Affordances and constraints

The concept of affordances and its associated concept of constraints have

become widespread in the analysis of the use of ICTs in education and are useful
in understanding the notion of the pedagogical integration of ICTs. Although the
formulation of these concepts is contested (Conole & Dyke, 2004a; Conole &
Dyke, 2004b; Boyle & Cook, 2004) affordances of ICTs point to the pedagogical
opportunities of ICTs. The affordances of ICTs (and in the case of this research
project the affordances of GoL) can also play a role in shaping and being
shaped by the pedagogical perceptions and beliefs of the roleplayers in the GoL /
ICT context (including the DeLCs) (Boyle & Cook, 2004; Hammond, 2010).
The concept of affordance initially draws on the work of Gibson and later on, on
Norman (Hammond, 2010). The debate between Conole & Dyke (2004a and b)
and Boyle & Cook (2004) is influenced by the source of their conception of
affordances with the former drawing on Gibson and the latter drawing on
Norman. Whereas Gibson tends to focus on the properties of the entity, the
approach of Norman would be most appropriate for the topic of this research
project not only because it has been applied more commonly with regard to ICTs
in education, but also because his notion of affordance not only included the
invariant properties of ICTs (Hammond, 2010, pg 208) but he was also
interested much more.in the perception of the user as an element of
affordance (Hammond, 2010, pg 208). In other words, an affordance is made up
of both the objects invariant properties as well as socially constructed
perceptions and beliefs relating to their use by (potential) users. For Norman an
affordance is not simply derived from objective invariant properties of ICTs, but is
also grounded in empirical contexts where the situated perceptions, beliefs and
perspectives of roleplayers shape the nature of the affordance.
The concept of affordance is taken further by John & Sutherland (2005). ICTs
afford pedagogical integration, however this does not necessarily afford quality
teaching and learning. it is the relationship between pedagogy within a
subject area (the practice of the setting), the subject domain and its culture (the
ecology of the setting) and the technology (the tool within the setting) that is
crucial to engendering quality learning (John & Sutherland, 2005, pg 405). In
other words effective teaching and learning with technology only takes place
when there is a meaningful integration of pedagogy, subject content and ICTs
within particular learning environments. It would be pertinent to see whether the
beliefs of the DeLCs are consistent with John & Sutherlands (2005) ideas of the
quality PIoICTs.
Conole & Dyke (2004a) developed a taxonomy of general ICT affordances and
these could well apply to ICTs-in-Education and GoL labs. (Whether the beliefs of
the DeLCs encapsulates these affordances remains to be seen.)
Affordance/
Constraint
Accessibility
Speed of change

Description
ICTs provide easy access to vast amounts of
information
Immediacy of access to rapidly changing

Page 1 of 14

Diversity
Communication
and collaboration
Reflection
Multimodal and
non-linear
Risk, fragility and
uncertainty
Immediacy
Monopolization
Surveillance

Content creation1

information
Access to a vast range of diverse and different
experiences
Offers the potential for learning enriched by
engagement with the other as well as the
development of new communities
ICT has the potential to enable reflection and
criticality to be enhanced
Leads to the potential for different routes
through, and forms of, learning
ICTs can lead to unintended consequences in
learning like plagiarism. (This is more of a
constraint)
The speed of information raises response times.
Tension between the benefits of diversification
and sharing of developments
Those with power can extend their gaze and
secure greater knowledge and control over
others
Web 2.0 emphasises the pre-eminence of
cintent ctreation over content consumption.
Anyone can create, assemble, organize and share
content to meet their own needs and the needs
of others
Large amounts of knowledge and information can
be brought together and syndicated

Knowledge and
information
aggregation and
content
modification
Table 1: The General Affordances and Constraints of ICTs

I have included the word constraint with the word affordance in the heading
in Table 1 above as these are two sides of the same coin and are not in
opposition to each other. For example the affordance of Accessibility entails
access to vast amounts of information, but the constraint is that this means that
much of the information may be of poor quality or irrelevant and therefore a
careful pedagogical approach to the unfettered use of Internet information needs
to be taken. However, if we look at each affordance/constraint in Table 1 or at
some in combination with each other many pedagogical possibilities arise. Even
the more negative sounding affordances like Surveillance have positive
applications like the use of classroom and learning management systems to
monitor learning. The uncertainty affordance/constraint can facilitate open
ended approaches to problem solving and enquiry and project based learning.
On the positive side, for McLoughlin & Lee (2007), Content creation and
Knowledge Aggregation affords what they call Pedagogy 2.0 which is that the
Web is about linking minds, communities and ideas, while promoting
personalistion, collaboration, and creativity leading to joint knowledge creation
(McLoughlin & Lee, 2007, pg 668).

1 Content creation and Knowledge and information aggregation and content modification taken
from McLoughlin & Lee (2007) with the rest taken from Conole & Dyke (2004a)

Page 2 of 14

Multimedia
and

Multiple

Organising and
storing
information

Table 2: Pedagogical Affordances of ICTs

Page 3 of 14

multimodal

Assessment

Research

intelligences

Engagement

Simulate real

data, Transform

and knowledge

and feedback

with content

Full range of

Anytime T & L

Anyplace T & L

world Authentic real

life situations

cognitive skills

subject Integration of

Accessibility
Speed of change
Diversity
Communication and
collaboration
Reflection
Multimodal and nonlinear
Risk, fragility and
uncertainty
Immediacy
Monopolization
Surveillance
Content creation
Knowledge and
information aggregation
and content modification

practice and

Affordance/
Constraint

Drill and

Table 2 below attempts to link the general affordances as outlined by Conole &
Dyke (2004a) and McLoughlin & Lee (2007) with a range of pedagogical
affordances which I have synthesized from much of the utilization literature
(Macaulay, 2002; Nkumane, 2003; Naidoo, 2004; Barron et al, 2003; Waldegg,
2002). In establishing the beliefs and personal theories of the DeLCs I will
ascertain the extent to which they identify these pedagogical affordances.

Learning takes place in learning environments. The learning environment has a

physical as well as a relationship dimension (Newhouse, 2002b, pg 6). Learning
environments as a physical space as well as a set of relationships affords a variety
of types of learning. When considering the affordances of ICTs and avoiding a
technocentric approach to affordances (i.e. simply starting with the existence of the
technology) Consideration needs to be given not only to affordances provided by
ICT, but also to those provided by the teacher, the other pupils and other resources,
the relative balance of these and their interrelationships; for example peer support
may direct pupils towards features of ICT which may then become affordances.
(Cox, 2004, pg 27) The following diagram (Cox, 2004, pg 26) demonstrates this
interplay of the affordances of relationships and ICTs and their impact on learner
attainment within a learning environment:

It is pertinent to take a look at the affordances of GoL laboratories as this is the

spatial arrangement that has been used for GoL ICTs and which shapes the learning
environment. One way of looking at the affordances of GoL labs is to look at them
in the context of the computer lab versus classroom computers debate. (Jenson,
2006; Zandvliet, 2006) I will not go too much into the elements of the debate but
will highlight the pedagogical affordances of laboratories which emerge from the
debate. Furthermore, without evaluating how or why the GDE took a decision to use
the spatial model of the GoL labs it is important to see what pedagogical
opportunities they hold. Of course, as a caveat, it is important to remember that
affordances are shaped both by the perceptions and beliefs of the users as well as
Figureproperties
2: Affordances
to the
successful
of ICT
the physical
of important
the object.
The
ICTs, asuse
was
mentioned earlier, are
housed in GoL laboratories which are tightly secured against theft and vandalism.
One feature of computer laboratories in schools generally is that they are
sequestrated or removed from the normal classrooms and on top of this the tight
security arrangements of GoL further exacerbates this separation. In general the
literature is more in favour of the classroom location of computers as this facilitates
Page 4 of 14

a greater degree of integration of the ICTs into the teaching and learning process
(Zandvliet, 2006). The pedagogical integration of ICTs in labs is constrained but not
negated. A pedagogical affordance which emerges from this is that placing
computers in a lab setting allows for more direct instruction of large groups / classes
and for whole classes to work on the same project at once. Such an arrangement
also enables a skills-based training in an individual, one-person per machine
learning environment. (Jenson, 2006). Zandvliet (2006), based on extensive
empirical research, indicates the limitations that laboratories place on constructivist
teaching and learning and promotes objectivist teaching. It is interesting to note
that the management of GDE have decided on computer literacy training for
learners as one main use of the labs and that this approach would therefore
corroborate Jensons (2006) approach. However, they have also directed that the
labs should be used for subject based teaching in limited subjects (Maths and
Science) and grades. The GDE management did not stipulate what pedagogy
should be used in this use of ICTs for subject-based teaching. Furthermore, they
have also directed that the labs should be used for project based learning which is a
pedagogical use of ICTs and generally has constructivist underpinnings (GDE, 2010
a, b, c, d). ICT integration into classrooms spaces would be more conducive for
project based learning that is well integrated with curriculum content, however,
short term computer and web-based projects are possible within lab environments.
The GDE plan also indicates that teacher training will be provided in project based
learning. I will examine the beliefs of the district officials in each one of these
utilisation directives from the senior management of the GDE. The affordances of
the GoL as laboratories are also shaped by the beliefs of the DeLCs as well as
teachers and learners in the GoL schools themselves.

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