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Spur Gears

Introduction..... Standards..... Terminology..... Spur Gear Design..... Materials..... Basic Equations.....


Module..... Pressure Angle.....
Contact Ratio..... Forces- Torques etc..... Strength Durability calcs..... Design Process..... Internal Gears.....
Table of Lewis Form Factors.....

Introduction

Gears are machine elements used to transmit rotary motion between two shafts, normally with a
constant ratio. The pinion is the smallest gear and the larger gear is called the gear wheel.. A rack
is a rectangular prism with gear teeth machined along one side- it is in effect a gear wheel with an
infinite pitch circle diameter. In practice the action of gears in transmitting motion is a cam action
each pair of mating teeth acting as cams. Gear design has evolved to such a level that throughout
the motion of each contacting pair of teeth the velocity ratio of the gears is maintained fixed and the
velocity ratio is still fixed as each subsequent pair of teeth come into contact. When the teeth action
is such that the driving tooth moving at constant angular velocity produces a proportional constant
velocity of the driven tooth the action is termed a conjugate action. The teeth shape universally
selected for the gear teeth is the involute profile.

Consider one end of a piece of string is fastened to the OD of one cylinder and the other end of the
string is fastened to the OD of another cylinder parallel to the first and both cylinders are rotated in
the opposite directions to tension the string(see figure below). The point on the string midway
between the cylinder P is marked. As the left hand cylinder rotates CCW the point moves towards
this cylinder as it wraps on . The point moves away from the right hand cylinder as the string
unwraps. The point traces the involute form of the gear teeth.

The lines normal to the point of contact of the gears always intersects the centre line joining the gear
centres at one point called the pitch point. For each gear the circle passing through the pitch point is
called the pitch circle. The gear ratio is proportional to the diameters of the two pitch circles. For
metric gears (as adopted by most of the worlds nations) the gear proportions are based on the
module.

m = (Pitch Circle Diameter(mm)) / (Number of teeth on gear).

In the USA the module is not used and instead the Diametric Pitch d pis used

d p = (Number of Teeth) / Diametrical Pitch (inches)


Profile of a standard 1mm module gear teeth for a gear with Infinite radius (Rack ).
Other module teeth profiles are directly proportion . e.g. 2mm module teeth are 2 x this profile

Many gears trains are very low power applications with an object of transmitting motion with minium
torque e.g. watch and clock mechanisms, instruments, toys, music boxes etc. These applications do
not require detailed strength calculations.

Standards
• AGMA 2001-C95 or AGMA-2101-C95 Fundamental Rating factors and Calculation Methods for
involute Spur Gear and Helical Gear Teeth
• BS 436-4:1996, ISO 1328-1:1995..Spur and helical gears. Definitions and allowable values of
deviations relevant to corresponding flanks of gear teeth
• BS 436-5:1997, ISO 1328-2:1997..Spur and helical gears. Definitions and allowable values of
deviations relevant to radial composite deviations and runout information
• BS ISO 6336-1:1996 ..Calculation of load capacity of spur and helical gears. Basic principles,
introduction and general influence factors
• BS ISO 6336-2:1996..Calculation of load capacity of spur and helical gears. Calculation of
surface durability (pitting)
• BS ISO 6336-3:1996..Calculation of load capacity of spur and helical gears. Calculation of
tooth bending strength
• BS ISO 6336-5:2003..Calculation of load capacity of spur and helical gears. Strength and
quality of materials

If it is necessary to design a gearbox from scratch the design process in selecting the gear size is not
complicated - the various design formulea have all been developed over time and are available in the
relevant standards. However significant effort, judgement and expertise is required in designing the
whole system including the gears, shafts , bearings, gearbox, lubrication. For the same duty many
different gear options are available for the type of gear , the materials and the quality. It is always
preferable to procure gearboxes from specialised gearbox manufacturers

Terminology - spur gears


• Diametral pitch (d p )...... The number of teeth per one inch of pitch
circle diameter.
• Module. (m) ...... The length, in mm, of the pitch circle diameter per
tooth.
• Circular pitch (p)...... The distance between adjacent teeth measured
along the are at the pitch circle diameter
• Addendum ( h a )...... The height of the tooth above the pitch circle
diameter.
• Centre distance (a)...... The distance between the axes of two gears in
mesh.
• Circular tooth thickness (ctt)...... The width of a tooth measured along
the are at the pitch circle diameter.
• Dedendum ( h f )...... The depth of the tooth below the pitch circle
diameter.
• Outside diameter ( D o )...... The outside diameter of the gear.
• Base Circle diameter ( D b ) ...... The diameter on which the involute
teeth profile is based.
• Pitch circle dia ( p ) ...... The diameter of the pitch circle.
• Pitch point...... The point at which the pitch circle diameters of two
gears in mesh coincide.
• Pitch to back...... The distance on a rack between the pitch circle
diameter line and the rear face of the rack.
• Pressure angle ...... The angle between the tooth profile at the pitch
circle diameter and a radial line passing through the same point.
• Whole depth...... The total depth of the space between adjacent teeth.
Spur Gear Design

The spur gear is is simplest type of gear manufactured and is generally used for transmission of
rotary motion between parallel shafts. The spur gear is the first choice option for gears except when
high speeds, loads, and ratios direct towards other options. Other gear types may also be preferred
to provide more silent low-vibration operation. A single spur gear is generally selected to have a ratio
range of between 1:1 and 1:6 with a pitch line velocity up to 25 m/s. The spur gear has an operating
efficiency of 98-99%. The pinion is made from a harder material than the wheel. A gear pair should
be selected to have the highest number of teeth consistent with a suitable safety margin in strength
and wear. The minimum number of teeth on a gear with a normal pressure angle of 20 desgrees is
18.

The preferred number of teeth are as follows

12 13 14 15 16 18 20 22 24 25 28 30 32 34 38 40 45 50
54 60
64 70 72 75 80 84 90 96 100 120 140 150 180 200 220
250

Materials used for gears

Mild steel is a poor material for gears as as it has poor resistance to surface loading. The carbon
content for unhardened gears is generally 0.4%(min) with 0.55%(min) carbon for the
pinions. Dissimilar materials should be used for the meshing gears - this particularly applies to alloy
steels. Alloy steels have superior fatigue properties compared to carbon steels for comparable
strengths. For extremely high gear loading case hardened steels are used the surface hardening
method employed should be such to provide sufficient case depth for the final grinding process used.

Material Notes applications


Ferrous metals
Large moderate
Low Cost easy to machine with
Cast Iron power, commercial
high damping
gears
Power gears with
Cast Steels Low cost, reasonable strength medium rating to
commercial quality
Power gears with
Good machining, can be heat medium rating to
Plain-Carbon Steels
treated commercial/medium
quality
Highest power
Heat Treatable to provide highest requirement. For
Alloy Steels
strength and durability precision and high
precisiont
Corrosion
Good corrosion resistance. Non- resistance with low
Stainless Steels (Aust)
magnetic power ratings. Up to
precision quality
Low to medium
Hardenable, Reasonable corrosion power ratings Up to
Stainless Steels (Mart)
resistance, magnetic high precision
levels of quality
Non-Ferrous metals
Light duty
Light weight, non-corrosive and instrument gears up
Aluminium alloys
good machinability to high precision
quality
low cost
Low cost, non-corrosive, excellent commercial quality
Brass alloys
machinability gears. Quality up to
medium precision
For use with steel
Excellent machinability, low friction power gears.
Bronze alloys
and good compatability with steel Quality up to high
precision
Ligh weight low
Light weight with poor corrosion load gears. Quality
Magnesium alloys
resistance up to medium
precision
Special gears for
Low coefficient of thermal thermal applications
Nickel alloys
expansion. Poor machinability to commercial
quality
Special light weight
High strength, for low weight, good
Titanium alloys high strength gears
corrosion resistance
to medium precision
High production,
Low cost with low precision and
Di-cast alloys low quality gears to
strength
commercial quality
High production,
Low cost, low quality, moderate low quality to
Sintered powder alloys
strength moderate
commercial quality
Non metals
Long life , low load
Wear resistant, low water
Acetal (Delrin bearings to
absorbtion
commercial quality
High production,
Low cost, low quality, moderate low quality to
Phenolic laminates
strength moderate
commercial quality
Long life at low
No lubrication, no lubricant,
Nylons loads to commercial
absorbs water
quality
Special low friction
PTFE Low friction and no lubrication gears to
commercial quality

Equations for basic gear relationships

It is acceptable to marginally modify these relationships e.g to modify the addendum /dedendum to
allow Centre Distance adjustments. Any changes modifications will affect the gear performance in
good and bad ways...

Addendum h a = m = 0.3183 p
Base Circle diameter Db = d.cos α
Centre distance a = ( d g + d p) / 2
Circular pitch p = m.π
Circular tooth thickness ctt = p/2
Dedendum h f = h - a = 1,25m = 0,3979 p
Module m = d /n
Number of teeth z=d/m
Outside diameter D o = (z + 2) x m
Pitch circle diameter d = n . m ... (d g = gear & d p = pinion )
Whole depth(min) h = 2.25 . m
Top land width(min) t o = 0,25 . m

Module (m)

The module is the ratio of the pitch diameter to the number of teeth. The unit of the module is milli-
metres.Below is a diagram showing the relative size of teeth machined in a rack with module ranging
from module values of 0,5 mm to 6 mm

The preferred module values are

0,5 0,8 1 1,25 1,5 2,5 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 16 20 25 32 40 50

Normal Pressure angle α

An important variable affecting the geometry of the gear teeth is the normal pressure angle. This is
o
generally standardised at 20 . Other pressure angles should be used only for special reasons and
using considered judgment. The following changes result from increasing the pressure angle

• Reduction in the danger of undercutting and interference


• Reduction of slipping speeds
• Increased loading capacity in contact, seizure and wear
• Increased rigidity of the toothing
• Increased noise and radial forces

o o
Gears required to have low noise levels have pressure angles 15 to17.5

Contact Ratio

The gear design is such that when in mesh the rotating gears have more than one gear in contact
and transferring the torque for some of the time. This property is called the contact ratio. This is a
ratio of the length of the line-of-action to the base pitch. The higher the contact ratio the more the
load is shared between teeth. It is good practice to maintain a contact ratio of 1.2 or greater. Under
no circumstances should the ratio drop below 1.1.

A contact ratio between 1 and 2 means that part of the time two pairs of teeth are in contact and
during the remaining time one pair is in contact. A ratio between 2 and 3 means 2 or 3 pairs of teeth
are always in contact. Such as high contact ratio generally is not obtained with external spur gears,
but can be developed in the meshing of an internal and external spur gear pair or specially designed
non-standard external spur gears.
contact ratio m =
[Rgo2 - Rgb2 )1/2 + (Rpo2 - Rpb2 )1/2 - a sin α] / p cos α

R go = D go / 2..Radius of Outside Dia of Gear


R gb = D gb / 2..Radius of Base Dia of Gear
R po = D po / 2..Radius of Outside Dia of Pinion
R pb = D pb / 2..Radius of Base Dia of Pinion
p = circular pitch.
a = ( d g+ d p )/2 = center distance.

Spur gear Forces, torques, velocities & Powers


• F = tooth force between contacting teeth (at angle pressure angle α to pitch line
tangent. (N)
• F t = tangential component of tooth force (N)
• F s = Separating component of tooth force
• α= Pressure angle
• d 1 = Pitch Circle Dia -driving gear (m)
• d 2 = Pitch Circle Dia -driven gear (m)
• ω 1 = Angular velocity of driver gear (Rads/s)
• ω 2 = Angular velocity of driven gear (Rads/s)
• z 1 = Number of teeth on driver gear
• z 2 = Number of teeth on driven gear
• P = power transmitted (Watts)
• M = torque (Nm)
• η = efficiency

Tangential force on gears F t = F cos α

Separating force on gears F s = F t tan α

Torque on driver gear T 1 = F t d 1 / 2

Torque on driver gear T 2 = F t d 2 / 2

Speed Ratio =ω 1 / ω 2 = d 2 / d 1 = z 2 /z 1

Input Power P 1 = T1 .ω 1

Output Power P 2 =η.T 1 .ω 2

Spur gear Strength and durability calculations

Designing spur gears is normally done in accordance with standards the two most popular series are
listed under standards above:

The notes below relate to approximate methods for estimating gear strengths. The methods are really
only useful for first approximations and/or selection of stock gears (ref links below). — Detailed design
necessary guidance. Software is also available making the process very easy. A very reasonably
priced and easy to use package is included in the links below (Mitcalc.com)

The determination of the capacity of gears to transfer the required torque for the desired operating life
is completed by determining the strength of the gear teeth in bending and also the durability i.e of the
teeth ( resistance to wearing/bearing/scuffing loads ) .. The equations below are based on methods
used by Buckingham..

Bending

The basic bending stress for gear teeth is obtained by using the Lewis formula

σ = Ft / ( ba. m. Y )

• F t = Tangential force on tooth


• σ = Tooth Bending stress (MPa)
• b a = Face width (mm)
• Y = Lewis Form Factor
• m = Module (mm)

Note: The Lewis formula is often expressed as

σ = Ft / ( ba. p. y )

Where y = Y/π and p = circular pitch

When a gear wheel is rotating the gear teeth come into contact with some degree of impact. To allow
for this a velocity factor is introduced into the equation. This is given by the Barth equation for milled
profile gears.

K v = 6,1 / (6,1 +V )

V = the pitch line velocity = d.ω/2


Note: This factor is different for different gear conditions i.e K v = ( 3.05 + V )/3.05 for cast iron, cast
profile gears.

The Lewis formula is thus modified as follows

σ = K v.Ft / ( ba. m. Y )

Surface Durability
This calculation involves determining the contact stress between the gear teeth and uses the
Herz Formula

σ w = 2.F / ( π .b .l )

σ w = largest surface pressure


F = force pressing the two cylinders (gears) together
l = length of the cylinders (gear)
b = halfwidth =

d 1 ,d 2 Are the diameters for the two contacting cylinders.


ν 1, ν 2 Poisson ratio for the two gear materials
E 1 ,E 2 Are the Young's Modulus Values for the two gears

To arrive at the formula used for gear calculations the following changes are made
F is replaced by F t/ cos α
d is replaced by 2.r
l is replaced by W
The velocity factor K v as described above is introduced.
Also an elastic constant Z E is created

When the value of E used is in MPa then the units of Cp are √ MPa = KPa The resulting
formula for the compressive stress developed is as shown below

The dynamic contact stress χc developed by the transmitted torque must be less than the
allowable contact stress Se...

Note: Values for Allowable stress values Se and ZE for some materials are provided at Gear
Table

r1 = d1 sin α /2
r2 = d2 sin α /2
Important Note: The above equations do not take into account the various factors which are
integral to calculations completed using the relevant standards. These equations therefore
yield results suitable for first estimate design purposes only...

Design Process
To select gears from a stock gear catalogue or do a first approximation for a gear design select the gear material and
obtain a safe working stress e.g Yield stress / Factor of Safety. /Safe fatigue stress

• Determine the input speed, output speed, ratio, torque to be transmitted


• Select materials for the gears (pinion is more highly loaded than gear)
• Determine safe working stresses (uts /factor of safety or yield stress/factor of safety or Fatigue strength /
Factor of safety )
• Determine Allowable endurance Stress Se
• Select a module value and determine the resulting geometry of the gear
• Use the lewis formula and the endurance formula to establish the resulting face width
• If the gear proportions are reasonable then - proceed to more detailed evaluations
• If the resulting face width is excessive - change the module or material or both and start again

The gear face width should be selected in the range 9-15 x module or for straight spur gears-up to 60% of the pinion
diameter.

Internal Gears
Advantages:

1. Geometry ideal for epicyclic gear design


2. Allows compact design since the center distance is less than for external gears.
3. A high contact ratio is possible.
4. Good surface endurance due to a convex profile surface working against a concave surface.

Disadvantages:

1. Housing and bearing supports are more complicated, because the external gear nests within the internal
gear.
2. Low ratios are unsuitable and in many cases impossible because of interferences.
3. Fabrication is limited to the shaper generating process, and usually special tooling is required.

Lewis form factor.


factor
Table of lewis form factors for different tooth forms and pressure angles

No Load Near Tip of Teeth Load at Near Middle of Teeth


Teeth 14 1/2 deg 20 deg FD 20 deg Stub 25 deg 14 1/2 deg 20 deg FD
Y y Y y Y y Y y Y y Y y
10 0,176 0,056 0,201 0,064 0,261 0,083 0,238 0,076
11 0,192 0,061 0,226 0,072 0,289 0,092 0,259 0,082
12 0,21 0,067 0,245 0,078 0,311 0,099 0,277 0,088 0,355 0,113 0,415 0,132
13 0,223 0,071 0,264 0,084 0,324 0,103 0,293 0,093 0,377 0,12 0,443 0,141
14 0,236 0,075 0,276 0,088 0,339 0,108 0,307 0,098 0,399 0,127 0,468 0,149
15 0,245 0,078 0,289 0,092 0,349 0,111 0,32 0,102 0,415 0,132 0,49 0,156
16 0,255 0,081 0,295 0,094 0,36 0,115 0,332 0,106 0,43 0,137 0,503 0,16
17 0,264 0,084 0,302 0,096 0,368 0,117 0,342 0,109 0,446 0,142 0,512 0,163
18 0,27 0,086 0,308 0,098 0,377 0,12 0,352 0,112 0,459 0,146 0,522 0,166
19 0,277 0,088 0,314 0,1 0,386 0,123 0,361 0,115 0,471 0,15 0,534 0,17
20 0,283 0,09 0,32 0,102 0,393 0,125 0,369 0,117 0,481 0,153 0,544 0,173
21 0,289 0,092 0,326 0,104 0,399 0,127 0,377 0,12 0,49 0,156 0,553 0,176
22 0,292 0,093 0,33 0,105 0,404 0,129 0,384 0,122 0,496 0,158 0,559 0,178
23 0,296 0,094 0,333 0,106 0,408 0,13 0,390 0,124 0,502 0,16 0,565 0,18
24 0,302 0,096 0,337 0,107 0,411 0,131 0,396 0,126 0,509 0,162 0,572 0,182
25 0,305 0,097 0,34 0,108 0,416 0,132 0,402 0,128 0,515 0,164 0,58 0,185
26 0,308 0,098 0,344 0,109 0,421 0,134 0,407 0,13 0,522 0,166 0,584 0,186
27 0,311 0,099 0,348 0,111 0,426 0,136 0,412 0,131 0,528 0,168 0,588 0,187
28 0,314 0,1 0,352 0,112 0,43 0,137 0,417 0,133 0,534 0,17 0,592 0,188
29 0,316 0,101 0,355 0,113 0,434 0,138 0,421 0,134 0,537 0,171 0,599 0,191
30 0,318 0,101 0,358 0,114 0,437 0,139 0,425 0,135 0,54 0,172 0,606 0,193
31 0,32 0,101 0,361 0,115 0,44 0,14 0,429 0,137 0,554 0,176 0,611 0,194
32 0,322 0,101 0,364 0,116 0,443 0,141 0,433 0,138 0,547 0,174 0,617 0,196
33 0,324 0,103 0,367 0,117 0,445 0,142 0,436 0,139 0,55 0,175 0,623 0,198
34 0,326 0,104 0,371 0,118 0,447 0,142 0,44 0,14 0,553 0,176 0,628 0,2
35 0,327 0,104 0,373 0,119 0,449 0,143 0,443 0,141 0,556 0,177 0,633 0,201
36 0,329 0,105 0,377 0,12 0,451 0,144 0,446 0,142 0,559 0,178 0,639 0,203
37 0,33 0,105 0,38 0,121 0,454 0,145 0,449 0,143 0,563 0,179 0,645 0,205
38 0,333 0,106 0,384 0,122 0,455 0,145 0,452 0,144 0,565 0,18 0,65 0,207
39 0,335 0,107 0,386 0,123 0,457 0,145 0,454 0,145 0,568 0,181 0,655 0,208
40 0,336 0,107 0,389 0,124 0,459 0,146 0,457 0,145 0,57 0,181 0,659 0,21
43 0,339 0,108 0,397 0,126 0,467 0,149 0,464 0,148 0,574 0,183 0,668 0,213
45 0,34 0,108 0,399 0,127 0,468 0,149 0,468 0,149 0,579 0,184 0,678 0,216
50 0,346 0,11 0,408 0,13 0,474 0,151 0,477 0,152 0,588 0,187 0,694 0,221
55 0,352 0,112 0,415 0,132 0,48 0,153 0,484 0,154 0,596 0,19 0,704 0,224
60 0,355 0,113 0,421 0,134 0,484 0,154 0,491 0,156 0,603 0,192 0,713 0,227
65 0,358 0,114 0,425 0,135 0,488 0,155 0,496 0,158 0,607 0,193 0,721 0,23
70 0,36 0,115 0,429 0,137 0,493 0,157 0,501 0,159 0,61 0,194 0,728 0,232
75 0,361 0,115 0,433 0,138 0,496 0,158 0,506 0,161 0,613 0,195 0,735 0,234
80 0,363 0,116 0,436 0,139 0,499 0,159 0,509 0,162 0,615 0,196 0,739 0,235
90 0,366 0,117 0,442 0,141 0,503 0,16 0,516 0,164 0,619 0,197 0,747 0,238
100 0,368 0,117 0,446 0,142 0,506 0,161 0,521 0,166 0,622 0,198 0,755 0,24
150 0,375 0,119 0,458 0,146 0,518 0,165 0,537 0,171 0,635 0,202 0,778 0,248
200 0,378 0,12 0,463 0,147 0,524 0,167 0,545 0,173 0,64 0,204 0,787 0,251
300 0,38 0,122 0,471 0,15 0,534 0,17 0,554 0,176 0,65 0,207 0,801 0,255
Rack 0,39 0,124 0,484 0,154 0,55 0,175 0,566 0,18 0,66 0,21 0,823 0,262

http://www.ecs.umass.edu/mie/labs/mda/dlib/machine/gear/gear2.html
Helical Gears
Introduction

Helical gears are similar to spur gears except that the gears teeth are at an angle with the axis of the
gears. A helical gear is termed right handed or left handed as determined by the direction the teeth
slope away from the viewer looking at the top gear surface along the axis of the gear. ( Alternatively
if a gear rests on its face the hand is in the direction of the slope of the teeth) . Meshing helical gears
o
must be of opposite hand. Meshed helical gears can be at an angle to each other (up to 90 ). The
helical gear provides a smoother mesh and can be operated at greater speeds than a straight spur
gear. In operatation helical gears generate axial shaft forces in addition to the radial shaft force
generated by normal spur gears.

In operation the initial tooth contact of a helical gear is a point which develops into a full line contact
as the gear rotates. This is a smoother cycle than a spur which has an initial line contact. Spur
gears are generally not run at peripheral speed of more than 10m/s. Helical gears can be run at
speed exceeding 50m/s when accurately machined and balanced.

Standards ... The same standards apply to helical gears as for spur gears
• AGMA 2001-C95 or AGMA-2101-C95 Fundamental Rating factors and Calculation
Methods for involute Spur Gear and Helical Gear Teeth
• BS 436-4:1996, ISO 1328-1:1995..Spur and helical gears. Definitions and
allowable values of deviations relevant to corresponding flanks of gear teeth
• BS 436-5:1997, ISO 1328-2:1997..Spur and helical gears. Definitions and
allowable values of deviations relevant to radial composite deviations and runout
information
• BS ISO 6336-1:1996 ..Calculation of load capacity of spur and helical gears. Basic
principles, introduction and general influence factors
• BS ISO 6336-2:1996..Calculation of load capacity of spur and helical gears.
Calculation of surface durability (pitting)
• BS ISO 6336-3:1996..Calculation of load capacity of spur and helical gears.
Calculation of tooth bending strength
• BS ISO 6336-5:2003..Calculation of load capacity of spur and helical gears.
Strength and quality of materials

Helical gear parameters

A helical gear train with parallel axes is very similar to a spur gear with the same tooth profile and
proportions. The primary difference is that the teeth are machined at an angle to the gear axis.

Helix Angle ..

The helix angle of helical gears β is generally selected from the range 6,8,10,12,15,20 degrees. The
larger the angle the smoother the motion and the higher speed possible however the thrust loadings
on the supporting bearings also increases. In case of a double or herringbone gear β values
the two sets of teeth cancel each other allowing larger angles with no penalty

Pitch /module ..

For helical gears the circular pitch is measured in two ways


The traverse circular pitch (p) is the same as for spur gears and is measured along the pitch circle
The normal circular pitch p n is measured normal to the helix of the gear.
The diametric pitch is the same as for spur gears ... P = z g /dg = z p /d p ....d= pitch circle dia
(inches).
The module is the same as for spur gears ... m = dg/z g = d p/z p.... d = pitch circle dia (mm).

Helical Gear geometrical proportions


• p = Circular pitch = d g. π / z g = d p . π / z p
• p n = Normal circular pitch = p .cosβ
• P n =Normal diametrical pitch = P /cosβ
• p x = Axial pitch = p c /tanβ
• m n =Normal module = m / cosβ
-1
• α n = Normal pressure angle = tan ( tanα.cos β )
• β =Helix angle
• d g = Pitch diameter gear = z g. m
• d p = Pitch diameter pinion = z p. m
• a =Center distance = ( z p + z g )* m n /2 cos β
• a a = Addendum = m
• a f =Dedendum = 1.25*m
• b = Face width of narrowest gear

Herringbone / double crossed helical gears

Crossed Helical Gears

When two helical gears are used to transmit power between non parallel, non-intersecting shafts,
they are generally called crossed helical gears. These are simply normal helical gears with non-
parallel shafts. For crossed helical gears to operate successfully they must have the same pressure
angle and the same normal pitch. They need not have the same helix angle and they do not need to
be opposite hand. The contact is not a good line contact as for parallel helical gears and is often
little more than a point contact. Running in crossed helical gears tend to marginally improve the area
of contact.

The relationship between the shaft angles Ε and the helix angles β 1 & β2 is as follows
Ε = (Same Helix Angle) β 1 + β 2 ......(Opposite Helix Angle) β 1 - β 2

o
For gears with a 90 crossed axis it is obvious that the gears must be the same hand.

The centres distance (a) between crossed helical gears is calculated as follows

a = m * [(z 1 / cos β 1) + ( z 1 / cos β 1 )] / 2

The sliding velocity Vsof crossed helical gears is given by

Vs = (V1 / cos β 1 ) = (V 2 / cos β 2 )

Strength and Durability calculations for Helical Gear Teeth

Designing helical gears is normally done in accordance with standards the two most popular series
are listed under standards above: The notes below relate to approximate methods for estimating gear
strengths. The methods are really only useful for first approximations and/or selection of stock gears
(ref links below). — Detailed design of spur and helical gears should best be completed using :

a) Standards.
b) Books are available providing the necessary guidance.
c) Software is also available making the process very easy. A very reasonably priced and easy to
use package is included in the links below (Mitcalc.com)

The determination of the capacity of gears to transfer the required torque for the desired operating life
is completed by determining the strength of the gear teeth in bending and also the durability i.e of the
teeth ( resistance to wearing/bearing/scuffing loads ) .. The equations below are based on methods
used by Buckingham..

Bending

The Lewis formula for spur gears can be applied to helical gears with minor adjustments to provide
an initial conservative estimate of gear strength in bending. This equation should only be used for
first estimates.

σ = Fb / ( ba. m. Y )

• Fb = Normal force on tooth = Tangential Force Ft / cos β


• σ = Tooth Bending stress (MPa)
• ba = Face width (mm)
• Y = Lewis Form Factor
• m = Module (mm)

When a gear wheel is rotating the gear teeth come into contact with some degree of impact. To allow
for this a velocity factor is introduced into the equation. This is given by the Barth equation for milled
profile gears.

K v = 6,1 / (6,1 + V )

V = the pitch line velocity = PCD.ω/2

The Lewis formula is thus modified as follows

σ = Fb / (K v. ba. m. Y )

3
The Lewis form factor Y must be determined for the virtual number of teeth z' = z /cos β The bending stress
resulting should be less than the allowable bending stress Sb for the gear material under
consideration. Some sample values are provide on this page ef Gear Strength Values
Surface Strength

The allowable gear force from surface durability considerations is determined approximately using the
simple equation as follows

2
Fw = K v d p b a Q K / cos2β

Q = 2. dg /( dp + dp ) = 2.zg /( zp +zp )

Fw = The allowable gear load. (MPa)

K = Gear Wear Load Factor (MPa) obtained by look up ref Gear Strength Values

o
Lewis Form factor for Teeth profile α = 20 , addendum = m, dedendum = 1.25m
Number Number Number Number Number
Y Y Y Y Y
of teeth of teeth of teeth of teeth of teeth
12 0.245 17 0.303 22 0.331 34 0.371 75 0.435
13 0.261 18 0.309 24 0.337 38 0.384 100 0.447
14 0.277 19 0.314 26 0.346 45 0.401 150 0.460
15 0.290 20 0.322 28 0.353 50 0.409 300 0.472
16 0.296 21 0.328 30 0.359 60 0.422 Rack 0.485
Material Properties Tables for Spur, Helical and Bevel Gears

Detailed gear designs should be based on more accurate information available using the relevant
standards..

Suffix 1 relate to the driving gear (generally the pinion)


Suffix 2 relate to the driven gear (generally the gear)

Cp = Imperial elastic coefficient


ZE = ISO elastic coefficient

Design factors for gear pairs

Allowable K
Poissons
Material Young's Modulus ( E ) Surface for α = 20 Cp Ze
Ratio (ν)
Endurance deg
Pinion Gear Pinion Pinion Pinion Gear Pinion Gear Stress ( S e)
psi psi MPa MPa psi MPa psi MPa √psi √MPa
Steel.BHN Av=150 0.3 0.3 3.00E+07 3.00E+07 2.07E+05 2.07E+05 50000 345 41 0.281 2291 190
Steel.BHN Av=175 0.3 0.3 3.00E+07 3.00E+07 2.07E+05 2.07E+05 60000 414 59 0.404 2291 190
Steel.BHN Av=200 0.3 0.3 3.00E+07 3.00E+07 2.07E+05 2.07E+05 70000 483 80 0.550 2291 190
Steel.BHN Av=225 0.3 0.3 3.00E+07 3.00E+07 2.07E+05 2.07E+05 80000 552 104 0.719 2291 190
Steel.BHN Av=250 0.3 0.3 3.00E+07 3.00E+07 2.07E+05 2.07E+05 90000 621 132 0.910 2291 190
Steel.BHN Av=275 0.3 0.3 3.00E+07 3.00E+07 2.07E+05 2.07E+05 100000 689 163 1.123 2291 190
Steel.BHN Av=300 0.3 0.3 3.00E+07 3.00E+07 2.07E+05 2.07E+05 110000 758 197 1.359 2291 190
Steel.BHN Av=325 0.3 0.3 3.00E+07 3.00E+07 2.07E+05 2.07E+05 120000 827 235 1.617 2291 190
Steel.BHN Av=350 0.3 0.3 3.00E+07 3.00E+07 2.07E+05 2.07E+05 130000 896 275 1.898 2291 190
Steel.BHN Av=375 0.3 0.3 3.00E+07 3.00E+07 2.07E+05 2.07E+05 140000 965 319 2.201 2291 190
Steel.BHN Av=400 0.3 0.3 3.00E+07 3.00E+07 2.07E+05 2.07E+05 150000 1034 366 2.527 2291 190
Stl BHN=150 Cast Iron 0.3 0.211 3.00E+07 2.20E+07 2.07E+05 1.52E+05 50000 345 48 0.332 2077 172
Stl BHN=250 Cast Iron 0.3 0.211 3.00E+07 2.20E+07 2.07E+05 1.52E+05 70000 483 94 0.650 2077 172
Stl BHN=350 Cast Iron 0.3 0.211 3.00E+07 2.20E+07 2.07E+05 1.52E+05 90000 621 156 1.075 2077 172
Stl BHN=150 Phos Bros 0.3 0.38 3.00E+07 1.45E+07 2.07E+05 1.00E+05 59000 407 62 0.600 1888 157
Stl BHN=250 Phos Bros 0.3 0.38 3.00E+07 1.45E+07 2.07E+05 1.00E+05 65000 448 100 0.728 1888 157
Stl BHN=350 Phos Bros 0.3 0.38 3.00E+07 1.45E+07 2.07E+05 1.00E+05 85000 586 184 1.245 1888 157
Cast Iron Cast Iron 0.211 0.211 2.20E+07 2.20E+07 1.52E+05 1.52E+05 90000 621 264 1.240 1914 159
Cast Iron Phos Bros 0.211 0.38 2.20E+07 1.45E+07 1.52E+05 1.00E+05 83000 572 234 1.328 1763 146

Gear Materials Properties


Ultimate Yield Tooth Tooth Allowable Allowable
Young's Poison's
Material................ Specification.............. Tensile Tensile Hardness Hardness Endurance Bending
Modulus Ratio
Strength Strength - Core - Side Stress Stress
Rm Rp(0.2) VPN VPN Se Sb E
MPa MPa HV HV MPa MPa GPa
BS EN 1561:1997
1 Grey Cast Iron 200 100 200 200 340 95 91 0.25
EN-GJL-200
BS EN 1561:1997
2 Grey Cast Iron 250 125 220 220 350 105 105 0.25
EN-GJL-250
BS EN 1561:1997
3 Grey Cast Iron 300 150 240 240 360 120 113 0.25
EN-GJL-300
BS EN 1563:1997
4 Ductile Cast Iron 600 370 190 190 430 315 169 0.2
EN-GJS 600-2
BS EN 1563:1997
5 Ductile Cast Iron 700 420 230 230 510 325 169 0.2
EN-GJS 700-2
BS EN 1563:1997
6 Ductile Cast Iron 800 480 250 250 550 345 169 0.2
ENGJS 800-2
Carbon Cast Steel BS 3100:1991
7 500 260 150 150 420 300 206 0.3
Normalised A3, A5 **
Carbon Cast Steel BS 3100:1991
8 590 300 180 180 480 336 206 0.3
Normalised A3, A5 **
Alloy Cast Steel
9 36Mn5 (1,1167) 700 340 210 210 540 372 206 0.3
Normalised
Alloy Cast Steel
10 36Mn5 (1,1167) 750 400 220 220 560 384 206 0.3
Heat Treated
Alloy Cast Steel BS EN 10213-2:1996
11 650 380 200 200 520 360 206 0.3
Normalised G17CrMo511
Alloy Cast Steel BS EN 10213-2:1996
12 800 550 245 245 610 414 206 0.3
Heat Treated G17CrMo511
Structural Steel BS EN 10025-1:2004
13 490 295 150 150 370 330 206 0.3
Untreated E295
Structural Steel BS EN 10025-2:2004
14 510 335 155 155 380 336 206 0.3
Untreated S335J2G3
Structural Steel BS EN 10025-2:2004
15 588 335 175 175 420 360 206 0.3
Untreated E335
Structural Steel BS EN 10025-2:2004
16 686 360 205 205 480 396 206 0.3
Untreated E360
Carbon Structural Steel BS EN 10083-2
17 540 325 155 155 430 356 206 0.3
normalised C45
Carbon Structural Steel BS EN 10083-2:1991
18 640 390 200 200 520 410 206 0.3
heat treated C45
Carbon Structural Steel BS EN 10083-1:1991
19 660 380 200 200 520 410 206 0.3
normalised C60/ER
Carbon Structural Steel BS EN 10083-1:1991
20 740 440 235 235 590 452 206 0.3
heat treated C60E/R
Alloy Structural Steel BS EN 10083-1:1991
21 883 637 285 285 690 512 206 0.3
Heat Treated 37Cr4
Alloy Structural Steel
22 980 850 300 300 720 530 206 0.3
Heat Treated 42CrV6 (1,7561)
Alloy Structural Steel
23 932 785 290 290 700 518 206 0.3
Heat Treated 31NiCr14 (1,5755)
Carbon Cast Steel BS 3100:1991
24 590 300 180 600 1140 316 206 0.3
tooth face hardened A3,A5,AW2
Carbon Cast Steel
25 36Mn5 (1,1167) 700 340 210 600 1140 352 206 0.3
tooth face hardened
Carbon Structural Steel BS EN 10083-2:1991
26 640 390 200 600 1140 390 206 0.3
tooth face hardened C50
Alloy Structural Steel BS EN 10083-1:1991
27 785 539 250 600 1140 450 206 0.3
tooth face hardened 37Cr4
28 Alloy Structural Steel 42CrV6 (1,7561) 980 850 315 600 1160 528 206 0.3
tooth face hardened
Alloy Structural Steel BS EN 10083-1:1991
29 965 750 300 600 1160 705 206 0.3
tooth face hardened 34CrNiMo6
Alloy Structural Steel
30 42MnV7 (1,5223) 800 620 250 550 930 580 206 0.3
Nitrided
Alloy Structural Steel
31 30CrV9 800 600 250 800 1180 705 206 0.3
Nitrided
Alloy Structural Steel
32 30CrMoV9 (1,7707) 800 600 250 800 1180 705 206 0.3
Nitrided
Alloy Structural Steel BS EN 10083-1:1991
33 965 750 300 750 1180 730 206 0.3
Nitrided 34CrNiMo6
Alloy Structural Steel BS EN 10083-1:1991
34 1570 1350 485 615 1288 740 206 0.3
Nitro Case hardened 37Cr4
Carbon Structural Steel BS EN 10277-2:1999
35 440 275 135 650 1210 500 206 0.3
case hardened C10
Carbon Structural Steel
36 >C15E (1,1149 ) 495 295 150 650 1210 500 206 0.3
case hardened
Alloy Structural Steel
37 16MnCr5 (1,7131) 785 588 250 650 1270 700 206 0.3
case hardened
Alloy Structural Steel
38 35CrMo4 880 685 285 650 1270 700 206 0.3
case hardened
Alloy Structural Steel
39 15NiCr6 880 635 285 650 1270 700 206 0.3
case hardened
Alloy Structural Steel
40 14NiCr14(1.5732) 932 735 300 650 1270 700 206 0.3
case hardened
Carbon Steel BS EN 10083-1:1991
41 740 440 235 235 800 650 206 0.3
Nitro caburised C60E/R
Carbon Steel BS EN 10083-2
42 640 390 200 600 1140 605 206 0.3
tooth face hardened C50
Alloy Steel BS EN 10083-1
43 900 700 250 600 1140 605 206 0.3
tooth face hardened 37Cr4
44 Bronze Sand Cast 276 207 39 100 0.38
45 Bronze Heat Treated 621 448 163 100 0.38

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