c



 exchange of CO2 & O2 within lungs (in alveoli)




 exchange of CO2 & O2 occurs in body tissues


 air exchanged b/w lungs & atmosphere (breathing)

mechanical process of breathing: inspiration (inhalation) & expiration (exhalation)


  
    
Tears produced by  drain into nasal cavity ĺ runny nose. c

 connect middle
ear to nasal cavity ± allows air pressure to equalize b/w middle & outer ear. Air moving into nasal passage is
moistened ± air 99% saturated w/ H2O when it reaches lungs. Air passing through     warmed by
blood flowing through large network of capillaries in cavity walls.

 


  

 
Space enclosed by air packets ĺ alveoli (air sacs) (singular: alveolus). An alveolus is a simple (single layer)
squamous epithelium surrounded by blood capillaries. More than 700 million alveoli in average set of lungs ±
results in large SA for gas exchange (75-80m2). Human lung 

(lipid molecules) lines alveoli ±
prevents them from sticking together when empty; it occupies a space between air & water lining within.






 ± 
 (muscle separating abdominal & thoracic cavity) contracts downward. At same time ribs
move up & out (due to intercostal muscles). Results Ĺ size of thoracic cavity & Ļ pressure w/i cavity. Air forced into
lungs by high external atmospheric pressure, but they expand due to contraction of muscles.
This action is facilitated by
 which encase lungs. Outer pleural mem. attached to
diaphragm & walls of rib cage. Inner pleural mem. attached to lungs. B/w membranes is thin layer of water. Pressure
in interpleural space normally less than atmospheric pressure. If this space is punctured pressure will become equal to
outside resulting in collapsed lung. pneumothorax

c

 ± As lungs expand nerve receptors (



 ) detect stretching & send signals back to brain.
Breathing centre of brain is inhibiting resulting in relaxation of diaphragm to its normal position. Abdominal organs
push up & ribs move down & in. Also elasticity of lung tissue causes them to return to their relaxed size ĺ forcing air
out.



 

 ± top portion of resp. tract (nasal cavity, trachea, bronchi, etc.); this air never reaches alveoli
  ± portion of air that never leaves lungs; important in preventing collapse of the lungs
! ± vol. of air that enters & leaves lungs during a breath
c

 ± tidal vol. plus any other air that can be forcibly exhaled

"

 ± max. vol. of air that may be exchanged with environment
c #  ± atmospheric air contains 21% O2 & less than 1% CO2. Blood flowing into capillaries of alveoli
-
saturated w/ CO2, most of which carried as HCO3 . Since amount of CO2 in air sacs is low, CO2 diffuses from blood
-
plasma into alveolar air. HCO3 is converted to CO2 (by  , also producing H2O) to replace CO2
that has left blood plasma. So CO2 continues to diffuse out of blood.
+
Hemoglobin is carrying H as HHb ( ± acting as a buffer). The H+ is needed to recover
the H2O from HCO3 . ie. H + HCO3- ĺ H2CO3 ĺ H2O + CO2. Once hemoglobin gives up H+ (&CO2) it is ready to carry
- +
carbonic
oxygen. carbonic acid anhydrase

$%&"$%c' picked up & carried

()"$% by hemoglobin as

  HHb (reduced Hb)
-
+ H2 O HCO3 is transported in plasma
catalyzed by H2CO3 breaks
cell CO2 is CO2 converted to to lungs. Some CO2 remains
diffuses blood plasma w/ carbonic up (dissociates)
high (in dissolved in plasma as CO2 &
tissues)
low CO2 conc. anhydrase H2CO3 (carbonic acid) -
to HCO3 & H
+
some CO2 is carried by
hemoglobin as HbCO2 ±
carbamino Hb

As more CO2 dissolves in blood, blood CO2 conc Ĺ causing H2CO3 conc Ĺ in turn causing blood plasma HCO3- conc Ĺ
carbonic
[CO2]Ĺ anhydrase?
[H2CO3]ĹĻ dis. [HCO3-]Ĺ when [HCO3-]Ĺ, [H2CO3]Ļ
-
Normally CO2 levels are low, H2CO3 levels are low, & HCO3 levels are high. Above rxn. driven to right b/c of CO2
-
produced by cells ĺ causing rise in plasma HCO3
]

CO2 conc. in alveolar air is low
- + -
CO2 in plasma plasma H2CO3 is HCO3 combines w/ H plasma HCO3
plasma CO2 converted to CO2 & H2O forming H2CO3 bringing
diffuses into levels drop?
conc. drops catalyzed by these levels up
alveolar air
carbonic anhydrase

As more CO2 diffuses out of blood into alveolar air blood [CO2] Ļ. In response H2CO3 splits up into CO2 & H2O (by CA)
to bring CO2 levels back up, but now H2CO3 levels have dropped. HCO3- combines w/ H+ carried by HHb to bring up
-
H2CO3 levels ĺ causing blood HCO3 levels to drop.
-
[CO2]Ļ [H2CO3]Ļ [HCO3 ]Ļ

As CO2 diffuses out of blood above rxn will be driven to left in order to respond to resulting drop in plasma CO2 ĺ
causing drop in plasma HCO3-

%)$%
Hemoglobin has high affinity for oxygen under right conditions. When P O2 (O2 conc) is high Hb will bind 4 O2 per
molecule w/ conditions of low temp & low acidity, such as found in lungs, affinity for O2 is even stronger

Hb will release O2, ie. low O2 affinity, when P O2 is low. O2 will be released sooner w/ conditions of high temp & high
acidity as found in working tissues.

This ³dual personality´ that Hb has makes it ideal for transporting O2 in blood.



  
* ± viral or bacterial infection causing alveoli & bronchi to fill w/ fluid
]
 ± bronchi become inflamed & backed up w/ mucous ĺ possible damage to cilia

 ± airways are sensitive to allergens; smooth muscle spasms & inflammation of bronchioles can reduce
diameter of the airways ĺ reducing air flow
! 
 ± inflammation of tonsils, lymphatic tissue in pharynx; enlargement can make breathing difficult
+
 ± inflammation of vocal cords