OFDMA Tutorial - Theory, principles, design considerations and

applications
Yigal Leiba Runcom Technologies, Ltd., Rishon-Lezion, Israel

ABSTRACT
OFDMA is a new modulation method for the 2nd generation of Broadband Wireless
Access (BWA) systems that combines both upstream access and modulation together.
OFDMA is based on modulating multiple orthogonal sub-carriers. Unlike traditional
multi-carrier modulation schemes, several transmitters of the multiple access system
modulate the sub-carriers simultaneously.
OFDMA offers up to an 18dB gain in the upstream link budget and up to a 12dB gain in
the downstream link budget relative to traditional multiple access technologies. These
gains are complemented by the capability to operate in severe non-line-of-sight
conditions. Armed with these advantages, OFDMA enables deployment of integrated
indoor BWA subscriber units (SU).
This article discusses the principals and design considerations for the downlink and
uplink operation of OFDMA based systems. The topics discussed are: SU
synchronization, media access control (MAC) layer aspects and handling of real-world
problems such as phase noise and power-amplifier (PA) backoff.

OFDM basics
OFDM motivation and history
During the past few years data rates demanded from fixed wireless networks increased
from approximately 10Kbps to 10Mbps and beyond. This increased data rate demand
focused interest on modulation techniques that operate efficiently over broadband
channels.
Operation over broadband channels implies ability to operate even in fading channels in
which significant multipath is present. Figure 1 illustrates a simulated delay profile
(channel model according to [1], [2]) and frequency response of a 6MHz MMDS channel
with 2 S RMS delay spread, using omni-directional antennas. When using Single Carrier
(SC) modulation over a multipath channel, channel delay spread may be longer than the
symbol duration. This situation introduces Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI) at the receiver.
In order to demodulate the data, a SC system would have to employ an equalizer. The
equalizer functions as a filter with a frequency response that is close to the inverse of the
channel frequency response. Filtering the received signal with the equalizer reduces ISI.
The number of taps required from the equalizer may be as large as twice the delay spread
introduced by the channel (measured in symbol durations).

The computational load associated with the equalizer is proportional to the square of the
number of its taps. For the simulated 6MHz channel shown in Figure 1 and with a symbol
rate of 5MSymbol/S, about 200 taps are required to equalize the channel for 64-QAM
modulation.
0

-5
-5

Channel transmission function [dB]

-1 0

Delay profile [dB]

-1 5
-2 0
-2 5
-3 0
-3 5

-1 0

-1 5

-2 0

-4 0
-2 5
-4 5
-5 0

10
15
T i m e [m ic ro s e c o n d s ]

20

-3 0
-3

-2

-1
0
1
F r e q u e n c y [M H z ]

Figure 1. Simulated delay-spread and channel frequency response for a 6MHz MMDS channel

Multi-carrier modulation techniques, specifically Orthogonal Frequency Division

Multiplexing (OFDM), are capable of operating with severe multipath, and can avoid ISI
problems associated with SC modulation techniques.
OFDM modulation chain
OFDM overcomes the ISI problem by modulating multiple narrow-band sub-carriers in
parallel. Since each sub-carrier occupies a narrow bandwidth, it experiences a nonfrequency selective channel and consequently no ISI. Not all the sub-carriers carry data.
Some of the sub-carriers are modulated with a constant pattern known to both transmitter
and receiver. These carriers are called pilot-carriers and are used in the demodulation
process. Other sub-carriers at the edges of the frequency band are not modulated, and
serve as a guard band. The guard band ensures that spectral density masks for out of band
emissions is met. The modulated sub-carriers are multiplexed using an Inverse Fourier
Transform (IFFT). The resulting time-domain waveform is padded with a cyclic prefix
intended to contain the multipath effects at the receiver. The size of the cyclic prefix
typically can be selected to be 14 , 18 , 161 or 321 of the OFDM symbol. For a 6MHz MMDS
channel and 2048 sub-carriers FFT this allows handling peak channel delay spread up to
74 S .
In SC modulation every symbol is transmitted using the entire channel bandwidth, and all
received symbols have the same signal to noise ratio (SNR) that is the average channel
SNR. In OFDM modulation different sub-carriers are expected to undergo different
attenuation due to the frequency selectivity of the channel. As a result, the more severely
attenuated sub-carriers carry information less reliably. This phenomenon can result in an
irreducible bit error rate (BER) even when the average channel SNR is high. To
overcome this problem forward error correction (FEC) and interleaving are applied to the

transmitted information prior to modulation. Figure 2 depicts a typical OFDM transmit

processing chain.
Input
bits

Scrambler

FEC

Interleaver

Constellation
Mapper

Frame
generation

IFFT

Cyclic prefix
insertion

OFDM
waveform

Pilot
insertion

Figure 2: Typical OFDM transmitter chain

OFDM vs. OFDMA

What is OFDMA?
OFDMA is a combination of modulation scheme that resembles OFDM and a multiple
access scheme that combines TDMA and FDMA. OFDMA typically uses a FFT size
much higher than OFDM, and divides the available sub-carriers into logical groups called
sub-channels. Unlike OFDM that transmits the same amount of energy in each subcarrier, OFDMA may transmit different amounts of energy in each sub-channel.
To understand the OFDMA concept we can look at an example, specifically the OFDMA
specification in IEEE 802.16a draft standard ([3]). In this standard two OFDMA schemes
can be used. The mandatory OFDMA scheme is based on 2048 sub-carriers and there is
also on optional scheme based on 4096 sub-carriers. For the 2048 sub-carriers scheme, in
the uplink there are 1696 used sub-carriers. The rest of the sub-carriers are use as a guard
band to guarantee the OFDM brick-wall spectral mask. The used sub-carriers are divided
in 32 sub-channels, each containing 53 sub-carriers. SU are allocated one or more of
these sub-channels for each transmission burst. Multiple SU can access the channel
simultaneously by transmitting on different sub-channels.
In the downlink, the transmission power allocated for a sub-channel can be boosted by
6dB or attenuated by 6dB relative to the nominal transmission power. The transmission
power of all the sub-channels has to be conserved, therefore boosting one sub-channel
implies attenuating another.
Figure 3 illustrates how multiple SU transmit simultaneously on different sub-channels in
an OFDMA uplink.

OFDMA Symbol #1

OFDMA Symbol #2
GI

OFDMA Symbol #3
GI

OFDMA Symbol #4
GI

GI

Group #1

Frequency
(sub-carrier)

Group #2

Group #NG
Physical sub-carrier allocation

SS #1

SS #1

SS #1

SS #1

SS #5

SS #5

SS #5

SS #2

SS #4
SS #3
SS #2

SS #4
SS #3
SS #2

SS #6

SS #6

Time
(OFDMA symbol)

SS #1
SS #2
SS #3
SS #4
SS #5
SS #6

Logical sub-channel allocation

Figure 3: OFDMA uplink - time/frequency view

OFDMA gain concentration

OFDMA has some features that make it ideal for BWA systems, and superior to other
modulation and multiple access schemes. One such feature is power-concentration. Since
a SU is typically allocated less than all the available sub-channels for a transmission
burst, it concentrates its output power on part of the channel bandwidth. This powerconcentration is similar to what happens when using traditional Frequency Division
Multiplexing (FDM).
For the 32 sub-channels example mentioned before, 32 SU may be allocated one subchannel each simultaneously. Each SU transmits only on those sub-carriers belonging to
its allocated sub-channel. The BST receiver receives a signal to noise ratio (S/N) that is
better then the equivalent OFDM case, in which only one SU transmits during a burst, by
a factor of 32. This concentration effect translates to a 15dB improvement in S/N without
sacrificing capacity, or impacting the average data rate provided by each SU.
Power-concentration is not limited to the uplink. In the downlink, although there is a
single transmitter, power can be concentrated in certain sub-channels at the expense of
diluting other sub-channels. Transmissions for SU suffering for high RF path loss can be
done on sub-channels in which the transmission power is boosted. The current IEEE
802.16a draft standard ([3]) allows 6dB of power change for each downlink subchannel.

Adaptive modulation and FEC

OFDMA lends itself to adaptive modulation and FEC, as each sub-channel may carry its
own modulation and FEC scheme. The modulation and FEC are selected according to the
RF path loss associated with each SU, and thus allow efficient use of the available
channel bandwidth.
In IEEE 802.16a draft standard ([3]) for example, QPSK, 16-QAM and 64-QAM
modulations are allowed. The FEC scheme is concatenated Reed Solomon (RS) and
convolutional code, with optional turbo product codes.
OFDMA and space-time coding
Space-time diversity techniques are easily combined with OFDMA. The combining can
be done in the frequency domain, according to the S/N ratio available on each sub-carrier.
Figure 4 illustrates the S/N improvement that can be gained by space-time diversity
techniques. The solid line is the result of maximal ratio combining of combining the two
dotted lines, representing signals received from two independent reception paths.
Analysis and measurements in cellular systems ([4]) shows that a separation as small as
10 (120cm at 2.5GHz) is sufficient to bring significant diversity gain.
0

-5

Normalized S/N [dB]

-1 0

-1 5

-2 0

-2 5

-3 0
-3

-2

-1

0
F re q u e nc y [M H z]

Figure 4: Maximal ratio combining of two channel multipath profiles

OFDM/OFDMA PHY implementation

Coarse timing synchronization
Coarse timing synchronization is typically the first step in the demodulation process. At
this stage parameters such as carrier frequency offset, and the channel transmission
function are unknown. OFDM does not require a training sequence in order to
synchronize to a continuous OFDM symbol stream. Synchronization is based on the
inherent redundancy in the OFDM symbol that is created by the presence of the cyclic
prefix. This redundancy, and the knowledge of the expected FFT size enables correlating
the received signal with itself and detecting the correlation peaks (see [5]). When large

offsets between the sampling clocks of the transmitter and receiver may exist, an
additional scanning mechanism can be added to select the best correlation.
Carrier frequency offset estimation
Carrier frequency offset estimation can preformed in two stages ([5]). One stage is a preFFT algorithm that processes the raw sampled signal, and can determine frequency
offsets that are smaller than the FFT carrier spacing. The second stage is a post-FFT
algorithm based on searching a known-in-advance sequence in the FFT bins. This
sequence is carried by some of the sub-carriers, called fixed-pilots. Once the fixed-pilot
sequence is identified, the remaining frequency offset that is an integer multiple of FFT
carrier spacing can be determined.
Channel estimation
In the downlink, channel estimation takes advantage of another sort of pilot-carriers
called moving-pilots. These sub-carriers, whose location changes every OFDMA
symbol according to a fixed pattern, are modulated with a known in advance sequence.
The receiver locates the moving-pilots and can estimate the channel at the frequency of
each pilot by comparing the expected pilot the value to the measured value. Extrapolating
the data obtained from the moving-pilots enables the channel estimation and elimination
of any phase noise errors that are common to all the sub-carriers.
In the uplink, channel estimation is based on a preamble, as well as on the moving-pilots.
The preamble duration is one OFDMA symbol.
Fine timing synchronization
Fine timing estimation can be done according to the estimated channel impulse response
(CIR), where the objective is to sample the OFDM symbol relative to the guard interval,
such that most of the transmitted energy, scattered by the channel delay spread, is
captured.
Demodulation and FEC decoding
Demodulation of the information carried by each OFDM sub-carrier is straightforward.
Each sub-carrier is multiplied by the inverse of the estimated CIR at its frequency, and
the result is sent to the FEC decoding engine for extraction of the bits. The FEC decoder
operates on each OFDMA sub-channel separately, thus allowing different FEC scheme
on each sub-channel. Each sub-channel should contain enough sub-carriers, such that
sub-carriers with good SNR compensate for those with degraded SNR (due to multipath).
Many FEC schemes can be used with OFDMA, typically a concatenation of ReedSolomon and block convolutional code, or block-turbo-codes are used ([3], [6]).
Multiple access issues
In the uplink direction, OFDMA differs from most traditional modulation schemes by the
fact that multiple transmitters must be synchronized in time and frequency in order to
receive a valid OFDMA symbol at the BST. SU synchronization is therefore a critical
component of the OFDMA modulation scheme, and it is based on the SU tracking the
BST carrier frequency and BST symbol timing. The SU corrects its local timing and
frequency references as part of the downstream demodulation process. The corrected

references are used in the uplink transmission process, ensuring that all SU are
synchronized to the BST. The SU must also compensate for RF propagation delays, this
is done by a ranging algorithm in which the BST instructs the SU how much time it has
to advance its transmission in order to get to the BST at the right time.

OFDMA hurdles
In spite of its many advantages, OFDM modulation has been considered for a long time
costly to implement from an RF point of view. Two main reasons for this are phase noise
requirements and power amplifier (PA) linearity requirements.
Phase noise
Any oscillator used in an RF chain contains spectral components at frequencies other
than its intended oscillation frequency. These spectral components are generally referred
to as phase noise. A typical VCO embedded in a phase locked feedback loop (PLL) will
exhibit a noise spectrum that is flat up to the loop bandwidth, and decreases at
20dB/decade above the loop bandwidth ([7]). The one-sided phase noise curve can be
approximated by the formula,
P0
P( f ) =
(1)
2
f

1+

B
Where B is the loop bandwidth, and P0 determines how good is the VCO.
To see how phase noise affects an OFDM receiver, we can look at a simple case where
the channel is not frequency selective. We can use the following formula ([8]),
yk sk +

N 1
j
j
s k (m ) +
N
N
m =0

N 1
2
(r k )m
s

r (m ) exp j
N

r =0
m =0
N 1

(2)

r k

Where N is the number of OFDMA bins, y k is the received symbol in bin k, s k is the
transmitted symbol in bin k, and exp{ j (m )} is the local oscillator (LO) impaired by
phase noise. What can be understood from this formula is that the phase noise is
composed from two components, one is a component that is common to all sub-carriers
bins within a OFDMA symbol, and another that is not common an creates interference
and loss of orthogonality between the sub-carriers. The common component can be
compensated for, as it is common to the known pilot-carriers.
Now we can attempt to derive the required phase noise performance from the LO ([9]).
For a typical 6MHZ MMDS channel, the OFDMA symbol duration specified in IEEE
802.16a draft standard ([3]) is 298 23 S , meaning that only noise components above
3.5KHz have to be considered when calculating the phase noise. Integrating over
equation (1) results in

f
(3)
N PN = P( f ) df = P0 B arctan 0
2
B

f0

If we choose for instance B=1KHz, we can draw a limiting curves for the LO phase noise
performance based on a minimum C/N due to phase noise alone, that is 6dB below the
minimum C/N threshold (see [6], Annex A). The 6dB below the minimum C/N threshold

creates an equivalent noise degradation (END) of 1dB. We require C/N of 27.7dB for
QAM-64 at FEC rate , 22.7dB for 16-QAM at FEC rate and 11.4dB for QPSK at
FEC rate . These C/N figures are for a Rayleigh channel. The resulting limiting curves
shown in Figure 5,
-30

-40

Phase noise level [dBc/Hz]

-50

-60

QPSK

-70

-80

16-QAM

-90
64-QAM
-100

-110 2
10

10

10
Frequency [Hz]

10

10

Figure 5: Limiting phase noise curves

PA linearity
When feeding a linear PA with a constant envelope waveform such as a sine wave, the
PA is only linear up to some specified output power, above which it becomes saturated
and cannot be considered linear anymore. When the PA is fed with a waveform that does
not have a constant envelope, it only saturates on the momentary power peaks of this
waveform and remains linear for the rest of the time. If the ratio between the waveform
peak power to its average power (PAPR) is high, the requirement that the amplifier does
not saturate on the waveform peaks causes the average power output by the amplifier to
be well below the peak power it can handle. The ratio between the peak power the PA
can handle to its actual operating point as determined by the PAPR is called backoff. As
PA cost rises with its peak handling power capability, modulations with high PAPR are
considered inefficient in their use of the PA.
SC-QAM (=0.25)
SC-QAM (=0.15)
OFDMA-2048

QPSK
4.9dB
6.1dB
11.0dB

16-QAM
6.9dB
7.4dB
11.4dB

64-QAM
7.4dB
7.9dB
11.7dB

Table 1: PAPR is comparison between modulation methods

Operation in the non-linear region of the PA is avoided because it creates interference

both inside and outside the band. The problem of interference outside the band is similar
in OFDMA and SC, and may be alleviated by about 3dB by employing filtering
techniques ([10]). Inside the band the clipping effect is quite different for OFDMA
relative to SC modulation. While for SC the clipping causes distortion directly in the
constellation plane, in OFDMA there is an FFT operation between the clipping and the
constellation plane, so the distortion is spread across all the OFDMA sub-carriers.

Figure 6: Transmitted constellation map with low backoff

Figure 6 shows SC QAM-64 with square root raised cosine (SRRC) pulse shaping
(rolloff factor 0.15) versus OFDMA-2048 QAM-64. The SC constellation is shown with
6.8dB backoff, while the OFDM constellation is shown with 8.8dB backoff. The PA
simulated by the Rapp model ([11]). Although the constellation for OFDMA seems
worse, it is better in the sense that it is easier to the FEC to correct the kind of distortion
present in it, than to correct the distortion present in the SC constellation. Note also that
when the transmission channel is frequency selective and the SC modulation will use
equalizers (specifically decision-feedback equalizers), the distortion in the transmitted
constellation might introduce BER even for a channel with good S/N.

MAC aspects unique to OFDMA

Narrowband channels
Efficient operation with narrowband channels is one of the major challenges in the design
of a BWA system. An example where this challenge is met in reality might be a BWA
uplink operating in a 6MHz MMDS channel at 16QAM, where the uplink can burst to
about 15Mbps, while a single voice over IP (VOIP) channel requires only 8Kbps. To
understand the reason for the inefficiency we can assume that an SU transmits 10 bytes of
data every 10mS. The transmission of these bytes, and additional 10 bytes of protocol
overhead will take about 10 S . To this figure we need to add a preamble for the modem,
and a guard interval between transmissions. The duration of both these intervals is

proportional to the channel peak delay spread. Even if we substitute the conservative
number of 5S for each, we arrive at an efficiency of 50%.
With OFDMA parallel processing capability the situation is much better. For instance,
suppose a SU requiring a VOIP service is assigned one sub-channel out of the 32
available in IEEE 802.16a draft standard ([3]). The duration of the data transmission will
now be 32 times longer, namely 320S , while the overhead remains the same. The
efficiency will now be 97%.
Contention based multiple access
The MAC layer of most multiple access networks needs some contention access
mechanism. While slots for access can be allocated in advance for a known traffic
pattern, changes in the traffic pattern require some mechanism to signal their presence
and change the allocations accordingly. The IEEE 802.16a draft standard ([3]) for
instance defines a mechanism called BW requests. These BW requests may be used on
contention basis, thus allowing SU that is not allocated any BW a chance to signal it
requires some BW allocation.
Clearly, the more bursty and unpredictable the nature of the traffic, the more important
becomes the contention mechanism. The problem is that classical contention-access
algorithms (such as slotted Aloha with exponential backoff) are inefficient, and collisions
take long times to resolve, thus increasing the network latency.
OFDMA greatly improves the contention access mechanism both by virtue of its parallel
processing capabilities (BW requests send on different sub-channels will not collide), and
by a novel PHY layer capability called CDMA BW request. The idea behind CDMA BW
requests is to assign some set of OFDMA sub-channels for BW requests. A SU wishing
to request BW modulates the sub-carriers in these sub-channels with a specific CDMA
code taken from a pool of available codes. Due to the processing gain feature of CDMA
codes, several codes may be identified without ambiguity at the same time. The chances
of collision in contention based access when using CDMA codes is greatly reduced (by a
factor of about 50 in IEEE 802.16a draft standard for example), and the net result is better
network efficiency and lower latency.

System aspects of an OFDMA BWA system

Outdoor to indoor operation
Outdoor to indoor operation has become a major desire of BWA operators. This mode of
operation enables SU with integrated antennas to be purchased and installed by the
subscriber. For the BWA operator this translates to reduced SU cost, reduced installation
cost and competitiveness with other broadband access technologies (DSL, Cable).
Outdoor to indoor operation involves using smaller, omni-directional antennas, and
mandates that the RF signal be able to propagate inside the home. On the system level,
the implications are that the RF path loss and the multipath delay spread are greatly
increased.
OFDMA is the best-suited modulation method for this type of operation as it enables
handling severe multipath conditions efficiently. OFDMA handles the increase in RF
path loss by using its gain concentration feature and by employing space-time coding

techniques (e.g. antenna diversity). Highly robust FEC schemes such turbo-codes
complement the other these techniques, and improve OFDMA robustness.
Interference immunity
An OFDMA system is fairly resistant to most forms of external interference. A narrowband interference source for example, might block some of the OFDMA sub-carriers.
However, due to the fact that OFDMA sub-channels use sub-carriers spread across the
entire frequency band, and due to the robust FEC scheme, this loss of sub-carriers will
generally not introduce significant errors. A broadband bursty interference source may
block reception for a short while. In spite of this, the long duration of each OFDMA
symbol, and the FEC block interleaving over several OFDMA symbols will prevent
significant errors from this type of interference source as well.
When interference in the BST between OFDMA system cells is concerned, OFDMA
behaves very much like frequency hopping spread-spectrum (FHSS) system. In each cell
of an OFDMA system, the OFDMA sub-carriers are divided in N G groups (see Figure 3).
The OFDMA sub-channels are composed of different sub-carriers, such that one subcarrier is selected from each group and the number of sub-carriers in a sub-channel is
N SUB CHN . Typically, a SU that is the victim of interference transmits on a random subchannel. The interfering SU at another BST does the same in statistically independent
manner.
The probability of collision in K out of the sub-carriers is given by,
K
NG K

NG
1
1
(4)

P(K ) =
1 N

K
N

SUBCHN
SUB CHN
Substituting N G = 53 and N SUBCHN = 32 we find that the average number of colliding

sub-carriers is N Collision ( AVG ) = 1.65 . This is equivalent to a spreading gain of

NG
= 15dB .
N Collision ( AVG )

Conclusions
OFDMA works reliably in severe multipath environments encountered under non line of
sight propagation conditions. OFDMA can provide system gains up to 18dB in the
uplink, and 12dB in the downlink relative to traditional modulation schemes.
Consequently, OFDMA achieves superior coverage, and is potentially the modulation
and multiple-access scheme that will enable outdoor-to-indoor operation. Outdoor to
indoor operation substantially reduces SU installation and distribution costs, and enables
mass deployment of BWA systems.
OFDMA is an optimal solution for 2nd generation BWA networks. This technology is
cost-effective, standards-based and practical. Solving the phase-noise and PA linearity
problems in OFDM is comparable to solving it in traditional modulation schemes, and
does not significantly affect implementation costs. Since OFDMA is incorporated into the
DVB-RCT and IEEE 802.16a (draft) standards, the prices of OFDMA related
technologies are expected to drop. OFDMA technology is not just a theoretical technique,
FPGA based OFDMA systems from Runcom are already operating successfully in
several sites worldwide. Commercial ASICs and modules will be available in 2002.

References
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