used as conversion formulas in tnte proof.
211
'+
COS
sinh
= Zo
+ cosh
+ sinh
+ tanh
sinh
cosh
tanh
l
coth
/sinh 9
-f
<r
+ ^0 sinh
-=-
cosh
-Zo
"2
v?
eosh
Zo tanh
,._*
Zo tanh = ^
+
_
tanh
tanh
0'
tanh0tan hT'
-~-
sinh
0'
0'
,,,.
Zo tanh
(*
,x
Zo tanh
5'
T-circuit:
Zn
y^!.
2 sinh-i
Vr cosh
2 sinh-*
(140)
(141)
For Wrdrcuit:
VZ"F"
(142)
2
i
ft"
cosh
(14a)
Z'Y'
2 tanh | sinh
=
1
tanh 2
4 sinh2
See equations (102), (103), and (104) used as conversion formulas in the
proofs.
212
-nhtf
ZQ
Proof for
II
72
A\
= Z(l
follows.
tanh 2
2/
cogh2
Lfne:
Z"F" =
2 tanh = sinh
(as in
case)
Z"
Zl sinh 6
y>i
q
~
2 tanh
EXAMPLE
Z\
tanh
2
Z\ wu
cosh
"
$
=
Statement
of
Problem
=0
L =
C =
ohm
0.158
0.00212 henry
0.0141 X lO" 8 farad
this line.
Solution
=
=
a =
=
+ JaC =
V^y =
J377
10- 3
200
200
200
0.0141
0.00212
0.814/78^8
10"
ohm
= J5.315 X 10"
= 5.315 X 10- 6 /90 o mho
Constants of entire
Z =
Y =
=
0.158 +j'0.799
X
X
X
2.08
line
0.814/78^8
5.315
2.08
162.8 /78.8
ohms
Z" =
Y"
-2
Fig.
sinh 9
29.9
213
n
0.404/84.7
162.8/78^^^
158.0/79^1
+jl55.1ohms
tanh
'
r-T^
0.537
110 Equivalent
10- 3 /89.2
II
lO-/^
2in/84.2
1.063
X
=
(0.00752 +y0.537)10-'jnho
representation of a composite
The diagrams
by repeated appli-
line.
II
214
II.
DE
The
in (c) results.
GH may
DE
BC
central II-circuit
(a).
(b)
Fig.
line.
shown
in
(e).
AIF
into a
by paralleling the
as shown in (g) is
Finally,
II
II
obtained.
An
alternative
equivalent
T and
method 1
is
This
II of a composite line.
is
convenient when
The
an equivalent
architrave impedance
II.
given
is
cosh
.#
r,
Z" = &, smh
tA
~~
03
KKennelly, A.
by
*"
cosh
8C
cosjrTs
cosh
5D
cosh
5E
8E
^^^
cosh
cosh
5B
8C
/iaa\
(144)
c\a.k\
Y" =
Y" =
Zoi,
215
ZoitanhS,
"
Z^Ttftohi;
~Z
(146)
(W7)
77
sections.
The
by
and
and
(146)
Similar
at
formulas
in equations (145)
can
be
and
established
(147).
for reduction
to the
equivalent T.
Tests for the Determination of Line Constants. If the sendingend impedance of a line is measured with the distant end of the
line both grounded and free, the surge impedance Z and hyperbolic angle
can readily be calculated. The actual measurements may be made by various methods, for instance by an
impedance bridge or by use of the three-voltmeter scheme. 1
The sending-end impedances, grounded and free, are given by
Zg = Z
Zf = Z
which, solved for
Z and
0,
tanh
(148)
coth 8
(149)
give
Z = VZ^Zf
= tanh- |?
(150)
(151)
Z =
Y =
lz
ly
= l(g+ ju Q =
l( r
+ faL) = Z d
total
(152)
(153)
Kennelly, A.
cit.
CHAPTER
VIII
HARMONICS
It is desirable to operate alternating-current power circuits
with voltages and currents of pure sinusoidal wave shapes. Distorted waves cause increased losses in lines and machines and
hence a reduction in the efficiency of transmission and the
are
communication lines.
The main sources of harmonics
1.
2.
The
The
are:
generators.
transformers.
Corona. 1
The Behavior of Harmonics on a Line. Assume that a nonsinusoidal voltage is impressed on a transmission line and that it
is desired to determine the distribution of voltage, current, and
power on the line. It is not at all difficult to obtain the steadyThe impressed distorted voltage
state solution of this problem.
3.
is
Bennett,
E.,
"An
its
fundamental and
its
higher harmonic
p. 1787, 1913.
216
HARMONICS
217
known
rules
for
the
frequencies.
must be used
ground
cross-section.
218
ground
may
circuit
-d---
>j
~\P
<^F~
'
Fig. 112.
a homogeneous
of
all directions.
(or conductors)
Assume a
be well to consider a
ground
miles
long
with
100
single No. 0000 copper conductor,
ft.
and
the
plates
is
40
sq.
ground
the
return.
The area of
It
is
ohm-cm.
be
500
assumed
to
is
ground
resistivity of the
ft.
plane
is
30
ground
located
equivalent
the
that
further assumed
return,
it
may
specific case.
The
/A
and using equation
becomes
.=
(1)
12X2.54^
is
then
76.8 cm.
500
-2r
The
76.8
100
5,280
12
2.07
ohms
2.54
is
25.9
ohms
at 20C.
The ground
HARMONICS
219
resistance, therefore, is in this case about 8 per cent of the resistance of the metallic conductor.
The inductance of the loop formed by the conductor and the
ground return
is
L =
(741 log M
y + 80.5^ 10-
(741 log*
^^ +
2,673
80.5^ 10-
100
377
2,673
10~ 6
100.8
ohms
The ground resistance is, as seen, only about 2 per cent of the
reactance of the loop. Obviously, the impedance of the loop is
affected only to a negligible extent by consideration of the ground
resistance.
Since the actual value of the latter is very uncertain,
and appropriately, ignored.
voltage, current, and power distribution on a
long line due to a high-frequency harmonic is illustrated in
Example 1, Chap. VII. The calculations are carried through
for a tooth-harmonic of twenty-nine times the fundamental
frequency. This harmonic does not belong to the triple-frequency group and, hence, follows the same circuit as the
it is
usually,
The complete
fundamental.
EXAMPLE
Statement of Problem
shown
is
arranged as
in Fig. 113.
(a)
Fig. 113.
(W
(c)
The conductors
a, b,
(n)
circuit
with neutral.
to each
220
The spacing D is 2.5 ft., and the copper conductors are No. 0000 A.W.G.
(diameter = 0.460 in., resistance = 0.259 ohm per mile). The length of
the feeder is 2 miles; the load is Y-connected and balanced.
The voltmeters at the Y-connected generator show balanced line voltages
The line
of 13,200 volts and balanced voltages to neutral of 7,700 volts.
ammeters show balanced currents of 350 amp. and the ammeter in the
neutral indicates 60 amp. The polyphase wattmeter (current coils in line a
b and potential coils between a and c and between b and c) shows 6,802
kw., while the single-phase wattmeter (current coil in the neutral n and
It is known that the
potential coil between c and n) indicates 39.6 kw.
and
Compute
is the third.
the value of the phase and line voltages and the total power at
the load.
Solution
Since the load is balanced and the conductors a, b, and c are completely
transposed, the neutral will carry no current of fundamental frequency.
The third-harmonic current will divide equally between a, b, and c and return
on the neutral n. Hence, the system is balanced both as regards funda-
fi=2X
0.259
0.518
ohm
per conductor
X' = 2o/741
^~
377(741
logio
1.300
X"'
2 log
80.5m) 10-"
X30
12
three conductors
logic
= 2a/741
logic
80.5)l0-
ohms
of third-harmonic flux linkages about
(a), (b),
and
(c)
any one
of the
2 log
2 log
377(741
+ 80.5)l0-
3 7
logic
+ 80.5)l0-
4.696
ohms
HARMONICS
The average number
(n) per centimeter
becomes
K" =
221
P
/H2 log ^ ~
X D-
fl -
2 log jj-
+ 2 log j*-)
+M
XS' = 6(741
logio
377(741
~^ + 80.5^10-
181 7
logic
23
80.5)l0-
4.163
13,200
V3
Third-harmonic phase voltage at the generator
V'"
Fundamental
= yj7,70W -
^|^
1,100 volts
line currents
/'
= V3502 -
202
349.4 amp.
6'
-=
V3 X
6 802
'
13.2
0.8515
349.4
-=iM^o-
<><***>
= V - I'(R+jX')
= 7,622 - 349.4(0.8515 - jO.5243) (0.518
= 7,230 - J292 = 7,236 volts
+./1.300)
V'J'
V3 X
7,236
12,533 volts
ohms
222
= V7,2362
Fi oad
818.52
7,282 volts
=
=
(7,230
0.8515
+ 292 X
0.5243)349.4
lO" 8
2,204.5 kw.
(800
0.6
173
0.8)20
lO" 3
12.368 kw.
P =
3(2,204.5
12.37)
6,650.6 kw.
The harmonics
important harmonics. 1
a non-salient-pole machine carries a balanced load, the
armature reaction will not distort the flux and the voltages will
remain sinusoidal. In a salient-pole machine, on the other hand,
the armature reaction will distort the air-gap flux to a certain
When
extent, except at
Some
of the
1
The harmonics in the air-gap flux and in the induced voltage of a synchronous generator can be predicted with good accuracy from design data. A
W. V.
general method applicable to non-salient-pole machines is given by
Lyon in "Application of Harmonic Analysis to the Theory of Synchronous
HARMONICS
223
load.
These hai^nonics,
machine.
them
The eddy
field is
and
will
appear in
224
fields in
therefore, contribute to the compensation of the negativesequence armature reaction and also induce third-harmonic
voltages in the armature windings.
These third-harmonic voltages will appear between lines as did the third-harmonic voltage
caused by the second-harmonic currents in the field windings.
If the unbalanced load offers infinite impedance to third-
This
is
readily seen
into a positive-
harmonic
voltage
is
and
fifth-harmonic
frequency.
fifth-harmonic
thus introduced.
Similarly, if fifth-harmonic unbalanced currents flow, a seventhharmonic voltage may appear. In general, therefore, when an
unbalanced harmonic current flows in the armature circuit, a
harmonic voltage of the next higher order will be introduced in
the voltage.
The magnitude of these harmonic voltages, however, rapidly decreases at the order goes up.
225
HARMONICS
tem the
used.
The
and three-phase
maximum
density at which
it is
operated.
most prominent,
Higher odd
in general,
is,
their
magnitude
easily
traced,
but
also
harmonics are
very small. These higher harmonics are, therefore, of minor
The
third harmonic
is
generally
by
far the
Frank,
J. J.,
Wave Shapes
Peters,
J.
F.,
"Harmonics
in
Lyon, W.
of Harmonics," Elec.
226
Fig. 114.
voltage impressed.
saturations,
the
up
to
percentage
decrease.
100
|0
15
20
Figure 114 shows an oscillogram of single-phase exciting curThe magnitudes of the fundamental, third-harmonic, and
fifth-harmonic components, as found from analysis of a series of
oscillograms, are given by the curves of Fig. 115.
The curves are
rent.
HARMONICS
227
and
it will
be noted
current curve in the oscillogram Fig. 114 are plotted in Fig. 116.
The relative magnitudes and phase relations are correctly repro-
duced.
The phase
relation
^.160
c
'Su/7brrr
14-0
JlZO
100
<u
i 80
60
u:
*S
40
20
Sth.ttamo
v.
Vy
mdiamen
mc 1
f
'
20
40
60
80
100 120
140
160
180
200
Scale
Fig. 116.
Components of exciting current from analysis of the oscillogram
in Fig. 114.
The relative magnitudes as well as phase relationships of the
harmonics are correctly reproduced.
and the corresponding third-harmonic electromotive force depends on the triple-frequency impedance of the
circuits where it flows as established by equations (6) and (7).
In the discussion of distribution of harmonics which follows, the
third harmonic alone is mentioned and the equations have been
It should be noted, however, that
established for this harmonic.
instance, the third,
Gen.QZc
Fig. 117.
and what
ZrSLoad
is
any
harmonic.
Consider the third-harmonic components in the transformer
In general, third-harmonic currents
circuit shown in Fig. 117.
will flow in the secondary as well as in the primary circuit.
228
sinusoidal.
harmonic currents.
quantities
V"
V'"
_
=
Z'A
=R,+ j(X[" +
T/'"
V\
i'" Lg
1\
t'"7'"
w'"
ft\c
f"
i\
7"
Zn
r
t'"?'"
7?'"
ay'"t'"
jXvili
AY'"T'"
Xu)
(5)
in
SQ\
(4)
Z = R + j(Xi" + Xn)
The symbols used
ro\
(2)
the following
meanings:
= E2c =
E\ c
Vi
Yi
h =
Zn Z 2 =
Z =
Zi
X12 X21 =
Zq =
third-harmonic
impedances
mary
Zl
self
leads
leads
It is apparent that it is impossible to get entirely rid of a small
third-harmonic component in the terminal voltages of a transformer, even if the generator voltage is a pure sine wave.
The
complete elimination of the third-harmonic voltage components
Note that
harmonics
it
drops and the symbol Ec of induced voltage represent a voltage rise, since the
harmonic voltages are generated in the transformer itself. In the general
transformer equations previously developed in Chap. II, the opposite
significance was attached to these symbols.
HARMONICS
229
one of the
where the
circuits)
sinusoidal.
Not only the magnitude, but also the phase of the impedance
which the third-harmonic current must overcome, has an important effect on the magnitude of the third-harmonic voltages and
Without going into the question in further detail, it
currents.
may be said that a lagging third-harmonic current, in general,
reduces the triple-frequency flux in the core, while a leading
current tends to amplify
it.
By
i*"(z
and
(3)
may
be written
)+jf "x''
+ zT) + ji'i"xZ
EZ = f "(zZ +
&' =
(2)
z'J
(6)
(7)
The
I?
^22 "v
r/'H
J'"
Equation
(8)
is
ttt
'."
///
,
^L
rjl'l
_
-
;v'"
;*'
-jx'A'
+ z'l'
zT + z'g"
7."'
z"i
"
_i_
v.'."
(8)
The
distribution
is
230
AND APPLICATION
largely regulated
is
of the triple-frequency
impedance
large to the
z2" +
If,
Z'T
= R>+ jX'>"
+ R L + j(X? -
X'o")
(9)
then,
xT + xT the secondary
is
tuned to
x'o"
(io)
given
If,
at the
by
(11)
2
A\
~\-
ZlQ
It should not be inferred from this statement that the secondary "leakage-resonance" condition gives rise to the maximum
amount of third-harmonic current. Much larger currents as
well as voltages may be obtained at other capacitive loads and at
a second resonance condition. Operation in this region is also
Gould, King
E., "Instability in
May,
1927.
HARMONICS
231
The transformer
core
is
but a frequency
Conceive a hypothetical transformer having core loss but requiring no harmonics in the magnetizing current for impressed sinu-
"*/
f\r*
jc ic
Fig. 118.
loss.
soidal voltage.
Fig. 118,
core
is
in the
the transformer.
Exile
-V
c )
watts
current* Ie
(12)
232
Single-phase Transformers.
When single-phase transformers are connected for three-phase
operation, the method of connection constitutes a means by which
the distribution of the third harmonics and multiples may be partly
This depends
controlled independent of the external circuits.
Three-phase Connections
of
and
The third-harmonic
lines while it
the
may
lines.
and
assumed
to be unity.
Since the same laws do not govern the distribution of the two
classes of harmonics, i.e., the third harmonic and its multiples
and those which are not multiples of three, equations for the fifth
The
as well as for the third harmonics have been established.
generator and the balanced load are both assumed Y-connected
for all transformer connections.
when
The equations
given, however,
to neutral
and per
line, respectively,
for
HARMONICS
circulating currents in the
two
deltas.
233
Conditions are the same
d3)
Fig. 119.
is
of
given by
t'"
y'"
Zj2
(14)
Z[<
t'"
y
W%2c
=
When
f0 + Z^+3ll~
v
+ zl\+jil?f
= fi(^
II
Zl
II
zl
+
+
(15)
3ZI
(16)
szl
(6)
A-Y
The
Eic
Eic
V%
E%c
Ii
~o
I"
%g
f+^
'X21
Connection.
(17)
Isolated Neutrals.
With
(18)
this connec-
is
it is
on
234
The
"
T?'"
Ei<Lc
i\ Zin
T n, -V
A
E% Jll
f,t
21
(19)
T ft, rr"'
il Zl
(20)
Fig. 120.
The equations
is
loaded
aie
&1C
*p
. rfj?
g +i^^r
)
\3o
rX. j
(21)
V3(Zt
Zr
Zj)
V
3Z a
\30
(22)
yj = El
+ Z^
- 3-^XlJZV = VSI V
(23)
^W
(24)
Fig. 121.
ir
r "i
12
When
the load
is
+
+ ZT + 3Z-) +jI "X'
"
z + zT + 3Z T
,
!',"&'
['
(25)
rj'"
'
-^1
triple-frequency relations.
HARMONICS
235
The
fifth
Fig. 122.
and no-load
conditions.
The
When
E\e
Vi
= Eu jh
the bank
is
E%c ss 1 1 Z%2
V3 Il{^f +
+
II
Zl
II
V3(Zr
72
(28)
Zl\
+ Zl) + j^= X T
/30
+ jllX Yn
/30_
(29)
/30
(30)
Zl)
gives
y/3Elc/30
Vl = Elo
Jl(Zli
3ZI
Eu =
Xvt
E yu = VSEl/30 =
=
(27)
+ Zl)
I (Zu
V
v
-3~i= X nW = ^r(Z +
(31)
Zl) \30*
(32)
Interconnected Neutrals.
With this connection (Fig. 123),
the third-harmonic current will flow in the primary lines and the
Fig. 123.
The
is
loaded.
236
T?'"
j>"(
i2 >^22
zT +
The
(d)
v'"
3Zln
tn
)+#
in
v
Al2
iti
(33)
ryl'l
/;'
they
7 >"
in
jlll rjlll
z'
(34)
szS!
still
Y-Y
Fig. 124.
= vt =
vi"
When
the bank
is
#;:'=
k'
(35)
are
(36)
+ zl
zl + zl
zl
II
(37)
(38)
Zl)'
(39)
With
this
Fig. 125.
primary
side,
The equations
is
HARMONICS
EZ =
E\i:
iTiz'll
237
+ z7 +
(40)
ZZ'Z)
= Eu - jli"X'"
= I["(Z[" + z" + 3Z)
7;"
(41)
The
Fig. 126.
is
E'
Vi"
will flow
on the
(42)
JW
(43)
Fig. 127.
With
the
bank
is
E['J
iT_
/;"
this connection
on both
sides
when
loaded.
= &' = I["(Z'A'
= l't"(Z% + ZT
=
z"'
z["
+ z'L' +
+ z7 +
+
+
Z'o"
3Z)
3Z'/:)
+ jfi'x'U
+ j/i"x
(44)
sz^:
(45)
3Zx':'
238
When
the load
dently hold.
and
(38),
(e)
With
is
The
removed, equations (40) and (41) will eviharmonics follow equations (36), (37),
fifth
(39).
Y-Y
Neutrals Isolated.
Fig. 128.
bank
and
its multiples,
is
*/"
Vl
T ,///
V2
w'"
=
=
Mile
yp/ft
tLlc
v'"
r"V"
Jl3 A13 =
.ylll^T-llt
Jl3
A23 =
lz
(46)
Zi3(\)
(47)
jtll III
l3 ^3(2)
(48)
Fig. 129.
HARMONICS
The
following equations
f
=
tf =
lC =
E[ :
may
239
be written
Rl
///
rtr
(49)
(so)
(51)
/con
(52)
///
where 7"'
is * ne total current required for third-harmonic excitaequations which follow, the triple primes indicating
In
the
tion.
third-harmonic currents and reactances will be omitted. Subtracting equation (50) from equation (49) and equation (51) from
[Rz
+ J(Xu ~ X
+ j(X - X
22
21 )]Ii
32 )]7 2
[# 2
[Rz
+ j(X ~ X
22
12 )]7 2
j(X 13
- X 23 )7 =
(53)
+ j(X - X
+
- X )h =
(54)
3S
23 )]/ 3
j(X n
31
13
[ 2
21
32
12
23
33
)]
23
31
3l
21
The impedances
22
23
would be assigned
(see
Chap.
II).
Hence,
= Ri
Z2 = R 2
Zz = R 3
Zi
+ j(Xu - X - X + X
+ j(X 22 - X + X - X
+ j(X - X + X - X
33
(57)
21
13
23 )
12
13
23 )
(58)
23
2i
31 )
(59)
Furthermore,
Z 2 - Z, =
Z 2 - Z 2(3) =
( i)
where
Z 2W and Z 2(3
i(Xi,
j(Xi 3
- X 23 )
- Xu)
(60)
,
(61)
ZnIi
Z nIi+(Z iW
-Z n )h
(62)
240
Finally, eliminating 7 2
II
^23^2(1)
ZiZ 23
Z2Z12(3)
+zz
2
(Z 2 4" Zz)Zi
-r
-J-0
iU
z7~yi
z2
h
/
ZsiZs(2)
Z3Z 3(1)
Z2Z3I
Z3Z]
^12^K
3)
~ Z ZH
i
z&n +
From
/o
ZxZ*
2)
j
l0
Z\Zi
(Zi
Z2Z20)
Z$\Zz(2)
-f-
Z3Z3 (i)
Z3Z1
ZiZi (2
ZZ +
2
+ Z )Zi(3)
+ Z2Z3 +
2
z,z 2
it
(63)
become
z7z7~
(64)
r
(65)
follows that
78
Z 2^2(3)
2Z
(i)
(62) gives
(Z3 ~r Z\)Zz(2)
Z 2 3Z 2
i)
1^~
z,z
+ Z Z +r-^r-^
and
(55)
Z3Z 3(1)
Zi 2 Zi(3)
ZlZi (2
(66)
Of course,
this statement assumes that no exterconnected to the tertiary delta. The fifthharmonic distribution, therefore, is given by equations (15), (16),
(17),
and
is
(18)
EXAMPLE
Statement of Problem
A generator station (Fig. 130) has two 12,000 kv.-a., 6,600-volt, 60-cycle
turbo alternators, Y-connected, operating in parallel and supplying energy
fLihe,Complefe(y Transposed
^WM\^I
jEWkAAA^
<5Z
Substation
Generator Station
Fig. 130.
H.T.Bus
H.J. Bus
line
(Example
2).
to a 150-kv. transmission line through two banks of Y- Y-connected transformers. The primary neutral points are connected to the neutral points
of the generators.
The secondary (high-tension) neutrals are grounded.
HARMONICS
241
The wave shape of the generated voltage, both voltage to neutral and voltage between lines, is sinusoidal. The substation transformers are A-A
connected.
The triple-frequency impedance per phase of the generator is 0.04
jl.30
ohms. The separate triple-frequency leakage impedances of the transformer windings are
=
=
Low-tension
High-tension
6.65 +j'68.7
8.43
+ j'260.4
referred
to
high-tension
With the lines disconnected from the high-tension buses at A and B, the
impedance at A of the three conductors in parallel to ground has been measured by an impedance bridge and found to be 4 ^540 ohms at 180 cycles.
With the system in operation, the ammeters in the primary neutrals show
In i
t
i 2
=
=
amp.
30.1
on t
30.7 amp.
to
be of
triple
frequency
phase line at A.
Solution
Ratio of Transformation
a
150
= 2272
6.6
The
_i_
T"
7"'
l
[(0.04
13.6
+ jl.30)22.72 + 6.65
2
+ J370.4
371
+-J68.7]
ohms
Z. =
^- + Z"L =
|(8.43
16.2
is
- j'1,490 =
1,490
ohms
hT =
(30.1
+ 30.7)
3
X0.95 =
22.72
- 848
amp
r n'Zi.
t.
zZ.
EXAMPLE
0.848
371
"i^o
cir-
= noi
- 211 amp
line
Statement
of
Problem
12,000 kv.-a., 6,600-volt, 60-cycle turbo alternator (Y-connected) and a bank of three 4,200-kv.-a. transformers. The transformers
have three windings (3,800/22,000/86,500 volts) connected Y-A-Y and
three-phase,
242
line.
The
line voltages
The
With all transformers and both lines in operation, the ammeter in each
high-tension neutral registers 0.40 amp.
1. Calculate the third-harmonic current in each 22,000-volt winding for
this condition.
2.
line.
Transformer Data
Winding
Voltage
3,800
22,000
86,500
2
3
Ohms
resistance referred
to high-tension
winding
6.65
5.57
8.43
Three-phase Tests
Voltage across open A
Transformer connections
Volts
Y-A-open,A
12
Amperes
Third
harmonic,
per cent
71.6
62
0.69
99.5
33.6
91.3
0.18
93
Y-open A-
12
Third
harmonic,
per cent
Current in closed A
86.5
-^2
Q
3 Q
93
-
HARMONICS
,
71.6
m
Z =
X7 =
X7 =
Zi"
Z3"
0.62
3.93
a/84.6 2
V240.22
=
=
243
_
84 6 hmS
"
._ _ ,
24 2 hmS
5.57
+J84.4 ohms
8.43
+ ./240.0 ohms
<
>
ffiWClfo
(T
^FUO-JMMohm*
,,,0.4
I3 =famp.\
Equivalent Third
Harmonic Generator
Equivalent
Fio. 131.
The
nr
///
by
in
///
Hence
,
7T *
1.
1? =
2.
X 2,652 4175am
,
P3X84.6- =
0.4
No
4.175
3.93
16.4
amp.
EXAMPLE
line.
Statement of Problem
Three 2,100-kv.-a. three-circuit transformers are connected A-A-A.
nominal voltages of the windings are as follows:
Winding 1
Winding 2
Winding 3
2,300 volts.
22,000 volts.
110,000 volts.
The
244
The equivalent
6.10 per cent between the 2.3-kv. and the 22-kv. windings.
6.59 per cent between the 2.3-kv. and the 110-kv. windings.
6.15 per cent between the 22-kv. and the 110-kv. windings.
The reactance
The reactance
The reactance
When 2,300 volts are impressed on winding 1 and the two other windings
carry balanced loads, it is found by oscillographic analysis that the primary
delta current contains a third-harmonic component of 7.48 amp.
Calculate the third-harmonic currents flowing in the secondary and terAlso determine the total third-harmonic magnetizing
tiary windings.
current, giving the latter in per cent of full-load current.
Solution
is given by equation (66).
Since resistances will be neglected, reactances at fundamental frequency
may be used, since changing to triple-frequency reactances merely involves
The
3i
Zi(2)
2(3)
Zi( 3 )
=
=
=
=
=
=
(66).
in the solution
may
6.10
+ 6.59
s
6.15
0>_
Q
3.27 per cent
6.15
6.59
QQ per cent
2.83
Zi
Zi
6.10
Z =
+6.15
~
6.59
Z 2 (i> =
Z (2) =
Z 3( =
3
i)
6.10
6.15
6.59
6.10
=
=
=
3.10
3.00
3.39
___
ZijZki)
^2^2(3)
Z,Zi(i)
ZiZi(i)
=
=
=
6.15
6.59
6.10
X
X
X
3.00
3.15
3.39
2.83
3.32
3.27
X
X
X
3.00
3.20
3.10
= 2,100
^l$- =
_
n1
913
amp.
is
=
=
=
HARMONICS
245
7.48
m=
0.82
^T 2
/'/'
3
The
100
QO
oi~q
_ QOO
per cent
0.833
1QA5
9.96
t" =
X 10.13
"
QQfi
= 082 X
P er ce
0.82
0.833
+ 0.867 =
is,
hence,
in the 22-
ings are
>
T
/.
>
T
/.
913
0.833
2.3
iooxM
913
0.867
100X110
2.3
_ amp
.
' 795
A
Q
1ft
166am
P-
CHAPTER IX
GENERAL CIRCUIT CONSTANTS
Conception of General Circuit Constants. In a network conany combination of constant impedances and in which
power is supplied at one point and received at another point, the
sisting of
AV
*9
Network
Ir
Fig. 132.
for instance,
and
let
E E
s,
r,
may then be
E = AoE + BoI
7, = C E + D I
r
The
written
(1)
(2)
E = DoE BqIs
I = -C E + Ao/
A
Bo, Co,
and Do are
all
(3)
(4)
They
known
It is believed,
however, that Evans and Sels 2 were the first ones to call attention
to the great advantage of using general circuit constants in the
1
(2),
Note
use
is
made
(1)
and
2
Evans, R. D., and Sels, H. K., "Transmission-line Constants and
Resonance," Elec. Jour., p. 306, July, 1921, and "Transmission Lines and
Transformers," Elec. Jour., p. 356, August, 1921.
246
when
many
problems.
They
247
comes to combination of networks and also in the calculation of circle diagrams for graphical solution of transmission
it
problems.
In
many
down by
inspection.
formulas,
if
1. Lumped Impedance.
For the lumped impedance (Fig. 133),
the following equations evidently hold
E = E + ZI
8
/.
(5)
Ir
(6)
circuit,
A =
1,
B =
C =
Z,
0,
D=
(7)
Ir
Is
A
'
<K
Es
*r
X_JL_i_
Lumped admittance.
*_
_t
Fig. 133.
Lumped
?r
ks
2.
Lumped impedance.
Admittance.
Fig. 134.
may
E = E
Is = YE +
s
(8)
be written:
Ir
(9)
248
Hence,
A =
3. Jl-circuit.
B =
1,
C =
0,
D =
F,
cal II-circuit, as
shown
(10)
case, a
dissymmetri-
For
=
=
E.
I,
+ ZY )E + ZI
+ F + ZY Y )E +
(1
(Fx
A =
(1
+ ZY
)l r
(12)
t,
+ ZF
+ F + ZFiF
= Z
C = Fi
(11)
Z>
+ ZY
(13)
X
are equal
A =
B = Z
-^OOOOO
i__2
Fig. 135.
4.
tL
Fig. 136.
Dissymmetrical II-circuit.
T-circuit.
Considering
E =
s
Ia
(1
= YE,
Z Y)E r
1
(1
T-circuit.
first
Dissymmetrical
may
(Zi
Z 2 Y)I
be written
Z2
ZiZ 2 F)/ r
(15)
(16)
A =
C = Y
ZiY
B = Z +
x
D=
Z*
+ZY
2
ZxZiY
(17)
the T-circuit
are equal
is
249
The
are given
D =
C = Y
general circuit
by
7Y
~
(18)
The Transformer. As previously demonstrated, the equivalent circuit of a two-winding transformer is in general a dissymThe impedances of the
metrical T, as indicated in Fig. 136.
impedances of the two
leakage
separate
to
the
branches are equal
5.
windings respectively,
viz.,
Z = R
Z2 = #2
+jX
+ JX2
(19)
tests
(20)
impedance
v
r
~ R
+ R + j(Xx + X
(21)
v
;
+ R + icoL,
Since Ri and Xi are small compared to R and X this admittance
1
c)
is
c,
v =
It is
R +jX
R +ju>Mn
(22)
y
)
accuracy, since
See Chap.
II,
pp. 39 to 42 inclusive.
250
AND APPLICATION
dently
is
repre-
is
sented by a cantilever circuit; i.e., the total admittance is connected at one. of the terminals and the general circuit constants
former
little
is
circuit.
which representation
difference in practice
it
is
makes very
used unless
E = E cosh 6 + I Z sinh
I = E ?^-^ + I cosh0
8
(23)
(24)
A =
cosh B
C-**
Two
Important Relations.
B = Z
D=
D
(25)
coshe
When a
and
line are
sinh
Inspection
shows it to be true
Since, however, any symmetrical
for this particular circuit.
circuit is reducible to a symmetrical equivalent n, the relation
just stated must hold in the general symmetrical case.
It is seen to hold for the transmission line, where A = D =
cosh 0. Furthermore, a transmission line with identical sending
and receiving transformers will also have equal A and D constants.
On the other hand, if the sending and receiving transformers are different, the general circuit constants A and Do of
the whole system will be unequal in spite of the fact that each of
the three parts comprising the system may in itself be a symof the formulas for the II-circuit, for instance,
metrical circuit.
is
generally true
AD - BC =
is
the following:
(26)
AD =
(1
BC =
Z(Fi
ZY*){\
2)
(27)
(28)
in Series
and Multiple.
251
Any number
of
networks
treated.
Neiwork
Is
A,*BfCt
>
Neiwork 2
Im
Dj
Fig. 137.
1.
Two Networks
Two networks in
in Series.
in Fig. 137
A2
Z> 2
Bz,
C<l,
The
Ir
A2 >B2 C2 >D2
>
Em
E,
Er
series.
C\,
and
E = AiEm +
Bil
(29)
C\Em + D\I
E m = AlE + B^Ir
Im = C<zE 4" Dil
(31)
Is
(30)
(32)
and
E =
s
Is
(AiA,
(CiA t
two networks
circuit constants of
(33)
(34)
in series
are
A = A A* + B C
Bo = A B % + 5iZ>2
X
Co
Do
= Cx4 2 + iC
= Ci# 2 4- Z>iZ)
2
2
(35)
252
2.
following equations
may
E = A\Em +
a
=
Em =
Im =
En
In =
C\Em
Is
Network
4~
B\I m
Dil m
(36)
(37)
A En + B I n
C E n 4~ L><J. n
AzE + B I
C E 4~ Dzl
2
(38)
(39)
(40)
(41)
Network 3
Network 2
Im
Aj> Bj >Cj> Dj
In
A2 >B2 C2 >D2
A3 B3
*
=>
>
The
Er,
C^
Ir
D3
Er
Fig. 138.-
Em =
=
Im
+B
(A 2 A 3
(C 2A 3 4-
4-
(A 2 B 3
)E r
(C 2 B 3
C )E
3
DC
2
+ B D )I
+ D D )I
2
(42)
(43)
and
E =
s
[A,(A*Az
+B
CS)
Is
3)
4-
+D
B
+
D D )]I
)]E +
B + D D )]I
2 C 3 ))E r
(C 2 B 3 4-
+ D!(C A + D C
+ B D 4- Di(C
[Cx(A 2 A 3 4- B 2 C 3 )
[C x (AzB 3
BiiCtAz
BD
[A 1 (A 2 B 3 4-
2J
3)
(44)
(45)
networks in
series
are
A(A 2 A 4- B C 3 ) 4- B {C 2A 3 4- D 2 C
= Ai(A 2 B + B 2 D 3 ) 4- 5i(C 5s 4- D 2 D )
= Cx(A 2 A 4- B C 4- ZMtVU + Z> 2 C
= d(A 2 3 4- 2 Z) + ZMCgBs + D 2 Z) 3 )
A =
Bo
Co
Do
Aj'Bj* Cj> Dj
hz
>
Network 2
AZ >B2 , Cg .D2
shown
Jn
Ir
Fig. 139.
Two Networks
fy
written
(46)
3)
3)
&s
3.
3)
Network
in parallel, as
3)
hz
in Parallel.
down immediately.
may
be
253
E = A E + BJri
E = A E + BJ r2
s
(47)
(48)
= C,E + Z)x/ rl
= C 2 E + D 27 r2
= /.i + 7 s2
= I rl + 7 r2
/.i
7*2
78
7r
(49)
(50)
(51)
(52)
E = A,E + Bdr ~ BJ r2
(53)
and
(53) gives,
upon
contraction,
From
*+
^b'+IT
= (d
ls
S-
4'
C 2 )E
is
(54)
obtained
+ DJn + DJ
(55)
r2
= (d
C 2 )
Substituting for
7,
=
-[ Ci
C2
+ DJ +
Z,
>2
~ DlE. -
from equation
(A l
-A
i
(56)
(54)
- DO
E +
+ 52
B D 2 + Dx
B +
)(D 2
(57)
From
-"2
-D 2
two networks
A
A = iB +
BiA*
fii
B =
+B
B\B 2
B +B
x
(Ax
c2
5xD 2
Do =
Dx5 2
-+-
#2
Co
C\
Bi
It is useful to
-A
Bx
+B
(58)
- DO
){D 2
2
A
Ao
= A
C = 2C
= ^
g
2
Do = D
Bo
become
.
(58a)
254
Hence, the constants A and D are equal to, the constant B onehalf, and Co twice the corresponding constants of each network
separately.
Network
Is,
Aj
I
lr,
Bj> C,, Dj
>
Network 2
A
Es
hz
lr
Irz
Az'ByCj.Dj
Er
Network 3
Ir3
Fig. 140.-
4.
Figure
this
combina-
E = A E + BJ rl
E, = A E + Bdri
E, = A E + BzIrZ
(59)
(60)
(61)
= CxE r + DJn
= CiJE + T)<J-r1
C%E + D^I z
= Isl ~f~ IsZ + Is3
= Irl -\~ Ir2 I rZ
Itl
Is2
(62)
(63)
ISZ
Is
(64)
(65)
(66)
~\~
lr
E = AiE + BJ r
Bilri
~ B
I rZ
(67)
E.
= AxEr
The
ht
BJr -
^E +
e
-D2
"
-Mir
T
Bi
IHr&s
Bz
B3
-E r
(68)
is
~*~
B\BiB%
BtB*
From
+BB +
J,
= (d
C2
Cz)E r
BiBs
is
obtained
+ Dllrl + DJri +
2>3/r3
(69)
(70)
which,
becomes
/,
(Ci
C2
Cz)E r
+ DJ +
- DQA,^
(D,
D2
P,
Z)i
Bz
Bi
g<
(66),
(60),
(Pi
255
and
PQ^
(61)
(71)
Bz
/.
= [Ci
+ C + Cz +
-D )B, + (A,-A,)(D,-D,)Bi + (A,~Ai)(Di-D,)B
2
(A 1 -A,)(D t
B1B2
BiB%
B\Bz
DiBtB, + D 2 BiB, + DsBiB-,
It
B1B2 -\- BiB% -\- B\Bz
-\-
\Er
(72)
A =
.
(A 1 -A i )(D i
D =
If
-D
(73)
-D )B
9
are given
by
A =A
Co
Bo
=
g
(73o)
= 3C Do = D
A =A
Bo
-(736)
Co
= nC Do = D
256
The transmission
AND APPLICATION
Met With
in
Power Trans-
used.
The formal expressions for the general circuit constants,
however, are greatly simplified when the transformers are represented by their approximate "cantilever" circuits. Formulas
worked out on this basis are also given. The error introduced by
the use of the simplified formulas is rather insignificant 2 and
considerable time and labor are saved in the computations.
Subscripts s attached to the transformer impedances and admittances
signify sending transformers, subscripts r receiving transformers.
A, B, C, and D will represent the general circuit constants of the
line itself,
more
Transformer
Line
J*r
A>B>C>D
Fig. 141.
Transmission
and
By
Transformers repre-
two networks
in
loc. cit.,
is
257
^\ + CZjfl + ^Y\
= B(l + ?=S + Wl + ^\
A = A(l +
B
(74)
Co
= c(l +
^~\ + AK.
"Do
= D(l
^) + BY,
Transformer
Line
A''C>D
Fig. 142.
Er
Zr
Zr
r
Transmission
Transformers repre-
A = A^l +
Bo
= B^l
^j + BY
3.
Co
= c(l +
Do
I)(l
^) + DY
+ ^pj + CZ {\ + ^pj
T
(Exact).
Transformer
Line
Transformer
A>B>CD
Fig. 143.
Transmission
Trans-
become
258
^)K i+ ^) + H +
Ao= i+
(
^rXK
^(l + ^r)[cZr(l
(l
D = F [AZ
8
^) + DYr
Mr)]
+4f) + D(l +
+ ^)[c(l +
+ ^r)] +
+ ^f) +
^)[^(i + ^) + K
J8(l
(76)
^) + DYr
(l
(1
^)
above combinations, the transmission line is symmeta single line only or identical lines in parallel,
the constants A and D are equal and the formulas given may be
somewhat simplified. Thus, for a symmetrical line, equations
If,
in the
(76)
may
be written
A = A[(l +
?01 + ^r) + F
BY (l + ^f) +
r
CZ.(l
Z,(l
+ ?)] +
+ ^)(l + ^r)
[(77)
(?
= c(i +
^)(i + ^) +
.A.jr,
(1
y'( i+
Do
= a[(i
+ ^)(l +
^) +
+ ^f) +
Y. Z {l
)]
+57x
+ ^)] +
'
If,
259
and
!+
Cz4l + ^pj
(78)
Co
= c(l +
^) + 2AY(l + ~^j + 5F
Transformers Represented by Cantilever Circuits. 1. Transmission Line with Sending Transformers (Approximate). Figure
Transformer
Jr
Line
A>B>C>D
Fig. 144.
Transmission
A = A + CZ.
Bo = B + DZ,
= C(l + Z,Y ) + AY,
Do = D(l + Z.Y.) + BY,
Co
(79)
Transformer
Z/>?e
A'B'C>D
Fig. 145.
2.
Transmission
Transmission Line with Receiving Transformers (ApproxiThe approximate circuit is shown in Fig. 145. The
mate).
260
A = A(l+ Z
= B + AZr
r Yr)
+ BY
Bo
= C(l + Z Y
Do = D + CZr
Co
r)
(80)
+ BY
Transformer
r
J-S
E- 1
Fig. 146.
Transformer
ncrcior\
Line
A'B'CjD
,ocxto<-\
.
TJ
Transmission
series,
the general
T)
Trans-
r)
(81)
DF (l + Z.F.)
+ D(l + Z,Y
r
= AZ r Y
Do
If,
and
BF,
+ CZ (X + Z,Y
r
t)
8)
is symmetrical so that
reduce
to
are equal, the above formulas
Ao
Bo
(82)
8]
If,
and
receiving
=
Bo =
Co =
D =
Ao
AQ.
A2Z
(83),
261
Statement of Problem
Calculate the general circuit constants of a 90-mile, three-phase, two-cirtransmission line with a 150,000-kv.-a. bank of receiv-
L/'nes
%.
90 Miles
E,
220 k
v.
60 cycles
Er
OOOkv-cu
of Transformers
ISO,
Fig. 147.
diagram
Single-line
two
of
The constants
1).
of line
and transformers
Solution
Since the two transmission circuits are symmetrical, the constants will be
calculated for one circuit in connection with one-half the transformer capacity.
Constants of line:
90 miles, 605,000
R =
=
G =
C =
2 =
y =
cir.
mils,
A.C.S.R.
0.154 ohm/mile
0.853 ohm/mile
0.1 X 10- mho/mile
=
a - Viy =
Z =
Y? =
2.102
412\4.55
5.1
10-8/88^88
ohms
sinh 6
Receiving transformers:
Rating
R =
mho /mile
262
/T
75,000
= 10A0
196.9 amp.
>.
V3 X
=
R,
220
220,000 X 0.005
S=
V3 X
'
Zr =
Gr
220,000
j-
Q
OOQ
3.223
ohms
196.9
0.12
V3 X 196.9
3.223 + j*77.4
__
77.4
ohms
77.5/87^61 ohms
= 7<MXX)>^(rox
0.006
^^- X 10- =
6
196^X005 = V3 X
Yr =
(0.93
X^
196.9
1Q
_6
2 2
220,000/V3
9.30
2.2 2
/220,000V
3
V Vs
X 10- mho
1Q
_6
mho
j7.75)10-
7.80
10-\83.15
mho
ZrYr
=
=
1
^p
+ 302.2 X
7.80
10- 8 /4.46
1.00302 +^0.000235
+ jO.000118 =
1.00151
A =
0.982/0.21
1.00302/0 .01
0.985/0^22
0.00605\3.31
=
=
Bo =
10-\83.15
+ 0.00302
+J0.000235
1.00302 /0 .01
1.00151/0
10- B \83.15
- ;0.000350
0.00604
0.985
^0.00378
0.99104
./0.00343
77. 5/79,84
1.00302/0^01
+ 0.982/0^21 X
77.5/87^61
1.00151/0
=
=
=
Co =
+ 76.2/87^82
+ J76.5 + 2.895 + J76.1
16.605 + J152.6
77.75/79^85
13.71
0.000456/88.94
1.00302/0.01
+ 0.982/0^21 X
7.80
10-\8315
=
=
=
Do =
45.75
(0.837
+ 7.65 X 10\82.94
-.77.59)10+0.940
+i45.75
(1.777
+i38.16)10"
0.982/0^21 X 1.0030 2 /0.Q1
=
=
=
+
+ jO.00378 0.94j97 + i0.00591
0.985 /0.22
0.985
0.0354/176^55
0.0353
+ ;0.00213
263
Statement of Problem
The transmission
line in Fig.
and have
Z ohms
impedance of
Z ohms and
short-circuit
Each
impedance and
Y mhos
phase.
Work out formal expressions for the general circuit constants for the
system between the low-tension bus of the sending transformers and the low-
<s>Hfr
Fig. 148.
Single-line diagram
=HH
mission line with sending and receiving transformers. The sectionalizing stations
are located at points B and C, one-third and two-thirds of the transmission distance from the sending end (Example 2).
one
circuit of section
when the
line is operating
with
CD disconnected.
Solution
264
Table XI
Sending
General
Section
Section 2
T^-oT
constants
ZY
Za sinh
,i?o
'(-)
+
0)]+ z(l +
2 cosh 2
Y
Bo
cosh 0(cosh 2
(cosh 2
cosh
cosh 0(cosh 2
2 cosh 2
2
0)
0)
2 sinh 2 0)
YZo
C 8h2 6)
(l
5 cosh 2
0)
Y[l+ -^\
(l
+ ^~\ [
5 sinh 2
Do
ZY
Co
ZF
sinh 0(sinh 2
? (8inh2
'
0)
<+?)
0)
^)[ (l + )~iV
5 sinh 2
2 sinh' 9)
+ 5 cosh
+ 5 sinh
(sinh 2
ZY
+ ^r)f (l + ^P)
(l
0.
cosh
Zo sinh 0(sinh 2
sinh
cosh 0(cosh 2
zr>
2
Z_F>
'(+)
4
~~Zo~
cosh 9
2T
ZY
sinh 6
cosh
Za sinh
2 sinh
Zo
zr
cosh
sinh 9
2
2 sinh 9
oA/UVJyf&WV-o
IH~
cosh
cosh
'(+)
4
Ao
Receiving
transformers
Section 3
transformers
circuit
y["
0)
z(l +
2 cosh
(l
+ -^\
cosh 0(cosh 2
cosh 0(cosh 2
(l
+ 2 sinh
+ ^P) ^r^
0)
(sinh 2
5 sinh 2
0)
YZo sinh
5 cosh 2
0(sinh 2
0)
I"
2 cosh 2
0)
cosh 0(cosh 2
"1
^) cosh 0(cosh
0)]
(l+^f)
2 sinh 2 0)
+ (l + ~}z
cosh 0(cosh
sinh 2
0)
sinh 0(sinh 2
+ 5 cosh
0)
CHAPTER X
TRANSMISSION-LINE CHARTS
In modern transmission engineering, the analytical methods of
no longer suffice. In studying the electrical character-
solution
may
easily be obtained*.
many
of the problems
which he
is
266
2.
E = AoEr + B
t
Ir
(l)
= CoEr + D<>Ir
Er = DoE, - B QI
L = -CoE, + A I
constants may conveniently
J.
(2)
(3)
(4)
The
general circuit
be expressed
in
A =
B =
\A \/a
=
Do =
\Co\h
Co
\B a \/
\D
(5)
\/8
Figure 149 shows the vector diagram corresponding to equaand (2), using the receiver voltage Er as standard phase.
The no-load sending voltage AJEr is displaced by an angle a from
the receiver voltage, a being equal to the angle of the general
tions (1)
circuit constant
circle
ciency of transmission.
Space prevents a detailed discussion of the Thielemans chart in this
treatise.
Suffice it to say that it is an excellent chart, suitable for a variety
of transmission problems.
The author believes, however, that the modified
Evans and
purposes.
which is described in this chapter, is more uniand somewhat superior to the Thielemans chart for most
Sels chart,
versally applicable
TRANSMISSION-LINE CHARTS
the component drops BoI rp and
267
is
/?
is 90 deg. displaced
from the former or from the unity power-factor line. The
drop B It, due to the total receiver current, is displaced an angle
the receiver power-factor angle, from the unity power-factor
<f>r,
Having
line.
Circles
of Constant
Sending Current
Circles
Fig. 149.
Receiver circle diagram based directly on vector diagram. This
diagram is valid at one definite value of receiver voltage and may be used to
determine the sending voltage, sending current, sending power factor, and, hence,
also, the sending active and reactive power corresponding to any load condition
at the receiver end.
point 0.
Along the
lines
OL and
MN
three scales
may
be
constructed
1.
amperes.
,
2.
and kilovolt-amperes.
power scale ds obvious
since power is voltage times current, and the receiver voltage is
constant.
As a matter of fact, the power scales are the important
ones and the others are usually omitted. Using the power scales,
receiver, in kilowatts
The
268
CoE r
is
component
D
GH and the sending current D
of the
D Irq is
Ir
P = EJs
cos
= EJS
sin
Q.
<f> s
(6)
(7)
where
<f>a
is
the diagram.
<t>
TRANSMISSION-LINE CHARTS
Power
scale
Voltage scale
Current scale
= p
= ^r
Mir
=
269
MN
will be located
If coordinated paper is used for the diagram
chosen.
It is
along one of the coordinate lines and the point
convenient then to locate the point F by determining the direction
by means of the angle
of the vector A E r relative to the line
Xr which is given by
MN
\r
90
(9)
The
and
circle
(2).
Pr = E Ir
Qr = ErI
r
cos
Sin
(10)
<j> r
(11)
<j>r
I Circles of Constant
-p-Receiver Voltage
Circles of Co
Receiver Current
Sending
This
circle diagram based directly on vector diagram.
valid at one definite value of sending voltage and may be used to
determine the receiving voltage, receiving current, receiving power factor, and,
hence, also, the receiving active and reactive power corresponding to any condition of power and reactive power at the sending end.
Fig. 150.
diagram
is
270
The
scale
Voltage scale
Current scale
4^-
Power
The
angle X which
may
conveniently be
90
made
use of in con-
+5-
receiver diagram
given by
is
X,
If
by
(13)
in, for instance,
the
Evans and
(Fig.
149),
Sels chart.
TRANSMISSION-LINE CHARTS
EXAMPLE
271
This example illustrates the use of the receiver diagram just described
It will be noted that all
in the solution of a simple transmission problem.
lines in the diagram superfluous for this particular problem have been
omitted.
Statement of Problem
x
y
= 0.342 ohm
= 0.788 ohm
= J5.38 X 10 -6 mho
(at 25C.)
The voltage
1.
n are
Z = 34.2 + j/8.8 = 86.0 /66,5 ohms
Y = J5.38 X 10"< = 5.38 X 10- 4 /90^ mhos
The constants
The
by
of the nominal
relation
V,
Vr (l
given
+ ~) + IbZ = A V + Bo/r
(a)
= l+
l+ YZ
Ao =
is
5.38
_=
10~V90
== X 86.0/66.5
=0 .979 /0.5
0.9788 +J0.00923
Per phase
p =
i
I
2,000
V~r
10 3
= PZ =
yz)
2X10X
,-
86.0
X V3
~~TX66,000
Vr=
2 /
Angle X r - 90
o^x^ooo
V3 X
0.5
__ K
1 ' fi
,.
? 5 Volt8 per
mph
= 2478in
1,505
66.5
24.0 deg.
Total power and line voltage are indicated on the graphical solution of
Fig. 151 from which the following values are obtained:
1
These tables
will
Company, as Reprint
272
in
kw.
Fig. 151.
Receiver circle diagram for the 100-mile transmission line considered in Example 1.
The solution is based on the nominal II. Receiver voltage equal to 66,000 volts between lines.
84,000
82,000
80,000
Syr
iX
As
"^000
J"
76,000
\<$
74,000
72,000
1 70,000
w 68,000
66,000
UnjiHij
i>
&
64.000.
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
Fig. 152.
66,000 volts.
of
power
The curves
TRANSMISSION-LINE CHARTS
273
lines)
Total load,
kilowatts
90 per cent
80 per cent
70 per cent
2,000
4,000
6,000
8,000
10,000
64,650
66,850
69,150
71,500
73,900
76,250
64,650
67,450
70,400
73,300
76,250
79,300
64,650
68,100
71,600
75,200
78,750
82,400
Figure 152 shows the curves of sending voltage versus received power for
the desired values of power-factor.
2. Regulation for a load of 4,500 kv.-a. at 80 per cent power-factor.
Sending-end voltage = 69,850 volts (obtained from the 80 per cent powerfactor curve at 3,600 kw.)
When
the load
is
V'r
1
t,
,.
Regulation
YZ
69,850
0.979
71,350 - 66,000
66 000
rises to
71,350 volts
,__
"
per cent
Voltage Circles.
E =
a
A<>Er
+BI
= CqEt
D Ir
Er = DoEa Bolg
Ir = CoEs + AqI8
Ia
-\-
(14)
(15)
(16)
(17)
1
Evans, R. D., and H. K. Sels, "Circle Diagrams for Transmission Systems," Elec. Jour., p. 530, December, 1921. In this article the calculations
of the data necessary for the construction of the charts were systematized
an excellent manner.
general circuit constants.
in
274
and
A =
\A \/a
=
Co =
Do =
\B
Bo
Equation
may
(14)
\/_p
\C \/y
|Do|/5
=
=
=
=
+ ja
+ jb
+ jc
+#
ax
bx
ci
dx
(18)
then be written
E =
+ ja
(a x
)#r
+ #,)/
(6x
(19)
E.
(ax
+ jaJEr +
+ jb
(fei
+ jl
2 )(I rp
(20)
rq )
E,
This
is
aiEr
bj rp - bj rq
+ j(a^E + bjrp +
r
bj^)
(21)
EPS
(a{
al)E*
2(a x &i
a 2& 2 )#r/rp
(6
may
which
''P
2(a 2 &x
&f)A>
(6?
- aibt)E Ir 9 +
r
bl)Prq
(22)
be arranged as follows
2(aibx
&2
^_ r2 j_ 2(a 2 bx
i- Ira I"
&2
a 2 b 2 )Er T
^p
_|. ft|
aib 2 )Er
62
&f
#1
may
left-hand side
+ <$?
+ &i
(a?
6?
(23)
be completed by the
addition of
/ OX&X
+ 2&2\ ^2
2
&?+&i y
/ 2&X
l&2\ 2^2
&2
&?
(axbi
/
+ a 2& 2) 2
(6?
The
J-rv
+ (a &x
+&
2
x&2)
(24)
result is
6?
6|
*'
+
J
&1
Er
&I
&TF&I
(25)
TRANSMISSION-LINE CHARTS
If
275
given by
its
Horizontal displacement
Vertical displacement
of the circle
is
_i_
jl
(26)
?i j_
%**
(27)
given by
B ~ fiM =
vwm
(28)
A circle diagram based on equation (25) would be a voltagecurrent diagram and might be useful for certain purposes. As a
rule, however, a voltage-power diagram is required and the
equations for this will now be established. Further comment on
the current diagram at this point seems unnecessary since the
general discussion of the power diagram which will follow is
directly applicable also to the current diagram.
Equation
(25)
may
introducing
/rj>
The
Pr
=^and/ -|r
(29)
ra
result is
b\
b\
+
J
Qr
[
6?
+ 61 ^J ~
(30)
6f+6i
reactive
voltages are
is
to neutral.
paramount
adapted
kilowatts
and
voltage in volts.
Pr=
andCr =
(31)
276
Fb
1^00
~W+W
and
R
\
l > 000
b*
6*
E%E\
/ 1 \*_E]
^l,000y 6f
(33)
which
may
Pb
ER +
1,000
*
Q*
^
+ T^n
1,000
= (l^o)
J'
^^
34 >
or,
[P*
- A RY +
[Q.
C%
(35)
The
last
circle
Ar = "i^ooo^ =
5 " = ~ pOO^* ~
Cb
l^oo^* -
~im^WTWE%
(36)
^B
^' ;
1^00
b\
61
E SEB
I^oo
V6T+T
(38)
immediately
TRANSMISSION-LINE CHARTS
277
The
depend
centers will,
Fig. 153.
Evans and Sels receiver chart for constant receiver voltage. Each
of the concentric circles represents constant sending voltage.
When the active
and reactive power received are known, therefore, the sending voltage can be
determined.
Fig. 154.
Evans and Sels receiver chart for constant sending voltage. Each
of the eccentric circles represents constant receiver voltage.
If the receiver
power and reactive power, therefore, are known, the receiving voltage can be
determined.
278
may
coordinates
Thus equation
also be constructed.
(16)
may
be written
E =
r
(rfi
+ jd2)E -
in
+ MiLp + jL
(6i
(39)
q)
is
Since
this equation is entirely similar to equation (20), the only difference being the minus sign, all the intermediate steps necessary in
the preceding derivation may now be omitted and the final voltagecurrent equation written down immediately by help of equation
(25).
The
result is
/.,(40)
The
is
determined as follows
Horizontal displacement
Vertical displacement
Radius
(41)
is
(41)
(42)
by
2^1
Vb\
Equation
converted
(43)
into
b\
power equation
by
introducing
7ap
It
= gandJag =
(44)
|-]
becomes
Fl
b\
b\
M~
rf 2 bi
rfi&2
"*
i>f
-+-
b|
(45)
TRANSMISSION-LINE CHARTS
279
in
volts,
p
Fa
the result
1
~ 1^00
is
dM + dtbt ^Y +
s
b* + b\
\
,
\n
djbj
6?
(
which
may
dib t Ft
+6
*
Y -+
1 ' 000
M
2
62
J
(46)
be written
[Pa
- A aY +
[Qs
- BSY =
(48)
CI
Hence, the displacement of the center and the radius are given by
A3
"
V
1,000
v*
** ~ 1,000
1
m' _ =
D
5s=
T^00^ I^00
Cs
poo ^
A=
dlhl
b\
+ dih
+ b\
d 2 6i
di6 2
6?
61
l^oo
F2
**
_,.
*S
Vbf+1
(AQ)
y
Km
(50)
(51)
lie
E8
If
may
280
Es -Qonshnf
Fig. 155.
Evans and Sels sending chart for constant sending voltage. Each
If the sending
of the concentric circles represents constant receiver voltage.
power and reactive power, therefore, are known, the receiver voltage can be
determined.
Fig. 156.
Evans and Sels sending chart for constant receiver voltage. Each
If the sending,
of the eccentric circles represents constant sending voltage.
active, and reactive power, therefore, are known, the sending voltage can be
determined.
by an angle a, the
The line FR then
angle of
from
FO
in the direction
shown.
TRANSMISSION-LINE CHARTS
voltage
the
281
FS
represents
Eft= Constant
Fig. 157.
This figure shows how the displacement between the sending and
receiving voltage can be determined in the Evans and Sels receiver chart for
constant receiving voltage. The reference line (the direction of the receiver
voltage) is located as indicated by means of the angle a, the angle of the general
circuit constant Ao. '
power axes
Fig. 149.
Assuming
identical
OL and MN,
power
scales in the
respectively, in
two diagrams,
Hence,
the circles must have the same center, and, consequently, the
lines FO in the two diagrams, as well as the direction of the line
FR in Fig. 157 and the direction of the receiver voltage vector E r
in Fig. 149, will coincide.
This being the case, it immediately
follows that the angular displacements between voltages may be
found in the diagram (Fig. 157), as pointed out.
A family of angle lines, i.e., straight lines radiating from the
center,
may be
OF
verified
in the
direction shown.
by a comparison with
The
Fig. 150.
282
its
own family
This figure shows how the displacement 6 between the sending and
Fig. 158.
receiving voltage can be determined in the Evans and Sels sending chart for
constant sending voltage. The reference line (the direction of the sending
voltage) is located as indicated by the angle 5, the angle of the general circuit
constant Do.
ferring
practical to
make
Loss Circles.
and can
The power
easily be
drawn
in.
by the
difference
(52)
TRANSMISSION-LINE CHARTS
283
Loss
(EJs
- EI
r
(53)
r ) teaX
By
power
loss is
be written
Lr =
[AoCoErEr
(<*i
jEV/rJreal
rq )
rq )
2)
rq
Lr =
(aid
a&^E*
(6*ci
6 xc 2
lCl
rg
Rearranging as follows:
I
F\
*-EfPr
<S
- - E*Q =
v
^m - ?m
(56)
and adding
It
may be noted that the imaginary part of these products represent reacWhen the latter quantity is desired, however, it is preferable to
tive power.
take the product of the current and the conjugate of the voltage, as this procedure
will give the reactive power with its correct sign.
It is assumed that leading
reactive
active
The
284
in order to
P + ,*
Qr-TfoE}
m + ^](m>
P*
+ 2,00(to
E\
El
LR
~I
\1,000/
Here
LR
+ wT~a
2
luv
&R
(59)
The equation
repre-
4v 2
A RL =
The
Brl
Crl
F2
2,000v
B
2,000v
E,
(60)
w
t
1,000
+W 2
(61)
4WV
ER
(62)
auxiliary
constants are
t
=
=
=
=
w =
V
Since
will
&1C1
2(6iCi
dibi
+
+
&2C1
d\C\
&2C2
a,\d\
a^2
a^d^) 1
63)
(64)
02^2
^2^2
&1C2
be positive and
(65)
aidz
aidi
(66)
the
the third quadrant. By assuming appropriate values of the loss, the radii of a family of concentric circles,
each representing constant loss, may be computed and plotted
center usually
lies in
Adding the receiver power and the loss determines the sending
Sending power and voltage both being known definitely
power.
fixes
1
A D BC =
1.
TRANSMISSION-LINE CHARTS
285
The power
may
U
By
= [Ej, - (D E8 - BJ )(-CoEs
s
with equation
following form:
-H
,+
employed
may
equation (67)
(54),
+ Z /*)]
(67)
r eai
in connection
+ *!
L.
v'
(i')
- 4uV
4(d') !
E}
-
(68)
Center of
Voltage Ore fes
Fig. 159.
Evans and
ER
Constant
This
figure shows how the loci of constant loss can be located in the
Sels receiver chart for constant receiver voltage.
These lpci are
concentric circles.
For constant loss increment the spacing between the circles
decreases as the loss increases.
From this diagram the power lost in transmission
can be determined when the active and reactive power at the receiving end are
known.
2,000*;
may be
w -
^"T+[ Qs + 2,000v
written
E
^s
2
V fL, + +
^1,000,/
(
Es
{w'Y
4u
\_v'
The displacement
AsL
of the center
V p2
"|
(69)
are given
by
~,E\
2,000
(70)
286
W
s
2,000
(sSL
E*
\L 8
1,000\
]?2
(71)
v'
v>
(72)
4(y') 2
The
=
=
=
u'
v'
u/
aibi
+
+
6 2Ci
diCi
d&i
(73)
a 26 2
(74)
61C2
a 2di
ai^2
(75)
Figure 160 shows a family of loss circles in the sending chart for
constant sending voltage. As seen, the center is located in the
This will usually be the case, since w' (as well as
first quadrant.
w), as a rule,
negative.
is
4a-
's
-Consfard
Cenhr of
trVoliage
Circles
This figure shows how loci of constant loss can be located in the
These loci are conSels sending chart for constant sending voltage.
centric * circles.
For constant loss increment the spacing between the circles
From this diagram the power lost in transmission
decreases as the loss increases.
can be determined when the active and reactive power at the sending end are
Fig. 160.
Evans and
known.
If
the system
A = D
is
symmetrical u
u',v
v' ,
and
w =
w' since
f
This would
mission line with identical terminal transformers or a transmission
If, in the latter case, the leakance is negligible, d
line alone.
is
practically zero,
t
=
=
&2C2
a\
+ a\
= a^%
v = v' = ai&i +
w = w' = bid
u
u'
2a 2d 2
(approximately)
(76)
(77)
a 2 &2
(78)
(79)
TRANSMISSION-LINE CHARTS
287
Efficiency Circles.
drawn,
loci of
located.
F.
L by
Substituting for
100
Pr
- PVtLr 100
equation
(55),
+ uE +
tP r
(80)
equation (80)
may
be
written
Pr
Pr
=P
- wQ +
(81)
P?
'-EWr
V
Q?
= --E
-E?Qr
V
(82)
Adding
-(?-)T.E + []2v
r
H^)J +
4e>
-* (83)
Pr
+ [*-5-]'
L El
2v
[f]"(Kf -0]
For a three-phase system, equation
,+
may
(84)
(84)
be modified as
follows
t
Pb+
E%
2^000t>
w
[q.
2,000y
,
[A]'([-pr-
As seen,
this
the value of
center
is
+- ,
TO
)]
-l
is the equation of a circle whose radius depends upon
the efficiency. The horizontal displacement of the
288
Ar v
B Rl =
,
(? - )
(86)
2,000v
F2
(87)
2,000v
The
l\f-f 100
=Co20^
w*
4uv
(88)
/Er,<onsiarrt
Fig. 161.
This figure shows how loci of constant efficiency of transmission
can be located in the receiver chart for constant receiver voltage. These loci are
circles which are eccentric but whose centers all lie on a straight line parallel to
the active-power axis. From this diagram the efficiency of transmission can be
determined when the active and reactive power received are known.
the loss
circles.
received
is
realized
ment
when the
and
Evidently,
maximum
efficiency is
efficiency circles
TRANSMISSION-LINE CHARTS
[t
/i2_
AV + W
uv
289
(89)
from which
100
r?max
/
(90)
Vuv- w 2
-f 1
may
The maximum
efficiency
of
it
maximum
The
occurs.
power
reactive
maximum
at
efficiency
is
= P ~L
*
100
(91)
may
+ ( 1K
'-
ioo)
[ft
P ~
1 ~~
100
2,000,'
E '\ +
0s
[
be written
w'
V "
J
[AKt'+^-^i'+^'-H
The displacement
of the center
(95)
2
(93)
B " = ~5ooo7' *
c* "
<>/[<
be
w' V
+ s^J -
may
readily
i5o)]
(w
'
)2
"
*"
(96)
290
The
center
is
quadrant.
first
Figure 162
shows a family of
Center of
Loss CirclesZ
i^j^ft-^ff?
^Constant
Center of
Voltage Circles
Fig. 162. This figure shows how loci of constant efficiency of transmission can
be located in the sending chart for constant sending voltage. The loci are circles
which are eccentric but whose centers all lie on a straight line parallel to the
active-power axis. From this diagram the efficiency of transmission can be
determined when the active and reactive power at the sending end are known.
The maximum
by putting
may
efficiency
also be calculated
from equation
(96)
+ (!- w)] +
['
Here
By
<
97 >
is
100[*
y/lu'v'
the
4mV =
(w/)2 ""
the corresponding
determined.
value
of
(w') 2 ]
(98)
maximum
(94),
efficiency in equation
sending
power
may
be
be shown as follows:
From equation (90),
By
10
.
+ 1 + V4wy - w
,
+ X - V*E*1
+ l) - (4wy - w
100[t
(t
w', it
t,
u,
v,
w,
(99)
y
u', v' t
'
and
V - {w'Y
= 1
(4wy w
-w =
2
and that
l)
4m
(100)
(101)
TRANSMISSION-LINE CHARTS
291
S"
S"
s"
"
|-
Active Power
sf
in kw.
Fig. 163.
Evans and Sels sending and receiving chart for constant receiver
This chart is for a single circuit of a 240-mile, 220-kv., three-phase,
voltage.
three-circuit transmission line with 360,000 kv.-a. of transformers at each end.
The calculations for this chart will be found in Example 2, Parts (a) and (b).
292
In other words, charts of the type shown in Fig. 153 and in Fig.
156 and also the charts shown in Fig. 154 and Fig. 155 may be
combined.
2pqooo
&
&'
&-
s m f
1~
g & $
Fig. 164.
Evans and Sels sending and receiving chart for constant sending
voltage.
This chart is for a single circuit of a 240-mile, 220-kv., three-phase,
three-circuit transmission line with 360,000 kv.-a. of transformers at each end.
The calculations for this chart will be found in Example 2, Parts (a) and (&)
Figures 163 and 164 show two complete Evans and Sels charts in
which the sending and receiving charts have been drawn on the
same sheet. It should be noted that the loss and efficiency must be
read at the receiver operating point in the chart for constant receiver
TRANSMISSION-LINE CHARTS
voltage,
and
293
able voltage.
Complete computations
found in Example
2.
In the charts so
far,
These efficiency
efficiency circles in the negative-power region.
Negative
power.
positive
for
circles are exact images of those
values of power simply indicate that power
flowing in the
is
opposite direction.
In other cases
it
may
be quite
difficult, if
in all lines
not impossible,
power flow
Sels Chart.
The
it is
safer
Evans and
Sels
end
all
of the system.
the system at several values of sending- and receivingend voltage, an operation which is frequently required, it would
be necessary to construct a series of charts so as to cover the
of
This means that, in the first place, a conwork would have to be spent in the prepara-
amount
of
Fortunately,
it
is
The
by a
result is
1
In discussions by F. E. Terman (Trans. A.I.E.E., p. 84, 1924) and C. A.
Nickle (Trans. A.I.E.E., p. 85, 1924) attention was called to the possibility
of
at
294
and
(47).
Voltage Circles.
Dividing equation
[* + JL T+
U| 1,000 J ^
ffe.
"*"
iei
by
(34)
2
=
+
^ -^l
1,000 J
EB
gives
n
l
\i,ooo/
YfoY
\eJ
nran
uuzj
The
is,
as
squared.
It is more convenient, however, to have the chart directreading at the nominal value (V B ) of the receiver voltage, rather
than at 1 volt. This is readily accomplished by multiplying
Pb
+ t^L
The
result
QR
V,
"
is
_L
m V
1,000
'
'
(
lmo n J(wJ
VR
i.e.,
when the
now
will
be direct-reading
103 >
EB =
receiver voltage.
when
<
is
ment
of the center
The
displace-
TRANSMISSION-LINE CHARTS
A *R =
d
L_y* =
*
1,000
1,000
u*
1,000
aibl
"
a 2 &i
ai&2
&2
&i
*#B ~
1,000
1,000
+ a2&2 V%
+ 6 ^
2
62
1,000
T79
Ks
295
(" ""'
Yine\
UU5;
I'
C10b)
vw+bt
t^
T104Y
Uw;
is
is
'
1,000
F28
[psHW
<w
A 3s = -Jv%s =
1,000
1,000
r* -
n'
Ks
? ^i-t-^- F
2
1,000
&
6|
1,000
&?
&
fi^-
1,000^^
1,000
FJ
nron
UU8;
Ks
C109)
VfeT+T2 ^
/,
(
im}
Figures 165 and 166 show two complete modified Evans and
In addition to the voltage circles, radial angle lines
Sels charts.
in.
Obviously, the modified charts are
"angle true," just as well as the original Evans and Sels charts.
In the modified charts, however, only one family of angle lines is
it is
Although loss and efficiency circles easily can be drawn in, they
are actually superfluous since, if desired, the loss can always be
obtained as the difference between sending and receiving power,
and the
It is
lines
296
g
8'
s"
Active Power
S
ar
in
kw.
Modified Evans and Sels sending chart. This chart is for a single
Fig. 165.
circuit of a 240-mile, 220-kv., three-phase, three-circuit transmission line with
360,000 kv.-a. of transformers at each end. The calculations for this chart will
be found in Example
2,
Parts
(a)
and
(c).
(#*/F*) 2
2,000i;
[(E B /v B y
LR
^1,000/
<
+
,
2,000/ R J
+w
2
4v 2
4ui>.,
VI
(HI)
TRANSMISSION-LINE CHARTS
297
This equation represents a circle whose center is fixed independent of the actual receiver voltage in a coordinate system with
IMtOOO
_J
BftOOO
S?
s'
L_
sr
'
i"
Adive Power *
-
R ~.*
in
kw
(%f
Fig. 166.
Modified Evans and Sels receiving chart. This chart is for a
single circuit of a 240-mile, 220-kv., three-phase, three-circuit transmission line
with 360,000 kv,.-a. of transformers at each end. The calculations for this chart
will be found in Example 2, Parts (a) and (c).
variables
and
Qb
The values of
the loss
L R indi-
298
should be multiplied by (E a /V a ) 2
displacement of the center and the radius are given by
from the
The
circles
2,000v
is
(112)
T/2
2,000v
Crl
(113)
(114)
The equation for the loss circles in the modified sending chart
obtained by multiplying equation (69) by V\/E% and becomes
Ps
{Es/VsY
2,000v
-,vi]
Q&
(j. 000,/
2
[ (E s /V 8 )
w F
(w'Y 'm
vi
(115)
-Vs2
(116)
2,000*/
Bbl -
^_ F
2,000*/
(117)
8
t
CsL
Efficiency Circles.
(w'Y
4u'v'
vi
WY
(118)
Pn
l(E R /v B y
4uV
W)
A 3l =
2,000y
It
is
becomes
U^r-tvi
W
[ (En/Vn)
2,000y
F*
2
2
-\-
As
w2
The
4lUV
(119)
position of the
center and the radius of the circles are independent of the actual
receiver voltage.
The
TRANSMISSION-LINE CHARTS
also the radius, however,
The
299
of the efficiency.
by
-(?-),
c - By
moi^f-
( -
+w ~
*
iuv
(122)
becomes
100/
(Es /Vs) 2
2,000^'
F
f
[2^yi[ + (
<
Lt^t,
SMa/v a v>
y
2,000*/
L
-Io o)] 2+M2 4MV
F
'J
<
123 >
4*
4* - St,
EXAMPLE
0-A),71
pooT^
'
<
m>p vi
*
a
t
-,yj
2,000y
+ (l-
124 >
j%q)J+
WY ~ 4i*V
(126)
This example illustrates the calculation and construction of the Evans and
Sels and the modified Evans and Sels charts for a typical high- voltage transmission circuit.
Statement of Problem
formers.
The frequency
is
end
is
and step-down trans60 cycles per second. The nominal (or 100 per
220 kv. referred to the high-tension side.
Line data
300
R =
ohm
0.117
per mile
G =
0.1
C =
0.01382
lO-o
Transformer data
Identical sending
360,000 kv.-a.
Compute the
a.
Prepare a sending and a receiving chart of the modified Evans and Sels
c.
type.
Note. Each chart should be drawn for a single circuit of the line with
terminal transformers.
Solution
Part
(a).
J=
0.4814/85.84
sinh 9
C = 5^L? =
zo
401\3.45
= (0.1491 +ill.99)10"4
0.0012/89.29
Transformer Constants:
Capacity per
,
=
R
circuit
120,00
V 3 X 220
.^
0.005
y=
amp.
__,,_
2.017
ohms
315
220,000
7=
V3 X
120,000 kv.-a.
_
Q1
315
220,000
'
V3 X
0.12
315
AQ ._
48.40
ohms
TRANSMISSION-LINE CHARTS
n =
G
0.006
120,000
220T000
1000
301
, oa v ...
= 1488
X 10 mh
.
._ ._
v = 0.05X120,000X1000 = ,_
Y
124 X
220,000*
1n _.
10
mh0
These include a
and
Chap. IX,
(see
A =
=
ax
+ ja* =
A(l
2ZY)
+ BY + CZ{\ + ZY)
+ .70.000944) + (25.64
+jl91.5)
+jll.99)10- 4 (2.017
+ ^48.40)
(0.8781 +y0.01913)(1.01197
(1.488
12.31)10" 5
(0.1491
=
B =
=
(1.00599
jO.000472)
0.8542
j'0.02301
bi
+ fa = B + A2Z + CZ*
+ 2(0.8781 + JO. 1913) (2.017
25.64 +./191.5
(Q.1491
Co
=
=
=
27.06
ci
+./48.40)
+ J273.7
+ ZY)* + A2Y(1 -f ZY) + BF
+ jll.99)10- (1.00599 + J0.000472) +
+jc, = C(l
(0.1491
=
Do =
+j"48.40) 2
+ jO.000472)
+-
(0.04539 +y0.9940)10- 3
a\
0.8542
CZ(1
ZY) = A
+ j'0.02301
Check on constants
AD -B
Part
b\
(b).
+ b\
Constants
=
27.06 2
+ 273.7 =
2
Co
+ JO
75,662
275.07
a2&2
0-8542
27.06
+ 0-t)2301 X 273.7
75,662
bl
= 7l|i =0 3887xl0 3
m-m'= '6 ~ aih = 002301 X
-
'
'
b\
^i-- 8082><10
K' =
VTTl
- 0.8542
75,662
27 6
b',
273.7
-'
^7 -
3-635
X 10-
The positions of the centers and the radii for both the sending and receiving charts are given in Table XII.
302
<N
"o
"8
i
OQ
.*.
7*&
63
160
150
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
***
123,904
108,900
94,864
81,796
69,696
68,564
48,400
39 204
30,976
23,716
17,424
12,100
,
48,170
42,330
36,880
31,790
27,090
22,770
18,820
15 240
12,040
9,220
6,770
4,700
,
3 3
48,400
48,400
48,400
48,400
48,400
48,400
48,400
48,400
48,400
48,400
48,400
48,400
-381,890
-335,650
-292,390
-252,110
-214,810
-180,500
- 149
180
-120,830
95,470
73,100
53,700
37,290
6q
05
69
-1!
s
g.2
Ii-h"S
II
II
69
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
63
>
_0
r8
kTs
w0a
'o
>
o
>-
ft
ft
o
hi
JL,
?u
8
.
pi-3
+*
OS
II
* S
-18,820
-18,820
-18,820
-18,820
-18,820
-18,820
-18,820
-18,820
-18,820
-18,820
-18,820
-18,820
149,180
149,180
149,180
149 180
149 180
149 180
149,180
149,180
,
aj
ft
i
as
-A
II
3
149 180
149,180
149 180
149,180
06
*-i
-3
5
281,530
263,940
246,340
228,740
211,150
193,550
175,960
158,360
140,770
123,170
105,570
87,980
When
=
=
=
u =
=
=
v =
=
w =
=
4uv =
=
=
t
v?
vP-
+ 02^2)
2(6iCi
2(27.06 X 0.04539
3.516 X 10~ 3
u'
a,\C\
61.65
v'
dibi
10" 3
+ 0.02301 X
0.02301)
a 2C2
X 0.04539 X
X 10-
0.8542
10" 3
+ 0.02301 X
0.9940
10" 3
+ d2&2
+
+
0.8542 X 27.06
0.02301 X 273.7 = 29.412
w' = biCi biCz
aid-i aidi
273.7 X 0.04539 X 10" 3 - 27.06 X 0.9940 X 10" 3 =
4wV
14.47P X 10- - 4 X 61.65 X
-7.043 X 10"
- Aiw _ P + {w') - 4uV
- 14.471 X 10"
29.412
10" 8
3.516'
and the
and
1U
efficiency circles
in the receiver chart for constant receiver voltage are given in Tables
and XIV.
(w') 2
=
The
is
XIII
TRANSMISSION-LINE CHARTS
303
= 220 kv., provided the signs of the horizontal and vertical displacement of
gives the necessary figures for efficiency
the center are reversed. Table
circles in the sending chart.
XV
Circle
^R
A RL
Lb,
kilowatts
kilowatts
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
CRL
Lr
1,000
t1
w*
4*
Chl, 1 kilovolt2,000t>
amperes
kilovolt-amperes
-2,893
-2,893
-2,893
-2,893
-2,893
-2,893
-2,893
-2,893
-2,893
-2,893
2,892.5
3,000
4,000
5,000
6,000
7,000
8,000
9,000
10,000
11,000
RL
2,000i>'
-11,906
-11,906
-11,906
-11,906
-11,906
-11,906
-11,906
-11,906
-11,906
-11,906
13,300
42,690
58,890
71,510
82,210
91,680
100 250
108,150
115,500
,
4wn_,j
o
[-(?- 01* Bm
~
V,
per
cent
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
91.96
91.0
90.0
89.0
88.0
87.0
86.0
85.0
84.0
83.0
t "*'
wEB
2^007
Crv, 1
2,000
kilowatts
kilovolt-
kilovolt-
amperes
amperes
69,050
78,480
88,530
98,800
109,310
120,050
131,050
142,300
153,830
165,630
-11,906
-11,906
-11,906
-11,906
-11,906
-11,906
-11,906
-11,906
-11,906
-11,906
37,300
55,400
70,660
84,730
98,210
111,380
124,430
137,460
150,550
IW['-(v-0]'+
304
V,
A SV
per
cent
Circle
Bsv
fww
kilowatts
91.96
91.0
90.0
89.0
88.0
87.0
86.0
85.0
84.0
83.0
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
*'
69,050
76,940
85,170
93,400
101,630
109,850
118,080
126,310
134,540
142,280
2,000s?
V['
w'El
2,000
kilovolt-amperes
o
2,000t>
11,906
11,906
11,906
11,906
11,906
11,906
11,906
11,906
11,906
11,906
+ ( 1 "i~)] +
Csv, 1
kilovolt-
amperes
33,940
49,850
62,890
74,560
85,440
95,790
105,760
115,470
124,960
Charts.
The finished Evans and Sels chart for constant (100 per cent)
sending voltage and constant (100 per cent) receiving voltage are shown in
They are constructed from the data calcuFigs. 163 and 164, respectively.
lated in Tables XII to XV inclusive.
As seen, sending charts and receiving
charts have been drawn on the same sheet.
Part (c). Constants for Voltage Circles. The values of the constants I,
m, n, V, m', and n' will be the same as calculated in Part (6). Table XVI
Circle
per cent
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
160
150
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
Vr,
kilo-
volts
220
220
220
220
220
220
220
220
220
220
220
220
VR
(kilo-
volts) 2
48,400
48,400
48,400
48,400
48,400
48,400
48,400
48,400
48,400
48,400
48,400
48,400
IV*
1,000
kilowatts
-18,820
-18,820
-18,820
-18,820
-18,820
-18,820
-18,820
-18,820
-18,820
-18,820
-18,820
-18,820
Br =
T7- 2
mVR
1,000'
kilovolt-
Cr =
n
1,000
yi Es
BEr'
kilovolt-
amperes
amperes
149,180
149,180
149,180
149,180
149 180
149,180
149,180
149,180
149,180
149,180
149 180
149,180
281,530
263,940
246 340
228,740
211,150
193,550
175,960
158,360
140 770
123,170
105,570
87,980
TRANSMISSION-LINE CHARTS
305
Er/Es.
The modified Evans and Sels charts, constructed from the data
Table XVI, are shown in Figs. 165 and 166. Only voltage circles and
angular-displacement lines have been drawn in, while loss and efficiency
circles are omitted.
As stated in the discussion of the modified Evans and
Sels chart, loss and efficiency circles are superfluous and only complicate the
chart without being of any real advantage in its use.
Charts.
in
CHAPTER XI
SYNCHRONOUS-MACHINE CHARTS
Very often it is convenient to determine the performance of
synchronous machines by graphical methods.
It is particularly
important to have performance charts of the machines when it
is desired to examine the operating characteristics of a system of
which one or several generating stations form an integral part.
Especially in problems involving stability analyses 1 it is necessary
306
SYNCHRONOUS-MACHINE CHARTS
307
will, as a
than can be tolerated. Furthermore, it is also necessary to have separate charts for non-salientand salient-pole machines, even though these machines may
have the same magnetization curve, the same zero-power-factor
This, of
characteristic, and the same short-circuit characteristic.
than
other
zero,
power
factors
is
for
course,
due to the fact that,
the characteristic of the salient-pole machine differs materially
from that of the non-salient-pole machine.
In constructing the charts, the resistance of the machines may
Usually the resistance of a
or may not be taken into account.
synchronous generator is a small quantity and, if neglected, will
Fig. 167.
may
Vector diagram
an induc-
of the air
gap
is
constant,
308
When
series of
by properly systematizing
the work, putting the calculations into tabular form and using
Figure
graphical methods during the process whenever possible.
conditions, a lot of time can be saved
V =
=
Ea =
Ia =
P =
Q =
P' =
Q' =
If =
If =
t
Ea
A =
terminal voltage
voltage induced by air-gap flux
excitation voltage
armature current
power at the terminals
reactive power with respect to terminal voltage
active power in the air gap
reactive power with respect to induced voltage (E a )
active
in
terms
of
equivalent
field
current
xa
xs
=
=
may
by
Ea
= V + jI aXa
t
(1)
SYNCHRONOUS-MACHINE CHARTS
309
A =
=
C =
Do =
Bo
+ ja = 1
+ j&2 = jXa
=
Ci + JC
di + jda = 1
ai
(2)
&1
22.000
400
300
Field
Fig.
500
Amperes
1.0
Short-circuit ratio
By
cent.
Evans and
Chap. X), the horizontal and
and the
given by
A = >
aib *
+ q#y? =
+6
2
2
b\
B'
C'
= =
a^bi
d\b<i
b\
b\
F = Yl
2
EaV
= EaV
X
Vfcf+T2
t
xa
(3)
(4)
(5)
310
Ea
circles
(6)
If
reactance
reactive
respectively.
^c
stated,
it
is
usually convenient to
is
It is
generator
is
terminal
neglected.
phase
voltage
displacement
between
(^/) may
the
be
immediately read.
Usually, one chart has to be prepared for each value of terminal
voltage, although, as far as the E'a circles are concerned, a modified chart might be constructed so that the same chart could be
used for all values of terminal voltage. Since, however, it is
desired to put field-current curves on the same chart, this cannot,
in general, be done, since the field currents are obtained from a
non-linear magnetization curve.
T+
,
[{v /vQ y\
t
q
_
l(v /v y
r
in _ /nv/^v
x \ ~\T
a )\y )
2
SYNCHRONOUS-MACHINE CHARTS
is
311
As
cent value.
the
senting
vectors
in
Fig.
167 repre-
and armature
currents,
field
I^2tI3h JSSS
SSSSJS^SdST"
ot
Ea
The
is in
phase with
reaction
//
This equation
is
= //+ jkla =
If
+ jk(Iap + jlaj
(8)
easily reduced to
J-ap
J-aq
It
1}
k2
(9)
In these equations, Iap anc Iaq represent components of the current in phase and in quadrature, respectively, with the induced
voltage
Substituting the relations between internal power
a
' +(1H)' -i
(10)
312
Dividing through by
(I/) 2
gives
Ealf
Ealf
evident that a diagram based on this
equation may be used for any value of If, and instead of assigning
specific values of the field current to the circles, they are lettered
in terms of the ratio between the actual field current and the field
variable parameters,
it is
assumed value
obtained.
field
of internal
The values
of
P'
by
=P+ ^^r
v
(13)
and
Q'^Q-^^Xa
Evidently,
power are
if
resistance
identical.
is
and external
Q, E a is read from
the circle diagram of induced voltThe corresponding field curages.
** Zs
(14)
rent If
of
is
P and
magnetization curve.
The value of the constant k, which
If-A^IaXa
is representative of the armature
/ 'v
~"y
-^
/a jcla reaction, may either be obtained from
ar<l
Fio. 171. Vector diagram of the open-circuit and the zero-power1
factor
... from
characteristics
the
or
open- and short-circuit characterisFigure 171 gives a short-circuit vector diagram. From the
tics.
magnetization curve If, corresponding to the leakage-reactance
drop IaXa, is obtained (see Fig. 168). The field current I f corre-
SYNCHRONOUS-MACHINE CHARTS
voltage).
It
is,
in general,
313
becomes
*
Ij
-?^
(15)
The
air-gap voltage (E a )
and the
field
normal open-
is
If
rents
them both
in terms of rated
in amperes, or
armature current.
If
the field
method is believed
Example 1.
preferable
and
is
In the auxiliary chart, then, on a percentage basis, the horizonand vertical displacement of the center and the radii of the
tal
circles are
given by
A" =
(16)
B" =
C<<
(17)
U8)
f(ff)
Figure 172 shows the auxiliary chart. This chart also contains
a family of radial lines which evidently represent angular displacement between If and // or, what amounts to the same thing,
between
Ea and Ea
The
Compute the
in these circles.
Also,
t.
314
Ea and Z
E'
"
v
P'
Short-Circuit Ratio -1
xs -!00%
jc a -?0%
k--80%
Center-Horizontal Displacement-O
Vertical Displacement^ /2S%
'
SYNCHRONOUS-MACHINE CHARTS
Table XVII.
315
'
E>
Q'
'-Vt
P'
Eal'
Q'
E'l'
-E'
Vt
Fig. 173. Auxiliary curves of field current and angular displacement between
excitation voltage and terminal voltage plotted versus active power for constant
These curves make it possible to select convenient integral
reactive power.
values of field current and angular displacement for location in the main generator
charts.
Salient-pole Generators.
is
not constant.
is
considerably higher than the reluctance of the air gap under the
pole shoes.
The relative amounts of reaction flux, therefore,
which will be set up in the two regions depend on the reluctances
and on the power factor of the armature current with respect to
the excitation voltage, since the latter fixes the space relation of
the magnetomotive force of the armature reaction with respect
to the field axis.
When this power factor is zero, the field axis and the axis of the
armature magnetomotive force coincide, the result being a
weakening of the main flux without distortion. When the power
factor with respect to the excitation voltage is unity, the axis of
the magnetomotive force of the armature lies midway between
poles.
Obviously, the result is then a distortion of the main flux
without appreciable change in total strength.
316
is
any angle
</>
total
<f>
poles.
If there are
a single pair of
slots,
all
concentrated in
maximum
phase current,
is
V2I.|
(19)
is
given
sin
by
^ sin Zx
= sin 5x
(20)
To
The
derivation of the formulas for the demagnetizing and cross-magis taken from R. R. Lawrence, "Principles of Alter-
netizing coefficients
Book Company,
Inc.,
New
York,
1920.
Since this chapter was written, a very comprehensive discussion of synchronous-machine theory has been given in the paper, "Synchronous
Machines," by R. E. Dohekty and C. A. Nickle. The paper is divided
into four parts:
I.
"An
p. 912, 1926.
II.
1926.
III. "Torque-angle Characteristics under Transient Conditions," Jour.
A.I.E.E., p. 1339, December, 1927.
IV. "Single-phase Short-circuits," Jour. A.I.E.E., 1928.
As seen, Part
method.
It
calculations.
is
SYNCHRONOUS-MACHINE CHARTS
The maximum ordinate
of the
fundamental
=
-V2/f
A
317
is
0.9 JZ
(21)
7T
kb.
They both
armature.
nSlPT
TSZT
Fig. 174.
->l
Fig. 175.
Fig. 174.
Rectangular distribution of magnetomotive force produced by
a winding concentrated in a single pair of slots.
Fig. 175.
Diagram showing the demagnetizing component of the armature
reaction.
Its maximum coincides with the pole axis.
The shaded portion of this
magnetomotive force is effective in producing reaction.
field poles.
becomes
OAbkpkblaZ
(22)
OAbkpkJaZS
If
is
number
(23)
0A5kpkJaZ
(24)
318
The direct or demagnetizing and the distorting or crossmagnetizing components are, respectively,
A d = 0A5kpkJ aZ
sin
A = 0A5k pkbIaZ
cos
(25)
<f>
and
c
The
(26)
<f>
with respect to the pole is shown in Fig. 175. The magnetomotive force is not constant over the pole but varies according to the
Since it is not constant, it is necessary to determine its
sine law.
over the pole shoe in order to find its effect in
value
average
magnetomotive force
is
flir
A'd
OAbkpkblaZ sin
ar/b
<t>
cos xdx
air
62
air
sin
= 0A5kJc bI a Z
sin
<$>
&2
aw/b2
d (k p k b I a
sin 0)
(27)
where
air
sin
Kd
0.45
62
aw/b2
(28)
M.M.F.
Fundamenial
Comp. ofFlux
Fig. 177.
Fig. 176.
Fig. 176. Diagram showing the cross-magnetizing component of the armaThe shaded
Its maximum is located midway between poles.
ture reaction.
portion of this magnetomotive force is effective in producing reaction.
Fig. 177. Approximate flux distribution produced by the cross component
This flux curve contains a big third harmonic in addition
of armature reaction.
to the fundamental component which is shown.
The
coefficient
d is
and
component
by which the
direct
is
of
SYNCHRONOUS-MACHINE CHARTS
319
The
mental neglected.
obtained by the following integration:
fF(x)$inxdx
= -A
*
sin 2
c\
=4f-;
The mean value
the
maximum
xdx
LJo
sin
of this
sin 2
xdx
J*-%
1
(29)
i]
fundamental component
is
2/w times
2
-
M = -2 A,
HJf
TT
j-
IT
air
sin -r-
(30)
= 0A5k p kbIaZ
cos
4>
= KdkpkbZIa
cos
ax
- r
7T|
sin
7T
<t>)
(31)
where
,
T
K
The
factor
=
'
is
0.9 fa
a-rrl
-v[b-, sm T\
called the cross-magnetizing coefficient.
fo
(32)
is
by which the cross component of the armature magnetomotive force must be multiplied in order that it may
be used on the open-circuit characteristic. The component flux
due to the cross component of the reaction will probably not be
as highly influenced by saturation as the flux due to the demagnetizing component.
How much it will be affected by saturation
0.45 times the factor
320
by saturation.
saturation.
If in this
Finally,
parts of
all
desired
should be used.
saturate about
circuit
A1
Vector
diagram
affected
still
is
Fig. 178.
magnetic
the
it is
by saturation although,
a somewhat smaller extent than the main flux.
obviously, to
it,
saturated part
if
by
IS
of a salient-pole generator
supplying an inductive
load.
This method of
which
is
as -^
j
Ad AFc
Making
SYNCHRONOUS-MACHINE CHARTS
of the total
field-current
vector
is
321
Fig. 179.
is
Vector
Figure 179 shows the same vector diagram with all field-curIt
rent vectors rotated through 90 deg. in a clockwise direction.
is evident that in obtaining data for the salient-pole charts, the
The
constant air-gap voltage E a and their radii are determined by the same formulas (equations (3), (4), and (5)). Hence,
this part of the chart will be the same for a non-salient- and a
The
salient- pole machine having the same leakage reactance.
circles of
when
it
manner described
comes to determin-
On a
strip of
322
internal
is
The
paper
is
now swung
strip of
is
read.
Another
and
strip of paper,
which
is
Pomtatwhich
Field Current
and Angle
..
are read
Fig. 180.
Auxiliary chart for a synchronous generator. This figure illustrates the method for obtaining values of field current and angular displacement
in a salient-pole machine.
is read.
This operation is evidently in
accordance with the vector diagram and constitutes a very
expedient method of determining field current of a salient-pole
machine.
The data
for the
non-salient-pole generators,
similar manner.
shown
1
This chart as developed by J. M. Bryant is described in Appendix I of
a paper by C. A. Nickle and F. L. Lawton: "An Investigation of Transmission-system Power Limits," Trans. A.I.E.E., p. 1, 1926.
SYNCHRONOUS-MACHINE CHARTS
voltages also as far as determination of field currents
is
323
is
concerned.
approximate.
current which
is
This
'
Iff.
Reactance Drop
Equivalent Field Current (-Jkla)
corresponding to Armature Reaction
Fig. 181.
P =
Q =
Vt =
l it =
I fg
per cent
field
on open
circuit
short circuit
7/
Ia
=
=
field
current
If
= lft+jJfJa = In
100
+ JI {r +j v)
fg
(33)
324
which
may
be modified to
(0+( "-W =/
7
'
[vjWij]
+ [r&rT. ~
and
T. T
/T
V Uft/Ifs
circle
respectively.
(35)
&)
The
circles represent
constant ratios
sP.iQi
-Vt
<7a
Fig. 182.
Approximate
and
field
terminal voltage.
The
A =
B =
C =
y^-
(36)
(37)
(38)
ft
Figure 183 shows this chart. As seen, angle lines have also
been drawn in giving displacements between excitation voltage
and terminal voltage. Obviously, the chart has to be used in
conjunction with the magnetization curve, since for any value of
terminal voltage
must be known.
As already stated,
as being approximate.
If
the machine
is
field
current I ft
be looked upon
operating on the
it
If,
SYNCHRONOUS-MACHINE CHARTS
at low
power
factors.
The reason
325
region
is
always taken equal to its value at short circuit, i.e., at a very low
saturation.
This value is too low for high saturations, as illustrated in Fig. 184.
The chart
equivalent
field
power factor
n.
Assuming that the core loss is a function of the terminal voltage, the
and windage, and core loss can easily be taken into account.
effect of friction
326
power
axis.
to represent
S^S^ThSK^hSi
power
axis.
for voltage control in transmission systems are, as a rule, designed to act as condensers alone
and are not intended to supply mechanical power to external
loads.
It is unnecessary, therefore, to prepare complete charts
A
in order to determine the performance of such machines.
The sum of these losses, then, is constant for each terminal voltage and maybe added on to the input power, when the charts are drawn.
It may be more nearly correct, however, to consider the core loss as
depending upon the air-gap voltage. If a parabolic relation is assumed, the
core loss may be taken care of by attaching, in the circuit representing the
motor, a constant shunt resistance at the air-gap terminal of the leakage
impedance. The value of the shunt resistance may be based on the opencircuit core loss at normal voltage.
SYNCHRONOUS-MACHINE CHARTS
The
327
With
from an open-circuit and a zero-power-factor characthe manner previously described in connection with the
generator charts.
4
,.-kIa
Ek
Vt
--*
-JJaXa
kla.
I*
Fig. 185.
Vector diagram
E'a = V -jlaxa
and the
field
current
is
given
ls
(39)
by
f,
~ kh
(40)
in
tive
power
It is advantageous, as a rule, to
become
straight lines.
It
is
but one point on each slope of the V, the bottom point obviously
being obtained directly from the magnetization curve. In carrying through the calculations for a family of V curves, it is most
328
practical
calculate
to
be used.
Figure 186 shows the characteristics of a large synchronous
condenser of modern design. The open-circuit, zero-powerfactor and short-circuit saturation curves are given and also a
complete family of V curves. The latter covers a voltage range
200
20
Fiq. 186.
40
60
100
80
120
Per Cerrr Field Amperes
160
1
Alger, P. L., "Synchronous Condensers," Jour. A.I.E.E., p. 1330,
December, 1927. In this paper, attention is called to the fact that a more
is less
SYNCHRONOUS-MACHINE CHARTS
329
such constants that the field current, in order to give the same
rating underexcited as overexcited, would have to be decreased to
a prohibitive degree. It might even be necessary to reverse the
It is always undesirable to operate a synchronous
machine at a very low excitation. In addition, the exciters and
the control equipment (Tirrill regulators) are not sufficiently
flexible to vary the field current through such an extreme range.
field current.
EXAMPLE
This example illustrates in detail the calculations of the necessary data for
the construction of charts for a salient-pole generator.
Statement of Problem
The
40
60
80
100
120
Fig. 187.
Typical
140
160
180
200 220
30 per cent.
Prepare charts giving the performance of this generator at terminal voltages of 100, 95, 90, 85, 80, and 70 per cent of normal.
than the leading. It is suggested that the use of static reactors in parallel
with the synchronous condenser be considered in rases where a large value
of lagging reactive
power
is
require^.
330
Solution
Necessary Generator Constants.
Leakage reactance xa = 23 per cent
Leakage-reactance drop at rated armature current
xa Ia = 23 per cent
From the magnetization curve, the field current corresponding to this
drop
is
The
coefficient
// = 20 per cent
k representing the effect of the armature reaction
= //-// _
/
Demagnetizing
100 - 20
100
100
is,
hence,
80 per cent
Kd
b2
0.45'
ax/62
0.45*" *"
0.372
2tt/6
Ke =
0.9ra
axl
vL&-x sm yJ
)V2
2wl
{3-. Sin j
1
Ke
0.112
Kd
0.372
- 1lo
112
0.301
Radius of
circles
= Ea V
Xa
Table XVIII gives the necessary values calculated from these formulas.
Table
XVIII.
t,
per cent
100
95
90
85
80
70
(Example
1).
placement of
per cent
E'a = 200
per cent
E'a = 100
per cent
E'a = 50
per cent
435
392.5
352.5
314.5
278.5
213
870
826
782
739
696
608.8
435
413
391
369.5
348
304.4
217.5
206.5
195.5
184.8
center,
174
152.2
be noted that the radii have been computed for only three values of
This is fully sufficient, however, since these circles are concentric and
The radii of intermediate circles are more conveniently
equidistant.
obtained by construction when the charts are being drawn.
It will
E'a
SYNCHRONOUS-MACHINE CHARTS
Auxiliary Chart.
Horizontal displacement of center
Vertical displacement of center
Radii of circles
The
X ^j =
100
auxiliary chart
100
80
60
is
//A
shown
100
331
=
100
-r-
0.8
//A
(jrj = 125
//A
per
{yj
cent
in Fig. 188
rj
jk
:
40
w
^
20
-sL'
20
vO
C
"S
40
-g
60
80
v/
VX\
3^
9?"
<=fr
b
120
140
160
><*
KV*
>
"g
s\
180
20C
24C
26C
22C
28()
4-
'
1:
s
30U
o
ff*=-
^-
j-
*7r
60
80
00
20
140
60
80
WO
J20
40
\/0
60
J4)0
p'
of Rating
Active Internal Power jsfj?T in Per Cent
Fia. 188.
332
C
S
J(
C
(
<
per cent
per
cent
z<
Vt
p,
per
cenl
Q,
100
+101
100
+
+
+
100
100
100
100
//.
P',
q;
per
degrees cent
per
cen
per
cen
per
cent
77. 3
t>
82.
76
53
88.
>
83
94.;)
91
5
()
100. ()100
2.>
105. *Sill
5()
lll.f 124
7*>
117.5 141
100
-10(
123. C 166
100
-12J
-15C
25 +10C
128. S 202
100
100
100
25
100
25
100
25
100
25
100
25
25
100
100
100
100
100
100
+ 75
+ 50
+ 25
25
70.
)
[
23.
Ea
per
cent
per
cent
degrees
26.4
55.
88.
+
+
+
+
25
4.3
83.0
76.
25
88.7
83.0
25
94.3
91.0
25
100.1 100.0
25
25
3.4
105.9 111.0
25
50
3.2
111..
7 124.0
25
27.9
21.3
57.2
18.1
89.4
15.0
3.0
117.5 142.0
25
2.9
123.0 166.0
2.7
129.0 204.0
-124.4 12.3
25 -162.4
9.5
25 -203.2
100
50
100
50
+
+
+
9.3
78.0
71.0
50
8.6
84.5
78.0
50
8.0
89.3
84.5
50
50
25
7.6
95.0
91.5
50
+
+
+
+
66.3
57.5
100.6 101.0
50
106.3 112.0
50
112.0 125.0
50
75
6.1
118.0 144.0
50
50
123.3 168.0
50
129.2 206.0
-128.8 24.1
-166.7 18.8
50 -207.5
100
50
100
100
-100 5.8
-125 5.5
50 -150
75 +100 14.0
100
75
100
75
100
75
100
75
100
75
100
75
100
75
100
75
100
75
+
+
+
79.0
75
75
13.0
84.5
78.0
75
50
12.0
90.0
85.0
75
25
11.5
95.8
93.0
75
101.5 102.0
75
10.2
107.0 113.0
75
50
9.7
112.7 127.0
75
75
9.2
118.5 146.0
75
-100
-125
-150
8.8
24.3 174.0
75
8.4
30.0 5S14.0
75
flOO
18.3
80.3
73.0
100
100
75
100
100
25
100
100
-\-
75
17.1
85.8
79.0
100
100
-\-
50
16.1
91.4
87.0
100
100
100
-I-
25
15.0
100
100
100
25
100
100-50
97.0
29.4
f
f
300.0
64.0 132.0
>
117.3
130.0
132. C
164.0
96.2
7.0
27.0
11.3
20.5
58.3
6.0
54.0
10.0
45.0
25.7
5.2
82.0
9.0
74.5
1.4
4.0
102.0
7.6
102.0
23.8
3.3
119.0
6.7
132.0
41.3
2.8
133.0
6.0
165.0
56.3
2.1
145.0
5.1
206.0
60.9
1.8
148.0
4.7
246.0
61.8
1.4
149.0
4.1
304.0
17.0
19.0
26.3
13.5
85.5
13.0
44.0
21.6
34.4
51.0
10.0
70.0
18.0
59.1
20.5
8.4
89.0
16.0
81.5
109.0
5.7
7.0
108.0
14.2
27.0
5.8
124.0
12.6
139.0
44.0
4.9
137.0
11.3
171.0
55.0
4.0
145.0
10.1
209.0
62.0
3.3
150.0
9.1
252.0
62.6
2.8
150.0
8.3
309.0
51.0
67.0
38.0
36.7
31.2
52.3
72.2
112.5
24.0
49.1 114.0
74.5
18.2
31.3
98.5
41.0
15.0
85.0
27.0
11.9
12.6
103.0
24.1
95.6
12.5
10.2
117.0
21.2
119.0
32.5
8 5
10.6
84.5
13.0
72 5
39.4
62.0
68.7
52.5
131.0
18.7
148.0
48.1
6 8
142.0
16.5
180.0
58.3
5.9
49.0
15.1
63.0
4.8
52.0
13.6
264.0
62.5
3.6
51.0
12.0
323.0
63.5
218.0
54.0
70.0
92.2
28.0
87.0
46.3
39.0
47.0
57.7
22.6
94.0
39.7
74.4
21.2
26.0
26.5
18.2
1 06.0
34.3
92.2
0.6
0.7
- 21.6
-- 39.6
15.0
1 18.0
30.0
112.0
12.5
1 31.0
26.5
136.0
f
f
95.0
100
100
13.5
1 08.0 1
15.5
100
12.8
13.71 30.0
100
02.3
-93.7
-100.9 43.4
-136.0 34.7
-173.8 27.1
-211.6
04.0
35.7
14.3
--
61.5
+
+
+
+
75
100
100
49.2
42.0
50
11.0
5.8
32.2
50
72.0
245.0
148.5
+129.0
6.4
7.2
147.5
61.7
+
+
+
6.8
50
200.0
60.5
75.9
25
50
100
142. C
90.3
17.8
70.6
100.0
22.
71.2
38.5
77.f
100. c
53.5
56.3
50
100
40.
25
75
27.
+
+
+
75
50
42.8
39.6
-100
-125
25 -150
50 +100
50
16.0
51.5
34.1
29.2
180
60.6
25.0
180
60.
42.8
1.4
If,
per
cent
21.0
+140.
22.1
Z,Ea
V,'
degrees
98.9
46.2
75.6
//
per
cenl
+145
+
+
+
-123.
-160.
-201.8
4.0
3.8
77.
62.
44.;:
//,
E'j'f
25
100
100
77.3
Q'
Kl'f
25
100
100
134.5
4.6
3.6
+
+
+
+
69
75
100
100
P'
Field-
1).
1 09.5
- 23.0 94.0
- 49.4 80.0
- 78.8 68.0
--
53.2
10.2
1 40.0
23.7
8.5
1 48.0
21.3
162.0
1
192.0
SYNCHRONOUS-MACHINE CHARTS
333
Q'
P'
Vt,
per cent
p,
per
cent
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
125
100
125
100
125
100
125
100
125
100
125
100
125
100
125
100
125
100
125
100
125
100
150
100
150
100
150
100
150
100
150
100
150
100
150
100
150
100
150
Q.
per
cent
per
degrees cent
100
125.0 177.0
100
82.1
75.0
125
75
21.1
87.5
81.5
125
50
20.0
93.0
89.0
125
25
18.7
98.5
97.0
125
17.7
104.0 107.0
125
25
16.8
109.5 119.0
125
50
16.0
115.1 134.0
125
75
15.2
120.5 154.0
125
-100 14.5
-125 13.9
-150
+100 26.6
126.1 183.0
125
+
+
+
-
+
+
+
-
338.0
41.0 203.0
66.7
30.3
122.0
52.9
91.5
26.0 175.0
36.4
25.1
123.0
46.2
100.0
10.0
20.8
129.0
40.8
115.0
12.9
17.4
136.0
36.1
132.0
32.3
14.4
144.0
32.1
154.0
47.9
12.1
151.0
28.9
180.0
59.2
10.2
156.0
26.2
209.0
67.1
8.4
159.0
23.6
245.0
69.0
6.7
159.0
21.2
291.0
62.7
5.2
152.0
19.1
362.0
38.5
31.5
153.0
58.1
119.0
13.7
26.7
151.0
51.7
127.0
8.7
23.0
152.0
46.5
138.0
27.9
19.0
154.0
41.2
155.0
44.7
16.0
158.0
37.0
174.0
56.5
13.3
161.0
33.3
200.0
66.2
11.2
164.0
30.2
228.0
71.0
9.6
164.0
27.6
264.0
70.8
7.9
161.0
25.2
310.0
64.5
5.8
154.0
22.3
382.0
8.3 151.0
12.4 131.0
35.9 112.5
62.4
96.2
91.7
81.0
25.3 228.0
21.0
105.5 110.0
150
25
20.0
111.3 124.0
150
50
19.0
116.5 139.0
150
92.6
75
18.0
122.0 161.0
150
76.3
175
100
175
100
100
-100 20.5
175 -125 19.7
175 -150
200 +100 34.2
100
200
100
200
100
200
100
200
100
200
100
200
100
200
100
200
90
15.9
150
175
81.5
175
92.4
88.0
175
50
27.7
97.5
95.0
175
25
26.1
102.7 102.0
175
25.9
108.0 116.0
175
23.6
113.5 130.0
175
50 22.5
118.7 146.0
25
75
21.5
10.3 199.0
+
-
6.5 246.0
51.8 129.0
78.0 108.5
60.8
8.5 215.0
26.2 189.0
47.0 167.0
70.5 140.0
97.0 118.0
-126.2 101.0
124.3 173.0 175 -158.5 81.2
129.7 211.0 175 -193.5 64.0
175 -231.2
135.3
175 -272.2
89.7
84.0 200
32.1
94.5
91.0 200
50
30.4
99.7
99.5
200
25
28.7
104.6 108.0
200
27.3
110.0 120.0
200
25
26.0
115.1 134.0
200
50
24.7
120.5 154.0
200
75
23.6
125.7 181.0
200
-100 21.2
200 -125
200 -150
+100
130.0 214.0
200
200
200
64.5
57.0
80
69.6
60.9
60
74.6
66.9
15.0 265.0
30.0 232.0
47.5 202.0
68.6 177.0
92.0 152.0
-118.6
-147.5
-180.0
-215.0
-253.0
-294.0
+
+
+
+
+
45.4
28.1 149.0
175
75
7.5 173.5
-107.5
-139.7
127.6 193.0 150 -174.7
133.0 248.0 150 -212.6
150 -253.5
87.3
175
+
+
152.0
100.2 100.5
100
90
4.8
22.2
100
90
274.0
63.5
150
175
100
229.0
17.1
91.0
29.4
per
cent
19.4
94.9
75
If,
Vt'
degrees
155.0
50 23.5
25
/'/
153.0
150
per
cent
5.5
-124.0 67.5
-159.0 54.2
132.0 238.0 125 -197.0 39.8
125 -237.5
+
+
degrees
7.2
150
100
100
//,
62.0
78.0
175
+
+
+
per
Ea
L E'l
66.2
84.0
100
+
+
+
cent
89.7
175
100
cent
84.3
100
Eal'f
25.0
75
175
+
+
+
Eal'f
per
-111.0 56.0
-146.0 45.3
130.7 222.0 100 -184.0 34.5
100 -225.0
119.5 150.0
100
100
Q',
per
cent
12.2
75
100
100
P',
per
cent
-100 11.6
-125 11.1
-150
+100 22.6
-100 17.3
150 -125 16.5
150 -150
175 +100 31.3
100
per
cent
Field-
1).
71.6
62.0
49.8
130.0
108.0
88.0
71.9
9.1
31.6
182.0
62.9
148.0
10.5
27.2
176.0
56.6
150.0
28.2
23.5
172.0
51.2
164.0
44.9
20.5
173.0
46.6
177.0
56.2
16.9
171.0
42.8
198.0
65.8
14.3
170.0
37.9
221.0
72.9
12.0
171.0
34.5
250.0
73.6
9.8
167.0
31.3
289.0
70.6
8.1
161.0
28.6
339.0
19.9
31.8
210.0
65.0
176.0
34.8
27.8
199.0
59.9
181.0
47.8
24.0
191.0
54.4
190.0
60.7
20.8
188.0
49.5
203.0
69.6
18.0
185.0
45.3
222.0
76.7
15.2
183.0
41.2
245.0
79.4
12.7
178.0
37.4
274.0
79.0
10.4
172.0
34.0
312.0
77.3
8.8
168.0
30.0
360.0
+194.5 180
+146.2 180
+100.0
5.5
180
17.0
180
20.0
-31.6
-10.3
+13.4
334
Table XIX.
Vt,
percent
P,
per
cent
Q,
E'a
per
cent
per
+
+
go
90
degrees cent
90
90
l'
P',
C,
per
cent
per
cent
per
cent
40
79.8
20
84.9
79.2
90.0
85.0
95.1
92.0
90
90
20
40
100.2 100.3
60
105.3 110.0
80
110.4 121.0
115.5 135.0
90
-100
-120
-140
-160
20 +100
90
20
90
20
90
20
90
20
90
20
90
90
90
90
90
90
20
90
20
+
+
+
+
-
+
+
72.9
125.1 180.0
130.8 221.5
4.6
64.5
56.7
20
4.2
69.8
62.0
20
60
4.0
74.8
67.0
20
40
3.7
79.9
73.0
20
3.5
85.0
78.2
20
3.3
90.1
T6.0
20
95.2
20
3.1
92.2
20
40
2.9
100.3 100.6
20
60
90
20
2.8
105.0 110.0
20
90
20
80
2.7
110.5 122.0
20
90
20
115.6 136.0
20
2.4
120.7 155.5
20
2.3
125.8 181.8
20
2.2
130.9 222.0
20
90
-100
-120
20 -140
20 -160
40 +100
2.5
20
90
40
90
40
90
40
90
90
90
90
40
90
40
90
40
90
40
90
40
90
90
90
57.0
40
80
8.3
70.3
62.3
40
60
7.8
75.3
67.7
40
40
7.3
80.4
73.6
40
6.9
85.4
79.0
40
6.5
90.5
85.5
40
95.6
20
20
6.2
40
92.8
40
100.7 loi.o
40
5.5
105.8 110.7
40
80
5.3
110.9 122.0
40
-100
40 -120
40 -140
40 -160
60 +100
5.1
115.9 136.6
40
4.8
121.0 156.2
40
4.7
126.1 184.9
40
4.5
131.1 226.0
40
40
90
60
90
60
90
60
90
60
90
60
90
60
90
60
90
60
90
60
90
60
90
65.2
5.8
40
90
9.0
60
90
90
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
80
13.3
66.2
58.0
60
12.4
71.1
63.0
60
60
11.6
76.1
68.0
60
40
10.9
81.1
74.0
60
20
10.2
86.1
80.0
60
9.7
91.2
86.0
60
20
9.2
96.2
93.0
60
40
8.7
101.3 101.0
60
60
8.3
106.3 111.0
60
80
7.9
111.3 123.0
60
-100
60 -120
7.6
116.5 139.0
60
7.2
121.5 155.0
60
_QL
E'jf
per
cent
per
cent
+
+
35.5
18.9
21.1
44.5
70.2
98.0
-128.4
-160.8
-195.6
-232.5
120.6 155.0
80
20
P'
E'a If
+
+
+
+
+
-
70.4
36.0
61.0
47.0
48.7
40.3
34.3
34.3
17.7
30.0
1.1
25.8
22.3
22.8
45.7
20.0
71.3
17.4
99.3
15.1
-129.5
-162.1
-197.8
-245.2
+
+
+
+
+
-
If
degrees
per
cent
L,E
Vt'
degrees
//,
per
cent
61.0
51.0
37.2
28.0
76.5
60.6
100.0
85.0
109.5
24.0
119.5
42.3
134.5
135.0
60.5
149.0
164.0
73.0
159.0
192.5
82.0
164.5
222.0
86.5
169.0
262.0
86.6
169.0
304.0
80.5
+192.0
+141.0 195.0
+
+
+
Ea
-3.7
6.0
199.2
97.1
7.0
26.5
11.0
17.8
58.7
6.0
56.5
9.7
41.2
26.6
4.4
81.0
7.9
63.3
1.4
4.0
103.0
7.3
88.5
26.0
3.0
122.0
6.1
112.7
45.2
2.4
137.0
5.3
138.0
61.2
2.2
149.0
5.0
164.0
73.8
2.0
157.5
4.7
194.0
82.2
1.8
166.5
4.3
225.7
86.3
1.5
170.0
3.9
264.5
86.7
1.3
170.0
3.6
309.0
84.4
1.0
168.0
3.2
373.0
+181.0
57.2 92.2 +130.2
19.4
4.5
28.4
2.6
17.0
18.0
25.3
11.2
88.4
14.0
40.5
21.8
27.4
52.1
11.5
67.5
18.8
49.7
21.2
10.0
92.0
16.9
72.6
5.8
8.7
109.0
15.2
93.8
11.0
9.2
7.5
67.1 109.1
45.2
78.8
30.8
69.5
14.3
59.4
4.5
51.8
25.7
45.2
49.2
39.4
+
+
+
-
28.9
5.9
126.0
12.0
117.0
48.3
4.9
141.0
10.7
142.0
64.0
4.1
153.0
169.0
75.5
3.6
162.0
9.6
8.9
83.9
3.1
168.0
8.2
228.0
87.6
2.7
171.0
7.5
86.0
2.2
169.0
6.9
312.0
80.1
2.0
165.0
6.5
373.0
+160.0
55.6 134.6 +124.0
32.0
42.5
45.3
24.6
25.0
45.0
37.4
28.4
46.0
-,74.8
-102.8
-132.9
-165.5
-200.3
-237.3
+
+
+
+
+
13.0
Field-
1).
34.5
29.0
25.6
21.6
17.6
14.0
61.4 158.0
35.6 116.6
25.3 100.2
8.6
87.3
10.2
76.8
31.4
67.2
54.7
59.0
81.1
51.2
-108.4 44.2
-138.6 37.5
-171.1 32.3"
+
+
+
-
198.0
267.0
68.7
19.3
73.0
30.9
42.1
15.0
85.0
25.9
63.7
12.5
12.3
102.5
22.5
82.0
13.0
10.2
119.5
19.9
102.6
35.0
8.7
135.0
17.9
125.4
53.4
7.4
148.0
16.1
149.5
68.6
6.2
158.5
14.5
176.0
79.0
5.3
166.0
13.2
204.0
85.6
4.6
170.5
12.2
237.0
90.8
4.0
174.0
11.2
270.0
SYNCHRONOUS-MACHINE CHARTS
Table XIX.
V,,
per cent
P,
per
cent
P'
Ea,
per
Q,
per
cent
90
-140
-160
80 +100
90
80
90
80
90
degrees cent
//,
P',
Q',
per
cent
per
cent
per
cent
90
60
6.9
126.6 187.0
60
90
60
6.7
131.6 230.0
60
17.6
67.6
59.0
80
80
16.4
72.3
64.0
80
60
15.3
77.3
70.0
80
80
+
+
+
40
14.4
82.2
75.0
80
90
80
20
13.5
87.1
81.0
80
90
80
80
12.8
92.2
87.0
80
90
20
12.2
97.1
95.0
80
90
80
40
11.6
102.2 104.0
80
90
80
60
11.0
107.1 113.0
80
90
80
80
10.5
112.2 125.0
80
80
80
122.3 163.0
80
127.2 191.0
80
132.4 240.0
80
90
-100 10.1
-120 9.7
80 -140
9.3
80 -160
8.9
100 +100 21.7
117.3 142.0
80
69.1
61.0
100
90
100
74.1
66.0
100
90
100
90
90
90
90
90
100
90
100
+
+
+
+
80 20.2
60
18.9
78.8
71.0
100
40
17.8
83.6
77.0
100
Ealf
per
cent
per
cent
-206.0 25.8
-243.0 20.3
+
+
+
+
+
-
171.0
10.3
320.0
9.3
381.0
53.5 202.0
+134.0
35.6
88.0
53.2
51.9
43.6 174.0
+
+
+
+
94.4
28.9
87.7
45.1
56.1
58.2
22.5
94.5
37.9
66.1
27.9
8.9
106.7
32.3
79.9
1.4
5.6
119.0
29.1
96.4
31.6 148.5
17.2 130.0
1.0 113.2
22.7
13.0
133.5
25.8
116.2
10.5
144.5
22.7
137.3
58.3
8.8
154.0
20.4
160.1
72.6
6.9
162.5
17.9
183.5
82.9
6.8
170.5
17.3
213.0
88.0
5.6
173.5
15.7
246.5
89.9
5.0
174.0
14.7
283.5
88.0
4.0
172.0
13.3
328.5
79.0
3.2
164.0
12.1
394.0
43.2 240.0
+102.0
37.6
131.0
59.3
79.9
33.4 206.0
+
+
+
68.2
30.7
123.0
50.9
81.2
38.2
25.8
125.0
44.7
88.7
10.9
21.5
130.5
39.3
100 5
87.0
62.8
75.6
88.0
66.5
-116.4
-146.5
-179.0
-214.0
-251.0
57.6
48.6
40.6
38.4
25.6
21.4 179.7
7.0 156.0
83.0
100
89.0
100
98.4
97.0
100
14.3
103.2 105.0
100
-73.0
92.6
60
13.6
108.2 116.0
100
98.0
80.0
80
13.0
113.2 128.0
100
12.5
-126.6
-156.8
123.1 167.0 100 -188.4
128.2 198.0 100 -224.0
133.1 247.0 100 -261.0
69.5
118.2 145.0
100
59.0
90
-100
100 -120
100 -140
100 -160
120 +100
90
120
90
120
90
120
90
120
90
120
90
120
90
120
90
120
90
120
90
120
90
100
90
100
90
100
90
100
90
90
90
+
+
+
+
-
40
11.9
11.5
11.0
25.5
71.2
63.0
120
80 23.8
75.9
68.0
120
60 22.4
80.5
73.0
120
40
21.0
85.4
79.0
120
20
19.9
90.1
85.0
120
18.8
95.0
92.0
120
99.9
20
17.9
99.8
120
40
17.0
104.7 109.0
120
60
16.3
109.6 119.0
120
80
15.5
114.5 133.0
120
119.4 150.0
120
124.3 174.0
120
129.3 207.0
120
134.2 255.0
120
90
-100 14.8
120 -120 14.3
120 -140 13.7
120 -160 13.2
140 +100 29.0
73.5
65.0
140
90
140
78.1
71.0
140
90
90
90
90
140
90
140
90
140
90
140
90
140
+
+
80 27.3
25.6
82.6
76.0
140
+
+
40 24.2
87.2
81.0
140
20 22.9
92.0 87.0
140
94.0
140
101.5 103.0
140
60
21.7
20 20.6
96.6
+
+
+
-
9.6 136.0
28.4 120.5
49.6 105.5
49.3
40.0
30.9
31.7 270.0
21.0 236.0
8.9 206.0
5.5 179.0
22.0 157.0
41.0 138.0
62.0 121.0
85.5 106.0
111.1
-139.0
-168.3
-201.7
-236.5
-270.4
+
+
42.3
18.2 100.0
93.5
20
per
cent
165.5
88.6
20
degrees
2.6
15.1
per
cent
3.4
15.8
100
//.
If
degrees
80.4
16.8
100
90
Field-
87.1
39.0
+
+
+
+
1).
Ea
B'j't
90
335
92.5
79.5
67.7
56.0
45.4
35.5
16.0 296.0
6.1 255.0
6.0 227.0
20.2 200.0
36.8 176.0
55.6 155.0
76.8 135.0
+
+
+
-
+
+
-
13.0
17.8
138.0
34.6
114.7
34.0
15.0
148.5
30.8
132.2
52.0
12.0
157.5
29.9
152.8
67.3
11.0
165.0
25.3
173.2
78.0
9.5
170.5
23.1
198.0
87.4
8.1
176.5
21.1
226
91.5
6.9
178.0
19.4
258.0
294.0
91.6
6.0
176.0
17.9
88.3
4.9
173.0
16.4
342.5
79.1
4.9
165.0
14.9
409.0
70.5
38.4
167.8
63.9
105.6
40.6
32.5
158.0
56.3
107.3
15.9
27.5
153.0
49.9
111.6
8.2
23.2
154.0
44.2
121.6
28.7
19.9
158.0
39.6
134.2
46.3
17.0
163.0
38.8
150.0
62.3
14.6
169.0
32.5
168.8
75.0
12.5
174.0
29.5
189.7
85.2
10.7
179.0
27.0
213.0
92.0
9.2
181.0
24.7
241.5
94.0
7.9
180.5
22.7
271.0
94.0
6.7
179.2
21.0
312.0
88.5
5.4
173.5
19.1
359.5
80.0
4.7
166.0
17.9
424.0
33.5
38.0
203.0
67.0
132.0
11.0
33.6
192.0
60.9
136.2
9.6
28.3
182.5
53.9
137.1
28.5
24.6
178.0
48.8
144.2
46.0
21.2
178.0
44.1
154.9
61.2
18.3
180.0
30.0
169.2
74.0
15.7
182.0
36.3
187.5
336
Table XIX.
Vt,
per cent
P,
per
cent
90
140
90
140
90
140
90
140
90
140
Q,
per
cent
-100.2
-126.0
-153.9
-184.0
-216.5
-251.0
-288.0
119.8
80
17.9
116.0 137.0
140
90
160
90
160
90
160
90
160
90
160
90
160
90
160
90
160
90
160
90
160
90
160
90
160
90
180
90
180
90
180
90
180
90
180
90
180
90
180
90
180
90
180
90
180
90
90
-100
-120
180 -140
180 -160
200 +100
90
200
90
200
90
200
90
200
90
200
90
200
90
200
90
200
90
200
90
200
80
per
cent
140
160
80
per
cent
140
90
90
Eal'f'
111.1 123.0
160
90
Eaff
106.2 111.0
90
90
Q'
Q',
per
cent
18.8
140
90
P'
P',
per
cent
19.7
90
per
cent
60
90
90
degrees cent
-100 17.2
-120 16.5
-140 15.9
-160 15.3
+100 32.5
+
+
+
+
Eat
per
40
140
90
Vt'
120.8 155.0
140
,125.6 180.0
140
130.6 220.0
140
135.5
140
76.1
68.0
160
80 30.5
80.5
74.0
160
28.8
85.0
79.0
160
40 27.1
89.5
84.0
160
20
25.7
94.0
90.0
160
24.5
98.8
98.0
160
60
20
23.3
103.3 103.0
160
40
22.2
108.2 116.0
160
60
21.3
112.8 128.0
160
80
20.4
117.6 142.0
160
-100 19.5
-120 18.8
-140 18.0
-160 17.4
+100 35.5
122.3 162.0
160
127.2 190.0
160
132.0 237.0
160
137.0
160
+
+
+
+
-
11.0 272.0
23.0 241.0
37.3 215.0
53.8 191.0
72.6 167.0
93.8 152.0
128.5
113.0
97.0
81.4
66.8
52.0
20.0 322.0
79.0
72.0
180
83.2
77.0
180
60
32.7
87.5
82.0
180
40
30.0
92.0
87.0
180
20
28.5
96.4
94.0
180
27.1
100.9 101.0
180
25.8
105.5 111.0
180
155.0
40 24.7
110.1 121.0
180
136.5
20
60
23.6
80
22.6
21.7
20.9
80
60
20.1
19.4
34.4
82.0
75.0
200
36.3
86.1
80.0
200
34.4
90.4
85.5
200
32.6
94.6
91.0
200
20
31.1
99.0
98.9
200
29.6
103.3 106.0
200
20
28.2
107.8 115.0
200
40
27.0
112.3 128.1
200
60
25.9
117.0 144.2
200
80
24.8
121.5 159.0
200
-100
200 -120
200 -140
200 -160
+100
23.8
126.1 185.0
200
22.9
131.0 222.0
200
22.1
135.6
200
21.3
140.3
200
75
30.0 283.0
42.0 253.0
56.5 227.0
73.0 200.0
92.0 178.0
-113.0
-136.5
114.8 133.0 180 -162.0
119.5 150.0 180 -190.0
124.1 172.0 180 -222.0
129.0 205.0 180 -253.0
133.6 247.0 180 -288.0
138.0
180 -325.0
40
47.4
33.5
180
75.5
62.7
1.0 312.0
-117.3
-143.0
-171.0
-201.0
-233.6
-268.3
-305.0
89.0
80
180
+
+
+
+
103.0
51.4
44.5
58.3
50.5
101.2
85.5
per
cent
degrees
per
cent
85.0
13.7
185.5
33.4
92.1
11.8
186.0
30.6
229.5
96.5
10.2
187.0
28.1
258.0
98.4
8.7
186.0
25.9
288.5
96.0
7.2
182.5
23.7
329.0
87.5
5.6
173.0
21.5
381.0
1.9
36.2
224.0
68.7
152.2
18.5
32.6
214.0
63.1
158.3
34.3
28.5
204.0
57.2
161.2
49.6
25.1
199.0
52.2
167.4
63.6
22.0
197.0
47.7
177.3
75.2
14.2
191.0
43.7
187.0
87.7
17.2
198.0
40.5
202.0
93.5
14.4
194.7
36.6
225.8
99.0
12.6
194.0
33.9
249.0
-102.5
-102.0
10.8
193.0
31.2
274.0
9.2
189.5
28.7
307.0
96.5
7.7
183.0
26.5
347.5
86.0
6.2
172.0
24.2
408.0
35.1
35.9
254.0
71.4
183.0
46.8
31.9
236.0
65.3
182.0
58.5
28.5
225.0
61.2
184.0
70.5
25.3
218.5
55.3
190.0
80.6
22.2
212.5
50.7
199.6
90.2
19.5
209.2
46.6
211.0
96.5
17.1
205.5
42.9
228.0
-102.2
-106.0
-106.0
-103.0
15.0
204.5
39.7
247.0
13.0
202.0
36.6
269.0
11.1
197.0
33.7
295.0
330.0
206.0
191.5
31.5
8.0
183.0
28.9
376.0
87.4
6.5
173.5
26.6
429.0
68.2
35.0
269.0
69.4
201.0
75.3
31.3
259.0
67.6
207.0
83.0
27.9
245.0
62.3
209.0
90.5
25.0
236.0
57.6
215.0
95.0
22.3
225.5
53.4
222.0
-103.5
163.0 -108.9
141.0 -110.0
120.0 -110.0
105.0 -109.5
86.8 -104.0
19.5
220.5
49.1
236.0
17.4
217.5
45.6
250.0
15.3
211.0
42.3
270.0
13.4
205.5
39.3
287.0
11.6
201.0
36.4
320.0
9.2
191.0
33.0
354.0
8.0
182.0
30.9
55.5
64.0 261.0
78.0 234.0
92.8 207.0
64.0
,E
//'
degrees
9.8
52.0 294.0
54.8
Ea
Field-
96.0
68.6
42.0 328.0
-113.5
-134.8
-158.0
-184.0
-212.0
-242.0
-274.0
-309.0
-346.0
+
+
119.0
1).
182.0
70.0
94.5
+280.0 180.0
+186.4 180.0
SYNCHRONOUS-MACHINE CHARTS
Table XIX.
Vt,
percent
P,
per
cent
P'
Q,
E'a,
per
cent
per
degrees cent
per
cent
per
cent
+
+
80
50
65.8
57.5
25
72.7
64.0
80
80
80
80
80
80
80
80
25
80
25
80
25
80
25
80
25
80
25
80
25
80
25
80
80.0
73.0
25
87.1
81.0
50
94.2
90.5
75
101.6 103.0
-100
-125
-150
108.5 117.0
+ 100
+ 75
+ 50
+ 25
+
+
-
115.8 137.0
8.0
51.7
45.0
25
7.0
58.6
51.0
25
6.5
66.0
57.5
25
6.2
73.0
64.5
25
6.0
80.2
73.0
25
25
4.8
87.4
81.5
25
50
4.5
94.5
91.0
25
75
4.0
101.8 103.0
25
3.7
108.7 117.0
3.5
116.1 137.0
3.0
123.0 166.0
80
-100
25 -125
25 -150
50 +100
80
50
80
50
80
50
80
50
80
50
80
50
80
50
80
+
+
+
+
-
degrees
41.0
+180.4
180.0
22.8
48.9
27.3
39.6
132.0
107.0
-69.3
155.0
140.0
60.0
95.2
61.8 107.4
52.6
83.7
28.8
65.9
20.5
53.1
2.2
42.7
29.5
39.6
61.2
29.1
97.4
23.8
178.5
-107.1
-114.0
-113.8
186.0
217.5
+265.5
+176.0
+
+
-
76.7
5.0
140.0
9.8
114.1
71.2
3.0
158.0
7.5
92.8
2.7
175.0
6.7
180.4
2.3
188.0
6.0
220.0
1.8
193.0
5.3
264.5
1.6
192.0
4.6
318.6
50
10.2
81.4
74.5
50
25
9.2
88.3
83.0
50
50
8.5
95.5
92.5
50
75
8.0
102.5 104.5
109.5 119.0
80
-100 7.1
50 -125
6.7
50 -150
6.2
75 +100 23.0
80
75
80
75
80
75
80
80
50
80
75
80
75
80
75
80
75
+
+
+
116.8 114.0
123.8 117.0
68.0
56.6
-104.2
50 -145.0
50 -190.1
50 -239.8
46.6
55.6
85.5
75
75
20.5
62.3
54.5
75
50
18.0
69.1
61.0
75
25
16.5
76.0
68.0
75
15.0
82.9
75.0
75
14.0
89.8
89.5
75
50
13.0
96.8
94.5
75
75
12.0
103.8 106.5
75
75
75
117.8 143.5
75
124.8 176.0
75
80
-100 11.0
-125 10.5
75 -150 10.0
100 +100 29.0
110.8 122.5
75
58.8
52.0
100
80
100
80
80
80
+
+
+
80
100
80
100
80
100
80
100
80
100
80
100
80
100
75
26.5
65.3
58.0
100
50
24.0
71.6
63.5
100
25
22.0
78.1
71.0
100
19.8
85.0
78.5
100
18.0
91.8
87.5
100
50
17.0
98.4
97.0
100
75
16.5
105.5 110.5
100
-100
14.8
112.4 127.0
100
25
68.2
+
+
+
+
-
49.0
45.5
25.7
21.8
63.0
34.0
37.2
28.0
15.0
95.0
26.8
63.2
14.8
11.3
121.5
21.5
90.6
49.4
8.5
145.5
17.7
120.8
152.8
7.0
165.0
15.5
181.0
13.0
189.0
-111.2
30.6 -116.4
23.8 -114.0
43.8 278.0 +163.2
34.5 221.0 +101.5
4.5
191.0
11.6
227.0
3.4
194.3
10.1
271.8
2.5
192.2
8.7
327.0
63.2
76.9
38.4
20.8 178.0
2.6 145.2
20.2 120.5
93.5
79.2
81.9
-115.5
-156.2
-201.4
-251.0
67.8
29.0
80.8
5.0
47.4
+
+
+
143.8
97.3
50
25
36.2
45.8
46.7
66.5
23.0
14.3
74.1
82.4
18.5
12.0
11.2
9.0
9.7
40.0
71.0
25
24.5
12.0
105.0
50
13.8 101.5
19.0
8.0
59.0
+
+
43.5
17.5
6.0
52.5
32.0 126.2
315.0
3.8
67.2
25
+
+
+
+
261.5
191.0
43.6
60.0
45.5
191.0
35.5
75.8
13.5
53.1
degrees
173.0
12.2
+
+
+
16.0
//
per
cent
90.9
75
80
per
cent
per
cent
50
80
,E
Eal'f'
per
25
A E'a
Field-
E'alf
-136.0
-181.1
-230.8
122.8 165.0
1).
Ea
P',
per
cent
cent
80
337
55 2
44.3
34.1
28.1 326.5
18.8 264.0
5.1 220.0
13.2 180.5
36.0 150.0
63.2 124.5
94.9 104.7
-131.2 85.7
-171.9 70.0
'
35.0
116.0
55.5
+
+
49.3
26.0
115.5
44.0
70.4
5.0
19.5
129.0
36.0
87.6
32.6
15.0
146.5
30.0
109.4
59.2
12.0
158.5
26.0
141.9
86.7
9.5
178.0
22.5
168.2
-104.5
-115.0
-119.1
-114.5
7.3
188.5
19.3
200.9
6.0
195.5
17.0
239.3
4.8
197.5
15 3
283.2
4.0
192.5
14.0
339.0
91,8
45.5
204.0
74.5
106.0
49.6
36.0
171.5
62.5
99.5
11.2
27.3
164.0
51.3
104.0
23.8
22.5
164.5
44.5
116.6
53.9
17.8
172.5
37.6
135.2
78.5
14.4
182.0
32.4
159.2
99.4
11.8
192.0
28.8
186.1
-112.5
-120.3
9.5
198.0
26.0
218.0
7.3
201.8
22.1
256.0
+
+
+
-
338
Table XIX.
P'
Vt,
per cent
P,
per
cent
80
100
80
100
80
125
80
125
80
125
80
125
80
125
80
125
80
125
80
125
80
125
80
125
80
125
80
150
80
150
80
150
80
150
80
150
80
150
80
150
80
150
80
150
80
150
80
150
Q,
per
cent
Ea,
per
degrees cent
-125 14
-150 13.2
+100 35.0
per
cent
P',
0',
per
cent
per
cent
E.
B'jf
E'alf
per
cent
per
100
126.3 187.0
100
-217.0 56.4
-267.0 42.3
-123.2
-111.9
62.5
55.0
125
32.0
68.5
60.5
125
50 28.0
74.8
67.0
125
25
26.5
83.1
74.5
125
24.0
87.6
81.5
125
25
22.5
94.3
91.0
125
50
21.0
101.0 101.5
125
75
19.5
107.8 115.0
125
-100 18.2
-125 17.0
-150 16.2
+100 40.0
114.3 132.5
125
+
+
+
-
+
+
+
-
75
121.4 158.5
125
127.9 195.0
125
67.3
59.0
150
75
36.5
72.7
64.5
150
50
33.5
78.5
71.0
150
25
31.0
84.6
78.0
150
28.0
91.0
86.0
150
97.2
95.0
25
26.5
50
24.5
103.6 106.0
75
23.0
110.2 120.0
-100 21.5
-125 20.3
-150 19.0
117.0 140.5
123.4 168.0
130.4 218.0
1.3 301.0
15.1 249.0
33.3 207.0
56.1 175.0
83.3 145.5
-115.1
-151.3
-192.0
-237.2
-287.0
If
per
cent
Field-
L,Ea
Vt'
degrees
per
cent
6.2
201.5
20.2
301.0
4.8
191.5
18.0
358.0
41.8
265.0
76.8
146.0
3.1
36.0 224.0
68.0
135.2
30.1
29.0 206.0
57.0
138.0
55.0
24.0
198.0
50.5
147.2
78.6
19.8
200.0
43.8
163.0
97.0
16.0
202.0
38.5
184.4
-112.5
-122.5
-126.5
-123.2
-115.1
13.5
207.0
34.5
210
10.8
209.0
8.8
23.3
30.3
240.2
208.0
27.0
276.0
7.3 203.0
24.3
322.0
5.7
195.0
21.9
380.0
42.3
39.3
244.5
79.3
173.5
55.4
34.2
262.5
70.7
169.5
71.5
28.8
241.7
62.3
171.5
88.2
24.2
230.0
55.2
179.5
-103.0
162.5 -117.2
136.5 -127.5
113.5 -133.0
91.1 -132.0
72.2 -126.1
50.0 -104.0
20.5
223.8
48.5
192.6
17.0
223.0
43.5
212.0
14.2
222.5
38.7
236.0
11.7
220.0
34.7
264.0
9.3
215.0
30.8
302.0
7.6
206.0
28.1
346.0
5.8
186.0
24.8
405.0
101.0
82.5
65.0
51.0
16.8 378.0
26.0 320.0
39.8 269.0
58.1 227.0
80.8 192.0
-108.1
-139.8
150 -176.0
150 -216.8
150 -262.0
150 -311.8
150
150
122.0
E'
degrees
cent
119.2 149.0
8.0 364.0
1).
obtained for the curves of constant field current, and the curves of constant
angular displacement between excitation voltage and terminal voltage.
Table XIX contains the data for terminal voltages of 100, 90, and 80 per cent.
The figures for the other values of terminal voltage are not included.
Auxiliary Curves.
Figures 189 to 200 inclusive show the auxiliary curves of field current and
angular displacement from which the desired integral values may be obtained.
In order to obtain a maximum number of such values in any region, the
curves have been plotted both versus reactive power for constant active
power and versus active power for constant reactive power. The data for
these curves are taken from Table XIX.
SYNCHRONOUS-MACHINE CHARTS
100
120
140
160
180
ZOO
339
220
Normal
Fig. 189. Auxiliary field-current curves for salient-pole generator at 100 per
cent terminal voltage. These curves are plotted versus active power for constant
reactive power from data in Table XIX.
From these curves integral values of
field current have been selected for location in the main generator chart at 100
per cent terminal voltage (Fig. 201).
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
Cent of Normal
240
260
280
300
320
340
Fig. 190. Auxiliary field-current curves for salient-pole generator at 100 per
cent terminal voltage. These curves are plotted versus reactive power for constant active power from data in Table XIX.
From these curves integral values
of field current have been selected for location in the main generator chart at 100
per cent terminal voltage (Fig. 201).
340
60
Terminal Volfagi V( =100per cent
E 50
.o
|j
^S
i0%^
.flM>i
/,
30
^mZ^
<?
^ 1
^^^
%<&&^-
tm&
20
10
*0
40
20
60
80
120
100
160
140
200
180
70
'
60
if?
.50
1^40
J^
sflO
1*
Ji,
I.I 20
%_%
&'&
10
120
Aciiv
100
80
La
g g
60
40
20
Reactive Power
n g
rJ^S perce
20
in
it
40
60
80
100
Lead ng
i
SYNCHRONOUS-MACHINE CHARTS
200
Field Current in Per Cent of
220
240
260
341
280
300
320
340
Normal
Fig. 193.
Auxiliary field-current curves for salient-pole generator at 90 per
cent terminal voltage. These curves are plotted versus active power for constant
reactive power from data in Table XIX.
From these curves integral values of
field current have been selected for location in the main generator chart at 90
per cent terminal voltage (Fig. 203).
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
of Normal
Fig. 194.
Auxiliary field-current curves for salient-pole generator at 90 per
cent terminal voltage. These curves are plotted versus reactive power for constant active power from data in Table XIX.
From these curves integral values
of field current have been selected for location in the main generator chart at 90
per cent terminal voltage (Fig. 203).
342
80
60
40
20
100
160
140
120
ZOO
180
TO
:l
V
^ /, V
S"
Term,
na/Vo 'fage r
t*9t perc <nt
<#
^^ ^3^
^jp-"
40-J
ent^.
AchjIVPOM
"120
100
80
40
60
Lagging
20
20
Reactive Power
in
40
60
80
100
Leading
SYNCHRONOUS-MACHINE CHARTS
80
20
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
260
343
280
500
320
34d
Normal
Fig. 197.
Auxiliary field-current curves for salient-pole generator at 80 per
cent terminal voltage. These curves are plotted versus active power for constant reactive power from data in Table XIX.
From these curves integral values
of field current have been selected for location in the main generator chart at 80
per cent terminal voltage (Fig. 205)
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
260
280
300
320
340
Normal
344
f60
A
v*-
50
:40
-fe*
/$
20
',3 10
'
<$
^^
/)
im ^
"0
20
Wpercent
i>^
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
120
100
80
60
40
20
Reactive Power
Lagging
20
in
40
60
80
100
Leading
Fig. 200.
Auxiliary angular-displacement curves for salient-pole generator
at 80 per cent terminal voltage.
These curves are plotted versus reactive power
for constant active power from data in Table XIX.
From these curves integral
values of angular displacement between excitation voltage and terminal voltage
have been selected for location in the main generator chart at 80 per cent terminal
voltage (Fig. 205).
SYNCHRONOUS-MACHINE CHARTS
(5i
345
rfl^S
V*\
loU
$k
140 = -
01
- =
l?0
ia)
b>
^^
>
v^
-t-
S
J*
-
H
n
> 40
"
IP
--
>EjL
r^
W5
12^
60
80
i%3,
r>
W-
3jSt
o*
$r
__.
-s
,A>
yva p
* ?nrT
a-
^v
20- =
120
& ^s
r~
^Vl S-A
""
un
^E
'
-A??
'iU
-Hi>
160
~W
4'
180
20
40
60
80
100
120
Terminal Vo Ifaqe
140
160
180
200
70JW ce/7/-
'
220
240
260
260
300
Fig. 201.
Chart for a salient-pole generator at 100 per cen terminal voltage.
Circles represent voltage induced by air-gap flux in per cent of normal terminal
voltage.
Curves represent field current in per cent of field current at normal
open-circuit voltage.
Straight angle lines represent displacement in electrical
degrees between voltage induced by air-gap flux and terminal voltage.
Curved
angle lines represent displacement in electrical degrees between excitation voltage
and terminal voltage. Characteristic curves of this generator are given in Fig.
187 and calculations in Example 1, Tables XVIII and XIX.
346
200
4>
160
140
-h
s\\
-U-U-H
120
100
--
"W
*
80 = =
60
iV\
--
[$$
40
_=
20
-=
SRtck
\q\
oS?i
gM$
=:
-H^^n)?
20
40
60
xfk
AV JQA, >X\
$M
rS^r
^I^nrV'
ou
Tt
1
T3-
lE
|_
140
i -Fr
160
?f
~H&
i
-T
1
'
***= -55><
Ter
200
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
260
280
300
SYNCHRONOUS-MACHINE CHARTS
4W
347
:vyv\
#
SXs! <T\V\
(60
"T
T>
<~
$kv
120=
^w^
ioofh
Vr>
80--
\>TN
~~
60
y$
A$^o
<s
15
40-^
=
?ft-
'v^v5
o>
T$rr
WMi
<u
a>
\xjk\
lW$
c 0-~M. ?n
--
S
)5aP
40
fin
80
=:
Sm
DjUq
=
$*6
^w
-^ v
*
M0
160
-\%
$>
HpT k
o
V?
"\
L
'
>a
St tI
ffi
^3B
/A/A.
eVt = 90pe,
cent
\o
"0
~4r
fflO
20
40
60
80
100
CO
140
Active Power
180
ZOO
220
Per Cent of Rating
160
in
240
260
280
300
Fig. 203.
Chart for a salient-pole generator at 90 per cent terminal voltage.
Circles represent voltage induced by air-gap flux in per cent of normal terminal
voltage.
Curves represent field current in per cent of field current at normal
open-circuit voltage.
Straight angle lines represent displacement in electrical
degrees between voltage induced by air-gap flux and terminal voltage.
Curved
angle lines represent displacement in electrical degrees between excitation voltage
and terminal voltage. Characteristic curves of this generator are given in Fig.
187, and calculations in Example 1, Tables XVIII and XIX.
348
20
40
60
80
100
120
Active
160
140
Power
in
180
200
220
240
260
280
300
Fig. 204.
Chart for a salient-pole generator at 85 per cent terminal voltage.
Circles represent voltage induced by air-gap flux in per cent of normal terminal
Curves represent field current in per cent of field current at normal
voltage.
Straight angle lines represent displacement in electrical
open-circuit voltage.
degrees between voltage induced by air-gap flux and terminal voltage. Curved
angle lines represent displacement in electrical degrees between excitation voltage
and terminal voltage. Characteristic curves of this generator are given in
Fig. 187.
SYNCHRONOUS-MACHINE CHARTS
80
100
120
Active Power
140
in Per
160
180
ZOO
220
240
349
260
260
300
Cent of Ra+ing
Fig. 205.
Chart for a salient-pole generator at 80 per cent terminal voltage.
Circles represent voltage induced by air-gap flux in per cent of normal terminal
voltage.
Curves represent field current in per cent of field current at normal
open-circuit voltage.
Straight angle lines represent displacement in electrical
degrees between voltage induced by air-gap flux and terminal voltage. Curved
angle lines represent displacement in electrical degrees between excitation
voltage and terminal voltage.
Characteristic curves of this generator are given
in Fig. 187, and calculations in Example 1, Tables XVIII and XIX.
350
100
120
140
Active Power
in
160
180
ZOO
CHAPTER
XII
PROBLEMS
In order to illustrate the solution of problems of electric power
transmission in the steady state, particularly by graphical
methods, a series of examples is presented below. In most
instances, the modified Evans and Sels chart is used to give the
by
When
In
the
all loads.
This can be
compounded
^or
1
Tirrill regulators.
trical
"Handbook for
by H. Pender and "Standard Handbook for Elec-
Electrical Engineers,"
Engineers."
351
352
The sending
is
voltage
is
transmission. 1
(in
most
cases,
may
be
made
to
of leading or lagging
current.
will produce a drop in the line which counteracts the drop due to
a lagging load. If, on the other hand, the synchronous-condenser current is lagging, the drop in the line will tend to compen-
The
third
Dwight,
H.
B.,
"Transmission
Systems
with
Over-compounded
New
York, 1915.
loc. cit.
&
Sons,
the
353
question of system
is
it is
ers
on considerations
Fig. 207.
of the
Sels chart.
underexcited.
The question
of this treatise.
354
at no load.
EXAMPLE
Statement of Problem
Line:
Three-phase.
Length
200 miles.
Conductors:
61 (steel
7;
in a horizontal plane.
Diame-
Load:
Full load
Transformers:
Two banks of transformers in parallel at each end of line. Each bank has
a capacity of 20,000 kw. at 75 per cent power factor and possesses 0.8
per
cent resistance and 12 per cent reactance. The kilovolt-amperes
required
for excitation are 1,000 kv.-a. per bank, and the core
loss 0.5 per cent of the
rated capacity (at 75 per cent power factor).
The receiving banks step the
down to 15 kv.
Transformer Connections:
voltage
Y; neutral grounded.
Conditions of Operation:
355
Solution
Resistance:
The overall diameter (d) of a concentric-lay cable
=d
i(2n
is
given by 1
+ b)
(a)
where
di
n = number
1, 2,
2.155,
0.954
0.954
U1
2X4 +
core, respectively.
is
0.106
in.
Area of aluminum
A =
54
X,X 0.106'
4
=0476h,
in. cross-section
at 20C. 2
The
R'
0.424
^^ =
0.1482
is,
therefore,
ohm /mile
Correction for Spiraling. The resistance R' should be corrected for the
Obviously, the actual length I of a strand (see Fig.
208) is larger than the length measured axially along the conductor.
Fig. 208.
in a
concentric-lay cable.
The size of the correction which should be applied to the resistance computed above depends on the average pitch factor of the cable. The pitch
factor of any layer is given by
l
'
-P -
+ 0)'
(i,)
where
P =
dp
I
Pender,
H.,
=
=
"Handbook
for
Electrical
Engineers,"
following.
2
See
"Handbook
loc. cit.
p.
1873 and
...
356
dp, inches
P, inches
Outer layer
Second layer
Third layer
8.56
6.42
4.28
(*
.846Y
/tXO. 636 \ 2
42
CTT^X 0.424V 1
V + {&&-) J
1
1.048
p'-l+?2<0 =
The
R =
p'R'
Skin-effect Ratio.
is,
(c)
1)
be
1.032
therefore,
1.032
0.1482
0.153 ohm/mile
ratio is given
by 1
or Jo(ar)
2 Ji(ca)
id)
where
n
p
<o
=
=
4tT(XO}
\45
(*)
10 -6
Po (i
a 4) = 2.607 X
~.
2.83
1.279
1.0876/33. 18
o^sos^rM
20)
2,830 abohm-cm.
2.54r
^45* =
1.55\45
55\45
X
2
fl o
Effective resistance of
R =
0.954
Jo(ar)
0.00423
ohm-cm.
Ji(ar)
~Z =
10-*(1
10"*
357
^=
1.0876 /33. 18
1.071/16.0
1.03
0.7868\27.86
+J0.295
aluminum
=
=
1.03
1.03
0.1576
0.153
0.158 ohm/mile
Internal reactance
X = 0.295i2
0.295
0.153
^ = ~^?
0.0452 ohm/mile
Internal inductance
Li
Inductance:
Equivalent spacing
D =
210-^2 = 264.8
L =
^7411og 10
(741 log 10
^| + 80.5)l0-
(2,033
+80.5)l0-
80.5)10"
As previously
internal inductance
in.
stated, it will
by 10 per
cent.
On
becomes
L =
(2,033
+ 80.5 X
1.10)10^
=
=
0.002122
0.00212 henry /mile
will
358
As
total inductances
is
Capacitance:
0.03882X10" = 0-08882X10^ =
c =
logio-
^o4.o
logl0
mm x
1Q
_6
farad/mi]e
0^77
The
corona" loss
may be computed by
assuming
1
in.
Hg.
upon location
depending
r
or
+ 25) >J^ (e -
= M70 ^ +
?90(/
e 6 )n0-%w.
(/)
by
25 )^(logio
P.y^g _
g omo 8)n0-'kw.
(g)
Where
= .m
= density factor
459 + t
m = irregularity factor of the wires
/ = frequency in cycles per second
r = conductor radius in inches
&
..
D =
e
e
g
Po
The
is
given
g inoSrln~
by
= 123m
5r logio
(h)
When
equation
When
1
Peek, F. W., Jr., "Dielectric Phenomena in High-voltage Engineering,"
McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1920.
2
See Woodruff, L. F., "Principles of Electric Power Transmission and
Distribution," loc. cit., Chap. VIII.
359
g b )ln^
Vu = F\120 = rUgb -
gc )ln
- gdn2^
(t)
+ gjn2^
(j)
+ 9b + g =
ga
(k)
^
F\150
9b
...
(J)
fr-
V3rln-^
-S/2r
150\150
V3 X
Y2^^WW7
inch
<
Since gb
ln
17.9
m
mS =
assumed
X 29.7 = 1ftfi
_
1065
459+40
_
=
0.477
g mod, there
is
no corona
The
loss.
zero.
Constants
to
Be Used:
r
0.158
ohm
]
L I
C =
+jo>L =
=
+juC =
y/Ty
J* =
j377
0.0141
io
.8
81
0.814/78
/-
X
X
= j'5.315 X 10~
= 5.315 X 10-/90^ mho
10"6
5.315790
2.08
391\5.6ohms
.315/90
360
^p =
0.404/84.7
sinh
Z" = Z
162.8/78^8
7^T4
0>416
158.0/79?!
ohms
29.9 +j'155.1
XI
tanh o
-^ =
0.210/84.2
1.063
10- 3 /90
0.537
Transformer Constants:
10- 8 /89.2
20,000
D =
Rt
-,
Xt =
V3 X
150
150,000
-7=
VZ X
amp.
0.008
_ ,__
mho
6.75
ohms
1A1
o
101.2
ohms
102.6
X 0.12
V3 X
(0.00752 +i0.537)10~ 3
0.75
150,000
t=
102.6
0.416/84.4
102.6
ft,
1 ' 000X
20,000
0.005
-^-poo
ninft
0.100
Exciting current
/.
Two banks
01
!
:L
V3 X 150
3.85(0.1
0.385
jO.995)
j'3.83
in parallel
becomes
T
30,000
V3 X
0.04
/0
150
Line
Rec. Trans7?
ww\MT5T5>
Z"
2
-Load
Syn. Cond,
Fig. 209.
Equivalent circuit of system to be solved in Example 1. The
circuit includes transmission line, receiving transformers, synchronous condenser,
and
load.
361
Although the placing of the line leak and the transformer excitation
admittance in parallel with the k>ad itself involves an approximation, the
accuracy of the solution is not seriously reduced.
yHjT
TV:
z
As seen,
Fig. 210. Approximate circuit representing system in Fig. 209.
the receiver-end line leak and the transformer excitation admittance have been
moved to the point where load and synchronous condenser are attached.
The
Current
Current
Current
Current
Current
Combined equivalent
line
+Z T
I'
11
+I +I
2
may be combined
4.62
+Z T
The receiver diagram, Fig. 211, is based on the calculations above. The
necessary synchronous condenser data are obtained from the diagram and
collected in the following table
Load Kilowatts at 75 Per
Cent Power Factor
1.
The
Synchronous Condenser
-10,000
4,620
15,000
+
+
1,200
7,180
20,000
25,000
30,000
35,000
40,000
45,000
50,000
+13,480
+20,240
+27,100
+34,400
+41,700
+49,800
+58,300
5,000
10,000
_.
Reactive Kilovolt-amperes of
362
..j'(z'+**)
Ter*^s
fcceivir>9
tna
En d
The
trt
50,000
1
o
40,000
30,000
20,000
"S
5
i
10,000
OS
ooon,
10,000
'
Load
in
20,000
Kilowatts at 75
30,000
40,000
50,000
% Power Factor
Fig. 212. -Capacity of synchronous condensers necessary to maintain constant receiver voltage for various sizes of load at 75 per cent power factor (lagging).
This curve is for the system treated in Example 1.
Sels charts of
EXAMPLE
363
by means
of the modified
Evans and
Statement of Problem
A 240-mile,
is
Solution
V
^r
tlR
When
the load
is
it
removed
Sir
Hence,
ER =
The voltage
regulation, therefore,
Regulation
152
is
100
52 per cent
Upon
ER =
00
=
^
Regulation
is
which
is
thrown
EXAMPLE
is
automatically
100
off.
Statement of Problem
364
What
load at 90 per cent power factor (lagging) can the line supplythe synchronous condensers operate at 85 per cent field current and the
low-tension sending and receiving voltage are both the equivalent of 220 kv. ?
a.
when
Solution
Pr = 95,500 kw.
at 90 per cent
power factor
When
XX
Table XX.
t,
per cent
85.0
68.6
50.0
27.3
4.2
90
100
110
120
130
140
Es,
per cent
100
100
100
100
100
Line Data at
kilovolt-
68,800
61,700
49,500
29,500
4,910
-35,900
(Example
Qr
Er, per cent
3)
(Er/VrY,
kilovolt-
per cent
70
80
90
100
110
No Load
amperes
-39.9
Es
Er
Qe
per cent
76.5
68.6
55.0
32.8
5.46
-28.5
Table XXI.
Qc
3)
Qr, kilovolt|
amperes
amperes
143
125
111.1
100
91
26,200
9,500
- 8,000
53,500
14,850
- 9,880
-26,000
-43,300
-26,000
-35,800
365
Figure 213 shows the plotted curves. As seen, they intersect at 125.9
per cent of normal receiving voltage. Hence,
Regulation
125.9
100
150
140
"I 130
120
Synchronous
Line Receiver ikv-a
Condenser kv-<r
66/
^s
Uf~
pi-Zero Powe
Es =IO 0%
100
b 90
1
(X
80
70
60
o
o
c>
* Reacf.ve kv-a
Lagging
o
o
N
o
o
*
o
c>^
Leading
Fig. 213.
Determination of voltage regulation by obtaining intersection
between locus of reactive power at the receiver end of the line and locus of
These
reactive power of the synchronous condensers at constant field current.
curves give the solution of Example 3, Part (6).
EXAMPLE
a specific case.
4
Statement of Problem
366
(58)]
A' =
B'
n'
Co
Z>'
A^B + BtA
""bTTbT"
2
(a)
BiB 2
+B
n
T Cj
r
1^1
=
(b)
B,D 2
Bx
~A
(Ai
j-
2 )(D 2
n TTg
-f-
+ DiB
+B
- DJ
(c)
'
(d)
Line
Fig. 214.
of the
System considered
in
Example
4.
equations (75))
A =
A{l+^)+B',Y
B =
i?;(i
Do =
The sending
^) + AX (l + -')
c;(i+^)+z/.r
D'o
(l
(e)
(g)
^) + CU?r(l +
(/)
?-')
(h)
E.
is
given.
"(i)
367
Nbi
01
- Mb
/["
hl+bl
V|_
b2
- Mb
iV&i
Y _ M + n*
*
bl
e;
0')
b\
The sum of this current and the load current is the total current at B.
The voltage and current on the high-tension side of the receiving transformers are given by
^)E + Z (l + ^)h
+
+->
E = (l+
7r
= YrEb
(k)
(I)
So
far,
following,
E,
+ BJn = A E + B
= AiE r
I r2
(m)
In
hi =
(n)
Ir
gives
(A 2
In =
Ir2
(At
At)Er +
Bi + B 2
-A
Bx
)E T
+B
B 2 Ir
+ BJr
(p)
2
4> r i
= 3EJn
PR2 = 3EJ r2
Pri
By
cos 4>n
cos 0r 2
(q)
(r)
on equivalent Il-circuits.
each line has been replaced by its equivalent II. In
order to determine the synchronous-condenser current, the two n-circuits
2.
calculations based
As shown
in Fig. 215,
g yz&x
me J
Ij
<
L/'ne?
>
Zz
Equivalent circuit of the system in Fig. 214. The two parallel transmission lines have been replaced by their equivalent Il-circuits.
Fig. 215.
368
The voltage and current on the high-tension side of the receiving transformers are given by equations (fc) and {I) as before. The voltage on the
high-tension side of the sending transformers is
y
B.
(l+Zg' )Er +
ZJr
(s)
&&
Fig. 216. -Circuit representing the system in Fig. 215 obtained by combining
the two equivalent II's in parallel and representing the receiver transformers by
their equivalent T-circuit.
e - [(' + -)( i +
-
-) + z
"
Es
=
=
(i
(ai
may
+ ja )E +
+ ja )E +
(I),
changes into
+ [ z -( j + ^~)
r '] E>
^) +R
1+
(
This equation, when reduced,
and
(fc)
1+
^)] /
(t)
be written
(bx
(bx
+ jb )h
+ jb )(I p - jh + jlc)
2
(u)
and
are identical,
(i)
(tt)
The syn-
U
The sum
Zj
(v)
Zi
+h =
(Y x
Y,)E r
II
(v)
and
/r2
=
=
(x)
(w)
(w) gives
Z 2 (Y + Y )Er + Z 2I r
z +z
Zx(Yx + Y 2 )E r + Zxlr
Zx + Z 2
t
The current
by
+I
is,
(y)
hence,
Z
+Y
1
+z + Yx^Er + Zx + z
Zx(Yx + Y
+ y ]e,
+ Zx Zx
Zx + Z
+z
J
Z
(Yx
Zx
2)
(2)
2
2)
(aa)
lines is given
By
369
Fig. 217.
Modified Evans and Sels receiver chart for the system in Fig. 214
between the high-tension bus at the sending end (S) and the low-tension bus at
the receiving end (B).
bus of the receiving transformers (i.e., between points S and B) and one
receiver chart for each transmission line proper (i.e., between S and R).
Evans and
*o
'Pb'Qb
Sels type.
r* >QR
_1
^s
Os
en
nPW
**N^
"P^
-J
rV
r?
(b)
la)
Fig. 218.
P*
^S
Modified Evans and Sels charts for the performance of the receivingend transformers.
By spotting active and reactive power taken by the load in the chart for
the system between S and B (Fig. 217), the synchronous-condenser kilovoltamperes and the active and reactive power (Pb and Qb) at the low-tension
side of the receiving transformers are determined.
The current at this point
370
may now
'Modified Evans and Sels receiver chart for one of the transmission
between high-tension buses. Operating points must lie on the dotted circle
representing the correct ratio between sending and receiving voltage.
Fig. 219.
lines
still
more readily
(i.e.,
Ms
zEn
Fig. 220.
Graphical
determination
of load
parallel lines.
distribution
This gives the voltage and active and reactive power (Er, Pr, and
Qs) on the high-tension side of the receiving transformers.
Figure 219 shows a receiving chart for one of the transmission lines. Since
Er is known, the ratio Es/Er is given and, hence, the circle on which the
operating point must he. This circle is shown dotted. The load will
divide between the two lines in such a manner that the following two condiangle.
line
371
total
power
at R.
the
figure.
condensers,
field
taken
kilovolt-amperes
reactive
currents
of
generators,
by synchronous
and synchronous
condensers, etc.
EXAMPLE
Statement of Problem
A generating station
long transmission lines
Fig. 221.
supplies
L 2 over the
AM and MB
5.
and identical in every respect. Their steady-state pergiven by the modified Evans and Sels charts (Figs. 165 and 166).
The voltage at A is regulated by automatic field control of the generators
and is normally 110 per cent. The voltages at
and B are regulated by the
are of equal length
formance
is
synchronous condensers Ci and C 2 and are normally 100 per cent. The
nominal (100 per cent) voltage is 220 kv. referred to the high-tension sides.
The load L\ is 100,000 kw. at 85 per cent power factor (lagging) and the
load L 2 40,000 kw. at unity power factor.
;
372
b.
factor at
and
if
Solution
a. Entering the receiver chart with 40,000 kw. at unity
power
factor,
Line
MB
S
=
zf
EjR
13.2
By entering the sending chart with the angular displacement 13.2 deg.,
is found on the 100 per cent
the sending operating point of the line
voltage circle. Thus,
,/ D /Ps = 44,000 kw.
t~_ ,
Line
\ _
MB
MB
Qs = +25,000
.
kv.-a.
M takes
The
AM
ment
is
also read.
Hence,
PR =
AM
Line
144,000 kw.
Q R = +45,000 kv.-a.
E = 50.3 deg.
ZJ
&R
The
given
now
by
Qci
= Qr ~ Qs - Ql
= 45,000 - 25,000
62,000
by means
= +82,000
kv.-a.
AM
= ra = 9
- 9
P ercent
Ps = 132,000 X
Hence,
= 160,000 kw.
Qs = -37,000 X 1.10 = -44,800 kv.-a.
= 96.3 per cent (lagging)
4>s =
1.102
cos
nM^7
373
= -16,300 kv.-a.
= +82,000 kv.-a.
Pa = 160,000 kw.
at A = 96.3 per cent (lagging)
Qcz
Qci
Power factor
When
AM
Hence,
PR =
144,000 kw.
Qa = -37,000
Line
AM
-^r-
kv.-a.
34.5 deg.
VjR
jr
The sending
and the
chart
is
now
ratio
ER
Es
100
1.415
This gives
<j>s
The
rrrt^
=89.0
( 81 \
Power factor
at
Ea =
Pa =
at A =
158,000 kw.
89.0 per cent (lagging)
Hence, the shutting down of the synchronous condenser affects the power
A but very little. The voltage and power factor, however, are affected
EXAMPLE
Statement of Problem
hydro generating station of known kilovolt-ampere capacity at A supplies power over the transmission line AB to the load L& and over the line
to the load LN (Fig. 222). A steam generating station is feeding into
the system at B. Synchronous condensers Cb and Cn of ample capacity
are installed at the loads.
The voltages at the points A, B(M), and A^ have
their normal (100 per cent) values.
MN
374
The power taken by the load Lb and its power factor (lagging) are known.
Assuming that modified Evans and Sels charts for the two transmission
lines, charts at 100 per cent terminal voltage for the generators, and V-curves
for the synchronous condensers are available, describe the procedure which
should be followed in order to determine
Fig. 222.
a.
steady state at
load
LN
in
Example
The
in the
6.
reactive kilovolt-amperes
and
field
field
current of the
condensers.
Solution
will
tor,
limited
nimteu by
its Kiiovort-ampere
kilovolt-ampere rating,
uy us
rating.
It
it
supply maximum power, therefore, when operating at unity power facprovided such operation is possible.
is
Kv-a.
of Hydra
Generators
&.
"Sending
Operating
^Point
Fig. 223. Determination of active and reactive power at point A in the sysin Fig. 222.
The operating point is obtained at the intersection between
the proper voltage-ratio circle in a modified Evans and Sels sending chart and
an arc representing rated kilovolt-amperes of the hydrogenerators.
tem
375
The sending
reactive kilovolt-amperes of the generators must be the same.
operating point is located by striking an arc about the origin of the sending
chart with a radius equal to the kilovolt-ampere capacity of the hydro
generators, as
Fig. 224.
shown
in Fig. 223.
Modified Evans and Sels receiver chart for the line A-B (see Fig. 222)
From
are obtained.
AB
M-N
Fig. 225.
Modified Evans and Sels sending chart for the line
(see Fig.
The active and reactive power at
222).
are located in this chart and the
displacement between the terminal voltages read so as to make transfer to the
receiver chart possible.
376
to the line
MN
is
Pm =Pb +
given by
Pgb
Plb
(a)
MN
Fig. 226.
From
The value
of the
power
Pn
so determined
is
the
M-N
are obtained.
maximum
unity-power-
Hence,
L N = Pn
Operating Point
of Hydro - Generators
vt =100%
377
chart' for 100 per cent terminal voltage (Fig. 227), the field current of the
hydro generators
The
and N
c.
is
immediately determined.
are found
at
by
Qcb
=Qb -
Qlb
- Qm
(c)
and
Qcn = Qn
(d)
'
AB
and
MN,
respec-
Operating Point
ofSynchronous
Condensers
Fig. 228. Diagram showing how the field current of the synchronous condensers are determined by means of a family of F-curves (solution of Example
6,
Part
(c)).
tively, as determined in Figs. 224 and 226, and Qlb is the reactive power
taken by the load at B.
Having determined the reactive kilovolt-amperes of the synchronous condensers, their field currents are determined from the V-curves.
Assuming
that the kilovolt-amperes taken are leading, the condenser operating
point is located on the 100 per cent voltage curve, as shown in Fig. 228,
and the field current can immediately be read
EXAMPLE
Statement of Problem
Work
6,
378
Synchronous Condensers:
Installation at
B: 3
Installation at
N:
Load
at
(Fig. 186).
B:
90,000 kw. at
Pa =
A"
Qa = -11,500
127,000 kw.
kv.-a.
43.5 deg.
QB = +38,000 kv.-a.
= 90,000 kw.
Qlb = -43,600 kv.-a.
P M = 117,000 + 60,000 - 90,000 = 87,000 kw.
Eur
= 28.5 deg.
Q M = +13,000 kv.-a. Z/
En
P N = 82,000 kw.
Q N = +5,500 kv.-a.
Pb = 117,000 kw.
Plb
Load
o.
at
L N = 82,000 kw.
Hydro generators supply
Power Pga = 127,000 kw.
Reactive power Qga = 11,500
kv.-a.
PoA =
127,000
100
= "- _2
ftft
128,000
Per Cent
and
X 100
"128,-000-
11,500
Q =
Their
field
current
Synchronous condenser at
Qcb = 38,000
takes
43,600
13,000
68,600 Xi00
907000
and the
field
is
I/(,ga)
c.
= - 9_ -_ perCent
= +68,600
becomes
~ 7bd
per cent
current
I/(cb)
Synchronous condenser at
N takes
Q CN = +5,500
kv.-a.
or in per cent
5,500
100
^-2s;booand the
field
1ft
19
6percent
current becomes
If(CN)
=61.2 per
cent of normal.
kv.-a.
INDEX
maximum
Calculation of
efficiency
Calculations
system
ages, 142-144
lines,
hyperbolic,
of
load,
182
short circuits
C
Calculation of a generator chart,
20
29-33
266,
270,
273,
K, 2
Blondel's two-reaction method, 316
II,
short-circuit currents,
205-208
line-to-line
Evans and
Blake, D.
three-
on three-phase
systems, Table
current
to
to single-phase, line-to-neutral,
280
329-350
single-phase,
to
systems, 86-87
treatment, three-phase induction
Angle,
applicable
components in a three-phase
system, 81-83
in two-phase and four-phase
volt-
cur-
short-circuit
short-circuit
of
factors
motor on unbalanced
of
276
sending,
for
constant
sending
voltage, 279
379
380
mination of induction-motor
performance from, 167-168
based directly on vector diagram, 267
Circles, sending voltage, 268
efficiency, 286, 298
calculation of, Tables XIV, XV,
303, 304
loss, 282-291, 296-299
calculations of, Table XIII, 303
voltage, 273-291, 294
voltage-power,
calculation
of,
Components, symmetrical, 83
in a three-phase system, analytical
determination
in
graphical determination
89
Composite and bifurcated
208
cantilever,
transformers
represented by, 259-263
equivalent, and transformer impe-
dance, 34-67
208-212
loaded by an impedance
211
open, 210
unbalanced, 68-100
in,
er,
89-90
319
demagnetizing, 318
Coefficients, cosine, 64
resultant, 64
sine, 64
Component
voltages,
impedance,
three-
negative-sequence
of
unbalanced
load, 92-94
equivalent
impedance,
load, 92-94
lines,
87-
205-
equivalent representation
of,
in
of,
213-215
Circuits,
power
84-
of,
lines,
T, 248
equation of, 211
unbalanced, copper losses in, 90-92
n, 211, 248
Coefficient, cross-magnetizing,
81-83
86
T and n,
of,
graphical determination
Core
loss,
J.,
27
transformer, 231
Cosine coefficients, 64
Crests, curves of negative, 17
positive-sequence
of
unbalanced
positive, 17
Cross-magnetizing coefficient, 319
reaction,
effected
by
saturation,
320
Current, dissy metrical, 17.
INDEX
Current, equations of distribution,
185
exciting, copper loss, 157
drop due to, in separate leakage
381
reactances, 54
two single-phase
231
rotor, 151
150
Curve, open-circuit-saturation, 308
stator, equations of,
308
zero-power-factor, 308
characteristic,
calculations
to
132
A-Y
connection,
isolated
neutrals,
233
machine, 308
of constant field current, 331
field-current,
line
short-circuit-saturation,
loads,
130
line,
neutral, 134
field,
load,
of,
E
in
XIX,
equations 298
332-338
Emde,
D
C, 52, 225
Decrement, application to generating stations, table of, 33
factors, 18-22
application of, 22-27
Dahl, O. G.
F., 357
"Engineers Manual, The," by Hudson, 192
Equation, determinantal, 13
49-51
to three-circuit transformers,
42-46
to
two-circuit transformers,
38-42
of third-harmonic, 227
Equivalent ground plane, 217
representation of composite
213-215
T and n circuits, 208-212
proof for T-line, 211
n line, 212
lines,
382
Evans and
Sels,
256
modified, 293
transmission
problems,
371-378
Exponential equivalents of hyperbolic functions, 187-191
Faccioli, F.,
225
of,
22-27
method
Company,
tests
line-to-neutral short-circuits
symmetrical
of
phase
coordinates, 77
to system lumped, 24
system short-circuit current appli-
on
Electric
by, 19
to generating stations, 25
Feldmann, C,
application
load
of
in
G
Gardner, M. F., 216
General circuit constants, 246-263
non-salient-pole
machine, 223
in salient-pole machine, 223
in synchronous machine, 223
main, charts, 338
Generators, non-salient-pole, 307315
salient-pole, 315-322
Gilman, R. E., 90
Gould, King E., 230
Graphical determination of the
components in a three-phase
system, 84-86
in two- and four-phase systems,
87-89
methods, 265
Ground plane, equivalent, 217
H
"Handbook
neers,"
for
Electrical
Engi-
by Pender, 192
of
226-227
currents, copper loss, 231
transformer, action
of,
225
voltages, 222
Harmonics, 216-245
behavior of on a line, 216-222
generator, 222-224
groups, of, 217
INDEX
Harmonics, in per cent of equivalent
sine wave, 64
in salient-pole machine, under
balanced load, 223
main sources of, 216
in exciting current, 225
in polyphase systems, 217
in single-phase transformers, 225232
in three-phase connections of sin-
245
A-A connection, 232
A-Y connection, 233
triple-frequency group, 217
transformer, 225
Hazen, H. L., 29
Herzog, J., 1
Hill, G. H., 90
Holladay, C. H., 226
Hudson, "Engineer's Manual, The,"
192
Hyperbolic, angle of load, 182
functions, complex, determination
of, 193
exponential equivalents, 187191
numerical values of, 191-194
remarks on, 187-191
383
Induction
motors on unbalanced
and
161
of,
45,
Kennelly, A. E.,
178,
5,
185,
193,
Kirchhoff's law,
138-168
analysis of single-phase perform-
2,
Law, Kirchhoff's,
Ohm's, 2, 68
68
2,
68
384
Line, loaded
by impedance
a,
Loads,
211
representation
of,
213-215
direct-current, 199-201
two
of
parallel, determination
load division between, 365-
371
Lipka, Joseph, 63
Load, division, determination
tween two
of,
parallel lines,
be-
365
371
general case of unbalanced threephase, line to neutral, 121
two
Long transmission
ance, 185-187
line to neutral, 106, 115, 129
three-phase, line to neutral, gen-
induction
three-phase
and
motor on line, 148
three-phase, A-connected, on
unbalanced feeder, 73
Y-connected, unbalanced threephase, on unbalanced feeder,
69-73
Loading, unbalanced, transformers
with, 101-137
line,
of voltage, current
line
to
calculation
and power
single-phase,
Method,
Blondel's
two-reaction,
316
Methods, graphical, 265
Motor induction, balancing
a three-phase, 144-147
effect of
INDEX
Motor induction,
three-phase, single-
phase operation
and unbalanced
149-154
of,
load,
on
line,
148
single-phase induction, 162-167
anced
analytical
voltages,
385
treatment, 142-144
170
line,
single-phase
opera-
138-168
tion,
329
Multi-winding transformers, separate leakage reactances, 62-63
for,
322-
N
O
Negative power and charts, 293
sequence, 151, 224
system, 78
Ohm's
Neutral,
single-phase
load,
106,
loads,
120,
134
transformers, 45-49
4
of
short-
1-34
A-Y
transformation, 5
and
multiple, 251-256
252
two networks
in series,
symmetrical
coordinates,
in parallel,
252
star-mesh transformation, 6
252
248
208
212
line, nominal, 169
Pierce, H. P., 356, 357
Polyphase systems, harmonics in,
217
Position angles, 182
Positive-sequence, 151, 224
system, 78
Power, negative, remarks, 291-293
transmission, combination of networks usually met with in, 256
circuits, equivalent,
proof
combination
in series
Phase,
circuit, 211,
calculation
in
method of, 77
n- and T-circuits, 170
simplification of, 9
Networks,
neers," 192
Peters, J. F., 42, 225
68
"Handbook
42
reduction
2,
115,
129
short circuit, 112, 127
two single-phase
law,
for,
386
62
mutual leakage, 36
self leakage, 36
cy,
separate
of,
Sine coefficients, 64
wave,
determination
leakage,
51-67
true leakage, 37
Reaction, armature, cross-magnetiz-
of,
64
monic
transient, 15
harmonics in
equivalent,
per cent
components
approximate
165
solution,
more exact
solution, 165
365
Tirrill,
351
Resultant coefficients, 64
citing currents,
Richter, H., 2
torque
pull-out
Saturation, zero, 56
273,
291,
102,
112,
of,
232-245
Slepian,
modified, 293
currents,
155
impedance of unbalanced
92-94
load,
operator, 77
positive,
neutral,
transformers, 225-232
three-phase connections
292,
negative,
to
127
Sequence,
slip,
C, 138
270,
and
161-162
266,
151-154
155-157
156
Schoenfeld, O.
115,
Rosen, A., 6
tion,
106,
129
of
a three-phase
operation
induction motor, 149-154
analysis of induction-motor
performance neglecting ex-
364
Regulators,
neutral,
to
line
224
26
226-
chart,
in,
227
J.,
Slip,
191-192
parameters of, 169
approximate, of singlephase induction motor, 165
by simultaneous equations, based
on Ohm's and Kirchhoffs
Smooth
line,
Solution,
laws, 69-77
general,
INDEX
Solution of steady-state transmission problems, determination
363-365
determination of synchronouscondenser capacity, 351354
miscellaneous examples, 371of regulation,
378
by
Solutions
T- and
33
by, 256-259
parallel-conjunction,
the
nation
generating,
to, 25,
leakage
separate
of
reactances, 55-59
application of
decrement factors
33
constants, 215
nation
the
for
single-phase,
200
of
determi-
separate
leakage
reactances, 53
361
329-350
non-salient-pole
generators,
separate
of
leakage
react-
ances, 59-60
Theory,
general
of
multicircuit
transformers, 34-38
307-315
salient-pole
211
of,
353
resistance,
248
equation
Star-mesh transformation, 6
Station,
n-circuits, 170
-circuit,
Test,
calculating table, 27-
Spencer, H. H., 29
Stability,
387
generators,
315-
transformers, distribution of
harmonics, 232-245
322
data, 242
A-Y
trals,
233
235
interconnected neutrals, 235
Y-Y connection, all neutrals
isolated,
236
Table,
calculating,
27-33
solutions
by,
sides, 237
primary and generator neutrals
interconnected, 236
388
line
to neutral,
general
transformers,
determination
tests
for
separate
of
age reactances, 56
series-opposition test, for deter-
tests,
for
deter-
in,
81-
determination
of
components
83
graphical
ing
components
84-86
unbalanced, A-connected load,
on unbalanced feeder, 73
Y-connected load, on unbalanced feeder, 69-73
-voltmeter, scheme, 215
Tirrill, regulators, 351
in,
Torchio, Philip, 90
51-67
drop due to exciting current,
determination of separate
leakage reactances, 54
equivalent network of threecircuit transformers, 45-49
two-circuit transformers, 3942
four-circuit transformers, 49-51
harmonics in per cent of equivalent sine wave, 64
tion
of
separate
leakage
reactances, 59-63
two-circuit transformers, 38-42
34-
38
multi-winding, determination of
separate leakage reactances,
62-63
receiving
and
sending,
trans-
259-263
transmission line with receiving,
approximate, 259
245
INDEX
Transformers, three-circuit, 42-49,
111
application of general equations,
42-46
equivalent network
45
of,
3942
two-circuit, 38-42
to neutral, 102
Y-A
connection, 107-111
Y-Y
without
connection
mary
pri-
neutral, 101-107
determination
two-winding,
of,
equivalent network
389
of
53-62
with unbalanced loading, 101-137
A-A-Y connection, 127-137
general case of unbalanced
three-phase load,
line
to
neutral, 135
on a bank
nected
of
Y-A-Y con-
transformers,
line to neutral,
112
ponents
loads, line to
Y-Y
265-305
of
XV,
loss
Y-Y
con-
actances, 53-62
U
Unbalance, degree
Tables XIV,
87-89
without
primary
neutral, 101-107
-phase and four-phase systems,
analytical determination of
components in, 86-87
-reaction method, BlondeFs, 316
250
calculation
in,
transformers,
nection
neutral, 134
charts,
har-
-circuit
two single-phase
of
voltage, 224
line,
group,
Two-
Y-A-Y
351-378
monics, 217
127-137
short-circuit,
two-circuit
state,
Triple-frequency,
equivalent
T-circuits, 256
131
by
represented
303, 304
circles,
Unbalanced
94-100
68-100
of,
circuits,
determination of the
in three-phase
systems, 81
analytical
components
390
Unbalanced
Wave
Electric
and Manu-
Company,
tests by, 19
Westinghouse
facturing
Woodward, W.
R.,
1,
27
21, 22,
87-89
method
length, 187
symmetrical phase
coordinates, 77
power in, 89-90
solution by simultaneous equations based on Ohm's and
Kirchhoff's laws, 69-77
unbalanced three-phase A-connected load on unbalanced
feeder, 73
Y-connected load on unbalanced feeder, 69-73
voltage components, 82
111
of
transformation, 6
Y-A-Y
connection, 112-124
two
circuits,
single-phase, short
118
two single-phase
line to neutral,
loads, 120
short
circuits,
two
short-
to line,
single-phase line
circuit,
single-phase,
118
line to line,
112-115
Voltage
short-circuit,
294
equations, 294
two
transmission, 352
calculation
of
line
to
neutral,
112-115
distribution
short circuits,
118-121
Y-Y
triple-frequency, 224
connection,
of
of,
line
121
single-phase
transformers, 236
without
sinusoidal, 217
primary
opera-
two101-107
neutral,
circuit transformers,
terminal, 223
third-harmonic, 223
unbalanced, single-phase
single-phase,
line to line,
of,
138-168
operation of three-phase induction motor on, 142-144
iso-