Nonlinear Microwave and RF Circuits

Second Edition
Stephen A. Maas

Artech House
Boston London
www.artechhouse.com

Contents
Preface
Chapter 1

xix
Introduction, Fundamental Concepts, and Definitions

1.1

Linearity and Nonlinearity

1.2

Frequency Generation

1.3

Nonlinear Phenomena

13

1.3.1

Harmonic Generation

13

1.3.2

Intermodulation Distortion

14

1.3.3

Saturation and Desensitization

14

1.3.4

Cross Modulation

15

1.3.5

AM-to-PM Conversion

15

1.3.6

Spurious Responses

16

1.3.7

Adjacent Channel Interference

16

;
I
\

1.4

Approaches to Analysis

17

1.4.1

Load Pull

17

1.4.2

Large-Signal Scattering Parameters

18

1.4.3

Time-Domain (Transient) Analysis

19

1.4.4

Frequency-Domain Methods

19

1.4.5

The Quasistatic Assumption

20

VII

viii

Chapter 2

Nonlinear Microwave and RF Circuits

1.5

Power and Gain Definitions

21

1.6

Stability

26

Reference

27

Solid-State Device Modeling for Quasistatic Analysis

29

2.1

Nonlinear Device Models

29

2.2

Nonlinear Lumped Circuit Elements and

Controlled Sources

31

2.2.1

The Substitution Theorem

33

2.2.2

Large-Signal Nonlinear Resistive Elements 34

2.2.3

Small-Signal Nonlinear Resistive Elements 35

2.2.4

Large-Signal Nonlinear Capacitance

38

2.2.5

Small-Signal Nonlinear Capacitance

39

2.2.6

Relationship Between I/V, Q/V and G/V, C/V

Expansions
41

2.2.7

Multiply Controlled Nonlinear Capacitors

43

2.2.8

Nonlinear Inductance

47

2.3

Numerical and Human Requirements for Device

Models
2.3.1

48

Continuous Derivatives in I/V or Q/V

Expressions

48

2.3.2

Accuracy of Derivatives

49

2.3.3

Range of Expressions

49

2.3.4

Transient-Analysis Models in HarmonicBalance Analysis

50

2.3.5

Matrix Conditioning

50

2.3.6

Limiting the Range of Control Voltages

51

2.3.7

Use of Polynomials

52

2.3.8

Loops of Control Voltages

53

2.3.9

Default Parameters

53

2.4

2.5

2.6

Contents

ix

2.3.10 Error Trapping

54

2.3.11 Lucidity of Models and Parameters

55

2.3.12 Does Complexity Improve a Model?

55

Schottky-Barrier and Junction Diodes

56

2.4.1

Structure and Fabrication

57

2.4.2

The Schottky-Barrier Diode Model

58

2.4.3

Mixer Diodes

65

2.4.4

Schottky-Barrier Varactors

66

2.4.5

p n Junction Varactors

68

2.4.6

Varactor Modeling

70

2.4.7

Step-Recovery Diodes

71

FET Devices

73

2.5.1

MESFET Operation

74

2.5.2

HEMT Operation

78

2.5.3

MOSFET Operation

79

2.5.4

MESFET Modeling

81

2.5.5

HEMT Modeling

86

2.5.6

MOSFET Modeling

88

2.5.7

FET Capacitances

90

Bipolar Devices

95

2.6.1

BJT Operation

96

2.6.2

HBT Operation

100

2.6.3

BJT Modeling

101

2.6.4

HBT Modeling

104

2.7

Thermal Modeling

104

2.8

Parameter Extraction

108

2.8.1

109

Diode Parameter Extraction

Chapter 3

Nonlinear Microwave and RF Circuits

2.8.2

FET Parameter Extraction

111

2.8.3

Parameter Extraction for Bipolar Devices

115

2.8.4

Final Notes on Parameter Extraction

116

References

117

Harmonic Balance Analysis and Related Methods

119

3.1

Why Use Harmonic-Balance Analysis?

119

3.2

An Heuristic Introduction to
Harmonic-Balance Analysis

120

Single-Tone Harmonic-Balance Analysis

124

3.3.1

Circuit Partitioning

124

3.3.2

The Nonlinear Subcircuit

129

3.3.3

The Linear Subcircuit

135

3.3.4

Solution Algorithms

137

3.3.5

Newton Solution of the HarmonicBalance Equation

140

3.3

3.3.6

3.4

and Time Samples

149

3.3.7

Matrix Methods for Solving (3.37)

151

3.3.8

Norm Reduction

155

3.3.9 Optimizing Convergence and Efficiency

Large-Signal/Small-Signal Analysis Using
Conversion Matrices

164

3.4.1

Conversion Matrix Formulation

165

3.4.2

Applying Conversion Matrices to

Time-Varying Circuits

175

Nodal Formulation

185

3.4.3
3.5

Selecting the Number of Harmonics

156

Multitone Excitation and Intermodulation in TimeVarying Circuits

187

Contents
3.6

Multitone Harmonic-Balance Analysis

3.6.1

3.7

Chapter 4

Generalizing the Harmonic-Balance

Concept

xi
198
198

3.6.2

Reformulation and Fourier Transformation 200

3.6.3

Discrete Fourier Transforms

3.6.4

Almost-Periodic Fourier Transform

201

(APFT)

203

3.6.5

Two-Dimensional FFT

204

3.6.6
3.6.7

Artificial Frequency Mapping

Frequency Sets

205
206

3.6.8

Determining the Jacobian

207

Modulated Waveforms and Envelope Analysis

209

3.7.1

Modulated Signals

209

3.7.2

Envelope Analysis

211

References

212

Volterra-Series and Power-Series Analysis

215

4.1

216

Power-Series Analysis
4.1.1

4.2

Power-Series Model and Multitone

Response

216

4.1.2

Frequency Generation

224

4.1.3

Intercept Point and Power Relations

225

4.1.4

Intermodulation Measurement

231

4.1.5

Interconnections of Weakly Nonlinear

Components

232

Volterra-Series Analysis

235

4.2.1

Introduction to the Volterra Series

235

4.2.2

Volterra Functionals and Nonlinear

Transfer Functions

237

xii

Nonlinear Microwave and RF Circuits

4.2.3

Chapter 5

by the Harmonic Input Method

241

4.2.4

Applying Nonlinear Transfer Functions

251

4.2.5

The Method of Nonlinear Currents

254

4.2.6

Application to Large Circuits

265

4.2.7
4.2.8

Controlled Sources
274
Spectral Regrowth and Adjacent-Channel
Power
274

References

276

Balanced and Multiple-Device Circuits

277

5.1

Balanced Circuits Using Microwave Hybrids

278

5.1.1

Properties of Ideal Hybrids

278

5.1.2

Practical Hybrids

280

5.1.3

Properties of Hybrid-Coupled Components 288

5.2

Direct Interconnection of Microwave Components 300

5.2.1

Chapter 6

Determining Nonlinear Transfer Functions

Harmonic Properties of Two-Terminal

Device Interconnections

References

301
315

Diode Mixers

317

6.1

Mixer Diodes

317

6.1.1

318

6.2

Nonlinear Analysis of Mixers

6.2.1

6.3

Mixer Diode Types

324

Multitone Harmonic-Balance Analysis

of Mixers

324

Single-Diode Mixer Design

328

6.3.1

Design Approach

329

6.3.2

Design Philosophy

329

6.3.3

Diode Selection

333

Contents

6.4

Chapter 7

xiii

6.3.4

dc Bias

335

6.3.5

Design Example

335

Balanced Mixers

339

6.4.1

Singly Balanced Mixers

339

6.4.2

Singly Balanced Mixer Example

343

6.4.3

Doubly Balanced Mixers

345

References

354

Diode Frequency Multipliers

355

7.1

Varactor Frequency Multipliers

356

7.1.1

Noise Considerations

356

7.1.2

Power Relations and Efficiency

Limitations

357

7.2

7.3

7.1.3

Design of Varactor Frequency Multipliers 361

7.1.4

Design Example of a Varactor Multiplier

364

7.1.5

Final Details

366

Step-Recovery Diode Multipliers

370

7.2.1

Multiplier Operation

371

7.2.2

Design Example of an SRD Multiplier

378

7.2.3

Harmonic-Balance Simulation of SRD

Multipliers

381

Resistive Diode Frequency Multipliers

7.3.1
7.3.2

7.4

Approximate Analysis and Design of

Resistive Doubters

382

Design Example of a Resistive Doubler

388

Balanced Multipliers

References

382

391
392

Nonlinear Microwave and RF Circuits

XIV

8.1

Signal Amplifiers

395

Review of Linear Amplifier Theory

395

8.1.1

8.2

Stability Considerations in Linear

Amplifier Design

395

8.1.2

Amplifier Design

400

8.1.3

Characteristics of FETs and Bipolars

in Small-Signal Amplifiers

405

8.1.4

Broadband Amplifiers

406

8.1.5

Negative Image Modeling

407

Nonlinear Analysis
8.2.1

Nonlinearities in FETs

410

8.2.2

Nonlinearities in Bipolar Devices

413

8.2.3

Nonlinear Phenomena in Small-Signal

Amplifiers

415

Calculating the Nonlinear Transfer

Functions

421

8.2.4
8.3

Chapter 9

409

Linearity Optimization

421

8.3.1

Linearity Criteria

421

8.3.2

MESFETs and HEMTs

423

8.3.3

HBTs and BJTs

428

References

430

Power Amplifiers

431

9.1

FET and Bipolar Devices for Power Amplifiers

431

9.1.1

Device Structure

431

9.1.2

Modeling Power Devices

434

9.2

Power-Amplifier Design

439

9.2.1

Class-A Amplifiers

439

9.2.2

Class-B Amplifiers

443

Contents
9.2.3
9.3

Design of Solid-State Power Amplifiers

9.3.1

449
449

Approximate Design of Class-A Bipolar

Amplifiers

453

Approximate Design of Class-B

Amplifiers

454

9.3.4

Push-Pull Class-B Amplifiers

456

9.3.5

Harmonic Terminations

456

9.3.6

Design Example: HBT Power Amplifier

457

9.3.3

9.5

447

Approximate Design of Class-A FET

Amplifiers

9.3.2

9.4

Other Modes of Operation

xv

Harmonic-Balance Analysis of Power Amplifiers

462

9.4.1

Single-Tone Analysis

462

9.4.2

Multitone Analysis

463

Practical Considerations in Power-Amplifier

Design

465

9.5.1

Low Impedance and High Current

465

9.5.2

Uniform Excitation of Multicell Devices

466

9.5.3

Odd-Mode Oscillation

467

9.5.4

Efficiency and Load Optimization

467

9.5.5

Back-off and Linearity

468

9.5.6

Voltage Biasing and Current Biasing in

Bipolar Devices

470

9.5.7

Prematching

471

9.5.8

Thermal Considerations

471

References

473

Active Frequency Multipliers

475

10.1 Design Philosophy

475

10.2 Designt of FET Frequency Multipliers

477

XVI

Nonlinear Microwave and RF Circuits

10.2.1 Design Theory

477

10.2.2 Design Example: A Simple FET

Multiplier

483

10.2.3 Design Example: A Broadband

Frequency Multiplier

487

10.2.4 Bipolar Frequency Multipliers

490

10.3 Harmonic-Balance Analysis of Active

Frequency Multipliers
10.4 Practical Considerations

490
491

10.4.1 Effect of Gate and Drain Terminations

at Unwanted Harmonics

491

10.4.2 Balanced Frequency Multipliers

491

10.4.3 Noise

493

10.4.4 Harmonic Rejection

494

10.4.5 Stability

494

10.4.6 High-Order Multiplication

495

References

495

Chapter 11 Active Mixers and FET Resistive Mixers

497

11.1 Design of Single-Gate FET Mixers

497

11.1.1 Design Philosophy

497

11.1.2 Approximate Mixer Analysis

501

11.1.3 Bipolar Mixers

505

11.1.4 Matching Circuits in Active Mixers

506

11.1.5 Nonlinear Analysis of Active Mixers

508

11.1.6 Design Example: Simple, Active FET

Mixer

508

11.2 Dual-Gate FET Mixers

510

11.3 Balanced Active Mixers

515

11.3.1 Singly Balanced Mixers

515

Contents

xvii

11.3.2 Design Example: Computer-Oriented

Design Approach

518

11.3.3 Doubly Balanced FET Mixers

520

11.3.4 Active Baluns

522

11.3.5 Gilbert-Cell Mixers

524

11.4 FET Resistive Mixers

525

11.4.1 Fundamentals

526

11.4.2 Single-FET Resistive Mixers

527

11.4.3 Design of Single-FET Resistive Mixers

528

11.4.4 Design Example: FET Resistive Mixer

529

11.4.5 Balanced FET Resistive Mixers

530

References
Chapter 12 Transistor Oscillators
12.1 Classical Oscillator Theory

536
537
537

12.1.1 Feedback Oscillator Theory

537

12.1.2 Feedback Oscillator Design

540

12.1.3 Negative-Resistance Oscillation

542

12.1.4 Negative Resistance in Transistors

545

12.1.5 Oscillator Design by the Classical

Approach

549

12.2 Nonlinear Analysis of Transistor Oscillators

555

12.2.1 Numerical Device-Line Measurements

556

12.2.2 Harmonic Balance: Method 1

557

12.2.3 Harmonic Balance: Method 2

559

12.2.4 Eigenvalue Formulation

560

12.3 Practical Aspects of Oscillator Design

562

12.3.1 Multiple Resonances

562

12.3.2 Frequency Stability

562

Nonlinear Microwave and RF Circuits

XVIII

12.3.3 Dielectric Resonators

563

12.3.4 Hyperabrupt Varactors

564

12.3.5 Phase Noise

566

12.3.6 Pushing and Pulling

573

12.3.7 Post-Tuning Drift

573

12.3.8 Harmonics and Spurious Outputs

573

References

574

About the Author

575

Index

577