TRIGONOMETRY - MEASURE OF AN ANGLE

Any real number may be interpreted as the radian measure of an angle as

follows: If
, think of wrapping a length of string around the standard
unit circle C in the plane, with initial pointP(1,0), and proceeding
counterclockwise around the circle; do the same if
, but wrap the string
clockwise around the circle. This process is described in Figure 1 below.

If Q(x,y) is the point on the circle where the string ends, we may think of as
being an angle by associating to it the central angle with vertex O(0,0) and
sides passing through the points P and Q. If instead of wrapping a length s of
string around the unit circle, we decide to wrap it around a circle of radius R,
the angle (in radians) generated in the process will satisfy the following
relation:

Observe that the length s of string gives the measure of the angle only
when R=1.
As a matter of common practice and convenience, it is useful to measure
angles in degrees, which are defined by partitioning one whole revolution into
360 equal parts, each of which is then called one degree. In this way, one
whole revolution around the unit circle measures
radians and also 360
degrees (or
), that is:

Each degree may be further subdivided into 60 parts, called minutes, and in
turn each minute may be subdivided into another 60 parts, called seconds:

EXAMPLE 1 Express the angle

notation.

in Degree-Minute-Second (DMS)

Solution: We use Equation 3 to convert a fraction of a degree into minutes and

a fraction of a minute into seconds:
Figure 1

EXERCISE 3 Assume that City A and City B are located on the same
meridian in the Northern hemisphere and that the earth is a sphere of radius
4000 mi. The latitudes of City A and City B are
and
,
respectively.
(a)
Therefore,

Express the latitudes of City A and City B in decimal form.

(b)

EXAMPLE 2 Express the angle

Express the latitudes of City A and City B in radian form.

in radians.

(c)
Find the distance between the two cities.

Solution: From Equation 2 we see that

TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
EXAMPLE 3 Find the length of an arc on a circle of radius 75 inches that
spans a central angle of measure
.
Solution: We use Equation 1,

, with R=75 inches and

, to obtain

Recall that a real number can be interpreted as the measure of the angle
constructed as follows: wrap a piece of string of length units around the unit
circle
(counterclockwise if
, clockwise if
) with initial
point P(1,0) and terminal point Q(x,y). This gives rise to the central angle with
vertex O(0,0) and sides through the points P and Q. All six trigonometric
functions of are defined in terms of the coordinates of the point Q(x,y), as
follows:

Here are some more exercises in the use of the rules given in Equations 1,2,
and 3.
EXERCISE 1 Express the angle
DMS form.

radians in (a) decimal form and (b)

Solution
EXERCISE 2 Express the angle
Solution

in radians.

Since Q(x,y) is a point on the unit circle, we know that

. This fact
and the definitions of the trigonometric functions give rise to the following
fundamental identities:

We call the number the period of the trigonometric functions

and
,
and refer to these functions as being periodic. Both
and
are periodic
functions as well, with period , while
and
are periodic with period
.
EXAMPLE 1 Find the period of the function
Solution: The function

This modern notation for trigonometric functions is due to L. Euler (1748).

More generally, if Q(x,y) is the point where the circle
of
radius R is intersected by the angle , then it follows (from similar triangles)
that

runs through a full cycle when the

angle 3x runs from 0 to

, or equivalently when x goes from 0 to

period of f(x) is then

EXERCISE 1 Find the period of the function

. The

Solution
Evaluation of Trigonometric functions
Consider the triangle with sides of length
in Figure 1 below:

Periodic Functions
If an angle corresponds to a point Q(x,y) on the unit circle, it is not hard to
see that the angle

corresponds to the same point Q(x,y), and hence that

Moreover, is the smallest positive angle for which Equations 1 are true for
any angle . In general, we have for all angles :

and hypotenuse c>0 as

Figure 1

For the angle pictured in the figure, we see that

There are a few angles for which all trigonometric functions may be found
using the triangles shown in the following Figure 2.
Figure 2

This list may be extended with the use of reference angles (see Example 2
below).
EXAMPLE 1: Find the values of all trigonometric functions of the
angle
.

Solution: From Figure 2, we see that the angle of

point

corresponds to the

on the unit circle, and so

EXAMPLE 2: Find the values of all trigonometric functions of the

angle
.
Solution: Observe that an angle of
is equivalent to 8 whole revolutions
(a total of
) plus
, Hence the angles
and
intersect the unit
circle at the same point Q(x,y), and so their trigonometric functions are the
same. Furthermore, the angle of
makes an angle of
with respect to the
x-axis (in the second quadrant). From this we can see
that

and hence that

Figure 3

We call the auxiliary angle of

the reference angle of

It follows that

EXAMPLE 3 Find all trigonometric functions of an angle in the third

quadrant for which

Solution: We first construct a point R(x,y) on the terminal side of the angle ,
in the third quadrant. If R(x,y) is such a point, then
we see that we may take x=-5 and R=6. Since

and

Here are some Exercises on the evaluation of trigonometric functions.

we

find that
(the negative signs on x and y are taken so
that R(x,y) is a point on the third quadrant, see Figure 3).

EXERCISE 2
(a)

Evaluate

(give the exact answer).

\kappa K

\chi X

\lambda \Lambda

\psi \Psi

\mu M

\omega \Omega

(b)
If

and

, find

(give the exact answer).

Solution
EXERCISE 3 From a 200-foot observation tower on the beach, a man sights a
whale in difficulty. The angle of depression of the whale is . How far is the
whale from the shoreline?

Greek letters
\alpha A

\nu N

\beta B

\xi\Xi

\gamma \Gamma

o O

\delta \Delta

\pi \Pi

\epsilon \varepsilon E

\rho\varrho P

\zeta Z

\sigma \Sigma

\eta H

\tau T

\theta \vartheta \Theta

\upsilon \Upsilon

\iota I

\phi \varphi \Phi

Applications of Radian Measure

In this section, we see some of the common applications of radian
measure, including arc length, area of a sector of a circle, and angular
velocity.
Go back to the section on Radians if you are not sure what is going on.

Arc Length

Area of a Sector
The area of a sector with central angle (in radians) is given by:

The length, s, of an arc of a circle radius r subtended by (in radians)

is given by:

s=r
If r is in meters, s will also be in meters. Likewise, if r is in cm, s will
also be in cm.
Example 1
Find the length of the arc of a circle with
radius \displaystyle{4}\ \text{cm}4 cm and central
angle \displaystyle{5.1}5.1 radians.

Answer

s=r
\displaystyle={4}\times{5.1}=45.1
\displaystyle={20.4}\ \text{cm}=20.4 cm

\displaystyle\text{Area}=\frac{{\theta\ {r}^{2}}}
{{2}}Area=2 r2
If r is in \displaystyle\text{m}m, the area will be measured
in \displaystyle\text{m}m2. If r is
in \displaystyle\text{cm}cm, area will be
in \displaystyle\text{cm}cm2.
Example 2
Find the area of the sector with radius \displaystyle{7}\
\text{cm}7 cm and central
angle \displaystyle{2.5}2.5 radians.

Answer

\displaystyle\text{Area}=\frac{{\theta\ {r}^{2}}}
{{2}}=\frac{{{2.5}\times{7}^{2}}}

{{2}}={61.25}\ \text{cm}^{2}Area=2 r2=22.572

=61.25 cm2
Angular Velocity
The time rate of change of angle by a rotating body is the angular
velocity, written (omega). It is measured in radians/second.
If v is the linear velocity (in m/s) and r is the radius of the circle (in m),
then

v = r

Now v = r
The units are a mix of cm and km. Let's present everything in meters.
We need to convert v to m/s first.

\displaystyle{25}\ \text{km/h}={25000}\
\text{m/h}=\frac{25000}
{{3600}}\text{m/s}={6.94444}\
\text{m/s}25 km/h=25000 m/h=360025000
m/s=6.94444 m/s
Also, we have

Note: If r is in \displaystyle\text{cm}cm, v will be

in \displaystyle\text{cm/s}cm/s.
Example 3
A bicycle with tyres \displaystyle{90}\ \text{cm}90 cm in
diameter is travelling at \displaystyle{25}25 km/h. What is the
angular velocity of the tyre in radians per second?

\displaystyle{r}=\frac{{{90}\ \text{cm}}}
{{2}}={45}\ \text{cm}={0.45}\ \text{m}r=290 cm
=45 cm=0.45 m
So \displaystyle\omega=\frac{v}

{{r}}=\frac{6.94444}{{0.45}}={15.43}\
\text{rad/s}=rv=0.456.94444=15.43 rad/s

Answer

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Flash Game
The man runs at a constant velocity and a ball is revolving overhead.
You increase points if:
the linear velocity of the ball is more than 6 m/sec - add 1 point

 the ball is close to the man (within one body length) - add 10
points
Your points go down if:

\displaystyle\text{Area}=\frac{{\theta\ {r}^{2}}}
{{2}}=\frac{{{0.8831}\times{1.25}^{2}}}
{{2}}={0.690}\ \text{m}^{2}Area=2 r2=2
0.88311.252=0.690 m2

the ball goes outside the borders - minus 1 point

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the ball hurts the man - minus 20 points

You can use
the first slider or the right and left arrows on your keyboard to
change the radius and
the second slider or the up and down arrows to change
the angular velocity.

2. A cam is in the shape of a circular sector with

radius \displaystyle{1.875}\ \text{cm}1.875 cm and
central angle \displaystyle{165.58}^{\circ}165.58. What
is the perimeter of the cam?
Answer
The length of the arc is given by s = r.

Exercises:
1. A section of side walk is a circular sector of
radius \displaystyle{1.25}\ \text{m}1.25 m and central
angle \displaystyle{50.6}^{\circ}50.6. What is the area of
this section of sidewalk?

Answer
First we must convert \displaystyle{50.6}^{\circ}50.6 to
radians:

\displaystyle{50.6}^{\circ}={50.6}\times\frac{\pi}
{{180}}={0.8831}\ \text{radians}50.6=50.6180
=0.8831 radians

First we must convert \displaystyle{165.58}^{\circ}165.58

into radians:

\
displaystyle{165.58}^{\circ}={165.58}\times\frac{\p
i}{{180}}={2.8899}165.58=165.58180=2.8899 r
adians.
So arc length
is: \displaystyle{s}={1.875}\times{2.8899}={5.419}
s=1.8752.8899=5.419 cm.
So the perimeter of the cam is:

\
displaystyle{2}\times{1.875}+{5.419}={9.169}21.
875+5.419=9.169 cm.

Note 1: ms-1 is an equivalent way of writing m/s. This comes from

the index laws where the rule is \displaystyle{s}^{ {{1}}}=\frac{1}{{s}}s1=s1.

3. The roller on a computer printer

makes \displaystyle{2200}2200 rev/min. What is its angular
velocity?

Note 2: It is common in physics to write velocity using ms-1 and the

units for acceleration as ms-2.

Answer
Angular velocity is:

\displaystyle\omega={2200}\frac{r}
{\min}\times\frac{{{2}\pi}}{{60}}={230.4}\
\text{rad/s}=2200minr602=230.4 rad/s.
4. The propeller on a motorboat is rotating
at \displaystyle{130}130 rad/s. What is the linear velocity of a
point on the tip of a blade if the blade
is \displaystyle{22.5}22.5 cm long?
Answer
Linear velocity = v = r

5. The sweep second hand of a watch

is \displaystyle{15.0}15.0 mm long. What is the linear velocity
of the tip?
Answer
The second hand rotates \displaystyle{2}\pi2 every minute, so
per second we have:

\displaystyle\omega=\frac{{{2}\pi}}
{{60}}=\frac{\pi}{{30}}\text{rad}\text{/}{s}=60
2=30rad/s
and \displaystyle{r}={0.015}\ \text{m}r=0.015 m.
So \displaystyle{v}=\omega{r}={\left(\frac{\pi}

{{30}}\right)}{\left({0.015}\right)}={0.00157}\
\text{m/s}v=r=(30)(0.015)=0.00157 m/s.

In this example, = 130 rad/s and r = 0.225 m

So the linear velocity is:

v = 130 0.225 = 29.3 ms-1.

Angular and Linear Velocity

Introduction: In this lesson, the velocity of a particle traveling on a circular
path will be examined. Two different perspectives for measuring a particle's
motion are its angular velocity and its linear velocity. During this lesson, we will
assume that our objects are moving in uniform circular motion, that is, they are
moving along a circular path at a constant speed which is neither increasing nor

decreasing.
The Lesson:
The angular velocity of a particle traveling on a circular path is the ratio of
the angle traversed to the amount of time it takes to traverse that angle.

2. To calculate the linear velocity of the fan blade, we note that the
blade rotates 30 times in one minute or
times per
hour. Assuming the radius of the fan is 2 feet, we have

1. Consider the Earth which rotates on its axis once every 24 hours.
This complete circle is
angularvelocity of the

the circumference of the fan as

Multiplying this by 1800

radians. Therefore, the

Earths rotation is

gives

2. A second example is that of a ceiling fan. If the fan rotates 30

times per minute, the angular velocity is
per minute

radians

or

Angular velocity is a measure of the angular displacement per unit time. Notice
that the angular velocity of the fan is much larger than the angular velocity of
the Earth. However, the Earth has a much larger radius than a ceiling fan.
Therefore a point on the surface of the Earth is moving much faster than the tip
of a fan blade. To see this, we will calculate the linear velocity of a pointon the
surface of the Earth and a point on the tip of a fan blade.

Note: Despite a much larger angular velocity, the tip of the blade of a
ceiling fan has a much smaller linear velocitythan the Earth because of
the vast difference in the lengths of their respective radii.
We can generalize the calculations made for the Earth and the ceiling fan so
that we have formulas which will work for the motion of any particle on a
circular path.
i.

The angular velocity is a ratio of the total angular measurement

through which a particle rotates in a given unit of time. If we
use to stand for angular velocity, we have

Reviewing the motion of the Earth, recall that the

1. The radius of the Earth is approximately 4000 miles. The Earth is

rotating at a rate of
per hour. Notice that the
distance traveled in one hour on the surface of the Earth in 15
of rotation is
use

Earth has an angular velocity of

radians per hour.

linear velocity of a point on the Earth's surface was

calculated by multiplying this angular velocity by
the radiusof the Earth

where we

to calculate the circumference of the Earth and we

use
as the fraction of the circumferencetraversed in one
hour. The linear velocity is 1047 miles per hour! We only keep
from flying off the surface of the Earth because of gravity.

=
ii.

Using this as a guide, we define linear velocity, v, to be

where is angular velocity in radians and r is the radius.

Let's Practice:

i.

A Ferris Wheel rotates 3 times each minute. The passengers sit in seats
that are 25 feet from the center of the wheel. What is the
angular velocity of the wheel in degrees per minute and radians per
minute? What is the linear velocity of the passengers in the seats?

3 revolutions per minute

is

The linear velocity is calculated from

Definitions of the Trigonometric Functions

of an Acute Angle
BEFORE DEFINING THE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS, we must
see how to relate the angles and sides of a right
triangle.

This gives us

We can change this to miles per hour by multiplying as follows:

.
We can simplify this result by canceling the minutes and feet to get
.
ii.

An object is rotating on a circular path at 4 revolutions per minute. The

linear velocity of the object is 400 feet per minute. What is theradius of
the circle and what is the angular velocity of the rotating platform?

We first find the angular velocity: 4 revolutions per minute

is

Second, we use

. This gives us
.

iii.

An object moves along a circular path of radius r. What is the effect on

the linear velocity if the radius of this circle is doubled?

The linear velocity is

. If the linear velocity is recalculated using 2r as the

new radius, we have:

the linear velocity is also doubled.

. Therefore if the radius is doubled,

A right triangle is composed of a right angle, the angle

at C, and two acute angles, which are angles less than
a right angle. It is conventional to label the acute
angles with Greek letters. We will label the angle
at B with the letter ("THAY-ta"). And we will label
the angle at A with the letter ("fie").
As for the sides, the side AB, opposite the right
angle, is called thehypotenuse ("hy-POT'n-yoos").
Each acute angle is formed by the hypotenuse and
the side adjacent to the angle. Thus, angle is
formed by the hypotenuse and side BC. Angle is
formed by the hypotenuse and side AC.

With respect to angle , though, side AC is

its opposite side. While side BC is the
side opposite .

tangent
of

tan

opposite
adjacent

cotangent
of

cot

adjacent
opposite

The ratios of sides

Any two sides of the triangle will have a ratio -- a

relationship -- to one another. It is possible to form
six such ratios: the ratio of the opposite side to the
hypotenuse; the adjacent side to the hypotenuse; and
so on. Those six ratios have
historical names and abbreviations, with which the
student will have to make peace. They are the
following.

sine of =

sin

cosine cos
=
of

opposit
=

e
hypoten
use

cosecant csc
=
of

adjacen
=

t
hypoten
use

secant of =

sec

hypotenu
se
=
opposit
e
hypotenu
se
=
adjacen
t

Notice that each ratio in the right-hand column is

the inverse, or thereciprocal, of the ratio in the lefthand column.
The reciprocal of sin is csc ; and vice-versa.
The reciprocal of cos is sec .
And the reciprocal of tan is cot .
Each ratio moreover is a function of the acute
angle. That is, one quantity is a "function" of another
if its value depends on the value of the other. The
circumference of a circle is a function of the radius,
because the size of the circumference depends on the
size of the radius, and when the radius changes, the
circumference also will change. As we will see in the
next Topic, the value of each ratio depends only on
the value of the acute angle. That is why we say that
those ratios are functionsof the acute angle. We call
them the trigonometric functions of an acute angle.
All of trigonometry is based on the definitions of
those functions.
Problem 1. Complete the following with either
"opposite," "adjacent to," or "hypotenuse."

To see the answer, pass your mouse over the

colored area.
To cover the answer again, click "Refresh"
("Reload").

a) In a right triangle, the side opposite the right

angle is called the

sin

4
5

csc

5
4

cos

3
5

sec

5
3

tan

4
3

cot

3
4

Problem 3. The sides of a right triangle are in the

ratio 8 : 15 : 17, as shown. Name and evaluate the
six trigonometric functions of angle .

a) hypotenuse.
b) CA is called the side opposite angle .
c) BC is called the side adjacent to angle .
d) AC is called the side adjacent to angle .

sin

15
17

csc

17
15

cos

8
17

sec

17
8

tan

15
8

cot

8
15

e) BC is called the side opposite angle .

Problem 2. The sides of a right triangle are in the
ratio 3 : 4 : 5, as shown. Name and evaluate the six
trigonometric functions of angle .

Notice that the sides of this triangle satisfy, as

they must, thePythagorean theorem:
82 + 152 =
64 + 225 =

172
289

Problem 4. A straight line makes an angle with

the x-axis. The value

Let them be the base angles at A and B, so that

the base will be the side c. Show that the
height h drawn to that base is
_____c_____
cot A + cot B

h =

Hint: The height h will cut the entire triangle

into two right triangles.
of which function of is equal to its slope?

Problem 5. The height of a triangle. Every

triangle, right-angled or not, will have at least two
acute angles.

Let x be the segment of the base containing the

angle A. Then the remaining segment is the
difference between the whole c and that segment:
c x.
In the right triangle containing the acute angle
A,
x
h

cot A,

or

x = h cot A .

. (1)

In the right triangle containing the acute angle

B,

cx
h

(1),

cot B,

or

Specifically, prove that

c x = h cot B.

Area of triangle ABC = sin A bc = bc sin A.

On substituting the expression for x from line

c h cot A = h cot B,
which implies

The area of a triangle is equal to one-half the

base times theheight. In triangle ABC, let the base
be c. Then

c = h cot A + h cot B = h(cot A + cot B).

Therefore, on solving for h,
h =

_____c_____
cot A + cot B

Area = ch.
.

Problem 6. The area of a triangle. Prove: The

area of a triangle is equal to one-half the sine of any
angle times the product of the two sides that make
the angle.

Now,

sin A = h/b,
so that
h = b sin A.
Therefore in the expression for the Area,
replace h with b sin A:
Area = cb sin A.