Creep

Creep rupture section of carbon steel, showing intergranular microcracking. (100 X)

Description

Creep is the time-dependent deformation or "flow" of materials under stress at

elevated temperatures. The rate at which a material will creep is dependent upon
its strength, the stress imposed, and the temperature. The magnitude of creep
incurred therefore depends upon the length of time in which the material was
creeping.

Idealised constant-load curve showing the three stages of creep.

First stage creep

Second stage creep

Third stage creep

Creep is a multi-stage process leading to the development of voids along grain

boundaries which grow and then interconnect to form microfissures and, ultimately,
macroscopic cracks. When a material is subjected to a constant stress at an
elevated temperature, the resulting strain occurs initially at a decelerating rate
(first-stage creep). Subsequently, the creep rate becomes essentially constant for
a period of time during which microscopic voids are formed (second-stage creep).
Finally, the creep rate accelerates when the voids interconnect to form cracks
(third-stage creep) and rupture occurs, if the process is not interrupted.
When metal equipment is designed for elevated temperature operation, a stress
level is chosen which will permit a certain amount of creep to occur. Several life-

limiting criteria are used when equipment designs are based on creep properties
of materials.
API 530 provides curves for the maximum stress as a function of temperature for
various design lives. For other design lives, the temperature and design life are
first converted to the generalised Larson-Miller parameter:
LM = (Td + 273) * (C + 10 log Ld) * 10-3,
where Td is the design metal temperature (C),
Ld is the design life (hours), and
C is a constant (20 for ferritic steels and 15 for austenitic steels).
API 530 also provides curves for the maximum stress as a function of the LarsonMiller parameter, for many common heater tube materials.
Creep failures are most frequently encountered as ruptures of tubes in process
furnaces and boilers since these are designed to operate in the creep regime, the
exact metal temperatures are difficult to monitor, and local 'hot spots' may occur.
Parameters affecting severity

Parameter

Influence

Remarks

Material

All materials

See table below for lower

temperature limit for creep

Chromium content
of steel

Chromium will increase

creep temperature

Nickel content of
steel

18-8 chromium-nickel steel

has even higher creep
temperature

Stress (pressure)

Small effect on remaining

life

LM parameter shows effects of

pressure and temperature

Temperature

Large effect on remaining

life

See table below for lower

temperature limit for creep

Metal

Lower Creep Limit (C)

Carbon Steel

400

Carbon Steel (graphitised)

370

0.5Mo Steel

425

1.25Cr-0.5Mo

425

2.25Cr-1Mo

425

5Cr-0.5Mo

425

9Cr-1Mo

480

9Cr-1Mo-V

540

12Cr Steel

510

300 Series SS

565

Incoloy 800/800H

590

HK-40/HP-modified

760

Prevention/ mitigation

Creep rupture in Alloy HK-40. (200 X)

Creep can be controlled by both:

Proper choice of materials for high temperature applications. The resistance of
steels to creep can be increased by the addition of certain alloying elements, such
as molybdenum and chromium. This will be reflected in higher design temperature
and/or pressure.

Operating the equipment at or below design conditions at all times. This entails
routine monitoring of the metal temperatures and ensuring that they are below the
design temperature limits. This can be difficult for furnace tubes where internal
fouling can cause significant variations in metal temperatures.
The presence of geometrical discontinuities (e.g. T-pieces) or weld defects that
could act as localised stress concentrators should be avoided in the design and
fabrication of equipment in creep service.
It is possible to estimate the remaining useful life of a component that has been
operating in the creep range by using the Larson-Miller parameter. The life fraction
that has been consumed so far can be estimated based on past operating
conditions. An estimate can then be made as to the remaining useful life, based on
projected future operating conditions. Normally, an analysis of this type should be
treated as only an approximation because of the numerous assumptions
employed, the significant variations in creep strength properties of materials, and
the uncertainties regarding actual metal temperatures and stress levels during
operation. For high-pressure steam service, such an analysis is actually fairly
accurate.
Inspection Techniques

Equipment in creep service should be routinely inspected, especially as the design

creep life is approached or exceeded, to determine the degree of creep
deformation or other evidence of creep damage that may have been experienced.
A useful criterion is that inspection should take place once 60% of the design life
has been consumed. For equipment operating in the creep range, it is impractical
to attempt to assign a generalised rejection criterion based on a specific creep
deformation percentage. In fact, creep-rupture failures will not always be
accompanied by a significant degree of deformation.
When vessels are inspected for creep damage, close attention should be paid to
areas around vessel wall penetrations such as nozzles or manways and external
attachments such as supports. For piping, T-pieces and bends are the most
vulnerable areas. These areas are particularly susceptible to creep damage
because the local stress levels may be considerably higher than the stress used
for design purposes. Furthermore, the presence of welds may promote creep.
creep, mechanical deformation and sagging
temperature measurement of metal walls
References

API STD 530: "Calculation of heater-tube thickness in petroleum refineries"