ENGINEERING MATERIALS

Definition: The Science and Technology of metals

CHEMICAL METALLURGY
Extraction of metals
metals
their refining.
PROPERTIES OF METALS

PHYSICAL METALLURGY
Physical and mech. from their ores and

Physical: shape, size, colour, density, structure, etc.

Mechanical: strength, stiffness, elasticity,plasticity etc.
Thermal: thermal expansion, thermal stresses, thermal shocks, heat transfer,
etc.
Electrical: resistivity, conductivity, and relative capacitance
Chemical: corrosion, resistance, acidity, alkalinity
Magnetic: permeability, hysterisis, reductivity, etc.
Optical: colour, lustre, diffraction, etc.
Technological: hardness, weldability, machinability, formability, and castability.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
The properties of materials which are associated with the ability of the material
to resist mechanical forces and loads.
Stress: Intensity of the internally distributed forces or components of forces
resisting a change in the form of the body.
Stress: Force/unit area in kgf/cm2
The stress can be tension, compression, shear.
Strain: Deformation or change produced in a material in its dimensions due to the
effect of stress on it. Strain is of three types. They are Plastic strain, Elasticity,
and Modulus of Elasticity.
Plastic Strain: It is the deformation or change in dimensions of a body, which
remains in it after the release of load.

Elasticity: The elasticity of a metal is its ability to return to its original shape
after deformation by force.
Modulus of Elasticity: The ratio of stress to the strain produced within the
elastic limit of the material of the body.
Stiffness: It is the property of material enabling to resist deformation.
Modulus of Rigidity: It is the ratio between stress and the elastic strain
produced.
Ductility: It is the deformation produced in a material at breaking point.
Malleability: It is the property of materials due to which it undergoes great
changes without rupture under compressive stress.
*It is similar to ductility but is compared with the increase in temperature.
Plasticity: It is the property of the material enabling it to retain the deformation
produced by load permanently.
Brittleness: The quality of material that leads to crack propagation without
appreciable plastic deformation.
Toughness: It is the property of a material due to which it has the ability to
resist fracture due to high impact loads. Ability of metal to absorb energy before
fracture is also called toughness.
Tenacity: It is the ability of material to resist fracture due to the action of a
pulling force.
Strength: It is the basic property of material due to which they resist stress
without failure.
Ultimate strength: The maximum conventional stress, i.e.tensile, compressive, or
shear that material withstands.
Yield strength: The stress at which material exhibits a specified deviation from
proportionality of stress and strain.

Creep: It is the slow plastic deformation of metals under constant stress or

under prolonged loading usually at high temperatures.

At low temperatures - low temp. creep

At high temperatures - high temp. creep

CRYSTAL STRUCTURE
Generally atoms in metal try to assume relative fixed positions in solid state, which
leads to the formation of crystals. There are 14 possible types of space lattices
that fall into 7 crystal systems. Three types of common crystals encountered are
FCC, BCC and CPH.
Body-Centered Cubic (BCC):
No. Of atoms/unit cell = 2
Packing factor = Vatoms/Vcell = 0.68
E.g. Cr, W, alpha-Fe, delta-Fe, Mo, V, Na
Face-Centered Cubic (FCC):
No. Of atoms/unit cell = 4
Packing factor = 0.74
E.g. Al,Bi,Ca,Au,Ag,Ps,Pt,gamma-Fe
Closed Packed Hexagonal (CPH):
No. of atoms/unit cell = 2
E.g. Be, Cd, Zn, Hf, Mg
Packing factor varies.
PLASTIC DEFORMATION
Slip: It is deformation of a material on either side of a plane. It is sliding of a
group of crystals over the other. Shear forces cause it.
Twinning: It is the movement of planes of crystals in lattice parallel to the
twinning plane. It divides the lattice into the symmetrical parts oriented
differently. CPH crystals undergo twinning easily.
Fracture: It is the separation of a body under stress into two or more parts.

Ductile Fracture: It occurs after considerable plastic deformation and is

identified by cup and cone cleavage.
Brittle Fracture: It involves rapid crack propagation with minimum plastic
deformation.
Cold Working: It is plastic deformation of a material, which leads to a distorted
grain structure. Tensile strength, yield strength and hardness increases. Ductility
decreases. Load applied should be above yield point but below tensile strength to
avoid failure. The increase in internal energy near grain boundaries makes the
material susceptible to corrosion, IGC and SCC. Suitable heat treatment is to be
done to relieve internal stresses. Zn, Sn, Pb cannot be cold worked as their
Recrystallization temp. is below room temperature.
Hot working: It is defined as working of a material above its recrystallization
temperature.
Dimensional accuracy cannot be obtained by hot working as
subsequent cooling results in contraction. Forging is a hot working process.
Annealing:
There are three steps in annealing process.
a)
Stress-relief annealing or Recovery: It is a low temp. Treatment done just
to relieve internal stresses to avoid SCC and distortion in cold worked material. It
doesnt involve a change in microstructure.
b)
Recrystallization: As the Rc temp. Is reached, new grains are formed near
grain boundaries and slip planes. The new crystals are strain-free and equi-axed.
A sharp drop in tensile strength indicates it. Recrystallisation increases ductility.
c)
Grain growth: The grain growth can be controlled (increased) by holding
the material for a longer time in grain-growth region. Coarse grain structure gives
better ductility. Fine grains exhibit better toughness, strength and hardness.
Distortion in grain structure leads to increase in strength and hardness whether it
is by heat treatment, plastic deformation or alloying.
CRYSTALLIZATION
Allotropy: The property of a metal to exhibit different crystal structures at
different temperatures is called Allotropy. The structural changes should be
reversible.

E.g. Fe crystallizes into bcc at 2800 deg. F into delta-Fe

Fe crystallizes into FCC at 2554 deg. F into gamma-Fe
Fe again crystallizes into bcc at 1670 deg. F into
alpha-Fe
Cooling Curves: It is the graph between time and temp. of a pure metal / alloy
during solidification / phase change.
Crystallization occurs in two stages, viz. Nucleation and Crystal Growth. Nuclei
form when sufficient undercooling is attained. Slowly dendrites formed grow into
grains /crystals.
Alloy Structure
Homogeneous
Non-homogeneous mixture
Solid
Intermediate
any combination of solid phases
Solution Alloy phase
(pure metal, solid soln., compound)
Substitutional and Interstitial
Phase Diagrams:
Alloys melt over a range in temperature. The phase changes in alloy systems can be
recorded in the form of a phase diagram/ equilibrium diagram. Generally %
composition is taken as abscissa and the temperature in deg.C or deg. F is taken as
the ordinate. Alloys are solid solutions. If atoms substitute for the solvent atoms
randomly, it is called a substitutional solid solution. E.g. Ag in Au. If atoms of the
solute fit into the space between larger solvent atoms, it is called an interstitial
alloy. E.g. C in Fe. The increase in % of Carbon (6.67%) may lead to an interstitial
compound Fe3C.
Austenite: It is gamma-solid solution of Fe that has fcc structure. It is a nonmagnetic phase. It is unstable at room temp. Max. % of C can be 2.0%.
Cementite: It is an interstitial compound of Fe and C, i.e. Fe3C (6.67%). It is a
hard and brittle material that decomposes into its constituents after a long time.
It is a slow reverse reaction. It has low tensile and high compressive strength. It
is orthorhombic in structure.
Ferrite: It is alpha-solid solution, which has bcc structure.
magnetic. Max. C is 0.025%.

It is soft and is

Delta-phase: It is delta-Fe and C solution and has bcc structure. Max. Carbon
present is 0.1%.
Ledeburite: It is the eutectic mixture of Austenite and Cementite. It contains
4.3% C.
Pearlite: It is the eutectoid mixture of ferrite and Cementite. It has 0.8% C. It
has a fine plate like structure. The white ferritic background contains thin plates
of Cementite.
Recrystallization temp.: It is the temp. at which a given metal/alloy recrystallizes
completely in 1 hour. For low CS it is 1000deg.F(538deg.C). Cold working is done
below this temp.
Lower critical temp.: It is the temp. line at which first phase transformation takes
place for a particular alloy of a given composition.
Higher critical temp.: It is the temp. at which first phase transformation is
completed and second phase transformation starts for a particular alloy.
SOME METALLURGICAL TERMS
Age hardening: The properties of a metal/alloy like hardness increases at room
temperature
slowly. This happens generally after cold working or rapid cooling.
This transformation is more pronounced at high temps.
Corrosion: The deterioration of a metal by chemical or Electro-chemical reaction
with its surroundings.
Crevice corrosion: It is caused by concentration of dissolved salts, O2, and other
gases which attack crevices or pockets remote from the main fluid stream with a
resultant differential cells causing deep pitting.
Creep: It is a time-dependent strain occurring under stress. There are 3 stages
of creep - primary, secondary and tertiary with diminishing, constant and
accelerating creep rates respectively.
Erosion: Destruction of metals by the abrasive action of moving fluids (especially
with solid particles present) is termed as erosion.

Fretting:
Action that results in surface damage especially in corrosive
environment when there is relative motion between solid surfaces in contact under
pressure.
Galling: Surfaces under excessive friction are welded together between high
spots with subsequent spalling and roughening of surface.
Hard facing: Deposition of filler metal on a surface welding, brazing or spraying to
obtain a surface resistant to wear, abrasion, erosion, galling or impact.
Inter Granular Corrosion (IGC): Generally when solid solution precipitates into a
phase, the material in the vicinity of the grain boundaries becomes depleted of the
dissolved element creating a potential difference and the grain boundary will
dissolve preferentially leading to an appreciable loss in the mechanical properties.
Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC): It is the phenomena of enhanced corrosion rate
in a material under stress. The stresses can be either external or internal residual
stresses developed during cold working.
Precipitation hardening: Austenitic stainless steels are solutions- treated at high
temp. followed by air cooling, transforming it into Martensite. Aging is carried out
by reheating, giving a precipitation effect which increases strength and hardness.
E.g. 17-4 PH, 17-7PH, 17-10PH etc.
Typical composition of 17-4pH is 0.04%C, 0.4 Mn, 0.5Si, 16.5Cr, 4.25Ni, traces of
Cu and Cb..
TYPES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS
1.
Metallic 2. Non-metallic 3. Composite
1.
Metallic:
Ferrous
&

Non-ferrous

Ferrous: CS, Low Alloy Steels, SS, Cast Irons, etc.

Non-ferrous: Brasses, Bronzes, Titanium, Lead, Ni, Cu, Zirconium, etc.
2.

Non-metallic:

i)
ii)

Organic-elastomers, plastics
Inorganic- ceramic, graphite, glass wool

FERROUS CATEGORY
Cast Irons: Cast irons are Fe-C alloys with carbon varying from 2.5-3.5%.
It contains Fe, C, Si, Mn, P and S.
*Cannot be welded and therefore used only in cast form.
*Ductility of cast iron is very low.
CI Types: white, alloyed, malleable, nodular, grey, chilled cast irons.
White Cast Iron: In which all of the carbon is in the combined form as cementite
(6.67%C by wt.). It is a typical hard and brittle interstitial compound of low
tensile strength but high compressive strength.
Alloyed Cast Irons: Cast irons can be alloyed with Ni, Si, Cr, Mo, etc. Either
singly or in combination to impart resistance to corrosion, high wear resistance,
etc.
Grey Cast Iron: This group is on e of the most widely used alloys of iron.
Cheaper, low melting temperature (1140-1200deg.C), ability to take good casting
impression, wear resistance, reasonable tensile strength as well as very high
compressive strength.
Important Applications: M/C tool beds, flywheel, gearing pistons, piston rings,
Composition: C 3-3.5%, Si 1-2.75%, Mn 0.4-1.0%, P0.15-1.0%, S0.02-0.15%
and remainder Fe.
Malleable Cast Iron: Good machinability due to its superior ductility.
Imp. Applications: Marine eqpt., Conveyor and Elevator, etc.
Composition: C -2 to 2.65%, Si- 0.9 to 1.4%, Mn -0.25 to 0.55%, P
0.05

<0.18%, S-

STEEL :Steels are essentially Fe-C alloys with carbon upto 2.0% and containing
also small amounts of Mn, Si and impurities like S and P.
Steels are classified by range of carbon content as
1.
Low carbon steel: upto 0.25%C
Good ductility, plasticity and toughness
They have good weldability also.

2.
Medium carbon steels: 0.25-0.55% of C
Good combination of higher strength and good toughness. They can be hardened
easily.
3.
High carbon steels: Above 0.55% of carbon.
These steels have higher strength with reduced ductility and toughness, good
hardenability.
ALLOY STEELS: These are the types of steels in which elements other than
carbon and iron are present in sufficient quantities to modify the properties of the
material.
Reasons:
1. To increase hardness, toughness, tensile strength, corrosion and creep
resistance
3.
To maintain physical properties at high temp.
4.
To improve corrosion and fatigue resistance.
5.
To improve machinability, elasticity and case hardening characteristics.
6.
Grain refinement.
The properties of steels are greatly affected by the presence of alloying elements
as
1.

Carbon: Ductility and weldability are decreased and hardness is increased.

2.

Nickel: Tensile strength, elasticity, heat and rust resistant are improved.

3.
Chromium: Tensile strength, hardness, elasticity, heat and dust resistance
are increased. It forms passive film of chromium oxide.
4.

Manganese: Wear resistance is improved.

5.
Silicon:
decreased.

Elasticity is increased while weldability and forgeability are

6.Molybdenum: To improve pitting and crevice corrosion resistance. Mo increases

the strength of passive film especially with respect to attack by chlorides that
may poison and disrupt the protective oxide film.
Temper brittleness is eliminated while the strength is increased at high
temperatures. (Creep resistance)

7.Tungsten: Hardness is increased and tool endurance

8.Aluminium: Nitriding is improved.
9.Copper: Rust resistance is improved.
10.Phosphorus: Increases tensile strength and hot strength.
11.Sulphur: Machinability is increased.
12.Vanadium: Increases hot strength and cutting endurance.
Low and high alloy steels:
Steels with total alloying elements % less than 10 are called low alloy steels.
Higher % of alloying elements makes it high alloy steels.
Creep Resistant Steels: 1%Cr, 0.5% Mo for Steam Pipe Lines upto 500deg.C
0.5Cr, Mo, V or 1 Cr, 1Mo steels for pipe lines higher temperature (500600deg.C)
STAINLESS STEELS
These are certain alloys of iron and chromium, which are highly resistant to
corrosion and oxidation at high temperature and maintain considerable strengths
at these temperatures.
Chromium forms a strong and adherent chromium oxide film on stainless steels,
which prevents corrosion in corrosive environment and oxidation on heating.
The stainless steels are broadly grouped into 3 groups based on their
microstructure namely1.
Martensite: 11.5 to 18% Cr
2.
Ferrite
: 14 to 27%Cr
3.
Austenite : 16 to 28%Cr; 6 to 22% Ni
Martensitic: AISI 403, 410, 416
Composition: 11.5-18%Cr 0-6% Ni, 0-2% Mo
Tensile Strength: 150 kg/mm2

Martensitic stainless steels are magnetic can be machined satisfactorily, have good
toughness, show good, corrosion resistance to weather and some chemicals. They
attain the best corrosion resistance when hardened from the recommended
temperature but are not as good as austenitic or ferritic stainless steels
Hardenable steels.
Applications: springs, Razors, Ball brgs., Ball valve seats etc.
Ferritic: AISI 405, 430, 446 etc.
Composition: 14-27%Cr, 0-4%Ni, 0-4%Mo, C0.08-0.2%
Magnetic develops max. softness, ductility and corrosion resistance nonhardenable type
Applications: used for more highly stressed parts, Aircraft, Automobile pump
spindles, Motor boat propeller shafts, and Airplane fittings.
Austenitic: 302, 301, 304, 304L, 309, 316, 321, 347, etc.
Composition: 16-28%Cr, 6-22% Ni
These steels are essentially non-magnetic, in the annealed condition and do not
hardened by heat treatment. These steels have best high temp. Strength and
resistance to scaling of SS. Corrosion resistance of the Austenitic Steels is
usually better than that of martensitic or ferritic.
Austenitic Stainless Steels are prone to stress corrosion cracking in chloride
environment. These are Non-hardenable type steels.
HEAT TREATMENT
Purpose: To improve one or more properties as required by the service conditions
of the steel structures, machine components, equipment, pipe lines, etc.
To relieve the stresses set up in the material to improve machinability.
To improve mechanical properties like tensile strength, hardness, Ductility, shock
resistance, etc.
To modify the structure of the material to improve the elastic and magnetic
properties.
To increase the qualities of a metal to provide better resistance to heat corrosion
and water.
To change the grain size.
To stabilize the structure against dimensional changes.
Heat treatment processes

1.
Stress relieving 2. Annealing 3. Normalizing 4. Spheroidizing 5.Hardening
6. Tempering 7. Case hardening ( Nitriding, carbo-nitriding, cyaniding, induction
hardening) 8. Austempering
9.
Homogenization
Stress Relieving: Heating to a suitable temp.,holding long enough to reduce
residual stresses, and then cooling slowly enough to minimize the development of
residual stresses.
Annealing: Heating to and holding at a suitable temp. and then cooling at a suitable
rate, for such purpose as reducing hardness, improving machinability, producing
desired micro-structure or obtaining desired mech. properties, physical properties,
etc.
Normalizing: Normalizing is used to refine the structure of the steel to improve
machinability, tensile strength, structure of weld and remove strains caused by
cold working processes like hammering, rolling and bending.
For normalizing, the metal should be heated to 900deg.C temp., after keeping it at
the desired temp. for 15 minutes, it is cooled in open air.
Spheroidising: A heat treatment process that improves the machinability. The
process produces a spheroidal or globular form of carbide in ferrite matrix. The
process involves holding the steel at a temp. below the lower critical line. Heating
and cooling the steel alternately below and above lower critical temp can also be
done. Generally medium and high carbon steels are selected for spheroidising. The
cementite present in the microstructure takes the form of spheres.
This process also improves ductility along with machinability. Hardness is greatly
reduced.
Hardening: It is a heat treatment process, which gives high hardness. It is a
sudden/controlled cooling process, which produces a structure called Martensite
from the Austenite matrix. Sudden reduction in temp. does not allow the carbon to
diffuse into Fe (bcc) from Austenite (fcc). The carbon is trapped in Martensite
(elongated bcc) which gives the hardness. Hardening in independent of the time of
the process to which the specimen is subjected. It is dependent on temperature.
Tempering: It is a process of relieving residual internal stresses and reducing
brittleness of the hard martensitic steel. It also improves the toughness along

with ductility. It involves heating of steel to some temp. below the lower critical
temp. line.
Case Hardening: It is a surface heat treatment process that develops hard wearresistant surface with a soft tough core. There are six methods of heat
treatment, which can be employed, for hardening the core. Core depth is an
important factor.
a)
Nitriding: In this method, the surface of the steel is exposed to NH3 gas
at a suitable temp. for formation of hard nitrides of the alloying elements like Al,
Cr and MO.
b)
Carbo-nitriding: The specimen is treated with a suitable reagent, which
makes the case to absorb carbon and nitrogen simultaneously. The process is also
called nitrocarburizing, nicarbing, gas cyaniding and dry cyaniding.
Both
hydrocarbons and NH3 are simultaneously used.
c)
Cyaniding: The absorption of carbon and nitrogen by the case using
cyanides is called cyaniding. Generally, molten sodium cyanide bath is employed.
d)
Induction hardening: The localised heating of the skin of the sample by
high frequency eddy currents(induction) results in hardening of the case. The core
is kept soft by quenching immediately after induction hardening.
e)
Flame hardening: It is a localized case hardening procedure heating the
specimen on an oxy-acetylene flame while spinning the work. The depth of the case
can be controlled.
f)
Carburising: It is the process of absorption of C by the case of the steel
on exposure to CO. The depth is obtained by the dispersion of Carbon. There are
three types of carburising, viz. Gas carburising, Liquid Carburising and Pack
Carburising. The exposure time increases the case depth.
Generally, after quenching the casehardened specimen, heat treatment is employed
to relieve the residual stresses caused by thermal expansion. The specimen is
subjected to Martempering or Marquenching, which attacks the surface and core
to reach the same temp.

g) Austempering: The tempering temp. range after hardening and quenching leads
to formation of different matrices. Some of them are Bainite, Sorbite, Troostite
and Black Martensite. These are temp. time products of transformation of
Austenite. The process of transformation of Austenitic Steel to 100%. Bainite in
the temp. range of 400 to 800deg.F is called Austempering.
Homogenization: Generally, cast and hardened products are reheated to a temp.
Below the solidus line for equalization of composition. Homogenization is diffusion
of crystals in solids at a high temp. Homogenization reduces the risk of IGC.
NON-FERROUS ALLOYS AND METALS
COPPER: In its pure form it has high electrical and thermal conductivities. It is
non-magnetic, machinable and has good strength, corrosion resistance. It can be
welded/soldered/brazed. It has wide industrial and electrical applications.
BRASSES: Brasses are essentially alloys of copper and zinc. Sometimes, Pb, Sn
and Al are also added. Variations in composition will result in desired color,
strength, ductility, machinability and corrosion resistance.
ALPHA-BRASS: These alloys contain Zn upto 36%. It has an FCC structure. It
has good corrosion resistance and working properties. The % of Cu determines the
color imparted.
BETA-BRASS: The alloys having Zn >36% are called Beta-Brasses.
ALPHA+BETA BRASSES: These alloys contain 54 to 62% of Cu. The most widely
used alloy is Muntz Metal(60Cu-40Zn).
BRONZES: Bronzes are essentially Cu-tin alloys. The term however is used for
any copper alloy with the exception of Cu-Zn alloys, that contain approximately
12% of the principal alloying element.
TIN BRASSES: These are generally referred to as Phosphor Bronze since P is
always present as a de-oxidizer in casting. % of P is 0.01-0.5% and Tin 1-11%. It
has good wear resistance and machinability. Leaded bronzes are used for bushings.
SILICON BRONZE: These alloys contain Si less than 5%. These are single phase
alloys. These have good mechanical properties comparable to that of mild steels.

BERYLLIUM BRONZE: The % of Be is 0.25 max. At room temp. It is a singlephase structure. It has good formability, yield strength, fatigue resistance and
creep resistance.
CUPRO NICKLES: These are Cu-Ni alloys that contain upto 30% Ni. These are
also single phase alloys as they are completely soluble in each other. They have
high corrosion resistance and erosion resistance.
MONEL: It contains about 65% Ni and 35% Cu. It has good corrosion resistance
against acids, bases, brines and food products. It has mechanical properties
higher than brasses and bronzes but lesser than alloy steels.
CHROMEL: It contains 80% Ni and 20% Cr. It has good electrical resistance and
is used for Rheostats.
NICHROME: It contains 60% Ni, 16% Cr, 24%Fe. It has good resistance and is
used for heating elements.
INCONEL: It has a composition of 76Ni-16Cr-8Fe. It has good corrosion
resistance, strength and toughness. It has good resistance to repeated heating
and cooling. It is used in furnaces.
HASTELLOY A/B: Its composition is 57Ni-20Mo-20Fe/62Ni-28Mo-5Fe. The
structure comprises of globules of cartrides in FCC gamma-matrix. These are
Austenitic and hence donot age-harden. They have outstanding strength and
oxidation resistance at high temps. They are used in furnaces, turbine blades, jetengine foil pipes, etc. They are also used for springs.
ILLIUM B/G:
Their compositions are 50Ni-28Cr-8.5Mo-5.5Cu/56Ni-22.5Cr6.5Mo-6.5Cu. These alloys are resistant to HNO3 and H2So4. These alloys have
high hardness in corrosive environments.
ALLUMINIUM ALLOYS: Aluminum forms many alloys with Cu, Mg, Mn, Si, and Zn.
They have high corrosion resistance due to the formation of protective oxide film.
They are easily machinable and formable.

LEAD BASE BABBITS: These are also called White metal alloys. They are PbSn-Sb-As alloys. Their melting point is low and is used as bearing materials. The
typical composition is 80%Pb, 10%Sb, 5%Sn, 3%As.
TIN BASE BABBITS: The typical composition is 90%Sn, 8%Sb, 2%Cu. These are
generally cast and have excellent wear resistance. They are used for high-grade
bearing applications.
TITANIUM: It has a high strength/wt. Ratio. It can form interstitial compounds
with H2, O2 and N2, which have a strengthening effect. If compound formation is
high, it is called embrittlement leading to reduction in impact resistance and
brittle failure. It has high corrosion resistance, ductility but its strength is low.
It is soft and passive. It can be used for tubes, piping etc. where little strength is
required.
ZIRCONIUM: It has properties much similar to Titanium.
NICKEL: Nickel in its pure form has good mechanical properties and is corrosion
resistant. It has good resistance to alkaline media. It has applications as pipes,
tube, strips, wires, plates and sheets.
CONSTANTAN: Typical composition is 45 to 60%Cu, rest Ni and some traces of
Fe and Mn. It has relatively constant resistivity irrespective of temperature.
INVAR: 35%Ni,65%Fe has constant thermal coefficient of expansion.
ELINVAR: 38%Ni, 12%Cr,50%Fe has a zero thermoelastic coefficient. The
modulus of elasticity is constant over a range in temp. It is used for springs and
balance wheels.
PERMALLOY: 78% Ni rest Fe has high magnetic permeability.
ALNICO: 8-12%Al, 14-28%Ni, 5-35%Co, and rest Fe. It has outstanding magnetic
properties.
TOOL STEELS: Tool steels should have toughness, hardness, machinability, and
shock resistance, wear resistance, hot-hardness and cutting endurance. Generally,
the alloying elements added are C, Mn, Si, Cr, Ni, V, W, Mo, Co, and Al. The type of

quenching employed is used to classify tool steels. Some types of tool steels are
High C high Cr-base, W-base, Mo-base, C-W type, and High-speed W type. A
typical W steel has the composition:
0.7%C, 4%Cr, 2%V, 18%W, 5%Co
CARBIDE PRECIPITATION: During welding and subsequent cooling in the range of
800deg.F to 1500deg.F, chromium forms chromium carbide resulting in reduction
of corrosion resistance. To avoid this, low carbon type of austenitic SS like 304L
and 316L are used. But in continuous high temp. service even these low C types fail
after welding (multi-pass). To meet these requirements, stabilizers like Ti, Cb
(Nb) or Ta is added which readily form carbides retaining chromium. These are
called stabilized grades of stainless steels. E.g. 321,347,348,321H, 347H, 348H
SPECIAL MATERIALS:
1)
STELLITE: These are essentially Cr.-W-Co alloys. They contain 25-35%Cr,
4-25%W, 1-3%C, and 37-70%Co. They are very hard alloys. Hardness varies from
RCA 40 to 60. They consist of tungstides and carbides. They have excellent wear
resistance and corrosion resistance. They are used for machine tools but they are
brittle as they are generally cast.
2)
NIMONIC: These are generally Ni-Cr or Ni-Cr-Co alloys. They are
precipitation hardenable. Typical composition is 18-21%Cr, Ti-0.2to0.6%, 0.08to
0.15%C, 1%Si, 1%Mn,0.5%Cu, Max.5%Fe, rest Ni. They have excellent wear
resistance, strength, creep and corrosion resistance at high temps. They are used
in gas turbines, IC engines, etc.
3)
INCOLOY: These are basically Ni-Fe-Cr alloys, which have excellent
corrosion and oxidation resistance at high temp. They have good strength, creep
resistance and resistance to the SCC. Their limiting composition is 30-35%Ni,
39.5% min.Fe, 0.1%max.C, 19-23%Cr, and traces of Mn, S, Si, Cu, Al, Ti. They are
used in furnaces and steam generators.
4)
SANDVIK 2RE 69: Sandvik A.G has developed more alloyed Austenitic SS
for HP Carbamate services in Urea plants. Its composition is 25-22-2 Cr-Ni-Mo.
It has 0.02% max.C. The % of Mo is 2.1% exactly. It is a patent material. Its
corrosion rate is 0.12 mm/year. It is used in E-101, R-101 and E-105 for internals.
It is commonly known as 25-22-2 Cr-Ni-Mo.

5)
SS 316L UREA GRADE (or) 3R60 UREA GRADE: It is a patent material
developed by SANDVIK Steels. Its composition is 17.5%Cr, 14%Ni, 26%Mo,
0.02%max.C. Its corrosion rate is 0.6mm/year. It is used in R-101, MV-101, and E105.
6)
SINTERED (or) CEMENTED CARBIDES: These are finely divided carbide
particles of Si, W, Ti, Ta bound together by sintering or pressing at high temps.
Co powder added acts like a binder. These materials have high hardness and
compressive strength and are used as cutting tools.
7)
MANURITE 36XM: The compostion of this alloy is 36%Ni, 22%C r, 1%Si,
1.5%Mn, 0.2%Ti, rest Fe. It has very good creep resistance at high temps. And is
generally cast as pipes or tubes. This alloy is used in F-201, EF-201 tubes.
Manurite 36X grade does not contain Titanium.
8)
FERRALIUM: Composition is 29.1%Cr, 9%Ni, 1%Cu, Co-0.2%, 0.7%Si,
1.5%Mn, 0.1%Al, 0.09%V, 0.2%Nb, 52%Fe, 4.76%W. Typical composition is 30Cr10Ni-5W-55Fe. This material has excellent machinability. Very good surface finish
can be obtained. This material is used for valve spindles, tubes, plugs, etc.
Corrosion resistance is also very high.
9)
DUPLEX STAINLESS STEELS:
These steels contain a 2-phase
microstructure of equal amounts of Austenite and Ferrite. It has higher
resistance to Cl- and SCC. It has higher strength and weldability at 100 to 300 +
deg.C. Slight O2 passivation is sufficient. These steels are used instead of 3R60
and 2RE69 by SNAM & STAMICARBON for UREA HP loop internals. Safurex TM
and Safurex 120 are typical grades.
Sumitomo DP3 Urea grade
Cr.
NIA
Moo
Austenite

24.8 to 26.0
6.5 to 7.5
2.5 to 3.2
---

Nippon R4 Urea Grade

24 to 26
6 to 7
1.2 to 2.0
40 to 60%

Corrosion Rate 0.05 mm/year in 65% boiling HNO3.

10)
HASTELLOY X: This alloy is used in the hot gas path of GT-A/B, where
high temperatures are prevalent. The composition is as follows: 0.07%C, 21.7%Cr,
48.6%Ni, 9%Mo, 0.6%W, 1.5%Co, 18.5%Fe.
11)
UDIMET 500: This is the material used for second stage buckets of GTA/B. Its composition is 0.07%C, 18.5%Cr, 18.5%Co, 4%Mo, 3%Ti, 3%Al, rest Ni.
INCONEL 738 is used for first stage buckets.
12)
HK 40: It is a high-alloy SS either extruded or cast (centrifugally), used
for high temp. service. The composition is 25%Cr, 20%Ni. It is cast to retain a
coarse grain structure resistant to creep. In earlier days these tubes were used in
primary reformers of Ammonia Plants.