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5.1
Series
5.2
5.3
Test of convergence
5.3.1
Divergence Test
5.3.2
Integral Test
5.3.3
Ratio Test
5.4
Power Series
5.5
Review:
Sequence
What is a sequence? It is a set of numbers which are written
in some particular order
u1 , u2 , , un .
We sometimes write u1 for the first term of the sequence,
u2 for the second term and so on. We write the nth term as
un .
Examples:
1, 3, 5, 9. finite sequence
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, , n finite sequence
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, - infinite sequence
5.1
Series
Definition:
The sum of the terms in the sequence is called a series.
For example, suppose we have the sequence
u1 , u2 ,
, un .
u1 u2
un .
Example 1:
Find the 4th term and 5th term of the sequence 1, 4, 7, .
Hence, find S4 and S5 of the series 1, 4, 7, .
Example 2:
The sum of the first n terms of the series is given by
1
Sn (5n 2 11n)
4
a) Find the first three terms, and
b) The n-th term of the series.
Summation Notation, .
(read as sigma) is used to represent the sum of the series.
In general,
Sn u1 u2
un ur . (finite)
S u1 u2 u3
r 1
ui . (infinite)
i 1
Example 3:
Find the r-th term of the following series. Hence, express
the series using notation.
a) 2 3 4 ..., to 10 terms.
b) 3 9 27 ...,until 30 terms.
Arithmetic Sequence
- AS is a sequence where each new term after the first is
obtained by adding a constant d, called the common
difference to the preceding term.
- If the term of the sequence is a, then the AS is
a, a d , a 2d , a 3d ,...
where the n-th term is a (n 1)d .
- E.g.
8, 5, 2, -1, -4, .. (a 8, d 3)
5.2
Sum of Series
5.2.1
r 1 2 3
n n 1
2
r 1
n
1
n 2 n n 1 2n 1
6
2
2
2
2
r
r 1
1 2 3
3
r 1
n n 1
n
Example 4:
Evaluate
20
25
r 1
r 1
2
3
r
r
and
Example 5:
10
Evaluate
2r 1 .
2
r 1
Example 6:
Find the sum for each of the following series:
(a) 2 4 6 2n
(b) 1 3 4 5 7 7
to 30 terms
2
5.2.2
...
2 3 3 4 4 5
We are not able to calculate the sum of the series by using
the available formula (so far), but with the help of partial
fraction method, we can solve the problem.
Example 7:
Find the sum of the first n terms of the series
1
1
1
...
2 3 3 4 4 5
r 1
r 1
r 1
ur f (r ) f (r 1)
f (1) f (0) f (2) f (1) f (3) f (2)
f (4) f (3) ... f (n) f (n 1)
f (0) f (n)
f (n) f (0).
To conclude,
If ur f r f r 1 , then
u
r 1
f n f 0 .
Or equivalently
If kur f r f r 1 , then
ur
r 1
1
f n f 0 .
k
where k is a constant.
Note: If we fail to express ur into this form, i.e.
f r f r 1 , then this method cannot be used.
9
Example 8:
Express the r-th term of the series
1 2 2 3 3 4 ... r (r 1) ... as the difference of two
functions of r and r 1. Hence find the sum of the first n
terms of the series.
Solution:
Step 1: Find the general form of the r-th term:
10
Tips:
Example 9:
By using the difference method, find the sum of the first n
terms of the series
1
1
1
1
...
.
2 3 3 4 4 5
(n 1)(n 2)
Example (10):
Use the difference method; find the sum of the series
n
r 2 r 3 .
r 1
11
r 1
diverges.
Example (11):
n2
Show that the series 2
diverges.
n 1 5n 4
Example 12:
r
Use Divergence Test to determine whether
diverges
ln
r
r 1
or not.
12
f x dx is
1
(a) If
f x dx is convergent, then a
1
r 1
is
convergent.
(b) If
f x dx is divergent, then a
1
r 1
is divergent.
13
Example 13:
Use the Integral Test to determine whether the following
series converges or diverges.
14
ar 1
.
r ar
lim
a)
b)
c)
Example 14:
Use the Ratio Test to determine whether the following
series converges or diverges.
15
5.4
Power Series
Definition
A power series about x 0 is a series of the form
n
2
3
n
a
x
a
x
a
x
a
x
a
x
n
0
1
2
3
n
n 0
n
2
n
a
(
x
a
)
a
(
x
a
)
a
(
x
a
)
a
(
x
a
)
n
0
1
2
n
n 0
in
which
a0 , a1 , a2,
the
, an ,
center a and
are constants.
the
coefficients
16
1 2 1 3 1 4
e 1 x x x x
2!
3!
4!
x
1 n
e x .
n 0 n !
x
Example (15):
Given
1 2 1 3 1 4
1 n
e 1 x x x x x
2!
3!
4!
n!
x
2x
(b) e
x 1
Example (16):
Write down the first five terms on the expansion of the
function, 1 x e
2
1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5
ln(1 x) x x x x x
2
3
4
5
1 6 1 7
x x
6
7
The series converges for 1 x 1. Thus the series
ln 1 x is valid for 1 x 1.
By assuming x with x , we obtain
1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5
ln(1 x) x x x x x
2
3
4
5
1 6 1 7
x x
6
7
Thus, this result is true for 1 x 1 or 1 x 1.
18
Example (17):
Write down the first five terms of the expansion of the
following functions
(a) ln 1 3x
(b) 3ln 1 2 x
1 3x
Example (18):
Find the first four terms of the expansion of the function,
1 x
ln 1 2 x .
3
19
x3 x5 x 7 x9
sin x x
3! 5! 7! 9!
x 2 x 4 x 6 x8
cos x 1
2! 4! 6! 8!
Both series are valid for all values of x.
Example (19):
Given
x 2 x 4 x 6 x8
cos x 1
2! 4! 6! 8!
Find the expansion of cos 2x and cos 3x . Hence, by
using an appropriate trigonometric identity find the first
four terms of the expansion of the following functions:
x
3
(b) cos x
(a) sin
20
5.5
Example 20:
Obtain the Taylor series for f ( x) 3x 2 6 x 5 around the point
x 1.
Ans: 2 + 3(x-1)2
Example 21:
Obtain Maclaurin series expansion for the first four terms of
e x and five terms of sin x . Hence, deduct that Maclaurin series for
1
1
e x sin x is given by x x 2 x3 x5 ...
3
30
Example 22:
Use Taylors theorem to obtain a series expansion of first five
Ans: 0.4695
21
Example 23:
If y ln cos x , show that
2
d2y
dy
1 0
dx 2
dx
Hence, by differentiating the above expression several times,
obtain the Maclaurins series of y ln cos x in the ascending
power of x up to the term containing x 4 .
Solution:
22
Example 25:
x 2 2cos x 2
Evaluate lim
.
4
x 0
3x
Ans: 1/36
a) e x dx
0
b) x cos( x3 )dx
0
23