WORLD HISTORY

1.FRENCH REVOLUTION
ASPECT -1:
The french revolution of 1789 resulted in political and social upheaval
in france and europe as whole .The french governmental structure
,previously an absolute monarchy with fuedal privilages for aristrocracy
and catholic clergy underwent radical changes to forms based on
enlightment principles of nationalism,liberty,equalityand in alienable
rights of citizens .These changes were accompanied by violent
turmoil ,including executions and repression .
Historians disagree about the political and socio-economic nature of
revolution .Traditional Marxist interpretations, such as that presented
by" GEORGE LEFEBVRE",described the revolution as a result of clash
between a fuedalistic noble class and the capitalist bourgeois
class.Some historians argue that the old aristrocratic order of the
ANCIENT REGIME succumbed to an alliance of the rising bourgeoise
,aggrieved peasents and urban wage earners .Yet another
interpretation asserts that the revolution resulted when various
aristrocratic and bourgeois reform movements spun out of control.But
adherents of most of historic model identify the features of ancient
regime as the cause of revolution.
ASPECT -2:
POLITICAL CONDITIONS OF FRANCE:
1.In 18th century the political system of france was characterised by
absolute monarchy .Efforts of LOUIS XII and LOUIS XIV had established
central administrative system.There was no role for local authorities in
administration.The representative institutions which franceat one time
possesed ceased to exist.
2.Though the system has weakness it was managed well during LOUIS
XIV.But LOUIS XV was a weak and frivolous ruler.The task of governing
was neglected and the evils of ineffecient and corruption centralised
administration soon manifested themselves .The administration was
not only corrupt but oppresive also .Any citizen might be arrested by
issuing arrest warrant called LETTERS DE CACHET.The arrest warrant
were purchasable so the rich purchased them in advance and used for

their advantage .Thus the corrupt widespread inefficient administration

produced widespread discontent among people .
3.18th century FRANCE was divided into number of "government" and
"generalties".The provincial administration lacked uniformity of laws
.Various acts which were legal in one province were illegal in another
province.Taxation system was also not uniform throughout the
country.This effected the flow of goods between different parts of the
empire.Thus the development of trade and commercial cativities was
adversely affected weakening the economic condition of france.
4.Thus when LOUIS XVI ascended the throne the conditions were quite
desperate and such conditions recquired an effecient and strong ruler
but LOUIS XVI lacked these qualities .Though he was honest and well
intentioned to improve the state of affairs he lacked resoluteness and
firmness.He was prone to be influenced well by others.The influence of
queen MARY ANTONIETTE was also damaging on him.
5. The whole legal and judicial system recquired reform.The courts
needed thourough over haul to make them swift,fairand
inexpensive.Many judjes and lawyers purchased or inherited their
goverment positions and regarded them as a means to private
enrichment and elevation to the role of nobility.
ASPECT-3:
SOCIAL CONDITIONS OF FRANCE:
SOCIAL DIVISIONS :
1.The french society was complex and diversified.It was based on the
fundamental principle of fuedalism,inequality and prerogatives.The
social structure of france was divided into three broad classes called
ESTATES.The CLERGY formed the FIRST ESTATE and ARISTROCRATS
formed the SECOND ESTATE and the PROLETERAIT and BOURGEOISE
class formed the THIRD ESTATE.
THE CLERGY:
1.Prior to the revolution the population of france was 25million
including 140 thousand clergy and 150 thousand nobleman.Though
oonly 0.5% of population,they owned about 15%of land
resources,keeping records of vital statastics,and dispensing relief to

the poor.Various evils characterised the religious life of france of 18th

century.The preists lived the religious life of luxury and cared little for
administration.
2.majority of people of france were roman catholics.Hence the roman
catholic church was dominant.It had its massive organisation all over
france.It possesed huge property but according to roman conventions
was exempted from taxes.Because of its special rigts and extensive
influence in country,the church of france was termed as a STATE
WITHIN A STATE.
3.The preists were divided into higher clergy and lower clergy.The
higher clergy section comprised of ARCHIBISHOP and
ABBOTS.Archibishops came from nobility.They earned immense income
and passed their life in the lap of luxuries and great comforts
.Archibishops humiliated the lower clergy man.The lower clergy of
french church was poorly paid and was generally hardworking.The
lower clergy resented the wealth and arrogance of their eccleisiastical
superiors.
4.The church collected a tax called "TITHE"(10%) from the common
public.Th e third estate also complained about the church's exemption
from taxation and aboutr meagre size of "free gift" voted by clergy
insted of taxation.There were complex urban social services that cried
out to be performed ,and the church neither did them nor allowed
them to be performed.The bourgeoise increasingly accepted the anticlerical views of philosophers.
THE NOBILITY OR THE SECOND ESTATE:
1.The french nobility had degenerated by the middle of 18th
century.The nobility enjowed many previlages but did not owe any
duties to the state.CARDINAL RICHELU and LOUIS XIV took away the
duties performed by these fuedal barons and established a centralised
administration.But even then this class continued to enjoy former
previlages.
2.The french nobility though only 2%of the population held about 20%
of the land resources.They had virtual exemption from taxation and
monopolised all the higher offices of the state(CHURCH and ARMED
FORCES).
3.The french nobilty was not a single social unit but a series of differing

groups.At the top were the hereditary nobles -a few descended from
fuedal lords of MIDDLE AGES.These "NOBLES OF SWORD"tended to
view their contrymen,including the lesser nobility,as vulgar
upstarts.Many of them,clustered at VERSAILES neglecting their duties
as the first landlords of realm.
4.Below the nobility of sword came "THE NOBILTY OF ROBE".This group
included the justices of parlement and other courts and a host of other
officials.The nobles of robe became orginally become nobles by buying
their offices.But since these offices were then handed down from father
to son the mercenary origin became somewhat obscured over time.By
the late 18th century there was a little practical distinction between
the nobility of sword and robe.Marriages between members of the two
groups were common.On the whole nobles of robe were richer than
nobles of sword,and the most tenacious defenders of special previlages
of OLD REGIME during the revolution were the judjes of parliament ,not
the elegant and ineffectual courtiers of versailes.
5.Many nobleman had little wealth, glamour .They belonged to the
lowest level of french aristrocracy that is "HOBEREAUX".Hard pinched
by rising prices,they felt trapped on country estates as they could not
afford the expensive pleasure of court.In an effort to coserve at least
part of their traditional status they insisted on meticulous collection of
manorial dues from peasantry.Their search through the old documents
to justify levies sometimes long forgotten earned them abiding hatred
of peaseants leading to burning of documents during the period of
revolution.
6.From the political point of view the 18th century was an epoch in the
revival of nobility.By entering into all government bodies,nobility aimed
at restoring its genuine sovereignity in the political arena which was
taken away by bourbon dynasty.
7.The characterstic aspect of nobility was that it lacked uniformity and
homogenity.In spite of all these they were equal in the sense that they
enjoyed great prestige in society,were exempted from taxes .The
aristrocratic class enjoyed special rights and inflicted cruelties on the
lower class and all these activities ignited a severe indignation in the
lower class.
THE THIRD ESTATE:

1.The first two estates included only a small fraction of the french
population.Over 97% of the population fell within the third estate.This
social class consisted of the bourgeoise artisans,labourers and farmers.
THE MIDDLE CLASS:(BOURGEOISE):
1.The middle class included money lenders,bussiness
man,teachers,advocates,professions who are associated with various
industry, bussiness,professions and did not engage in physical
labour.Prior to the revolution,the french middle class were seethed with
intese disatisfaction due to the following reasons:
(a)The middle class was very ambitious to acquire arch positions in the
social structure but arstrocratic class frustrated its ambitions in the
classified french society based on blue blood.The middle-class had
realised that class disparity could be eliminated by destroying the
fuedal set-up.
(b)Other glaring cause of indignation of the middle class against the
current system was that it could not exert influence over the political
institutions of the country although its members were
wise,dedicated,educated.Therefore it supported the political change
that would mould the govt in their favour.
(c)The middle class intelectuals were infused with an ideal spirit that
society should be bulit on wisdom.Social disparity fomented dissatisfaction against the intellectuals.
(d)The middle class people associated with trade and commerce were
also dis-satisfied .Trade and commerce flourished in france and this
class seized upon the oppurtunity and became very rich.This class was
a great supporter of reforms in the contemporary political
system.Various obstructions creeping in the way of trade and
commerce were also responsible for the discontent among the middle
class as they found it difficult to continue their pursuits.hence the
middle class traders opposed restrictions imposed upon their bussines
and supported the cause of LAISSEZ-FAIRE.
2.It was the bourgeoise that foccused upon the prevailing discontent
and ultimately provided the leadership.Implacable hostility of the
previlaged estates and warm receptiveness to the propaganda of
philosophers cemented this sprawling middle class into a political
force.The bourgeoise suffered fewer hardships than the peasants and

workers but they resented the abuses even more keenly.Though they
paid smaller proportion of their income in taxes ,they violently
denounced the in-equality in tax assesments. While profiting by the
rise in prices and able to buy some landed estates,the wealthier and
bussiness people complained of gulid regulations and other restrictions
on free commercial commercial ctivty.They found it galling to be
snubbed by the nobility and treated as second class subjects by the
monarchy and excluded from the posts of poweer in
government,church and army.Wealthier,educated and more articulate
than the peasants and wage earners ,the middle class took the leadin
fomenting the greivances of the entire third estate.These greivances
were compiled in statements called "CAHIERS" and were submitted to
estate general in 1789.
THE ARTISANS AND LABOURERS:
1.Artisans and laboures lived in misery.They were paid meagre wages
and made to work for long hours .They had to depend upon the mercy
of the middle class capitalists who controlled many industries and
bussiness ,majority of them lived in cities and had close links with
educated and intellectual sections of society which created political
awareness among them.
2.The urban workers and the bourgeoise were increasingly
aleinated.Nearly every city was faced with disconted wage earners and
apprentices who were seriously dis-advantaged by the rise in
prices.This was especially true of day labourers,who were not alowed
to organise unions and who turned to badly led strikes .
THE PEASANTS:
1.The common peasntry formed majority of the population.Their
population was 80% of the total.The plight of farmers was very sad
and shocking.There were two classes of farmers in france :independent
faemers and semi-serfs.ANn independent farmer was the owner of his
land but a semi-serf could not relinquish land of his landlord and move
out on his own will.A farmer had to part 80% of his income in order to
pay the taxes .Because of their social and economic misery the farmers
were seething with bitter discontent in the post 18th century.
2.The rural misery was widespread .The peasants did not understand
the many wars in which france was engaged and which had lead to

heavier taxation.But they could see how nobility and clergy lived
lavishlywhile they themselves existed at sub-sistence level.This was
especially so when france was faced by rapid population growth.The
peasantry had little or no surplous produce to sell.Thus they could not
weather the periodic crises that arose from poor harvests or from rural
un-employment as when the textile spinners fell into serious decline in
the face of more effecient production elsewhere.
3.Although the degree of distress varied greatly from province to
province,the overall picture was bleak.Part of the trouble lay with such
economic fundamentals as backward methods of
farming,overpopulation,shortage of land.The effecient techniques of
the agricultural revolution evident elsewhere made little headway in
france before 1789.Vast areas were not cultivatedat all or lay fallow
every second or third year in accordance with the medival
practises.Restrictions on the free movement of grain within france
traditionally imposed to keep local flour for local consumption
promoted hoarding and speculation and increased the danger of local
famines.
4.Financially the peasnts saw themselves in decline because the rising
inflation hurted them.The upward trend of prices in france throughout
18th century brought prosperity to many urban merchants and
manufacturers,but most of the farmers found that the prices they have
to buy rose more swiftly than those of the goods they have to
buy.Moreover the peasants owed a heavy burden of taxes and
obligations:the tithe to the church,fuedal and manorial dues to the
nobility and to the state land tax,income tax,poll tax and other
duties,of which the most widely detested was the
"GABELLE"OBLIGATORY purchase of salt from government
agents,usually at an ex-orbitant price.
5.Un-employment and poverty had created a revolutionery temper
among the peasants.But they did not demand a change in the
government .They were ignorant of the reform program of the
ENLIGHTENMENT.They most emphatically wanted more land,if needed
at the expanse of clergy and nobility;they wanted an end to obsolete
manorial dues and wanted relief from the system of taxation.
ASPECT -IV
ECONOMIC CONDITIONS OF FRANCE:

1.During the later half of 18th century FRANCE was passing through
difficult financial condition.Un-regulated expenditure of the ruling class
was dragging the country towards bankruptancy.The taxation system
was erratic.Those who were capable of paying taxes were not
taxed.The nobles and clergy were largely free from taxes .he burden of
taxation largely fell on the third estate.
2.The procedure of collection of taxes was also faulty.generally the
taxes were collected by the contractors.The contractors collected the
taxes at their will and mis-appropriated a part of state revenue.The
taxation system was also defective in the sense they differed from one
province to another .
3.The defective taxation system adversely affected the tradecommerce also.The variation in the rates of taxes inhibited the
movement of goods.The government did not pursue any positive policy
to support the commercial activities.
4.Extravagnance of ruling classes was also responsible for the
economic crisis.Actually,the financial policy of the government was
wrong.Personal income of the king was not differentiated from the
income of the state.There was no restrictions on the grand, luxurious
ways of life of the king.
5.The aggresive foreign policy pursued by french monarchs was also an
important factor in worsening the economic condition.The wars of
LOUIS XIV AND LOUIS XV WORSENED THE ECONOMIC CONDITION OF
FRANCE.LOUIS XV PARTICIPATED IN AUSTRIAS WAR OF SUCCESION AND
THE SEVEN YEARS WAR.Prior to the revolution france sustained a loss
of two million dollars every year which was compensated by borrowing
money at ex-orbitant rates of intrest and half of the nations total
revenue was spent on paying intrest on loans.The decision of LOUIS XVI
to participate in american war of independence was a disaster for
france economically.
6.In this way the economic condition of france was dis-orderly and
unjust before the revolution.France was on the verge of
bankruptancy .The lack of foresight on the part of french monarchy had
created a peculiar conditon which demanded .Thus the collapsing
economic condition made the coming of revolution in-evitable.
7.The economic crisis of the country could be averted by promoting

trade and commerce but the commercial policy of the sate was so
defective and wayward that the development of bussiness and
production was not possible.
ASPECT-V
ROLE OF PHILOSOPHERS IN FRENCH REVOLUTION:
1.In the 18th century french people parted with conventional thougts
and began adopting the enlightened outlook at intellectual level.The
rationalism and the spirit of enquiry bred by the renaissance reached
its apex in the 18th century.The 18th century is therefore named as the
"age of reason".
2.The cause of enlightment was translated into reality by prominent
french intellectuals ike
MONTESQUIEU,VOLTAIRE.ROUSSEAU,DIDEROT,QUESNAY,TOURGE.Thes
e thinkers infused independent thinking among the people.The french
philosophers took a leading part in the exposition of the rationalist
spirit of the age.They directed the touch of free enquiry upon the
existing institutions of france .Reason was the medium of their
test.THE PHILOSOPHERS EXPOSED THE DEFECTS OF ALL THE
INSTITUTIONS AND CUSTOMS FOUND IN THEIR WRITTINGS WHICH
WERE EXSISTING IN FRANCE.
3.The intellectual movement of that time applied scientific outook on
life.Most remarkable aspet of the intellectual enlightment in the 18th
century was that man became focus of serious thinking.Public welfare
became the cherished aim.
4.The characterstic aaspect of their thought was establishment of a
liberal,ideal and progressive society.They supported the cause of
"LAISSEZ FAIRE',elimination of prevalent disparity in taxation and the
rights of autonomy in administration.By means of their thought
provoking writings they laid bare inequality,exploitation.cruelty,religious intolerance,corrupt,absolute
monarchy,financial restrictions,agonies of the
proletarait,administrative and judicial demerits.Writers were churning
the discontent of french society .Literary persons had become
politicians in a country having no parliament.By means of satire and
hummour,criticsm and comparison,scientific explaination,socialist
ideaology and candid attempt,they revealed the hollowness of french

institutions.
MONTESQUEIU:
1.The true intellectual revolution started with montesqueiu.He exposed
the previlages enjoyed by french aristrocracyand the corruption
reigning in the royal court.
2.In his book "SPIRIT OF LAWS",he absolutely attacked the french
monarchy of france and pointed out the shortcomings of political
institutions and mental outlook of the people governed.
3.He advocated constitutional monarchy of the british type which
would serve the intrests f the people.
4.He also preached the liberty of individual can never be safeguarded
without the separation of the powers of the government into three
indepent organs:legislature,executive,judiciary.
5.Montesqueiu exercised profound influence on the thoughtful men of
france .His criticsm of the existing laws and institutions destroyed the
prestige in which these institutions so long garbed.
VOLTAIRE:
1.1.The foremost figure of the 18th century intellectual world was
voltaire.His imprisonment in the hands of the government brought in
him a moral change.He was converted from literary man to social
thinker and critic.
2.Saturated in newtonian theories and locke,s philosophy ,voltaire
examined the conditions of contemporary society.He was horrified at
the tyranny,cruelty, and absurdities prevailing in france.
3.He was a prolific writer.he wrote a famous critical history
named,"THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV".He also wrote numerous essays,tales
and satires.The most famous among his wors "THE PHILOSOPHICAL
DICTIONERY".
4.With the zeal of a crusader voltaire attacked the tyranny,injustices
and superstitions.All the rotten pillars of ancient regime came under
his fir.But his main target was the catholic church.He criticised the
french church as a "PREVILAGE NUISANCE","MONUMENT OF BIGOTRY"
AND A "DEN OF SUPERSTITIONS".He said that church held human

thoughts in perpetual bondage and gave a battle cry to destroy it.

5.It is true that voltaire was not strictly a original thinker.He criticised
everything but did not recommend a suitable alternative.But his
powerful pen attacked the citael of tradition.He demolished its sancity
and prestige.
ROUSSEAU: