KING SAUD UNIVERSITY

DEANSHIP OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

Research Center College of Engineering

Final Research Report No. EE-18/26/27

EFFECT OF THERMO-ELECTRICAL
STRESSES AND ULTRA-VIOLET
RADIATION ON POLYMERIC
INSULATORS

By
Dr. Y.Z. Khan, Prof. A.A. Al-Arainy,
Prof. N.H. Malik, and
Dr. M.I. Qureshi

Ramadan
October

1427 H
2006 G

Table of Contents
Page
iii
iv
vii
viii
ix
x

List of Tables
List of Figures
Acknowledgement
Abstract (Arabic)
Abstract (English)
Nomenclature
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1

1.2

Polymer Insulators: Advantages and Disadvantages

1.1.1 Advantages
1.1.2 Disadvantages

3
5

Types of Insulating Materials

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW AND DATA COLLECTION 8

2.1
2.2

Introduction
Basic Polymeric Insulators Components
2.2.1
2.2.2
2.2.3
2.2.4

2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10
2.11
2.12
2.13
2.14
2.15
2.16
2.17

Core
Weather Sheds
Housings
End Fittings

8
9
9
10
13
14

Insulator Types
Weathersheds of Polymeric Materials
Testing Methods of Composite Insulators
Test Results of Composite Insulators
Ranking of Materials for Outdoor Insulation
Effect of Voltage Polarity on Performance
Properties of Pollution on Polymeric Insulators
Artificial Contamination on Polymeric Insulators
Aging of Polymeric Insulators and Mechanisms of Failure
Aging from Exposure to Ultraviolet Radiation
Detection of Faults on Composite Insulators
Effect of Rain on Electric Field Distribution
Hydrophobic Properties and Fluid Diffusion to the Surface
Saudi Arabian Experience in the Use of
Polymeric Insulators: A Survey
Nature of the Problem

-i-

14
17
21
22
26
28
30
32
33
36
37
39
39
41
43

Page
CHAPTER 3: EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND PROCEDURES
3.1
3.2
3.3

Significance of Accelerated Aging of Polymeric Insulators

Accelerated Aging Cycle
Design of Accelerated Aging Test Chamber

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5

Lightning Impulse Withstand Tests

Dry and Wet Power-Frequency Withstand Tests
Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) of Samples
Hydrophobicity
X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopic (XPS) Analysis

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1
5.2

Conclusions
Recommendation for Future Work

45
45
47
48
58
58
60
62
64
65
72
72
73

REFERENCES

74

ANNEX I

88

ANNEX II

90

-ii-

List of Tables
Table No.

Title

Page

Polymer Insulator Data for Saudi Electricity

Company (SEC-EOA).

42

3.1

Details of insulators under test.

53

4.1

Concentration (%) of elements detected by

XPS.

69

2.1

-iii-

List of Figures
Fig. No.

Title

Page

1.1

Composite insulators used in the world [1].

1.2

Classification of insulating materials.

2.1

Components of polymer insulator.

2.2

Surface resistance of bare and silicone-coated

porcelain insulators under salt fog conditions
[3].

12

Dead End / Suspension type polymeric

insulators (~15 kV).

14

2.4

Line post type polymeric insulators (~15 kV).

15

2.5

Photographs of the lines with suspension type

insulators.

16

2.6

Line post insulators.

16

2.7

Guy strain type polymeric insulators.

17

2.8

Dependence of the withstand voltage on

(equivalent salt deposit density) ESDD in SIR
and porcelain insulators [3].

24

Cumulative charge in EPDM and HTV-SIR

rods during exposure to energized salt-fog
showing the differences between ac (60 Hz),
+dc and dc. Conditions: conductivity of the
saline water forming the fog is 250 S/cm;
electrical stress is 0.6 kV/cm [29].

29

TGA of field aged HTV-SIR in the presence

of oxygen [58].

34

2.3

2.9

2.10

-iv-

List of Figures
Fig. No.

2.11

Title

Page

Electric field along an insulator as a function

of shed number showing the effect of three
simulated defects placed in a groove in EPDM
insulator. Lengths of defects, 16 to 32 cm
[65].

38

3.1

Accelerated aging cycle.

48

3.2a

Schematic diagram.

49

3.2b

Photograph of test chamber for accelerated

aging cycle.

49

Spectrum comparison of sunlight & UV

radiation [76].

51

Schematic diagram of 28 kVL-L polymeric

insulator.

52

Dead
End/
Suspension
insulator(EPDM and TPE).

52

3.3
3.4a
3.4b

polymeric

3.5a

Photograph of transformer used.

53

3.5b

Transformer connections used in testing.

54

3.6

Temperature variation on insulator surface

(under no load) and UV-A radiation level in
the Central region of Kingdom (Riyadh).

55

Temperature
Chamber.

56

3.7

rise

and

fall

variation

in

3.8

Timer (TM-30A, Kawamura TS, Japan).

57

4.1

Positive lightning impulse wave shape.

59

-v-

List of Figures
Fig. No.

4.2

Title

Page

Schematic of tests under lightning impulse

voltage.

59

Comparison of flashover voltages under

lightning impulses of both polarities.

60

AC setup for testing of one unit of suspension

insulator.

61

4.5

Flashover voltage under 60-Hz AC voltage.

62

4.6

SEM micrographs for new and the aged

samples of SiR and TPE insulators.

64

4.7

XPS analysis of SiR.

67

4.8

XPS analysis of TPE.

68

4.3
4.4

-vi-

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to thankfully acknowledge the assistance and
financial support provided by the Research Center, College of Engineering,
through research project grant No. 18/426. Sincere thanks are extended to the
staff of High Voltage Laboratory, Electrical Engineering Department where
most of the experimental work was carried out.

-vii-



.
.
.
.
.
)(
) (IEC 61109 .
.
) (TPE
) (SiR
) (SiR
%10 %7
) . (TPE
) (SiR
) . (TPE ) (SiR
.

-viii-

ABSTRACT
Polymers are widely used for a variety of electrical applications and are
being produced and used in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Polymeric
insulators are finding increasing applications in overhead transmission and
distribution lines. The electrical properties of such polymers are strongly
influenced by environmentally induced degradation mechanisms. A survey
was carried out by the authors to determine the state of non-ceramic insulators
being used by the power utilities in the Kingdom. To check the suitability of
the polymeric insulators, an experimental investigation was also carried out.
This experimental investigation is aimed at assessing the performance of
polymeric insulators used in high voltage overhead transmission and
distribution networks in the environmental conditions of central Saudi Arabia.
The effects of ultraviolet radiation and heat on the polymeric insulators were
studied. To achieve this objective, an accelerated aging test chamber was
designed and implemented to simulate local atmospheric conditions based on
the modified IEC standard 61109. Electrical withstand and Scanning Electron
Microscopy

(SEM)

based

optical,

visual

and

X-Ray Photoelectron

Spectroscopy (XPS) based chemical analytical results of the laboratory aged

insulators were compared with the new ones.
Dielectric performance shows that Thermoplastic Elastomer (TPE)
insulators outperform SiR insulators, since the reduction under aging exceeds
10% under lightning impulse while it amounts to around 7% under power
frequency test voltage while TPE insulator exhibit just minor reduction.
Similarly, the optical results indicate that surface roughness of the aged
sample in case of Silicon Rubber (SiR) is more than compared with the new
insulator. However, negligible surface roughness was observed in case of aged
TPE insulator during the same aging period. The increased surface roughness
of the aged SiR insulator may affect the dielectric performance of the insulator
after its prolonged exposure to the local atmospheric conditions.

-ix-

NOMENCLATURE
SEM
XPS
TPE
SiR
UV
PTFE
PE
EPDM
EPR
RTV
HTV
EPM
IEC
EVA
HDPE
PUR
ATH
ANSI
NEMA
ESDD
NSDD
ESCA
FTIR
LMW
GC
MS
TGA
RIV
SEC
EOA
LI
STRI
HC

Scanning Electron Microscopy

Photoelectron Spectroscopy
Thermoplastic Elastomer
Silicon Rubber
Ultraviolet
Poly Tetra Floro Ethylene
Polyethylene
Ethylene Propylene Diane Monomer
Ethylene Propylene Rubber
Room Temperature Vulcanized
High Temperature Vulcanized
Ethylene Propylene Monomer
International Electrotechnical Commission
Ethylene Vinyl Acetate
High-Density Polyethylene
Polyurethene
Alumina Trihydrate
American National Standards Institute
National Electric Manufacturers Association
Equivalent Salt Deposit Density
Non-Soluble Deposit Density
Electron Spectroscopy for Chemical Analysis
Fourier Transform Infrared
Low Molecular Weight
Gas Chromatography
Mass Spectrometer
Thermogravimetric Analysis
Radio Influence Voltage
Saudi Electric Company
Eastern Operating Area
Lightning Impulse
Swedish Transmission Research Institute
Hydrophobicity Classes

-x-

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

Overhead line insulators are used to support the line conductors at

towers or poles and to separate them electrically from each other.
Traditionally, line insulators have been produced using high quality glazed
porcelain and pre-stressed or toughened glass. Extensive research and service
experience has shown that these materials are very reliable and cost effective
for a majority of outdoor applications. However, since early sixties, alternative
materials namely polymers have emerged and presently are being used
extensively for a variety of outdoor insulator applications. Polymeric
insulators are increasingly being used in both the distribution and transmission
voltage ranges and are steadily capturing a wider share of the market.
Initially, polymeric insulators (also called composite or non-ceramic
insulators) were considered as replacement for porcelain and glass for special
applications such as areas with high incidences of vandalism, urban locations
with limitations on right of way and areas of severe contamination problems.
However many difficulties were encountered regarding their performance in
actual service during the first two decades of operation. Typical of these were:

tracking and erosion of polymer sheds, chalking and crazing of sheds which
lead to increased contamination collection, arcing and flashover, bonding
failures and electrical breakdowns along the rod-shed interface, corona
splitting of sheds and water penetration which lead to electrical breakdown.
Today polymeric insulators are in use on lines operating up to 765 kV.
However, they are more popular on transmission levels from 69 kV through
345 kV. A recent worldwide survey showed that there are thousands of
polymeric insulators in service at all voltage levels.
Fig. (1.1) shows the results of a CIGRE survey done in 2000 to
investigate the global distribution of composite insulators at voltage levels
above 100 kV [1].

Middle East is one of the regions where composite

insulators are gaining ground.

1000000

SiR
Others

No of Insulators

100000

Total

10000

1000

100

10

1
Europe

USA

Canada

Australia

Asia

Africa

Middle
East

Fig. (1.1): Composite insulators used in the world [1].

1.1

POLYMER INSULATORS: ADVANTAGES AND

DISADVANTAGES

1.1.1 Advantages
The primary impetus for polymeric insulators increased acceptance by
the usually cautious electric power utilities as discussed before, is their
substantial advantage compared to inorganic insulators which have primarily
been porcelain and glass. One of their major advantages is their low surface
energy and thereby maintaining a good hydrophobic surface property in the
presence of wet conditions e.g. fog, dew and rain. Other advantages include:
(1)

Light weight which results in a more economic design of the towers or

alternatively enabling to upgrade the voltage of existing systems
without changing the tower dimensions. An example of this was a case
in Germany where the voltage was increased from 245 to 420 kV and
in Canada where two 115 kV, 50 km long lines were up-rated to 230
kV using horizontal polymer insulators on the same towers. The light
weight of the composite insulator strings also permits an increase in the
clearance distance between the conductor to ground and an increase in
the phase-to-phase distance in order to reduce the electric and magnetic
fields which are becoming a growing concern to the general public. The

light weight of the composite insulators also obviates the need to use
heavy cranes for their handling and installation and this saves on cost,
(2)

A higher mechanical strength to weight ratio which enables the

construction of longer spans of towers,

(3)

Line post insulators are less prone to serious damage from vandalism
such as gunshots which cause the ceramic insulators to shatter and drop
the conductor to the ground,

(4)

Much better performance than ceramic insulators in outdoor service in

the presence of heavy pollution as well as in short term tests,

(5)

Comparable or better withstand voltage than porcelain and glass

insulators,

(6)

Easy installation thus saving on labor cost, and

(7)

The use of composite insulators reduces the maintenance costs such as

of insulator washing which is often required for ceramic and glass
insulators, in heavily contaminated environment.

1.1.2 Disadvantages
The main disadvantages of composite polymeric insulators are:
(1)

They are subjected to chemical changes on the surface due to

weathering and from dry band arcing,

(2)

Suffer from erosion and tracking which may lead ultimately to the
failure of the insulator,

(3)

Life expectancy is difficult to evaluate, and

(4)

Faulty insulators are difficult to detect.

1.2

TYPES OF INSULATING MATERIALS

In fact, there are hundred of insulation materials which are used

in the electrical power industry. All such materials can broadly be classified
into different categories:
composites [2,3].

such as gases, liquids, solids, vacuum and

A summary of insulation materials used in electrical networks is shown

in Fig. (1.2).

Materials

Conductor

Gases

Insulator

Liquids

Organic

Solids

Polymer

Thermoplastic

Semiconductor

Vacuum

Composite

Inorganic

Thermosetting

Nylon

Polyethylene

Epoxy resins

Crosslinked
polyethylene

Polystyrene

Polypropylene

Phenolics

Urea
Formaldehyde

Polycarbonate

Polyvinyl
chloride

Melamine

Elastomers

Fig. (1.2): Classification of insulating materials.

The weather conditions in the Middle East including Saudi Arabia are
significantly harsh and changing from the daytime to the night. The inland
areas are very hot, dry and dusty. The ultraviolet (UV) radiation that causes
chemical changes on the composite insulators are extremely high in this
region. In order to select a proper material with satisfactory resistance to
weathering, it is necessary to understand weather factors and how they affect
the various materials. These conditions demand a more precise and systematic
research to optimize design criteria for deserts and dry areas of Arabian Gulf.
The aim of this study was to determine the degree of degradation and
decomposition of the Silicon Rubber (SiR) and Thermoplastic Elastometer
(TPE) insulators due to UV radiations and atmospheric heat that is common in
the central region of Saudi Arabia. In this regard, experimental investigations
were carried out to study the effect of ultraviolet radiations as well as heat, on
the performance of these two composite insulators.
Chapter two of this report contains a brief literature review and data
collection.

It also explains the basic construction, material history, testing

methods used, various important test results and the Saudi Arabian experience
on this subject. Chapter three of this report explains the experimental set up and
method, whereas Chapter four presents the main results and discussion. Chapter
five outlines the conclusions of this investigation.

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW AND DATA COLLECTION

2.1

INTRODUCTION
Polymeric insulators are being accepted increasingly for use in outdoor

installations by the traditionally cautious electric power utilities worldwide.

They currently represent 60 to 70% of newly installed HV insulators in North
America [1].

The tremendous growth in the applications of non-ceramic

composite insulators is due to their advantages over the traditional ceramic

and glass insulators. These include light weight, higher mechanical strength to
weight ratio, resistance to vandalism, better performance in the presence of
heavy pollution, in wet conditions and comparable or better withstand voltage
than porcelain or glass insulators. However, because polymeric insulators are
relatively new, the expected lifetime and their long-term reliability are not
well known and therefore are of concern to users. Additionally they might
suffer from erosion and tracking in the presence of severe contamination and
sustained moisture. This leads to the development of dry band arcing that
under certain circumstances could lead to failure of polymeric insulators. In
this chapter, a brief review is presented [1]-[5].

2.2

BASIC POLYMERIC INSULATORS COMPONENTS

The basic construction of a polymer insulator for overhead line

applications consists of a core, weather sheds, and metal end fittings as shown in
Fig. (2.1).

Fig. (2.1): Components of polymer insulator.

2.2.1 Core
The core of a non-ceramic insulator has the dual burden of being the
main insulating part and of being the main load-bearing member, be it in
suspension, cantilever, or compression modes. For suspension and line post
insulators, the core consists of axially aligned, glass fiber-reinforced resin
containing 70 to 75% by weight of glass fiber. The fiber diameter ranges from
5-20 m. The resin system can be of polyester or epoxy and the rod is formed
by the pultrusion process. Although epoxy resin is considered to be the better of
the two, because of lower cost, the core used today is usually polyester resin.

10

The end seal is considered to be the most important element of the

design of a non-ceramic insulator. Field failures have occurred due to brittle
fracture of the fiberglass rod as a consequence of the breach of the end seal,
thereby allowing the rod to come into contact with atmospheric pollutants and
moisture. Tracking of the fiberglass rod leading to failure has also been
observed in non-ceramic insulators.
Non-ceramic insulator end seals have three basic types: glued, friction,
and bonded types. Glued type seals that are made using a sealant material have
not proven to be permanent, generally because of poor adhesion. Friction-type
seals in which the sleeved core fits into the hardware are quite effective, as
long as the dimensional tolerances are maintained, and do not cause any
problems, provided that no movement of the fitting occurs. End seals that are
made by molding the sleeved core material onto the end fitting are by far the
best because of the better physical bond obtained during molding.
2.2.2 Weather Sheds
Sheds made from various non-ceramic materials for electrical
applications are shaped and spaced over the rod in various ways to protect the
rod and to provide maximum electrical insulation between the attachment
ends. These include Poly Tetra Floro Ethylene (PTFE) i.e. Teflon, epoxy
resins, polyethylene (PE), polymer concretes, ethylene-propylene elastomers,
and silicone elastomers. Each material offers particular characteristics.

11

However, only the elastomeric materials have shown success in outdoor

electrical insulation applications, with silicone elastomer meeting all of the
requirements for long-term performance in practically all environments.
The polymers have the ability to interact with pollutants and reduce the
conductance of the pollution layer. This is illustrated in Fig. (2.2) [3]. The
important characteristic of the polymeric insulator which controls the
conductance is due to hydrophobicity (or water repellency) of its surface. On a
hydrophobic surface, water drops bead up and do not wet the surface
completely. This reduces the leakage current and the probability of dry band
formation, which leads to a higher flashover voltage. It has been observed that
the hydrophobicity is maintained in silicone rubber materials even after many
years in service, and it is this attribute that is responsible for the superior
contamination performance of silicone rubber family of materials when
compared to other polymers. The recovery of hydrophobicity is mainly due to
(i) a diffusion process, in which the low molecular weight polymer chains
migrate to the surface thereby forming a thin layer of silicone fluid and (ii)
reorientation of surface hydrophillic groups away from the surface. These
processes are temperature dependent and higher temperature causes their more
rapid recovery.
Recently, hybrid designs of polymeric insulators have been introduced.
In this case the core is made of ceramic while the sheds are made of silicone
rubber [3].

12

Fig. (2.2): Surface resistance of bare and silicone-coated porcelain insulators

under salt fog conditions [3].
It has been reported that Ethylene Propylene Diane Monomer (EPDM)
and silicone elastomeric materials containing a minimum of 70% by weight of
hydrated alumina that are in use by most of manufacturers are favored for
weathersheds with silicone rubber showed the best performance over all other
types [3]. Failures of some first generation polymeric insulators with epoxy
resin weathersheds have been attributed to depolymerization by the hydrolysis.
Depolymerization refers to the destruction of the molecular structure of the
polymer material. Hydrolysis is the result of a chemical reaction, which takes
place between the ions of water and the free ends of polymer's chemical chain,
which causes depolymerization to occur.
Also, insulators made from epoxy resins contain locked-in mechanical
stresses that develop during curing of the resin. This occurs when mixing or

13

curing of the resin is uneven. Circumferential cracks between sheds sometimes

develop during storage of the insulator because of the locked-in stresses.
However, more often the cracks develop in service as the stresses are
aggravated by low temperature and line tension. The cracks extend down to
the core, thereby exposing the core to the moisture. Elastomers are the best
weathershed materials, as they do not contain locked-in mechanical stresses
from the curing process. Also, elastomers are preferred at low temperatures
where impact resistance is important.
Another problem that surfaced early in the experience of first
generation designs was the effect of outdoor weathering on weathersheds.
Weathering affects all polymer materials to some extent and being a natural
phenomenon includes the effects of heat, humidity, rain, wind, contaminants
in the atmosphere and ultraviolet rays of the sun. Under such conditions, the
weathersheds of polymer insulators may permanently change physically by
roughening and cracking and chemically by the loss of soluble components
and by the reactions of salts, acids and other impurities deposited on the
surface. Surface becomes hydrophilic and moisture can more easily penetrates
into the volume of the weather sheds.
2.2.3 Housings
The housing is external to the core and protects it from the weather. It
may be equipped with weather sheds. Some designs of composite insulators

14

employ a sheath made of insulating material between the weathersheds and the
core. This sheath is part of the housing.
2.2.4 End Fittings
End fitting transmit the mechanical load to the core. They are usually
made of metal.
2.3

INSULATOR TYPES
Three types of insulators are in common use i.e. the suspension/dead-end

type, line post insulators and Guy strain type insulator, as shown in Figs. (2.3)
and (2.4). The only significant differences among these are in the design of the
attachment hardware and in the size of the core, which is much larger for post
insulators.

Fig. (2.3): Dead End / Suspension type polymeric insulators (~15 kV).

15

Fig. (2.4): Line post type polymeric insulators (~15 kV).

(a)

Dead-End/Suspension Type Insulators

This type of insulator is used where line conductor weight subjects the

insulator core to tension forces. The dead-end / tension insulator horizontally

supports the line conductor whereas suspension insulator vertically supports the
line conductor as shown in Fig. (2.5). Both are subject to tensile and torsional
loads.

16

Fig. (2.5): Photographs of the lines with suspension type insulators.

(b)

Line Post / Station Post Insulators

The line post/ station post insulators horizontally or vertically support

the line conductors as shown in Fig. (2.6). Such an insulator is subjected to

tensile, cantilever and compressive loads.

Fig. (2.6): Line post insulators.

17

(c)

Guy Strain Insulators

The guy-strain insulators, insulate or isolate the guy wire for corrosion

protection, higher insulation level, clearances for maintenance during normal

operation, or safety to the public or others. It is subjected to tensile and
torsional loads. Fig. (2.7) shows this design.

Fig. (2.7): Guy strain type polymeric insulators.

2.4

WEATHERSHEDS OF POLYMERIC MATERIALS

Polymeric insulators have been in use in outdoor service for about fifty

years. They cover a wide range of materials and formulations. These include
bisphenol epoxy resins which were used commercially for indoor applications
in the mid 1940s. In the 1950s cycloaliphatic epoxy resins were used in the
United Kingdom (UK) in outdoor service due to their better performance.
They were used as suspension insulators up to 400 kV and in station circuit
breakers for up to 500 kV in the early 1960s [1].

18

Polymeric insulators for transmission lines began to be manufactured in

Europe and the USA in the mid 1975 and beyond. In 1977 Hydro Quebec in
Canada installed, on a 16 km section of 735 kV transmission line, 282
composite insulators made by three different manufacturers.

This was

followed with a 120 km section using 1100 composite insulators. In addition,

the same power utility installed composite insulators on circuits of 120, 230
and 315 kV transmission lines. Different generic materials were used in the
manufacture of composite insulators.

Initially they included Ethylene

Propylene Rubber (EPR) insulators which were made by Ceraver of France

(1975), Ohio Brass of USA (1976), Sedivar of USA (1977) and Lapp of USA
(1980). Silicone rubber (SiR) which was manufactured by Rosenthal of
Germany (1976) and Reliable of USA (1983); and cycloaliphatic epoxy by
Transmission Development of the UK (1977). Currently polymeric composite
insulators are manufactured in several countries worldwide.
Early experience with SiR included Room Temperature Vulcanized
(RTV)-SiR which had a low tear resistance of the weather-sheds.
Subsequently this was replaced with High Temperature Vulcanized (HTV)SiR. SiR composite insulators that were used in Germany in 1977 for upto
132 kV, and in 1979 for up to 245 kV [7].
Currently, in the United States, polymer insulators form between 60 to
70% of all new installations of HV insulators [8] and their share of the market
continues to grow.

In Ireland 75% of all upgraded 20 kV lines employ

19

composite insulators in place of glass. Ohio Brass (1986) introduced an alloy

of Ethylene Propylene Monomer (EPM) and SiR which was subsequently
changed to Ethylene Propylene Diene Monomer (EPDM) and SiR compound
in 1989 [8]. This alloy in a ratio of 10 (EPDM or EPM) to 3 (SiR) provided
the better mechanical properties, such as the stiffness of the EPDM and the
excellent hydrophobic characteristics of SiR. It was reported [8] that one
company has produced commercially with the alloys of EPDM and SiR over
2.5 million (M) distribution insulators, 0.1 M transmission class line post
insulators and 0.4 M suspension insulators which are currently installed in
power systems in different parts of the world. This gives a clear indication of
a wide acceptance of this blend of materials.
In some cases, power utilities are still reluctant to use composite
insulators because of the uncertainty of their long-term reliability, the
unknown life expectancy and the lack of adequate detection technology of
faulty insulators.

However there are many organizations including

International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) and IEEE which have been

attempting to address these problems and develop standards and test methods
for polymeric insulators.
The weather-sheds provide the required leakage distance and are
supplied with different materials, shapes, diameters, thicknesses and spacings.
Materials for weather sheds for HV insulators include SiR, EPDM, EPR,
EPM, alloys of EPDM and silicone [8], ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) and

20

cycloaliphatic and aromatic epoxy resins. For low voltage, outdoor or indoor
applications, additionally high-density polyethylene (HDPE), polytetrafluoro
ethylene (PTFE), polyurethene (PUR), polyolefin elastomers and other
materials are also employed.
SiR was first produced in 1944.

When the chain of the dimethyl

polysiloxane is very long (the number of the units of the siloxane is given as
several thousands, the silicone fluid becomes viscous with a gum-like
consistency from which SiR is made by adding fillers and curing agents.
In the compounding of the weather-sheds, fillers are added to enhance
the resistance to tracking and erosion as well as to provide improved
mechanical performance in tensile strength, abrasion resistance, tear strength,
modulus and to reduce flammability.

Typical fillers used are alumina

trihydrate (ATH), Al2O3.3H2O or hydrated alumina, and silica (quartz powder)

[10], [11].
It has been reported that weather-sheds of porcelain insulators coated
with a thin layer of RTV-SiR which are being increasingly used world wide in
outdoor substations and on heavily contaminated insulators, gave similar
performance results as compared to SiR sheds [12]. Early guidelines for the
applications of composite insulators to transmission lines based on field
experience, manufacturers recommendations and laboratory tests are discussed
in [13].

21

2.5

TESTING METHODS OF COMPOSITE INSULATORS

There are several national and international organizations attempting to

develop standards, guidelines and tests for composite insulators.

These

include IEEE [14], IEC [15], CIGRE, American National Standards Institute
(ANSI) [16] and National Electric Manufacturers Association (NEMA) etc.
The IEC test [15] has been criticized as being more of a pollution test and not
being an aging test and therefore suggestions for improvements in the test
procedure were made [17], [18]. Most existing laboratory tests for accelerated
weathering are primarily useful for ranking of the compounded materials [71][79].
Only tests in field stations and actual performance on power lines and
in outdoor substations could yield realistic results on outdoor service
performance of such insulations.
In accelerated aging tests in the fog chambers the specimens are
subjected to a simultaneous salt-fog and electric stress. The leakage current,
the pulse current and the accumulated charge are determined during a
prolonged test which can last up to 1000h [15], using an automatic data
acquisition system [19]. Often NaCl is added to the tap water (250 to 300
S/cm) to obtain a much higher conductivity of 14.7 mS/cm (10 0.5 kg of
salt per m3 of water). However, micro-organisms are known to be present in
the tap water which may grow rapidly and form a jelly layer on the insulator.

22

This is highly conductive and hydrophilic which could lead to premature

failure of the insulator being tested. An addition of CuCl2 to the water (1.2
g/m3) obviates the above mentioned problem [20].
The flow rate of the saline water forming the fog and the speed of the
fog droplets impinging on the surface of the polymer have a large effect on the
development of the leakage current even when the electric field stress is
maintained at the same level. The clean fog test method, in which steam is
employed, reflects the contamination in industrial areas away from the sea
coast. However, the dispersion in the test results among different laboratories
was reported to be very large using this method [21]. The clean fog test gives
a lower withstand voltage than in outdoor line performance, because the
insulators are more uniformly coated with the contaminants than in natural
conditions [22].
2.6

TEST RESULTS OF COMPOSITE INSULATORS

It has been shown that tests performed in six different laboratories

using salt-fog and tracking wheel on four different formulations of RTV-SiR

coatings applied to ceramic rods provided consistent results of the ranking of
the materials in terms of leakage current, cumulative charge flow and pulse
current count [23]. Seven types of commercial distribution insulators with
weather-sheds made of EPR or epoxy resin were tested according to IEC and
IEEE aging tests using salt-fog and tracking wheel [24].

The effect of

23

ultraviolet (UV) radiation on the aging was also included in that test. It was
found that the aging caused erosion and cracks were observed. The EPR
formulations generally performed better than the epoxy resins [24]. 72 kV and
230 kV composite rod insulators made of EPDM, EPM and HTV-SiR were
tested by aging with cement coating and clean fog, salt-fog and cement
coating and salt-fog. Substantial differences in the ability to withstand the
aging were found amongst the different insulator types [25].
It was concluded in [26] that the weather-shed design plays an
important role in the erosion and tracking of the insulator.

HTV-SiR

insulators, with 27.6 mm per kV leakage path, showed that dry band arcing did
not develop in the presence of severe salt storms while with 17.3 mm/kV,
large leakage currents developed. A large power utility reported that during a
severe weather condition there were no flashovers in any of their 138 kV (377
units) and 230 kV (1430 units) SiR insulators while there were many
flashovers in their 138 kV and 230 kV EPDM and porcelain insulators [27].
HV porcelain and glass outdoor insulators coated with RTV-SiR
performed better than silicone grease under dc test under salt-fog where dry
band arcing was present [28]. Other metals such as aluminum, stainless steel,
brass and copper were tried [29] but were found unsatisfactory because they
corroded which left corrosion by-products on the specimens surface.
Polymeric coatings of RTV-SiR on 66 kV systems were first used in 1973 [30]
and are now very widely used. Their purpose is to render a hydrophobic

24

surface for improving the contamination performance of outdoor bushings and

ceramic and glass insulators.

Full length porcelain multi-core insulators

coated with RTV-SiR had higher flashover voltages than uncoated porcelain
insulators when contamination was present on their surface in the range of
Equivalent Salt Deposit Density (ESDD) of 0.07 to 0.16 mg/cm2.

Fig. (2.8): Dependence of the withstand voltage on (equivalent salt deposit

density) ESDD in SiR and porcelain insulators [3].
SiR insulators had been evaluated in outdoor conditions for nine years
and were found to remain water repellent when either energized or unenergized [31]. It was also observed that the chemical changes were larger for
dc than for ac [32]. The leakage currents in polluted SiR were smaller and less
frequent compared with that for porcelain insulators, while those of EVA

25

insulators were almost comparable to the porcelain insulators. The withstand

voltage of SiR insulators decreased with increasing ESDD as shown in Fig.
(2.8).
The withstand voltage of SiR also decreased with increasing nonsoluble deposit density (NSDD) in the range 0.1 to 5 mg/cm2 and increased
with increasing length of the insulator [3].
In another investigation, the ratio of the leakage distance to the surface
area of the insulators was kept constant at 5.6 * 10-3 mm-1 10% and the
average electric stress was set as that used in practice [26]. It was reported
that the leakage current decreased when this ratio was increased. In RTV-SiR
the leakage current in salt-fog tests increased with increasing electric stress
[33], [34].
Testing SiR on a tracking wheel using a salinity of 1.33 mS/cm showed
that erosion was more severe with positive dc than with ac [35]. The erosion
was confined to the vicinity of the electrodes with dc but it covered a larger
area with ac. There was a larger loss of material with dc than with ac and the
loss was larger at the higher electric field, using 0.83 and 0.5 kV/cm [35].
Studies using electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis (ESCA) on
SiR and EPDM insulators, which had been energized at 130 kV (phase- toground) in agricultural areas, showed that the content of carbon decreased and
of oxygen increased on the surface of EPDM compared to the bulk, while in

26

SiR the changes in these elements were not significant. On the surface of SiR
the content of ATH was reduced after 5 yr on the lines. Similar observations
were reported on SiR and EPDM insulators which had been energized at 300
kV. These results were independently confirmed using ESCA after tests in
salt-fog which also indicated a higher concentration of oxygen on the surface
than in the bulk of SiR [36]. It was suggested that this was due to the
crosslinking reactions of the silanols from dry band arcing. The oxidation of
the surface of EPDM and the EPDM/SiR alloy was evaluated by removing a
small amount of the polymer and analyzing it with Fourier Transform Infrared
(FTIR) and X-ray Photoelectric Spectroscopy (XPS) [37].
2.7

RANKING OF MATERIALS FOR OUTDOOR INSULATION

Polymeric materials perform differently according to the severity of the

tests.

However, there appears to be a general consensus that HTV-SiR

insulators performed well under severe contamination and usually better than
ceramic insulators [38], [39], [40] and [41]. The withstand voltage of SiR,
EPR and epoxy resin in the presence of pollution was higher than that of
porcelain. Some EPDM insulators (34 kV to 500 kV) performed poorly and
showed punctured holes and damaged sheds. EPR performed better than
epoxy resin [24].

The flashover voltage of HTV-SiR, after exposure to

combined salt-fog and cement, followed with 1 hour and longer (up to 6.5 h)
drying time, was significantly and consistently higher than that for EPM and
EPDM, and for EPM was higher than for EPDM [25].

27

Long rod insulators with EPDM weather-sheds initially showed better

performance than porcelain in HVDC and HVAC but after many years in
operation they were degraded and showed cracks on the surface, erosion, pin
holes and a white layer on the surface due to weathering by ultraviolet rays
and pollution [42].

Flashover voltage of RTV-SiR, HTV-SiR and EPR

decreased when tested with increasing steam input rate [43]. SiR had a higher
flashover voltage than EPR and porcelain. However, the difference between
SiR and EPR (and porcelain) was significantly reduced under heavier wetting
conditions [43].
Comparison between the naturally aged RTV-SiR coating on porcelain
and aged SiR insulators indicated that the former exhibited lower
hydrophobicity than the latter material [46]. It has been reported that RTVSiR coated porcelain long rod insulators had peak currents for both dc (+300
kV) and ac (130 kV phase-to-ground) energized insulators equivalent to those
of SiR insulators [46].
It was also shown that SiR insulators preserved their hydrophobicity
while EPDM became completely hydrophilic after 7 years in field tests and
energized to positive 300 kV [47]. SiR performed better than ceramic, and
EPDM performed worse than SiR. However, EPDM enhanced with Low
Molecular Weight (LMW) SiR additives showed good hydrophobicity and
low leakage current [47]. Porcelain insulators coated with RTV-SiR gave

28

similar performance to that of RTV-SiR insulators which had been exposed to

HVAC and HVDC for many years in outdoor service [12].
2.8

EFFECT OF VOLTAGE POLARITY ON PERFORMANCE

The times to failure of HTV-SiR and EPDM rods at a fixed filler

concentration of either ATH or silica powder during testing in salt-fog, under

ac (60 Hz), and positive dc were similar [29]. For negative dc, the time to
failure was reduced by a factor of 4. The polymer rods were tested in the
vertical orientation and the dc voltage polarity refers to the top electrode. Fig.
(2.9) shows the differences in the cumulative charge in EPDM during
exposure to energized salt-fog for ac, positive and negative dc, and
comparison with HTV-SiR for ac and positive dc [29]. The cumulative charge
and therefore the leakage current was highest for negative dc, and it was
higher for EPDM than HTV-SiR under the same conditions.
At low conductivity (250 S/cm) fog filled SiR samples had
substantially longer times to failure for ac, positive and negative dc than the
correspondingly filled EPDM samples, while this order was reversed at high
conductivity salt-fog (1 mS/cm) [29].

29

1
2
3
4

EPDM (dc)
EPDM (ac and =dc)
SILICONE RUBBER (dc)
SILICONE RUBBER (ac and +dc)

Fig. (2.9): Cumulative charge in EPDM and HTV-SiR rods during exposure
to energized salt-fog showing the differences between ac (60 Hz),
+dc and dc. Conditions: conductivity of the saline water forming
the fog is 250 S/cm; electrical stress is 0.6 kV/cm [29].

30

2.9

PROPERTIES OF POLLUTION ON POLYMERIC

INSULATORS
It was reported that both sea and industrial pollution produce uniform

contamination layers on the surface of SiR insulators [49].

The salt-fog

produced for un-energized insulators an ESDD of 0.02 mg/cm2 after exposure

to 3 mS/cm salt-fog for 2 hours, and 0.02 to 0.05 mg/cm2 when energized at
0.4 kV for 10 and 120 minutes, respectively [49].

SiR insulators from

transmission lines after a number of years in service had typically 8 m

(ESDD at 0.05 mg/cm2) to 23 m thick of contaminants (ESDD at 0.026
mg/cm2). The nature of the contamination was either carbon dust on the
insulators removed from lines near a highway or dust and bird droppings from
agricultural areas [49].
The dc flashover voltage of SiR contaminated with kaolin
(composition: SiO2 46%, Al2O3 37%, Fe2O3 0.9% [50]), was 15% lower
than with Tonoko (composition: SiO2 57~65%, Al2O3 14~30%, Fe2O3
2~6% [51]), and with Aerosil was lower than both because it absorbed water
and formed a much thicker layer on the surface. After 7 years of service near
the coast no significant difference in ESDD was observed on composite and
porcelain insulators. The 95% confidence level values of ESDD for SiR, EVA
and porcelain were 0.107, 0.087 and 0.116 mg/cm2, respectively [20].

31

During hurricane strength winds, ESDD values of 0.1 to 0.2 and ESDD
in the range 0.061 to 0.159 mg/cm2 were measured on insulators [22].
Pollution layers of silica powder (SiO2), manganese dioxide (MnO2) and
kaolin were used on SiR and EPDM [52]. It took up to 5 days for the
hydrophobicity to recover for SiO2 and MnO2 and for kaolin did not recover
by 7 days [52].
In an industrial area near a steel plant, Fe2O3 (hematite) contamination
was found while CaSO4, SiO2 and CaSO4.0.5 H2O (bassanite) were found on
insulators in both agricultural and industrial areas [53].

The insoluble

contaminants were SiO2, Fe2O3, CaO, MgO, and K2O. The particle size of the
contaminants varied from 1 to 80 m. The average size of the particles was
~2x the size of that of Tonoko (62 m and powder density 2.76 g/cm3 [50])
which is used in the standard of insoluble contaminants in artificial
contamination tests. Natural industrial contaminants deposited on 110 kV SiR
insulators which were located near a copper producing plant included
insoluble substances (80 to 90%) of SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3 and metal sulfide.
The remainder constituted soluble sulfates (CuSO4) and soluble carbonates
(MgCO3) [54].

32

2.10

ARTIFICIAL CONTAMINATION ON POLYMERIC

INSULATORS
Because of the initial hydrophobic nature of polymeric insulators it is

rather difficult to apply artificial contaminants and to ensure that they adhere
to the surface for the duration of the test. A method of application of artificial
contamination on SiR which was reported to provide a uniform contamination
layer was discussed in [55].
It employs powdered Tonoko [50] which is deposited after spraying the
surface with a fine mist of water droplets and allowing it to dry. Then the
deposited Tonoko is washed off with running tap water. The insulator is then
immersed in the slurry of contaminants and dried. This method was reported
to have been applied successfully to SiR and EPDM insulators [55].
Attempts have been made to coat polymeric insulators with a pollution
layer for testing purposes by first destroying the hydrophobic nature of the
surface by sand blasting or adding wetting agents. The usual procedure to coat
insulators is to contaminate the insulator with a slurry containing water and
NaCl and an insoluble material which is usually kaolin.

The insoluble

material content is typically 40 g/l [22]. The slurry is allowed to dry on the
insulator, before the test. This test represents service condition in which
subsequent wetting occurs of insulators which have already a layer of
contamination built-up on the surface.

33

2.11

AGING OF POLYMERIC INSULATORS AND MECHANISMS

OF FAILURE
Gorur et al. [41] suggested that aging of polymer insulators in outdoor

service starts with the loss of hydrophobicity due to weathering and then dry
band arcing follows, and in the case of SiR, with a reduction of low molecular
weight (LMW) fluid on the surface. This leads to increased current, increased
surface roughness, depolymerization of the top surface layer, changes in the
structure due to crystallization of the polymer and clustering of the filler and
then tracking and/or erosion failure. X-ray diffraction studies indicated an
increase in the crystallinity of the SiR with aging in salt-fog and dry band
arcing [28].
The difference in the flashover voltage performance for the same
ESDD was attributed to the difference in the solubility of the contaminants.
The ambient temperature has a significant influence on the solubility of the
salts and therefore on the contamination flashover voltage. The solubility of
the salt depends on several factors, the most important of which are
temperature, pH (hydrogen potential) and the presence of strong ionic
components. In outdoor conditions near the coast, highly soluble salts such as
Ca(NO3)2, NaNO3, MgCl2, CaCl2, KC1, NaCl and poorly soluble salts such as
MgSO4, Na2SO4, Na2CO3, K2SO4, NaC1, CaCO3, CaSO4.2H2O, Ca(PO4)2 and
MgCO3 have been identified on insulators. The density of the deposits varied
from 0.003 to 0.168 mg/cm2 [32].

34

Shah et al. [49], [56] postulated that the flashover mechanism of SiR
was different from that of porcelain and glass insulators because the latter two
wet and accumulate contaminants differently.

They hypothesized ohmic

heating due to leakage current, interaction between the water droplets and the
electric field, generation of conductive regions and filaments and spot
discharges caused by field intensification, which lead to flashover along the
wetted filaments.
Contamination severity in the range of ESDD of 0.03 to 0.6 mg/cm2
and the degree of wetting were treated as probabilistic variables in assessing
the flashover of insulators in [57].

Weight (%)

Virgin

Aged

Temperature (C)

Fig. (2.10): TGA of field aged HTV-SiR in the presence of oxygen [58].
A depolymerization was reported of HTV-SiR and RTV-SiR which had
been in service near the coast for 7 year, compared to virgin specimens [58].

35

A depolymerizatlon of the RTV-SiR silicone matrix was also reported using

gas chromatography (GC)-mass spectrometer (MS) [58]. Fig. (2.10) shows a
thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) of HTV-SiR which had been in outdoor
service and indicates a reduction in the weight of the aged polymer compared
to the virgin specimen.
Degradation mechanisms of SiR were discussed by Goudie et al. [58].
The flashover mechanism and performance of contaminated SiR and EPR
insulators at levels of ESDD of 0.7 mg/cm2 and ESDD from 0.08 to 0.9
mg/cm2 were investigated [59]. The choice of the contamination levels were
based on the service experience.

In the presence of rain, the flashover

occurred at lower contamination severity than in clean fog. There was no

elongation of the water droplets during voltage application compared to unenergized insulators.
It was reported that even under rain conditions, the flashover on
polymeric insulators involves a streamer-leader mechanism and differs from
that for pollution flashover which involves dry band arcing [60]. Niemi and
Orbeck [61] suggested that the failure of polymeric insulators resulted from
progressive tracking due to arcing or by direct flashover initiated by large
leakage current and dry band arcing. They reported that low filled silicone
elastomer had the longest time to failure while cycloaliphatic epoxy, both
filled and unfilled, failed quickly by comparison.

36

2.12

AGING FROM EXPOSURE TO ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION

Polymeric materials employed to fabricate composite insulators contain

small amounts of compounds such as ZnO2 and TiO2 which absorb UV

radiation and thus protect the material against damage from the radiation of
the sun rays.
SiR filled with ATH (45 to 54%), EPR filled with ATH (56 to 61%)
and SiR filled with silica quartz powder (46 to 50%) were exposed to UV
radiation for 1000 hours and tested on a tracking wheel [62]. The test results
indicated that UV radiation had no effect on the tracking endurance of the
polymers.
Subjecting HTV-SiR, EPDM and EPM to multi-stresses of electrical
(0.5 to 1 kV/cm) and/or mechanical and to UV radiation showed that there was
a synergetic effect between exposure to UV irradiation and mechanical stress.
However, a synergism was not present between UV radiation and electrical
stress when discharges were absent from the surface. When EPDM had no
UV or thermal stabilizers, the advancing contact angle decreased with
increasing exposure time to UV. FTIR spectra showed that the absorbance of
the carbonyl (C=O), the alcohol (C-O-H) and hydroperoxide (C-O-O-H) peaks
increased with increasing time of exposure to UV and there was a correlation
between the later two bonds and the contact angle [63].
It was reported that the build up of a pollution layer on SiR protects it
against UV radiation [54] and the thicker the layer of the pollution, the lower

37

would be its transparency to the radiation. The amount of radiation reaching

the surface of the insulator is decreased with increasing ESDD and NSDD for
the same wavelength in the range 200 to 500 nm [54]. Furthermore, radiation
was absorbed by the contamination with decreasing wavelength.

This is

important because the shorter wavelength is more energetic and thus less
energy remains to cause damage to the surface of the polymer.
2.13

DETECTION OF FAULTS ON COMPOSITE INSULATORS

For timing of maintenance work on HV live insulators, various

methods were tried in order to detect flaws in composite insulators. Flaws

may include wires, cracked rods, metallic shavings, saline moisture and
conducting paints [64]. Non-ceramic transmission line insulators were made
by five different manufacturers with internal flaws for exploration of test
methods. The insulators were rated at varying voltages from 138 kV (0.75 m
long) to 220 kV (1.25 m long) [64]. Effects which were measured included
Radio Influence Voltage (RIV), high internal partial discharges, high leakage
currents, internal heating and reduced flashover voltage. Partial discharges
and corona initiation and extinction in polymer insulators were measured
using procedures described in an IEEE Standard

[14].

Insulators were

considered acceptable if the discharge did not exceed 3 pC and the initiation
voltage of corona was >17.5kV for the above insulators. The most effective
test method to detect flaws was reported to be the RIV [64].

38

Visual inspections of composite insulators were carried out every two

years since 1981 on the 735, 315, 230 and 120 kV lines, Hydro Quebec in
Canada [65].

It was found that most of the problems with composite

insulators could be found by visible inspection from the towers and these
presented the largest percentage of failures. An inspection from the ground
using binoculars was not sufficient.
Electric field testing permitted the detection of non-visible defects
which had occurred at the interface between the fiberglass rod and the
covering polymeric material. It was reported that in the area of a defective
shed there was a decrease in the longitudinal field along the string [65]. Fig.
(2.11) shows the effect on the electric field along the insulator surface when a
defect is present in one of the sheds of an EPDM insulator.

Electric Field (kV/m)

16 cm
32 cm
none
antistatic 32 cm

Shed No.

Fig. (2.11):

Electric field along an insulator as a function of shed number

showing the effect of three simulated defects placed in a groove
in EPDM insulator. Lengths of defects, 16 to 32 cm [65].

39

2.14

EFFECT OF RAIN ON ELECTRIC FIELD DISTRIBUTION

The axial field distribution along a porcelain post insulator coated with

RTV-SiR changed when artificial rain was applied to it [66]. The sensitivity
of the field distribution and the discharge activity to the precipitation rate of
the rain (0.4 and 1.6 mm/min) was small for conductivities of 50 and 250
S/cm at low voltage. At high conductivity of the rain and high precipitation
rate, higher fields at the upper sheds were observed [66].
In artificially contaminated SiR and EPR insulators, the phenomenon of
sudden flashover without a prior leakage current was investigated.

The

sudden flashover was attributed to the high electric field at the edges of the
dried high resistance regions. When sufficient recovery time was allowed,
SiR did not experience sudden flashover while EPR insulators did. It was
reported that in rain tests, hydrophobic surfaces prevent an increase in the dry
zones and significantly reduce the radial field strength.
2.15

HYDROPHOBIC PROPERTIES AND FLUID DIFFUSION TO

THE SURFACE
In heavily polluted areas, contaminants gradually build up on the

surface of insulators into a continuous layer. SiR insulators were reported to

have performed better than porcelain and glass in laboratories and in outdoor
test sites [12], [38], [47], [67]. This has been attributed to the diffusion of the

40

Lower Molecular Weight (LMW) fluid from the bulk to the surface including
the contaminant layer.
This phenomenon was first suggested in 1981 [68]. After exposure of
SiR to corona it was found that the hydrophobicity was lost and on the surface
SiH decreased by 50% while OH increased by 500%. After the recovery of
hydrophobicity it was observed that SiH had increased again.

This was

attributed to the migration of the chain segments of either cyclic or linear

polymer from the bulk to the surface [68].
In 1983 [67] this concept was picked up again in that it was also
suggested that long-term water repellency on the surface was provided by the
diffusion of the mobile silicone fluid from the bulk of the material to the
surface of a SiR protective coating. In 1986, in order to explain the presence
of silicone in the scales of salt deposits which was present on the surface of
HTV-SiR 200 hours after removal from testing in a salt-fog, the same
phenomenon was invoked [69].
Subjecting HIV-SiR to corona for 30 minutes resulted in the loss of its
surface hydrophobicity manifested in a large increase in the oxygen
concentration and a corresponding decrease in the carbon [67]. After 24 h, the
concentration of O2 decreased and that of carbon increased and the
hydrophobicity recovered due to the migration of the LMW chains to the
surface. The composition of these elements on the surface of RTV-SiR before

41

and following dry band arcing and therefore during the recovery of
hydrophobicity were also reported in [70].
2.16

SAUDI ARABIAN EXPERIENCE IN THE USE OF

POLYMERIC INSULATORS: A SURVEY
In order to understand the use and performance of non-ceramic

insulators that are in use by Saudi Electric Company (SEC), a survey was
conducted by these investigators. On this context a questionnaire as shown in
Annex-I was sent to all operating areas of Saudi Electricity Company working
in different parts of the Kingdom. Whereas, for getting the month-wise
environmental data (maximum and minimum temperatures, humidity level,
and average rainfall), another questionnaire (Annex-II) was sent to
Environmental Department of the Riyadh. The investigators received the
response only from the SEC-EOA region which is presented in Table (2.1).
SEC- Eastern Operating Area (EOA) power transmission grid extends
more than 11,000 circuit km covering an area of 285,000 sq. km. The
transmission lines operate at voltage levels of 69 kV, 115 kV, 230 kV and 380
kV, and most of these lines are close to coast of the Arabian Gulf [71]. The
lines are generally affected by desert, marine and industrial pollution. Weather
is characterized by high temperature, large daily and seasonal temperature
variations and high humidity levels through the summer months of June to
October. SEC-EOA applies different techniques such as adopting large
creepage distance, applying grease on some station insulators and using costly

42

washing program to improve the network reliability and to counter the

pollution problem on the insulators.
Table (2.1): Polymer Insulator Data for Saudi Electricity Company (SECEOA).
Transmission Polymer Insulators Data for Saudi Electricity Company
kV

Type

Manufacturer

Material of
Polymer
Insulator

No. of
Years in
Service

No. of
Failures

Reasons of
Failures

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

NGK
Sediver
McLean
Power

Silicone
Rubber

Introduced
in 1996

do

do

do

13.8
33
34.5
69
132

115 (a) Suspension

(b) Line Post

230

380

Suspension

One
Mishandling
mechani
cal
failure

Being introduced

a) Energy released by UV radiation = 398 kJ/ mole

b) Variation in energy released by UV radiation in KSA = NA
c) Temperature difference between insulator surface and ambient temperature under full load
conditions = NA

The SEC-EOA adopted polymeric insulator, on trial basis firstly, in

three different lines of 230 kV voltage rating. The first application started in
1995 and insulators were subjected to desert pollution, the second trial started
in 1996 and was exposed to semi-coastal pollution whereas the third trial
started in 1996 and was subjected to coastal and industrial pollution. The

43

polymeric insulators presented excellent performance during the period the

data was collected (1995 - 2001). These lines were insulated mostly by
ceramic fog type insulators before the installation of the polymeric insulators.
They were in need for frequent washing and there were many recorded
flashovers through the operating periods (about 12 flashovers). However, the
lines with polymeric insulators, behaved well without flashovers and didn't
need washing through the whole trial evaluation period. Samples of these
insulators were subjected subsequently to mechanical and electrical laboratory
testing and material evaluation processes. The electrical and mechanical tests
results proved the superior performance of the silicone rubber polymeric
insulators. There were signs of minor degradation but without affecting the
overall performance of these insulators. SEC-EOA considered the
performance of the polymeric insulators satisfactory and cost effective as it
helped to decrease the maintenance requirements
2.17

NATURE OF THE PROBLEM

The afore mentioned explanation indicates that composite insulators

offer an advantage over conventional porcelain insulators in electrical

strength-to-weight ratio, allowing transportation and installation of emergency
towers insulated with composite insulators to be implemented very efficiently
in remote areas.

44

A serious problem with composite insulators, however, is their

sensitivity to atmospheric and electrical stresses in outdoor applications. In
contrast to traditional ceramic insulators, composite insulators may be
damaged under combined electrical and atmospheric stress, leading to a
reduction in their useful life. There exist thousands kilometers of overhead
transmission and distribution lines extending through different types of terrain
and environments in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Vast areas of desert, often
adjacent to the sea characterize the Kingdom's climatic conditions and
geography. This type of severity and diversity affects the insulators to a large
extent.
It is clear from this brief review that the long term performance of
polymeric insulators depends on the environmental (specially temperature and
the UV radiations) beside the operating stress levels and need careful
evaluation using laboratory testing as well as field experience history of other
users. This project proposed initial studies towards this goal.

45

CHAPTER 3
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND PROCEDURES

3.1

SIGNIFICANCE OF ACCELERATED AGING OF POLYMERIC

INSULATORS
In order to know the satisfactory resistance to weathering, it is

necessary to understand weather factors, and what they can do to various

materials. Climatic conditions around the world are of such diversity that
optimum and economic product design for outdoor use must reflect these
climatic differences. A more realistic, and still reliable design, may be
obtained on the basis of an overall understanding of the range of weather
variables at a specific location under consideration. Such knowledge is needed
both by the designer as well as practicing engineer.
In the world, with widely varying climates and weather conditions, an
insulator in service in the west will experience entirely different climatic and
contamination conditions from that for the same insulator in service in the arid
desert environment like that of the Kingdom. It is therefore desirable to
conduct accelerated aging tests on insulators that simulate real life conditions
in which the insulators are expected to perform on a long term.

46

The features of the weather that degrade polymers especially when

energized are heat, light, and moisture. Chemical pollutants such as sulfur
dioxide and ozone also degrade the materials. Another important factor is
oxygen, which maintains a constant concentration in the atmosphere. Other
factors are wind, dust, microbiological organisms, ozone, and other chemical
pollutants. In coastal areas, salt is of significance. Besides the chemical
effects, moisture and precipitation may have some pronounced effects of
physical nature.
The weather conditions in Saudi Arabia are significantly harsh and
changing from the daytime to the night. The inland areas are very hot, dry and
dusty. The UV radiation that causes chemical changes in the composite
insulators is extremely high in this region. In order to select a proper material
with satisfactory resistance to weathering, it is necessary to understand
weather factors and how they affect the various materials. These conditions
demand a more precise and systematic research to optimize design criteria for
deserts and dry areas of Arabian Gulf.
In this regard experimental investigations were carried out to study the
effect of ultraviolet radiation as well as heat, on the performance of composite
insulators. To achieve this objective, an accelerated aging test was designed
and implemented.

After aging testing, the specimens were subjected to

selected electrical and surface analysis using Scanning Electron Microscopy

(SEM). The results obtained are discussed at length in chapter four.

47

3.2

ACCELERATED AGING CYCLE

For the accelerated aging process as per IEC standard 1109 [15] (for the

non-ceramic (polymeric) composite insulators) tests were carried out on

polymeric insulators made from Silicon Rubber (SiR) and Thermoplastic
Elastomer (TPE), the various stresses to be applied in a cyclic manner, as per
IEC 1000 hours test standard are:

solar radiation simulation.

dry heat.

Furthermore, temperature variations may cause some degree of

mechanical stress, especially at the insulator interfaces and also give rise to
condensation phenomena which are repeated several times in the course of a
cycle.
An aging cycle including electrical, temperature and UV radiation
stresses used is shown in Fig. (3.1). Here, each cycle lasts for 24 h and a
programmed change takes place every 6 hours. During the time when heating
is out of operation, the insulators are cooled down to ambient temperature. As
per standard, the rise from ambient temperature to desired level should take
less than 15 min. UV-radiation around 1mW/cm was maintained on the
surface of insulator for a period of 6 hours.

48

Heating (57C)
Radiation (1 mW/cm)
Voltage (28 kV)
Time (hours)
In Operation

2~8 AM 8 AM ~
2 PM

2~8
PM

8 PM ~
2 AM

Out of operation

Fig. (3.1): Accelerated aging cycle.

3.3

DESIGN OF ACCELERATED AGING TEST CHAMBER

For the accelerated aging of nonceramic insulators, as per IEC standard

[15] as discussed in sections 3.1 and 3.2, a wooden chamber was constructed
in our laboratory. The dimensions of the chamber are approximately 120cm
(wide) x 120cm (high) x l80cm (long). Up to 12 post insulators of 28 kVL-L, or
an equivalent number of suspension dead end insulators, can be subjected to
accelerated aging cycle in this chamber. Higher voltages are possible with
slight modifications in the chamber. A schematic diagram of the chamber is
shown in Fig. (3.2a) whereas photo of front view of the chamber with 28 kV
suspension insulators in place is shown in Fig. (3.2b). It is worth mentioning
that data was transferred from sensor's to the PC with the help of CASSY
laboratory software version 1.53 (Leybolds LD Didactic GMBH).

49

Fig. (3.2a): Schematic diagram.

Fig. (3.2b): Photograph of test chamber for accelerated aging cycle.

50

In this chamber, the following instruments/facilities are installed:

i)

i)

UV-A lamps

ii)

Polymeric insulator

iii)

Electric Heater

iv)

Timers

v)

Blower/fan

vi)

Power Transformer

vii)

UV light meter

UV Radiation/ UVA Lamps

UVA lamps are especially useful for comparing different types of

polymers whereas UVB (315-280 nm) and UVC (100-280 nm) are found in
the outer space filtered by earth's atmosphere; germicidal. Because UVA
lamps do not have any UV output below the normal cut-off of 295 nm. The
UVA-340 lamps provide the best possible simulation of sunlight in the critical
short wave length region from 365 nm down to the solar cut-off of 295 nm.
Its peak emission is at 340 nm.
In the chamber, the ultraviolet (UV-A) radiation system duplicates
exposure in the portion of the solar spectrum (300340 nm) that is responsible
for aging of noncernmic insulators UV-A lamps. The spectrum produced by
these lamps as compared with that of sunlight and UVA-351 * UVB-313, is
shown in Fig. (3.3) where the solar and lamp cutoff wavelength may be seen.

51

Fig. (3.3): Spectrum comparison of sunlight & UV radiation [76].

As can be seen in Fig. (3.2b) eight, 4-feet long UVA-340 lamps, are
used to simulate 1mW/cm UV radiation falling on the insulator's surface of
the required wavelength of around 340 nm. The spacing between the lamps,
and their number was designed so that the insulators under test would
experience the same light intensity (1mW/cm2) as specified in the IEC1109
[15]. The system of lamps in the HV aging chamber is energy efficient when
compared with other recommended sources of UV radiation. Single UV lamp
may have energy dissipation in excess of this amount and would not give the
uniform coverage provided by the 8 lamps array.
ii)

Polymeric Insulators Details

Three Silicone Rubber (SiR) and three thermoplastic elastomer (TPE)

distribution/dead end type insulators of rating 28 kVL-L, procured from GLP

Power, Canada were used for laboratory accelerated aging study. Fig (3.4a)
shows insulator geometry, whereas Fig. (3.4b) illustrates the Photographs of
actual insulators as well as test arrangements.

52

Fig. (3.4a): Schematic diagram of 28 kVL-L polymeric insulator.

(i) Photograph of tested insulator

(ii) under test arrangement

Fig. (3.4b): Dead End/ Suspension polymeric insulator (EPDM and TPE).
Table (3.1) shows the salient dimensions of both of the tested
insulators.

53

Table (3.1): Details of insulators under test.

Specifications

Unit

SiR

TPE

kVL.L.

28

28

Section Length "L"

mm

433

438

Dry arcing Distance

mm

290

285

Leakage Distance

mm

590

675

Dry

kV

135

130

Wet

kV

105

114

kV

225

211

Voltage class

Power Frequency
Flashover
Impulse flashover
iii)

Power Supply
90 kV, 5 kVA, HV testing transformer is used for energizing the

insulators to the required voltage stress. To reduce the corona and for good
cooling the transformer was placed in an insulating oil bath as shown in Fig.
(3.5a).

The transformer connections used in testing were as shown Fig.

(3.5b).

Fig. (3.5a): Photograph of transformer used.

54

CB
Test
Insulator
220 V, ac

CB

220 V / 100 kV

Fig. (3.5b): Transformer connections used for testing.

iv)

Heating Arrangement
Since temperature affects the aging of polymeric materials, heat is the

most important stress since the aging rate is accelerated by some factor for
each degree rise in temperature [80]. A 2000W tubular heater is used to
develop heat. A PC based ON-OFF control system is used to maintain a
relatively stable temperature in the chamber. The heat generated by the heater
is uniformly distributed by an axial blower installed inside the chamber. In the
central region of Saudi Arabia, the maximum daytime temperature which
remains almost stable from 1 PM to 4 PM varies during summer months in a
range of 42 ~ 50C, with around 46C being the average value. This situation
lasts for six months (May ~ October). To simulate this temperature profile,
the thermostat was set at a temperature of 57C. This 57C is selected such
that the average ambient temperature is 46C + around 11C is temperature
rise on the insulator surface (under no load conditions) as measured on the
insulator surface placed outdoors at the King Saud University HV Laboratory.

55

This 11C is also considered to play role in accelerated aging process. Fig.
(3.6) shows the actual variations of temperature on the porcelain and polymer
insulators surfaces as well as the UV-A radiation level in Riyadh.

60

60

50

50

40

40

Amb. Temp

30

30

Insulator surface temp.

(Poreclain)
20

UV radiation level (W/m2)

Temprature (C)

Actual temperature and UV-A radiation level

Insulator surface temp. 20

(Polymer)
UVA radiation level
(W/m2)

10

10

Months

Fig. (3.6): Temperature variation on insulator surface (under no load) and

UV-A radiation level in the Central region of Kingdom (Riyadh).
As per IEC standard 1109 [15] for the accelerated aging cycle, the
temperature rise & fall in the chamber should take place only in 15 minutes.
For this purpose the temperature rise and fall data were measured in the
chamber as well as on the surface of the polymer insulators, using K-type
surface temperature measurement probes. The results are shown in Fig. (3.7).
It is clear that the temperature variations (rise and fall durations) are within the
allowable limits as per IEC standard, as mentioned before.

56

Temperature Variation in Chamber

65

Tc - Fall (Door Closed)

Ti - Fall (Door Closed)

60

Tc - Fall (Door Open)

Ti - Fall (Door Open)

55

Tc - Rise (Door closed)

Ti - Rise (Door closed)

Temperature (C)

50

Ambient Temp

45
Temp fall (when
heater OFF)

40

35

30

25

20

15
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Time (min)

Fig. (3.7): Temperature rise and fall variation in Chamber.

V)

Timers
To control the time dependent cycles of aging, the heat and UVA

radiation are applied to the tested insulators in a cyclic manner. Each heater
and UVA lamps are put ON & OFF after every 6 hours. The control of heater
and UVA lamps is automatically achieved by the electric timers type TH-30A
(Kawamura, Japan). The photograph of timer is shown in Fig. (3.8).

57

Fig. (3.8): Timer (TM-30A, Kawamura TS, Japan).

72

CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This study presents various results of the accelerated laboratory aged

samples of the SiR and TPE composite insulators that were aged for 1000
hours in simulated conditions related to Central Region of Saudi Arabia. A
modified version of the IEC 61109 was used for aging [5]. The electrical,
SEM surface, XPS chemical analysis and hydrophobicity results are compared
for aged and similar new insulators and lead to the following conclusions and
recommendations:
5.1

CONCLUSIONS

1.

The literature survey indicates that silicone rubber insulating material is

considered through laboratory evaluation and field experience as the
most suitable for HV application in harsh environment. Similar to
worldwide practice, Saudi Electrical Company's Eastern operating area
has also adopted SiR insulators as suitable for their application on 230
kV transmission network. Nonetheless, the central region of Saudi
Arabia is mostly arid desert where the weather conditions are very
harsh. Here the ultraviolet radiation level well exceeds 4 mW/cm2

73

while the present investigation shows that the surface temperature of

these insulators can increase by 5 to 11 C above the prevalent ambient
atmospheric temperatures (42 50 C).
2.

The SEM analysis revealed that SiR based insulators experience much
higher surface roughness due to aging whereas negligible surface
roughness was observed in case of aged TPE insulators. Similarly the
XPS analysis exhibit much higher decomposition of SiR material than
TPE polymer.

3.

Dielectric response of TPE types of insulators also indicates that these

units outperform the SiR type insulator when subjected to the
accelerated aging tests adopted in these tests.

5.2

RECOMMENDATION FOR FUTURE WORK

Since the central region of Saudi Arabia is almost one of the highest

UV-irradiated terrains in the world coupled with high atmospheric

temperatures, therefore, the adoption of polymeric insulators requires careful
selection. In this context, all popular type of insulators including the newly
introduced ones need to be thoroughly and systematically investigated not
according to IEC-protocol but under a modified aging protocol that truly
reflects the prevalent weather conditions in Central Region of Saudi Arabia.

58

CHAPTER 4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

After completion of the accelerated aging test of the SiR and TPE
composite insulators, as per modified IEC 1109 procedure as discussed in
Chapter 3 of this report, various electrical, SEM based optical and visual tests
were performed and the results are summarized and discussed next.
4.1

LIGHTNING IMPULSE WITHSTAND TESTS

In order to compare the effect of accelerated aging, all the laboratory

aged as well as the control (new) insulator samples of each type (SiR and
TPE) were subjected to impulse voltage applications. The impulse generator
was adjusted to produce standard Lightning Impulse (LI) waveforms
(1.2/50s) of both positive and negative polarities.

Fig. (4.1) shows the

positive lightning impulse voltage wave whereas the schematic diagram of this
test set up is shown in Fig. (4.2). The voltage was increased in small steps of
1.0 kV till a flashover occurred at a critical level. This procedure was repeated
3 to 5 times and an average value of tests on 3 units in case of aged and 1 unit
in case of unaged sample was registered for the purpose of comparison.

59

Fig. (4.1): Positive lightning impulse wave shape.

Test
Insulator

Fig. (4.2): Schematic of tests under lightning impulse voltage.

The results reported here are corrected to the standard atmospheric
conditions as per IEC publication 60-1 [86]. Fig. (4.3) shows the comparisons
of the flashover voltages for all the laboratory aged insulators as well as the
unaged or new insulator for both materials (SiR and TPE) under +LI as well as
LI.

60

Insilator (Aged)
Insulator (New)

Breakdown voltage (kVp-p)

250

200

150

100

50

0
+LI (SiR)

-LI (SiR)

+LI (TPE)

-LI (TPE)

Input voltage (insulation Material)

Fig. (4.3): Comparison of flashover voltages under lightning impulses of

both polarities.
It is clear from this figure that TPE insulator outperforms SiR insulator
as the effect of aging on TPE is minimal. For SiR insulator about 9% and
14% reduction has been observed under +LI and LI respectively, whereas
only about 4% reduction is observed in case of type TPE insulators.
4.2

DRY AND WET POWER-FREQUENCY WITHSTAND TESTS

Dry and wet power frequency tests were performed using 200 kV

power transformer. Circuit diagram for the test arrangement is shown in Fig.
(4.4). Artificial rain was used as per IEC-383 [87] and adjusted to meet IEC60-1 [86] requirements for the resistivity and rain intensity (precipitation) for
both horizontal and vertical components of the insulators. The water resistivity
was adjusted to 105-m while the rain fall rate was kept 1.5 mm/min.

61

Fig. (4.4): AC setup for testing of one unit of suspension insulator.

The samples were wetted for a duration of 15 minutes prior to the
application of the test voltage. A voltage of about 75% of the withstand test
voltage was applied in a ramp and then increased gradually with a rate of rise
of about 2% per second till flashover occurred.
The withstand voltage for each test is the highest reading maintained
for 1 minute before the flashover takes place. The flashover voltage is the
arithmetic mean value of three consecutive flashovers with one minute delay
between two consecutive flashovers. The voltage values, after correction to
standard atmospheric conditions, are shown in Fig. (4.5).
Fig. (4.5) shows that around 6.5 % and 7% reduction in flashover
voltages were observed in case of SiR for dry and wet conditions, respectively
whereas, negligible affect on flashover voltage was observed for the TPE
insulators.

62

140

Insulator (aged)
Insulator (New)

Flashover voltage (kV)

135
130
125
120
115
110
105
100
Dry (SiR)

Wet (SiR)

Dry (TPE)

Wet (TPE)

Fig. (4.5): Flashover voltage under 60-Hz AC voltage.

4.3

SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY (SEM) OF SAMPLES

Small samples (2 mm 2 mm) were removed from the high voltage

end of each insulator and their surface analysis was performed using type
JEOL JSM-6360-A (Japan) Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM). The
analyses were made in high vacuum mode in order to avoid sample charging.
Secondary Electron Imaging (SEI) was performed to study the surface
morphology at an accelerating voltage of 20kV.
SEM photographs were captured for analyzing surface condition for
both SiR and TPE insulators at magnifications of 1000 and 2000. To
compare the two surfaces (aged and new), the probing depth of the electron

63

beam in both types of the electron beam in both types of materials was kept at
5 m. Fig. (4.6) shows SEM results of new and 1000 hours laboratory aged
samples. The overall visual observation is that there is no major degradation,
such as cracking, however, it can be seen that these micrographs have different
microstructures. The unaged (new) samples have a smooth, more homogenous
and less porous surface while the surface roughness and porosity increases
with aging as shown in Fig. (4.6 b&d) for aged SiR and aged TPE insulators,
respectively. Moreover, it may be pointed out that surface roughness of an
aged sample of SiR is more than compared with that of the TPE. This surface
roughness has resulted due to localized degradation of SiR.
4.4

HYDROPHOBICITY
Hydrophobicity or water repellency is an expression of the fundamental

chemical characteristics of the polymer skeleton. The hydrophobicity of the

insulator was assessed using the Swedish Transmission Research Institute
(STRI) Hydrophobicity Classification (HC) method [82]. In this method, the
insulators were sprayed with water. Based on the resulting drop size and
pattern, the nature of the wetting of the surface is assessed as hydrophobic
(HC = 1,2) and hydrophilic (HC = 6,7) and in between (HC = 3,5).

64

(a) SiR (New) 1000

(b) SiR (Aged) 1000

(c) TPE (New) 1000

(d) TPE (Aged) 1000

Fig. (4.6): SEM micrographs for new and the aged samples of SiR and TPE
insulators.

Extensive studies show that the main difference between silicone

rubber and other polymeric materials is based on the performance regarding
their water repellent property. Most of composite housing and shed material
loose this property in time.

65

Hydrophobicity test was carried out for new and artificially aged
insulators and the results were compared with STRI guide for hydrophobicity
classes (HC) [82]. It was found that the hydrophobicity lies between HC =
1&2, which means that the effect of ageing is negligible for both types of
tested insulators. However, the hydrophobicity of aged SiR is poorer than that
of TPE insulators.
The electrical impulse tests, power frequency tests, SEM results and
hydrophobicity results indicate that aging cycle deteriorates the SiR, whereas
the TPE insulator surface shows just minor effect due to accelerated aging.
4.5

X-RAY PHOTOELECTRON SPECTROSCOPIC (XPS) ANALYSIS

XPS analysis of the aged and new samples of SiR and TPE insulators

were performed using JEOL-JSM-6360 (A) SEM and the results obtained are
described next.
XPS technique was used to obtain qualitative as well as quantitative
information on the surface composition of samples. The XPS spectrum recorded
for both new and aged samples of SiR and TPE are shown in Figs. (4.7) and
(4.8) respectively. These spectrum identify all the major elements such as
oxygen, carbon, silicon, aluminum, etc. in the investigated samples.

66

Figs. (4.7) and (4.8) show the peaks from the photoionization of oxygen
(O15) and carbon (C15) at 525 eV and 277 eV, respectively. It is also evident
from these spectrums that % share of carbon and oxygen has rapidly increased
from 17.97% and 34.06% to 20.13% and 45.81% respectively in case of SiR
(Fig. 4.7) and from 45.31% and 34.58% to 47.29% and 39.30%, respectively in
case of TPE (Fig. 4.8), due to exposure to UV-radiation and heat. The increase
of C could be from the scission of CH3 bonds and the formation of various
products due to reaction between C and O2 during oxidation.
In these samples, the presence of oxygen detected by XPS both in SiR
and TPE on the new and aged surfaces is attributed to the availability of oxygen
from the additives or from the moisture in the atmosphere or due to oxidation of
the rubber during manufacturing [85]. Peaks of Al are also observed in all
samples as shown in Figs. (4.7) and (4.8). Slight traces of Ti were observed in
case of TPE (new) as shown in Fig. (4.8a) which disappeared due to aging where
instead some traces of Vanadium were detected. This could be due to additives
or any other decomposition process in the material during aging process.

67

(a) SiR insulator (New)

(b) SiR insulator (Aged)

Fig. (4.7): XPS analysis of SiR.

68

(a) TPE insulator (New)

(b) TPE insulator (Aged)

Fig. (4.8): XPS analysis of TPE.

69

Table (4.1) shows the percentage atomic concentration of C, O, Si, and Al

elements in all the tested samples.
Table (4.1): Concentration (%) of elements detected by XPS.

SiR

Elements

TPE

New

Aged

New

Aged

C (0.277 keV)

17.97

20.13

45.31

47.29

O (0.525 keV)

34.06

45.81

34.58

39.30

Al (1.486 keV)

21.69

17.95

17.29

13.08

Si (1.739 keV)

26.28

16.11

--

--

Ti (4.508 keV)

--

--

2.88

--

V (4.949 keV)

--

--

--

0.33

The aged surfaces have different physical, chemical and electrical

properties due to different chemical compounds at different binding energies
(compared to new) because of weathering/photo-oxidation, as observed from
XPS results. This was corroborated by the hydrophobicity change and the
nature of the SEM results observed.
Service experience has indicated that sunlight is an important factor in
the degradation of polymers. This results from the breakage of certain C-C and
C-H bonds by the UV radiation. This is especially true for polymers containing dienemonomers, which are more susceptible to oxidation because of the

70

presence of an allylic group in the polymer backbone. Mere sunlight is not

enough for causing deterioration. Chromophoric groups are also necessary to
absorb the incident radiation and transfer energy to the bond. In polymers,
chromophoric groups are present in the unsaturated structures, such as carbonyl groups which are formed during manufacturing. The energy of a photon
of light is transferred to the molecule with resultant bond scission. The
resulting effects may include embrittlement, discoloration, and cleavage of
polymer chains. For this reason, polymers are filled with UV stabilizers and
antioxidants.
Oxidation reactions generally involve a free radical chain reaction.
Some of the main steps in this reaction are as follows:
Heat or Light
RH R

(1)

R + O2 ROO

(2)

ROO + RH ROOH + R

(3)

Heat or Light
ROOH RO + OH

(4)

2 ROOH RO + ROO + H2O

(5)

RO + RH ROH + R

(6)

HO + RH ROH + R

(7)

2 ROO product ketones, alcohols etc. (8)

71

Radicals are formed during initiation react with oxygen, leading to

chain reactions. The decomposition of hydroperoxides by heat or UV light
(reaction 4) causes formation of alkoxy and hydroxy radicals leading to chain
branching as evidenced by XPS results.

74

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88

Annex I

89

90

Annex II

91

King Saud University,

Research Center
Survey Form Project # 18 / 426

Please return to:

Attn: Dr. Yasin Khan

Electrical Engg. Department
Fax No.: 01-467-6757

I: Polymeric Insulators
Voltage Class

Type *

Material of
Manufacturer
the polymer
/ Supplier
insulator

No. of years
in service

No. of failures
occurred

Reasons of
failure

13.8 kV
33 / 34.5 kV
* Dead end type /
Suspension type /
Line post /
Guy strain Insulator
II.

What is the intensity of the solar / ultraviolet (UV) radiations in (mW/cm2)?

III.

Any investigative studies carried out internally by SEC on the performance and pollution related problems of polymer insulators in
use?

King Saud University,

Research Center
Survey Form Project # 18 / 426
1.
Year
2001

Please return to:

Attn: Dr. Yasin Khan

Electrical Engg. Department
Fax No.: 01-467-6757

Environmental Data of Riyadh

Jan.

Feb.

March

April

May

June

July

Aug.

Sept.

Max. Ambient Temp. (C)

Min. Ambient Temp. (C)
Humidity (%)
Rainfall (mm)
2002 Max. Ambient Temp. (C)
Min. Ambient Temp. (C)
Humidity (%)
Rainfall (mm)
2003 Max. Ambient Temp. (C)
Min. Ambient Temp. (C)
Humidity (%)
Rainfall (mm)
2004 Max. Ambient Temp. (C)
Min. Ambient Temp. (C)
Humidity (%)
Rainfall (mm)
2005 Max. Ambient Temp. (C)
Min. Ambient Temp. (C)
Humidity (%)
Rainfall (mm)
II. What is the month- wise Maximum intensity of the solar ultraviolet (UV) radiations in (mW/cm2) in Riyadh?

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.