Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
6, NOVEMBER 2007
1137
A/F
BDC
BIBO
BP
GA
GDI
IAC
ISC
LQ
LQG
LQI
LQR
LSE
MAP
MIMO
MRAC
NVH
PID
PFI
RBF
RLS
RPM
NOMENCLATURE
Air to fuel (ratio).
Bottom dead center.
Bounded input bounded output.
Backpropagation.
Genetic algorithm.
Gasoline direct injection (engine).
Idle air control.
Idle speed control.
Linear quadratic.
Linear quadratic Gaussian.
Linear quadratic integral.
Linear quadratic regulator.
Least squares estimation.
Manifold absolute pressure.
Multiple input multiple output.
Model reference adaptive control.
Noise, vibration, and harshness.
Proportional, derivative, and integral.
Port fuel injection (engine).
Radial basis function.
Recursive least squares.
Revolution per minute.
Manuscript received January 9, 2006; revised March 20, 2006 and July 6,
2006. This paper was recommended by Associate Editor P. Horacek.
The author is with the Department of Electrical Engineering, Southern University, Baton Rouge, LA 70813 USA (e-mail: zhengmaoye@engr.subr.edu).
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TSMCC.2007.905810
SSR
STR
SVD
TDC
TWC
I. INTRODUCTION
UTOMOTIVE idle speed control (ISC) is a multiobjective
and multivariable control issue. The selection of target idle
speed corresponds to a tradeoff among fuel consumption, idle
operation stability, and emission levels. The idle speed control
mechanism of different engine types varies. For a typical port
fuel injection (PFI) engine, the ISC system uses a controlled
bypass valve to regulate the flow rate of bypass air around a
closed throttle, using a solenoid, stepper motor, or controlled
duty-cycle valve. The throttle bypass valve is used to adjust the
intake manifold air flow around the primary throttle plate at idle.
Its secondary function is to prevent stalling and produce smooth
throttle tip in and tip out by providing extra air during idling
and acting as an electronic dashpot during sudden deceleration.
Another category of ISC systems uses a direct throttle actuator. The air volume at idle comes through a slight throttle
opening, which is controlled by a dc motor, stepper motor, or
solenoid. On average, about 30% of fuel consumption in a city
driving is spent at idle [36], and it continues to increase with
increasing traffic levels.
A reasonable target idle speed needs to be maintained in
order to overcome mechanical frictions, misfiring, and load disturbances to prevent engines oscillation, vibration, hunting, and
stalling under a variety of circumstances. At idle, both rich air
to fuel (A/F) mixture and incomplete combustion are present
due to in-cylinder residual gas fraction and low engine speed,
giving rise to higher levels of HC and CO emissions. Basic
requirements for ISC systems are listed as follows.
1) Low idle speed set point is needed for good fuel economy.
2) Low idle speed set point is needed for the reduction of HC
and CO emissions.
3) The ISC stability is of the upmost importance. Regarding
target idle speed, if it is too low, stalling may occur; if it
is too high, harsh gear engagement may occur.
4) ISC nonlinear delays need to be compensated for.
It is clear that some requirements are conflicting. As a result,
multiobjective modeling, control, and optimization for dynamic
ISC systems are necessary. From literature surveys, virtually all
existing control theories have been successfully implemented to
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genetic algorithms. Fuzzy logic is rule based, whose knowledge base consists of fuzzy ifthen rules characterized by a
set of membership functions. Neural networks employ learning
algorithms to modify weights on the connection links among
multiple layers. In most cases, hybridization has to be used to
enhance control performance, such as in ISC fuzzy PID control. Sometimes there might also be no distinctive borderlines
between different control types. As an example, neither optimal
control nor adaptive control can be grouped as classical control
or modern control exclusively.
II. PFI ENGINE IDLE SPEED CONTROL APPROACHES (AZ)
It is inevitable that engine dynamics is related to nonlinear
phenomena, such as fuel transport lag, intake charging delay,
and induction-to-power stroke delay. A well-known fact is the
wall wetting effect. These phenomena are induced by both periodic speed fluctuations and aperiodic load disturbances. Periodic speed fluctuations can be examined by the intake manifold
filling dynamic, combustion dynamics, and engine rotational
dynamics. Idle speed quality degradation can arise from the
combustion roughness and aperiodic loads imposed by air conditioning, power steering, alternators, and neutral-drive transitions [6], [55].
A. ISC Feedforward Control
An ISC system with the feedforward compensation has been
designed at Mitsubishi [35]. With the presence of alternator load
current, the feedforward compensation method is derived based
on a linearized engine model. It is used to suppress the idle
speed fluctuation generated by some electric load disturbances.
This ISC dynamic model consists of alternator dynamics, intake manifold filling dynamics, and engine rotational dynamics.
In feedforward control, a voltage regulator is used to change
the field current by adjusting the intake air flow rate. All control parameters of this ISC system are identified using sensing
information from the airflow sensor, hall element load current
sensor, and so on. As a result, idle speed fluctuation has been
suppressed. Under measurable disturbances from air conditioning and power steering, the ISC feedforward controller can also
be used for load disturbance rejection [17], [28], [87], [88].
Feedforward control is simple to implement at a low cost. As
an open loop approach, its control authority is limited. The ISC
feedforward controller is usually combined with some other control approaches, such as optimal control and neural networks, to
further improve the quality of an ISC system.
B. ISC Fundamental PID Control
Engine speed oscillations are caused by the pulsating nature of the engine torque [27], due to fuel detonation in the
cylinders. In idle regime, these oscillations are of special concern when the inertia of the vehicle is not connected to the
engine. Damping of idle speed oscillations is considered using
a reversible alternator. This reversible alternator applies control
torque to the crankshaft to improve the uniformity of the speed.
Practical parameterizations of controllers are conducted by
Fig. 1.
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(3)
(4)
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Fig. 2.
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(8)
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4
+ (B/A)cos[sin1 (B/A)].
(9)
(10)
In the mean while, the limit cycle analysis has been applied,
where Gu is the transfer function of the engine model and GC
is the pseudolinearized open loop transfer function (10). It is
likely that the closed loop system can get away from the limit
cycle. This ISC nonlinear control approach has resulted in better performance than that of the regular linear control approach.
The describing function approach is an alternative to analyze
ISC nonlinear systems, which provides a shortcut between linear systems and nonlinear systems. It works in certain case, but
obviously this approach lacks accuracy due to saturations. Be-
The problem of the fast output torque delivery [91] is investigated by means of a throttle valve position controller with
the drive-by-wire electronics, based on a multipoint port injection manifold. This optimal control problem is solved using
the cyclic hybrid modeling and control approach, which is subject to the constraint that A/F ratio stays as close as possible
to the stoichiometric value of 14.64. Air dynamics is modeled
as a function of the quantity of air flow entering the cylinders
through intake manifold. At the same time, powertrain dynamics is modeled as a linear system, whose state variables are the
axle torsion angle, engine speed, and wheel revolution speed. A
single-state hybrid system reaches the dead point of a control
event whenever pistons reach either top dead center or bottom
dead center. The behavior of each cylinder is represented by
a finite state machine and a discrete event system for torque
generation. Every ith injection system is represented by a hybrid system. Then, the generalized model consists of four hybrid
systems representing behaviors of four cylinders, while the powertrain and intake manifold models are applied to each cylinder.
The dead-points are synchronous and one step delay is assumed
with respect to the previous cycle event. The optimal A/F ratio can be achieved by this hybrid control design. At idle, the
same approach is applied, while powertrain dynamics has been
simplified from a three-variable case to a two-variable case.
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air control and the spark advance control has been formulated.
Using the ISC fuzzy control on a basis of equality relations, the
engine speed fluctuation has been reduced remarkably to prevent the engine oscillation against the load disturbances from
the air conditioning. This Mamdani fuzzy ISC system represents
a simple case of idle speed fuzzy control. There is no difficulty
essentially in its practical implementation; however its control
authority is limited.
Fig. 3.
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back-propagation is used to approximate the dynamic derivatives. A truncated BP approach decouples the cycling time to
update both the derivatives and weights. Combined with the
Kalman filter algorithm, an effective neural network controller is
created. This ISC back-propagation approach is flexible, whose
main role is to filter out the error signals. Thus, it can serve as
either an idle speed controller itself or a potential part of an ISC
system.
Z. Neural NetworksISC Radial Basis Function Approach
ISC systems Fig. 4 are nonlinear systems that are subject to
disturbance rejection [58]. Engines typically are of high nonlinearity at idle. Two control variables presented differ in both
the operating range and temporal characteristics. Spark advance
gives a prompt action but it is of a limit control authority, while
the throttle opening has a dominating control authority but it is
of a slow response. These problems stem from intake manifold
filling dynamics and intake to power stroke delay. The spark
timing variable outside its effective range will have a negative
effect, so nonlinear controllers are needed. The objective of
feedforward control is to minimize the quadratic performance
index. Thus, nonlinear adaptive feedforward control is used to
makeup for external load disturbances via radial basis function
(RBF) networks. Optimization is then achieved using a weight
matrix of RBF multilayered sigmoidal neural networks. RBF
networks with fixed centers are linear in terms of weights and
its online training is a special case of adaptive control with linearly parameterized nonlinearities. The number of the nonlinear
computations in RBF networks is not related to the output dimension. This approach can also be extended to other cases
under various load disturbances, even though the ISC neural
network control is still in its initial stage.
The ISC issues can be formulated as the phenomenological
engine model [28] (see Fig. 4). An ISC system is highly nonlinear owing to delays in the control loop, thus an online parametric
optimization technique uses RBF networks to estimate nonlinear vector fields for an adaptive feedforward controller design.
The feedforward controller and feedback controller have been
combined. The combination compensates for unknown disturbances and improves the transient response quality in comparison with the pure feedback control. This neural network
architecture is trained online adaptively to be robust against
various engine delays. Simulation results show that the feedfor-
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fuel consumption reduction is about 2% when the allowable constraints from the command governor algorithm are used. It can
also be formulated as a robust constrained optimization problem
for hybrid GDI engines. Its suboptimal controller is designed
by the command governor methodology for the discrete time relaxation of hybrid models, which reflects the multirate nature of
engine input signals. As a result, transient fuel consumption is
reduced compared with the LQ optimal controller. No constraint
is necessary for tuning the optimal LQ switching controller. Its
robustness is guaranteed in this case. The ISC hybrid control
design conforms to the physical mechanisms (both continuous
and discrete) of engines. That is, the reason that it has been
applied successfully to both PFI and GDI engines. However, its
computational complexity has been increased instead.
IV. DIESEL ENGINE IDLE SPEED CONTROL
troller, which will then adjust the controller algorithm accordingly. For the stability concern, recursive least-squares estimation (RLS) is used for parameter identification, whose samples
synchronize to the discrete events of diesel engine injection.
Both the minimum variance self-tuning and the pole placement
self-tuning regulator are developed. Simulations based on this
nonlinear diesel engine model are conducted by tuning the adaptive controller, which converges within 30 s. By comparisons,
the minimum variance algorithm results in a faster settling time
at the expense of the slightly higher overshoot via the adaptive
idle speed control, unavoidable parameter variations resulted
from manufacturing tolerances can be successfully reduced using self-tuning algorithms by adjusting the idle governor to the
engine set points. This example has shown the success of ISC
adaptive control applications on diesel engines instead of on
gasoline engines exclusively.
ones can be minimized by the proper weight selections. PI controller is shown to be successful in the idle speed tuning of
natural gas engines.
VI. CONCLUSION
A comprehensive overview on nonlinear idle speed control
systems has been presented, involving various types of automotive engines. The selection of the idle speed set point takes
an important role in each aspect of ISC performance, i.e., idle
speed stability, fuel economy, emissions, nonlinear delays, vehicle NVH, robustness, and so on. A variety of idle speed control
applications are investigated, which have been applied successfully to PFI engines, GDI engines, diesel engines, and natural
gas engines. Over 30 types of the ISC controllers are discussed
in this article, covering virtually all practical aspects of classical control, modern control, and intelligent control. These ISC
approaches also have the potential on the hybrid vehicle application. Automotive idle speed control provides a typical example
to implement the cutting edge and diversified control methodologies on the complex engineering problems. There is no doubt
that these control technologies can also contribute to many other
challenging areas of automotive, electrical, mechanical, robotic,
aeronautical, and biomedical nonlinear systems.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author would like to thank three anonymous referees and the Associate Editor for their constructive comments
and valuable suggestions. The author is also grateful to Prof.
S. Shi and Prof. D. Zheng, the two Chief Scientists of China on
Engine and Control, respectively, who have directed this author
into these two challenging fields of automotive engineering and
control science.
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Zhengmao Ye (M03SM07) received the B.E. degree in thermal engineering from Tianjin University,
Tianjin, China, in 1992, the M.S. degree in automotive engineering from Tsinghua University, Beijing,
China, in 1996, and the second M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in electrical engineering from Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, in 1999 and 2001, respectively,
next to his Chinese Ph.D. being pursued under the
Academician Advisor Dr. Shaoxi Shi (Past President
of Tianjin University, Tianjin, China and the Chinese
Chief Scientist on Internal Combustion Engines) in
the School of Mechanical Engineering, Tianjin University.
He is currently an Assistant Professor in the Electrical Engineering Department, Southern University, Baton Rouge, LA, where he is the Founder and
Director of the System and Control Laboratory. In 1992 and from 1996 to 1997,
he was with the National Key Laboratory of Engines, Tianjin University, and
from 1993 to 1996 with the National Key Laboratory of Automotive Safety
and Energy, Tsinghua University where he was engaged in research activities.
He served as Departmental Chief Student Leader at both Tianjin and Tsinghua
Universities. His current research interests include modeling, control, and optimization with diverse applications on automotive, electrical, mechanical, and
biomedical systems, as well as signal processing and image processing. Among
very few cross-disciplinary researchers worldwide, he has the first author publications in broad fields covering all the leading control proceedings in three
most prestigious engineering societies, specifically, IEEE, ASME, and SAE,
such as IEEE (SMC, CDC, CCA, ACC, ISIC, FUZZ, IJCNN, CASE, ICCA,
ICCC, SOSE, and CCECE), ASME (Congress IMECE, ICES, JRCICE), SAE
(Congress USA, EAEC, JSAE). He was also the academic reviewer for 45
published articles submitted to the IEEE, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, the Society of Automotive Engineers, and some international
journals.
Dr. Ye is the recipient of the Chinese National Fellowship (First Prize) at
Tianjin University, the USA Allied Signal Fellowship (First Prize) at Tsinghua
University, and Most Outstanding Faculty of Electrical Engineering at Southern
University.