CONTENTS

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.

Acknowledgement
Why I Chose This Project?
Introduction
History of Adhesives
Characteristics of Adhesives
Classification of Adhesives
Theory of Adhesion
Adsorption
Types of adsorption
Characteristics of Adsorption
Adsorption and Absorption
Factors affecting Absorption
Experiment
14. Bibliography
WHY I CHOSE THIS PROJECT?

The role played by colloidal and surface

chemistry which we see in everyday life is
due to surface phenomenon.
The attraction between
surfaces of two materials can be related
to their strong adhesion. This attractive
adhesion is a direct result of the
adsorption existing between the surfaces
in contact.
Greater the surface attraction,
stronger is the adhesion. Therefore
studying adsorption ultimately provides
explanation for adhesion action. So I
chose to do a project connecting these
two topics by preparing an adhesive and
studying its properties.

INTRODUCTION
Adhesives are substances which are
capable of holding materials together in a
functional manner by surface attachment
that resists separation. We use adhesives
in our lives to a large extent. The term
adhesives include cement, mucilage,
glue and paste terms that are often
used interchangeably for any organic
material which forms an adhesive bond.
In this the nature, cause and mechanism
of adhesion is studied and an adhesive is
prepared.

HISTORY OF ADHESIVES
The first synthetic adhesive was produced in
1869. This material was incorrectly termed
nitrocellulose and was created by a reaction
between nitric acid, sulfuric acid, and cellulose.
Today, this product is known as cellulose nitrate.
In 1912, Leo Baekeland produced phenolformaldehyde resins, a basic material for many of
todays adhesives. High strength, elastomeric
adhesives were available in 1928 when a reaction
that produced polychloroprene was developed.
Later in the 1930s, pressure sensitive tapes were
developed.
The first metal bonding adhesive was developed
by Nicholas de Bruyne in 1941. This material was
used in the construction of aircraft. Later in the
decade, epoxy resin adhesives were introduced.
During the 1960s the extremely strong
cyanoacrylate adhesives were developed. These
products, called super glues, became adhesive
when exposed to moisture in the air. Other
adhesives that were developed during this time
include silicones and anaerobic adhesives. Since
that time, most of the advances in adhesive

technology have been the result of formulation

modifications using varied polymers. In the late
1980s Post-It notes were introduced using a
micro structured adhesive.

CHARACTERISTICS OF ADHESIVES
For a material to be a good adhesive it
must has a variety of characteristics.
It should have a liquid surface tension
that is
lower than the wetting
tension of the substrate.
It should be applied to a surface that is
significantly rough to improve
adhesion.
For polymeric substrates, the adhesive
should be somewhat mutually soluble
allowing diffusion between the two to
occur.

CLASSIFICATION OF ADHESIVES
Adhesives can be classified by the type of delivery
of the adhesive or by the polymer used in the
adhesive. In general, there are five categories of
adhesives including structural, natural, pressuresensitive, hot melt, and solvent-based adhesives.

Structural adhesives

Structural adhesives are some of the strongest

adhesive materials available. They are based on
resin systems, typically thermosets, and are meant
to serve as permanent bonds. They are supplied as
low-molecular-weight polymers that solidify when
polymerized. They are sold in a variety of forms
including two-part systems, pastes, and films.

Examples of Structural Adhesives

a.

Epoxy resins:

Epoxy resins are typically based on the

polymerization reaction of bisphenol A with
epichlorohydrin. The product is sold as a two-part
system in which the user applies the epoxy resin,
then an amine hardener that causes the resin to
cure. Epoxy resins are used in the construction of
aircraft and automobiles. They are also a
component of plastic cement.

b. Phenolic resins:
Phenolic resins have been used as adhesives
since the early 1900s. They are produced by the
polymerization reaction of phenol and
formaldehyde. To cure, heat is typically required
to drive off excess solvent. This type of adhesive
is used in the production of plywood. They also
are noted as the most adhesive material to
aluminum.
c.

Acrylic adhesives:

A variety of acrylic adhesives are available.

Anaerobic adhesives are unique reactive
adhesives. They consist of a mixture of hydro
peroxides and dimethacrylates that polymerize

in the absence of oxygen. This type of material

is useful in anchoring screws and bolts. This
adhesive is based on cyanoacrylates which
spontaneously polymerizes in moist air.
d. High-temperature resistant adhesives:
Many structural adhesives that are used for
aerospace purposes are lightweight and hightemperature resistant. These are typically resins
that have high glass-transition temperatures. An
example of this type of adhesive is polyimide
that is formed by the polymerization reaction of
an aromatic amine with an aromatic anhydride.
e.

Elastomeric Adhesives:

Since many of the structural adhesives become

brittle after they cure, adhesives formulators
developed elastomeric adhesives. These
materials contain compounds that reduce
brittleness without significantly reducing
adhesion. This property is useful in applications
where vibrational forces can stress adhesives.
f.

Urethane adhesives:

The final class of structural adhesives is the

urethanes. These materials are based on the
polymerization reaction of a diol with a
diisocyanate. They are primarily sold as two-part
structural adhesives. An important application of
these kinds of adhesives is in the automotive
industry. Polyurethanes are used to
bond polyester cords in rubber tires.

Natural-Based Adhesives:
Many natural-based adhesives are available. In
general, these adhesives are not as strong as
the synthetic adhesives. Natural rubber has
been used as an adhesive for over 100 years. In
1825, the Macintosh raincoat, which consisted of
two layers of cotton bonded by a layer of natural
rubber, was introduced. Protein adhesives are
used as structural adhesives. They are based on
polyamino acids obtained from various animal
and plant sources. Curing is typically dependent
on heat. Starch-based adhesives are derived
from plants. They are primarily used for binding
paper and as envelope adhesives. Cellulose is
another natural material that provides adequate

adhesion. Cellulose nitrate was one of the first

modified adhesives produced. It is a general allpurpose adhesive which is waterproof and
flexible. Modified methylcellulose is used to
make wallpaper paste. Other natural adhesives
are tariffing resins that are derived from coal,
petroleum or wood tar.

Pressure sensitive adhesives:

Pressure sensitive adhesives are polymericbased adhesives that melt at room temperature.
When pressure is applied to the adhesive, they
become flow able thereby covering the
substrate. As the pressure is removed adhesion
takes place. Many tapes use this kind of
adhesive material. Pressure-sensitive tape uses
a blend of glycerol and abiotic acid esters with
natural rubber on cellophane. In addition to
pressure-sensitive adhesives, hot melt
adhesives have been developed. Since
thermoplastics melt when heated and reform
when cooled, they make good adhesives. This is
the principle behind glue guns. Nylon polymers
are often used for their formulation.

 Solvent-based adhesives:
Solvent-based adhesives work through the
action of the substrate or adhesive. The material
is put on the substrate and when the solvent
evaporates bonding occurs. Adhesion is aided if
the solvent interacts with the substrate. An
example is model airplane glue that tends to
dissolve some of the plastic. This helps to create
a solid weld. Latex adhesives are another type
of solvent-based adhesive. They are polymeric
materials that provide adhesion after their
aqueous solvent evaporates. These are the
same types of polymers that are used for latex
paints. Latex adhesives are used for bonding
pile to carpets.

THEORY OF ADHESION
A variety of theories about how adhesives work
have been proposed. While none of these
satisfactorily describes all aspects of adhesion,
they do attempt to explain observed
phenomena. The leading theories of adhesion

include the diffusion, electrostatic, surface

energetics, and mechanical and adsorption
theories.

Diffusion theory:

The diffusion theory states that adhesion is a

result of the solubility of the adhesive to the
substrate. When the adhesive is applied to the
substrate, it is suggested that a solution of the
substrate and adhesive is formed if the solubility
characteristics are equal. This creates a stable
phase that bonds the two surfaces together.
While this theory provides some insights, it is
mostly applicable to situations in which
polymers adhere to each other. It is not
applicable to systems where the substrate and
adhesive are radically dissimilar.

Electrostatic theory:

The electrostatic theory suggests that adhesion

is the result of differences in the electro
negativities of adhering materials. According to
the theory, when two materials are brought into

contact there is an amount of electron transfer

that occurs. This results in a charge layer being
formed which causes the materials to stay
together. An example of this theory can be seen
when using static electricity to make a balloon
stick to a wall.

Surface energetics theory:

The surface energetics theory describes

adhesion in terms of intermolecular and
interatomic forces. For these forces to have an
effect, the adhesive must come into close
contact with the substrate. According to this
theory adhesion is a result of bonding across the
interface. An example of this theory is chemical
adhesion that occurs when the chemical groups
from the adhesive covalently bond with those of
the substrate. Secondary adhesion occurs
similarly through hydrogen bonding.

Mechanical theory:

The mechanical theory describes adhesion in

terms of a physical interlocking of the adhesive
with the substrate. Mechanical adhesion occurs
when the adhesive material flows into and on
the microscopically rough substrate surface.
This creates a lock and key effect. The viscosity
of thieve and the contact time with the
substrate are important parameters for
mechanical adhesion. Viscosity adhesion occurs
by restricted movement due to the viscous
nature of the substrates.

Adsorption theory:

Another theory regarding adhesion is the

adsorption theory. This is by far the most
important theory regarding adhesion. The
process of adsorption is discussed in detail.

ADSORPTION
There are residual forces acting along the
surface of the liquid. This is also expected for
the surface of a solid. Due to residual forces, the
surface of a solid (or a liquid) has a tendency to

attract and retain molecules of other species

with which it is brought contact. This attraction
of particles on the surface reduces the surface
energy and hence brings stability to the surface.
This is done by a surface phenomenon known as
adsorption.
The phenomenon of higher concentration of
any molecular species at the surface than in the
bulk of a solid (or a liquid) is known as
adsorption.
Some examples are:
Charcoal when mixed with a coloured
solution of sugar, adsorbs the colouring
matter and is used as a decolouriser.
When a hot crucible is cooled in atmosphere,
a film of moisture collects at the surface.
This is a case of adsorption of water vapour
on the material of the crucible.

TYPES OF ADSORPTION
Depending on the nature of attractive forces
involved between adsorbent and adsorbate,
adsorption can be:

Physical adsorption/ Physisorption

In which adsorbate is held to the adsorbent by

weak forces such as van der Waals forces of
attraction.

Chemical adsorption/ Chemisorption

In which adsorbate is held to the adsorbent by

forces nearly as strong as a chemical bond.

PHYSICAL ADSORPTION

CHEMICAL ADSORPTION

Reversible.

Irreversible.

Formation of multimolecular
layers.

Formation of unimolecular
layer.

The extent of adsorption is

related to the ease of
liquefaction of the gas.

No correlation exists.

Forces of attraction between

adsorbate and adsorbent are
weak (van der Waals' forces).

Forces of attraction are

strong (as a chemical
bond).

Non-specific in nature.

Highly specific.

Low heat of adsorption : 20- 40

kJ/mol.

High heat of adsorption :

50- 400 kJ/mol.

Occurs at low temperature and

decreases with increasing
temperature.

Occurs at higher
temperature, extent of
adsorption first increases
and then decreases with
increase in temperature.

A comparison between the types of

adsorption

CHARACTERISTICS OF
ADSORPTION
Solids, particularly when finely divided, have
a large surface area, hence this behavior is
predominantly on solid surfaces.

The solid that takes up a gas or vapour or a

solute from solution, is called adsorbent while
the gas or the solute, which is held to the
surface of the solid is called adsorbate.

The removal of adsorbed substance from a

surface is called desorption .When equilibrium is
reached
Rate of adsorption = Rate of desorption.


In some cases, adsorption and absorption
take place simultaneously and it is difficult to
determine the relative extent of adsorption and
absorption. The term sorption is widely is used
in such cases.

ADSORPTION AND ABSORPTION

Adsorption is different from absorption.
Absorption of a substance A by a substance B
means that A is uniformly distributed all over B.
Adsorption on the other hand, means that A is
present on the surface of B, but the
concentration of A in parts of B from the surface
is negligible.

ADSORPTION

ABSORPTION

It is a surface
phenomenon.

It is a bulk
phenomenon.

Adsorbate is
accumulated at

The substance
getting adsorbed
throughout the bulk
of the substance.

the surface.

The rate of adsorption is Adsorption proceeds

very
at a steady rate.
rapid in the beginning.
The
rate however decreases
gradually until
equilibrium is reached.

EXAMPLES
Water vapour is absorbed by anhydrous
calcium chloride while it is adsorbed by silica
gel.
Ammonia is absorbed by water, but it is
adsorbed by charcoal.

FACTORS AFFECTING ADSORPTION

The factors affecting adsorption are given below
in detail:

Nature of adsorbate: The rate and

specificity of adsorption depends on the material
being adsorbed. For example rates of adsorption
of gases such as NH3 is different from gases
such H2

Nature of the adsorbent: Each of the

adsorbents has different surface and hence
different characteristic adsorbent properties.

Specific area of the

adsorbent: Adsorption on a surface is directly
proportional to the surface area of the
adsorbent.

Effect of temperature: Adsorption is

generally temperature dependent. For

exothermic process adsorption decreases with

increase in temperature and vice versa for
endothermic process.

Pressure of the gas Adsorption

isotherms: The extent of adsorption of the gas
on a solid surface depends on its pressure as
given by Freundlich and Langmuir adsorption
isotherms.
1. Freundlich adsorption isotherm:
In case of adsorption of gases on solids, the
relation between x/m and pressure p of the gas
at constant temperature is given by the
equation:
x/m = kp1/n (n>1)
where k and n are parameters of
the equation depending upon the nature of the
gas and the solid. x/m is the number of moles of
adsorbate divided by the mass of the adsorbent.

Pressure
Freundlich adsorption isotherm however fails at
higher temperature and is unsuitable for
monolayer chemisorption.
2. Langmuir adsorption isotherm:
Langmuir derived an adsorption isotherm on
theoretical considerations based on kinetic
theory of gases. This isotherm is based on the
assumption that every adsorption site is
equivalent and that the ability of a particle to
bind there is independent of whether or not
nearby sites are occupied.
The Langmuir adsorption isotherm is
represented by the relation
x/m=(ap/1+bp)
where a and b are two Langmuir
parameters. At very high pressure, the above
isotherm acquires the limiting form

x/m=a/b (at very high pressure)

x/m=ap (at very low pressure)
Pressure :
The Langmuir adsorption isotherm is generally
more successful in interpreting the data than the
Freundlich isotherm when a monolayer is formed
i.e. in case of chemisorption.

EXPERIMENT
AIM:

To prepare adhesives from petrol and

thermocole.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Glass rod, Petrol, Thermocole, Beaker.

CONDITIONS:
The experiment was carried at normal room
temperature and pressure.

PROCEDURE:
The procedure is as follows
I. Take 50 ml of petrol using a burette in a
clean and dry Glass beaker.
II. Now take the thermocole which has been cut
into small Pieces and add slowly to petrol in
the beaker.
III. Stir continuously and keep on adding
thermocole into the beaker.
IV. After a while no more thermocole dissolves
in the petrol.
V. Stop adding thermocole and allow it to stand
for a few minutes.

OBSERVATION:

The beaker containing petrol now has a thick

and coagulated mass in it. This is the resultant
adhesive.

EXPERIMENTAL MECHANISM:
Thermocole is basically polystyrene (CH(C6H5)
CH2)n
by structure. Petrol is chemically a mixture of
hydrocarbons. When thermocole is added to
petrol, petrol acts as a solvent and dissolves
thermocole. When petrol is saturated with
thermocole we get a coagulated mass which is
the adhesive. When we apply this adhesive to a
surface, molecules of the adhesive get adsorbed
on the surface. When we place another surface
on the first one, these two surfaces stick
together as the adhesive molecules bind to the
second as well. Thus strong adhesive attraction
was formed between the two surfaces due to
strong adsorption.

TESTS FOR ADHESION:

The above adhesive was tested by applying it to
various articles. It was found to form a strong
and excellent adhesive bond between varieties
of articles such as wood, plastic, paper etc. A
graph was plotted to show the extent of
adhesion of different surfaces.
It was found that the extent of adhesion was
maximum for wood and minimum for glass. Thus
this adhesive was found to be most suitable for
usage on wooden articles.

RESULT:
Thus an adhesive was prepared from thermocole
and petrol.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

www.ask.com
www.google.com
www.wikipedia.com
www.howstuffworks.com
Physical Chemistry by Walter. J.

Moor.
6.
NCERT Class 12 Chemistry

7.

Textbook
Saraswati Chemistry Practical Book