SOUTH TYNESIDE COLLEGE

Faculty of Marine and Mechanical Engineering

Class Two Engineering Motor EKS
FUEL SPECIFICATIONS
VISCOSITY:- Internal resistance to flow i.e. shear, units are the poise or centipoise.
KINEMATIC VISCOSITY:- Is the absolute viscosity divided by the density measured in
centistokes (cSt) i.e. this is what we commonly refer to as viscosity and is used for
storage/handling purposes.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY:- Measured by hydrometer and is indication of fuel quality. High
S.G indicates more carbon content, high asphalt and c.c. residue. High S.G may give
separation problems.
FLASH POINT:- Safety of storage and handling. It is the lowest temperature at which fuel
vaporises.
POUR POINT:- 3C above the point at which the fuel ceases to pour.
CONRADSON CARBON RESIDUE:- Quantity of carbon remaining after specific quantity
of fuel is burnt under controlled conditions. This is an indication of the deposits that will
form during combustion.
ASPHALTENES:- Similar to CCR above. Can also lead to stability problems when
blending/mixing with fuels from different stocks. High values may lead to slow burning.
SULPHUR:- Corrosion problems countered by high TBN cylinder oil (slow speed) or sump
oil (medium speed) and in the exhaust system by maintaining temperature above the due
point.
WATER:- Acid formation in the presence of sulphurous fuels and tends to wash away
cylinder lubricants. Fuel handling equipment problems i.e. purifiers, viscotherm, fuel pumps
and injectors. Also adds to an increased cost.
ASH:- Inorganic impurities (sand, metals, etc) left after combustion removed by efficient
centrifuging.
ALUMINIUM:- Normally not present in significant quantities in straight run fuels however,
if the fuel stock is a result of a specific secondary cracking process then Aluminium and
Silicon as catalytic fines may be present. Quantities in excess of 80ppm will not significantly
reduce by centrifuge and will cause increased wear. Large quantities cause excessive wear to
fuel injection equipment and liners.
VANADIUM/SODIUM/SULPHUR:- These combine to form low melting point compounds
and lead to high temperature corrosion. Vanadium usually present in soluble form will not
centrifuge out. Sodium has an affinity for water and in the presence of (sea) water will
centrifuge out.

VISCOSITY INDEX: Indication of change of viscosity with temperature. Given 0-100

scale.
CETANE NUMBER: Measure of ignition quality of fuel. High number, shorter time
between injection and rapid pressure rise. Used mainly to measure distillate fuels. Difficult
to measure residual marine (heavy) fuels accurately. CCAI is used instead.
CALCULATED CARBON AROMATICITY INDEX CCAI:- Imperial calculation
developed to indicate ignition quality. The higher the number the worse the ignition quality,
above 860 potential problems.

IGNITION QUALITY OF FUELS

The ignition quality of a fuel dictates the time delay which occurs between injection and
ignition of the fuel in a cylinder. Thus a fuel with a high ignition quality will have a shorter
delay period , and visa versa for the low ignition quality fuel.
To understand how a fuel can have differing ignition quality levels, we must examine the
structure of the fuel. There are three main series of fuel, namely paraffins, naphthenes, and
aromatics. The ignition of the fuel is dependent on the ease of which the hydrocarbon
molecule can be broken away or 'attacked'. The long thin chains of the paraffin is more easily
broken down than the compact ring structures of the aromatics (benzine ring).
Thus the amount of aromatics within the fuel structure has a direct relationship on the
ignition performance. However measuring aromaticity is difficult, so the concept of CCAI
(Calculated Carbon Aromaticity Index) has been used for indicating ignition quality.
CCAI is a ranking of ignition qualities of different types of residual fuels on the basic of
know specification properties of density and viscosity. The rating of a high CCAI value 870950 indicates a low quality fuel which will give long ignition delays.
Having differing delays in the ignition of the fuel will affect the rate of pressure rise during
combustion. The pressure diagram on the previous page shows 3 fuels with low, normal and
high values of CCAI.
Low CCAI rating - This will have a shorter delay between injection and ignition. The rate of
pressure rise within the cylinder will be lower than normal producing a
lower peak pressure.
High CCAI rating- This will have a greater delay between injection and ignition. The rate of
pressure rise once ignition does occur will be quicker and greater due to
the large amount of fuel in the cylinder. Peak pressure will be greater,
although there is little change on power developed, and fuel
consumption, if the injection point remains the same.
The most noticeable effect of a long delay period is increased engine noise, diesel 'knock',
and 'rougher' running particularly at the lighter loads.

Note that ignition delay can be significantly reduced by one, or a combination of the
following:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Increasing the speed of the engine

Increasing the load of the engine
Increasing the charge air pressure
Increasing the charge air temperature

Design points which help to reduce the ignition delay are:

1. Rapid mixture of the air and fuel by vigorous air movement , and good spray distribution
throughout the air.
2. High air temp and pressure to aid evaporation of the fuel droplets, and to promote their
rapid chemical oxidation with the air, to reach ignition temperature.
Combustion stages shown on the diagram previous
A. Delay period, during which part of the fuel is injected and begins to vapourise.
B. Following the commencement of ignition there is a period of uncontrolled combustion
during which time the fuel injected during the delay period is burnt, as well as the fuel
presently being injected.
C. Period of controlled combustion whereby the fuel entering the cylinder is quickly
vapourised and burnt. Combustion determined by the rate of the fuel entering the
cylinder. Note combustion does not finish at the peak pressure.

FUEL INJECTION AND COMBUSTION IN DIESEL ENGINES

Atomization:- refers to the break up of fuel into very small droplets.
Penetration:- refers to the distance that the fuel travels in the combustion chamber.
Turbulence:- refers to the air movement in the cylinder during compression and at injection.
For good combustion in a diesel engine the fuel must be injected such that correct
atomization and penetration are achieved. Small droplets offer a large surface area and lead
to rapid heating and steady combustion if properly mixed with the charge air.
If the fuel droplets are too small then they do not have the energy necessary to pass through
the dense air present in the cylinder at the end of the compression. This leads to a localised
region of high fuel content in the region of the injector and as the fuel starts to burn it is
starved of oxygen.
On the other hand if the droplets are too large the high energy level allows too great a
penetration leading to fuel reaching the cylinder walls and piston crown. This in turn can
cause burning of the piston crown and adversely affect cylinder lubrication.
Penetration and atomization are therefore linked and are determined by injection pressure,
fuel viscosity at the injector tip, air density and nozzle air design. The hole diameter and
length of hole influence both of these functions.
Good mixing of the fuel and air is achieved by a combination of the spray pattern and the
turbulence or swirl imparted to the charge air during compression. Scavenge port and
combustion chamber design have the most influence on the air swirl. Mixing is further
improved by the injector spray pattern.
Injector Faults and effects
Opening pressure:- Too low can lead to early opening and late closing and therefore
extended injection period. Too high will have the opposite effect.
Blocked nozzle holes:- Leads to poor injection and spray pattern and so poor combustion.
Damaged nozzle holes:- Leads to poor injection and spray pattern and so poor combustion.
Broken injector spring:- Results in dribbling, afterburning and possibility of hot gas
blowback into injector. Can lead to carbon build up.
Leaky needle valve:- Same result as a broken spring.
Overheating:- May be the result of fuel valve cooling failure or recirculation problem in
uncooled nozzles. Will lead to sticking needle and carbon build up.
Corrosion:- Can lead to tip breaking off in extreme cases and total loss of atomization. In
early stages will have same effect as worn or damaged nozzle holes.
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Worn needle:- Will lead to late opening and early closing because of slow pressure build up
due to leakage.
The three phases of combustion
The first phase is the delay period between commencement of fuel injection and ignition
taking place. During this period the fuel is heated up to the auto ignition temperature. The
length of the period is dependant upon the air temperature at the end of compression, the
performance of the injector and the ignition quality of the fuel in use.
The second phase is the period of sharp pressure rise as the fuel already in the cylinder burns
rapidly following the initial ignition.
The third phase is the steady burning of the fuel as injection is completed. As this phase ends
some afterburning will occur as the last of the fuel enters the cylinder.
The three phases are shown on the draw card below.

Causes of poor combustion

Poor combustion is caused by poor fuel quality or condition, poor air supply, poor injection
system condition or poor cylinder condition.
Poor fuel condition:- May be due to poor quality of fuel or poor treatment. Can cause
afterburning, ignition delay, blockages, poor atomization, etc.
Air supply:- May be insufficient due to pressure charging fault or blockages. Can lead to
incomplete combustion and high exhaust temperatures.
Faulty injection system:- May be injector fault as already mentioned or injection pump or
timing fault
Faulty cylinder:- May be worn rings or liner, burnt piston crown, leaky valves. Can result in
low compression pressure, increased ignition delay, etc.
Some other fuel injection points
Secondary injection:- This term refers to the opening of the injector after injection should be
complete and is due to pressure pulses in the high pressure pipe from the fuel pump. Can be
largely avoided by use of constant volume discharge valve on H.P pump. May lead to
formation of carbon trumpets.

Secondary injection

Constant volume unloading valve

Carbon trumpets:- Carbon formations that build up on injector tips caused by secondary
injection or overheating of tip. If the fuel valve overheats then fuel in the sac expands and
burns as it dribbles out of the holes causing a build up of carbon around the hole.
Differential needle
Valve:- This form of needle
valve assists in the rapid opening
of the injector resulting in better
injection conditions.

Viscosity control for diesel engines

It is necessary to maintain a viscosity of the fuel that allows ease of pumping and correct
injector conditions. The most common method of controlling the viscosity is by use of a
viscometer. This is used to measure the pressure difference between fuel in the main line and
a portion passed through a small capillary tube via a constant speed gear pump. The
differential pressure varies according to the viscosity and therefore be used to indicate the
viscosity and also provide a signal for the control of it. This is achieved by varying the steam
flow to a heater with a control valve operated by the output signal from the viscometer
controller.

Viscotherm arrangement
In the event of suspect operation of the control system a rough check can be made by
comparing the temperature and viscosity readings from the gauges with a viscosity
temperature chart for the fuel. By passing distillate fuel through the unit the viscosity reading
can be checked.

CONVERTING ENGINES TO RUN ON HFO OR BLENDED OIL

FUEL SYSTEM MODIFICATIONS
Viscosity control system.
Trace heating of fuel lines.
Blending unit.
Increased filtration/purification.
Tank heating.
Improved filtration/purification of L.O

ENGINE MODIFICATIONS
Fuel pumps with greater clearance. (Hot operation)
Modified injector tips. (More holes, larger diameter)
Cooled or recirculation type injectors.
Timing adjustments. (Fuel timing advanced)
Valve rotators for exhaust valves.
Possibly NIMONIC valve material for exhaust valves.
Valve cages.
Inlet valves stellite faced.
Intensive cooling of cylinder cover.
Stronger more rigid cylinder covers.
Forced cooling of pistons.
Improved piston material (Nodular cast iron, cast steel).
Improved lubricant (Higher TBN, detergency/dispercency)
Valve timing adjustments.
Reduced time between overhauls.

FUEL PUMPS

Requirements of a fuel injection system

The injection system must deliver the correct amount of fuel at precisely the correct
time in the cycle if optimum performance is to be achieved. The system must operate under
all load conditions and engine speeds.
To achieve this, an accurate method of fuel metering must be adopted. Almost all
manufacturers have adopted a system of cam operated jerk pumps for the delivery and
metering of fuel and for all but the smallest engines a single pump per cylinder is used.
High pressure fuel pumps
The jerk pump consists of a matched plunger and barrel housed in a high pressure
casing. This takes fuel from a common inlet rail and delivers it to a high pressure fuel pipe,
which connects directly to the fuel injection valve/s for that particular cylinder. To reduce the
effects of elasticity in the pipe work the pipes should be kept as short as possible. The pumps
are loaded by a heavy spring which acts to hold the plunger at the bottom of its stroke and in
contact with fuel cam via a tappet/roller/follower arrangement.
Timing and metering methods
There are two main methods of metering in current use, the most popular being a
helix controlled ported system and the other utilising valves to control the start and end of
fuel delivery.

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Helix control type

With this type of pump the plunger is provided with a vertical slot cut from its top
edge which joins with a helical cut out around part of its circumference. The barrel is
provided with suction and/or spill ports which line up with pipe connections in the pump
housing. The cover is provided with a discharge valve of the spring loaded pressure to open
type.
As the plunger is moved upwards, due to the cam profile, the top edge will at some
point cover the ports and compression will begin. Since the fuel is virtually incompressible
the pressure will rise sharply causing the discharge valve to open and delivery of fuel will
begin. Delivery will continue until the helical edge uncovers the spill port at which point the
high-pressure fuel above the plunger is connected to the spill port via the slot and helix of the
plunger. This will cause a drop in pressure, allowing the delivery valve to shut, therefore
ending delivery.
To vary the quantity of fuel delivered requires only that a different part of the helix is
brought into line with the spill port which will alter the end of delivery. This is achieved by
rotating the plunger via a toothed collar attached to the plunger driven by a toothed rack
connected to the governor linkage.
The type of arrangement described will give a constant start and a variable end to
delivery. The point at which the delivery commences can be altered by adjusting the relative
position of the plunger and barrel, i.e. altering the height of the plunger relative to the barrel
for a fixed crank position. Raising the plunger relative to the barrel will advance the injection
timing and lowering it will retard injection timing.

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Valve control type

With this type of control a jerk pump is still used but it has a plain plunger. The start
and end of injection are controlled by suction and spill valves respectively.
As the plunger moves up its stroke a connecting lever operates the suction valve,
moving it to its closed position. At this point delivery will begin. As the plunger continues to
rise a second lever is operated which is connected to the spill valve. As the spill valve opens
the fuel pressure drops and delivery ends. Once set the suction valve will operate at the same
crank position and therefore the start of injection is constant, the spill valve lever is however
provided with an eccentric pivot which is connected to the fuel control linkage. As the pivot
is rotated by the fuel control linkage, the actual gap between lever and spill valve pushrod is
altered and so end of delivery is also altered.
Initial valve settings are adjusted by altering pushrod lengths using a dial gauge to
measure the lift at the required position. After this adjustment of timing to give equal
combustion pressures is achieved by rotation of the fuel cam.

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Fuel pump stroke

The actual stroke of the pump is the actual length of stroke between the plungers
lower and upper positions. It is determined by the cam profile and is equal to the vertical
difference between the cam base circle and the cam peak.
The effective stroke of the pump is determined by the start and end of delivery, and is
different for each fuel setting. It is the length of stroke between start of delivery and end of
delivery.

CHECKING AND SETTING FUEL PUMP TIMING

Timing by spill cut off method

The pipe connections to the pump are removed and a temporary reservoir is connected
to the suction connection of the pump. The discharge valve is removed. As long as the
suction port is uncovered fuel (usually diesel) will flow freely out of the discharge
connection. The engine is now turned slowly until the flow of fuel ceases at which point the
plunger will have just covered the port. The flywheel timing marks are checked to see if this
has occurred at the correct position. Adjustment is normally by means of a tappet or the
removal of shims at the fuel pump base. Compressed air works just as well and is less messy.

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Light cut off method

With two opposing plugs removed from the pump body, a torch can be used to see
through the pump until, when turning the engine, the plunger just covers the ports. Again a
reading from the flywheel timing marks is compared to the instruction manual.
Plunger height measurement
With this method the engine is rotated to the position at which commencement of
delivery should occur, and the position of the plunger relative to the barrel is measured by
means of a depth gauge. This is compared with test bed readings and any deviation can be
corrected by altering the height of the barrel relative to the plunger.
Valve lift check
For the valve control type, as already mentioned, timing is checked by dial gauge
readings of valve lift and adjustment of pushrod lengths.
Witness marks on spring retainer cup
On some pumps a window is provided in the casing through which the spring retainer
cup can be sighted. Witness marks on the cup and on the housing are lined up when the crank
is in the correct position for start of delivery. Adjustment is made by altering shims or tappet
length.

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FUEL PUMP FAULTS

Barrel/plunger wear
Internal wear will always occur, but this will greatly increase due to abrasive particles
in the fuel if the quality is poor and the filtration process inadequate.
A worn pump will inject a reduced amount of fuel (therefore reducing the power), reduce the
fuel pressure required for efficient atomisation at the injector, and will inject the fuel later in
the cycle (retarded). Plunger wear = reducing sealing.

Cavitation
Usually a design problem. It is caused by an excessive pressure drop at the spill ports,
and produces erosion at the helix control edge.
Fuel leakage into camshaft space
Due to barrel/plunger/o rings being excessively worn or damaged. This can
introduce low flashpoint and high abrasive particle fuel into the sump oil system. This will
give increased cam wear, and increase the risk of a crankcase explosion.
Discharge valve wear
If the valve piston is worn this will reduce the amount of fuel removed from the H.P.
pipe, causing secondary injection and therefore carbon trumpets. If the valve leaks or the
spring weakens, then less fuel will be injected at the next injection.
Pump seizure
Will occur if the clearance between plunger and barrel are reduced, or if no fuel
(which acts as the lubricant) is present. A frequent cause is due to too quick a temperature
change of the fuel when changing grades, causing an increase in the expansion rates between
the two parts.

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VARIABLE INJECTION TIMING (VIT)

The term variable injection timing refers to those systems which incorporate variable
start and end of delivery. The variation in start being a function of the engine load. The
main advantage of these systems is that full load maximum pressures can be maintained over
the normal load range, while at lower loads smoother engine operation is achieved.
There are three systems in use at present, one a Sulzer development and the other two B&W
developments.

Sulzers VIT system

The system uses the usual valve controlled pumps but they have an additional linkage
controlling the eccentric pivot of the suction valve operating lever. Both the suction and spill
valve eccentrics are connected by linkage to the governor load setting via a cam.
As can be seen on the graph below the fuel timing is advanced for loads around 75% and
gradually returned to normal for loads less than this, and then retarded for loads down to
25%.
This arrangement allows full load maximum pressure to be maintained between 85 and 100%
load thus giving optimum specific fuel consumption.

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B & W VIT system

An early system, which was developed for conversion of standard engines,
incorporated a pump plunger with an additional helix cut opposite hand along the top edge of
the plunger. This in effect altered the start of injection while the standard helix controlled the
end of the injection.
A complete VIT system was later developed in which a scrolled collar mated with a
matching scroll cut on the outer, lower part of the pump barrel. By turning the collar, by
means of a toothed rack, the pump barrel can be raised or lowered and thus the port position
altered in relation to the top edge of the standard plunger. This effects a variation in the start
of injection and thus provides a means of advancing and retarding injection timing. The rack
is controlled by a position servo, which in turn is controlled by the normal fuel regulating
shaft.
Fuel quality control
With todays residual fuels both combustion quality and ignition quality can vary
greatly which means that optimum timing varies from fuel to fuel. On both the Sulzer system
and the later B & W system, provision is made for manual adjustment to compensate for
varying fuel qualities. This means that maximum pressures can be obtained and maintained
with poor quality fuel by advancing the start of injection, therefore giving the fuel longer in
which to burn. Again, giving good specific fuel consumption at all times.

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H.P PIPE WITH OUTER LEAKAGE PREVENTED SHEATH

The h.p. nut is threaded onto the stud coupling. The inner cone is adjusted on the h.p. pipe for
correct depth of entry into the stud coupling. The outer sheath sits in the recess at the top of
hp nut. The outer nut is screwed onto h.p nut compressing the seal with the cone and
follower. Any leakage from the h.p pipe fills up the outer sheath and is led away via an alarm
sensor.

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