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Testing building materials

a

R.C. McLean , G.H. Galbraith & C.H. Sanders

a

Division of ThermFluid and Environmental Engineering, University of Strathclyde,

Building Research Establishment, Scottish Laboratory,

Version of record first published: 08 May 2007.

To cite this article: R.C. McLean , G.H. Galbraith & C.H. Sanders (1990): Testing building materials, Batiment
International, Building Research and Practice, 18:2, 82-91
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BUILDING RESEARCH AND PRACTICE

THE JOURNAL OF CIB

NUMBER 2 1990

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Testing building materials

Moisture transmission testing
of building materials and the
presentation of vapour
permeability values
VAPOUR TRANSMISSION PERFORMANCE OF BUILDING
MATERIALS WITH PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO APPLICATION
OF COMPUTATIONAL TECHNIQUES FOR INTERSTITIAL
CONDENSATION PREDICTION
R.C. McLean

G.H. Galbraith

C.H. Sanders

R.C. McLean and G.H. Galbraith of the Division of Therm-Fluid and Environmental Engineering
at the University of Strathclyde and C.H. Sanders of the Building Research Establishment,
Scottish Laboratory describe an experimental and mathematical procedure for the
specification of differential permeability. Functions are developed for a number of commonly
used building components.
R.C. McLean et G.H. Galbraith de la division Therm-Fluid and Environmental Engineering de l'Universit de
Strathclyde et C.H. Sanders du Building Research Establishment, Scottish Laboratory, dcrivent une
procdure exprimental et mathmatique destine la spcification de la permeabilit diffrentielle. Des
fonctions sont dveloppes pour un certain nombre de composants habituellement utilliss dans le
btiment.

Introduction
As a prerequisite to the successful application of interstitial condensation prediction techniques, a designer must
have access to accurate values of vapour permeability
which are appropriate to the multiplicity of conditions
under which materials may operate. This question was
addressed in a previous paper (ref. 1) in which it was
shown that the currently available database, although
reasonably voluminous, in no way fulfils this requirement.
Permeability data is often inaccurate, confusing, and in
some cases misleading. Moreover, existing recommended standard tests offer no satisfactory basis for an
improved database, as the single, or double, value specification of permeability which they provide is completely inadequate for the purpose (refs 1,2). Clearly there is a
necessity for a new approach to the vapour transmission
testing of materials and the presentation of permeability
data in a form which can be unambiguously and confidently applied by a designer under any given set of
circumstances.
Where permeability is dependent upon relative humid-

ity, as it will be for many building materials, an accurate

description of material performance can only be given in
the form of a curve of differential permeability. This
allows the average permeability of a material, as used in
vapour flow calculations, to be predicted for any imposed
humidity difference across it (refs 3,4).
The concepts of differential (/*) and average (Ji) permeability were discussed in the previous paper (ref. 1)
and a differential permeability curve was generated for an
exterior quality plywood at a test temperature of 25C.
Since that time, research has continued at the University
of Strathclyde into the vapour transmission performance
of building materials. This current paper summarizes the
results of this latest work.

Test materials
Over the course of the experimental investigation, five
different types of material were tested: plywood; plasterboard; wood; insulation; brick. These were selected as
components commonly found in building structures and

MOISTURE TRANSMISSION TESTING

83

Table 1. Description of the test materials

Material

Density
(kg/m3)

12

503

12
9
12
15
25
12

564
784
752
391

Plywood (1)
(External Grade)
Plywood (2)
(External Grade)
Plasterboard (1)
Plasterboard (2)
Wood
Insulation
Brick (Facing)
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Description of Material

Dry

Sample
Nominal
Thickness
(mm)

16.6
2158

constituting a fairly wide range of possible transmission

behaviour. Some details of the test materials are given in
Table 1.
Plywood 1 was used primarily in the development of the
test procedure and was not subjected to the full range of
experimental temperatures.
The facing brick was tested in samples cut to a nominal
thickness of 12 mm. Due to the difficulties described in
Preparation of Samples, testing was restricted to 15 and
20C.

Test procedure

5-ply Brazilian, Brumasa Madieras wood with WBP

formaldehyde glue
5-ply Malaysian, Malaysian Morranti wood with WBP
formaldehyde glue
'Gyproc' gypsum (Thin - 9 mm)
'Gyproc' gypsum (Thick- 12mm)
Norway spruce - variety Picea abies
Expanded polystyrene
Facing brick - 'Sandelwood' manufactured by Steetley

Environmental
/Chamber

Vapour Row
-Sample
P2,T1

v.p.
Regulator -

.Cup

Fig. 1. Standard permeability test method

General arrangement
The general test method adopted followed the conventional gravimetric approach described in ref. 1 (Fig. 1).
Samples of the test materials were sealed into the mouths
of impermeable 'cups' containing a vapour pressure
regulator. The cups were positioned in an environmental
chamber where the outside surfaces of the samples were
exposed to a controlled atmosphere. With this arrangement, a constant vapour pressure difference (N/m2) was
maintained across the material and the vapour flux (q,
kg/m2s) for each sample found from the steady change in
the weight of the cup. The average permeability (jS,
kgm/Ns) corresponding to the test conditions (pi, p2) was
then calculated from

P\-Pz

(1)

where L is the sample thickness in metres.

The relationship between average and differential
permeability over a given humidity range was established in the previous paper (ref. 1) and is illustrated as
Fig. 2.

Test cups
Over the course of the research a variety of cup designs,
involving different shapes and constructional materials,
were investigated. From the experience gained, it was
concluded that circular cups in glass presented the most
convenient test combination. The sealant used was a

Area
Area

1 Area 1
2 = Area 2'

P(RH)
P, (RH,)

P 2 (RHj)

Fig. 2. Relation between average and differential

permeability
mixture of 80% microcrystalline wax and 20% plasticizer.
The experimental permeability testing involved three
different cup designs. The cups used and their particular
applications are outlined below:
British Standard (BS) cup
Detail of the BS cup and the associated sealing procedure
have already been given in ref. 1.
The main advantage apparent with this system was the
positive seal formed between the sample and the cup.
The main disadvantages encountered were the length of

84

time required to make the seal and the inability of the

arrangement to accommodate the considerable expansion and distortion undergone by wooden samples during
the equilibrium period. There were also practical limitations on the thickness of sample which could be mounted.
The BS cup was the first employed in the test programme and was used with plywood, plasterboard and
brick.

McLEANetai.

ZZ.90 mm. dia. Template

l
I W
Wax sealant
107 mm. dia. Perspex
annular mounting
ring

25mm

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^Sample (93 mm. dia.)

Modified crystallization dish (Fig. 3)

This cup was devised particularly for testing wood. As in
the BS cup, it was constructed from commercially available glassware, in this case a 90 mm diameter crystallization dish modified by the addition of an annular mounting
ring to hold the sealant.
The crystallization dish supported a larger sample than
the BS cup and required a greater quantity of sealant and
vapour pressure regulator. It was the only arrangement
successfully used with wood, although it did have a small
masking error associated with its design. From the
conformal transformation analysis of Greebler, this can be
estimated as being of the order of 5% (ref. 5).

_ 9 0 mm. int. dia.

Crystallization dish
with vapour pressure
regulator.

Fig. 3. The modified crystalliza tion dish

9Smm.dia.

Wax sealant

25mm

Taper cup (Fig. 4)

This cup was designed to provide a simple sealing
procedure and the mounting of samples did, in fact, take
considerably less time than with the BS cup. It was
manufactured to the indicated specification by a specialist glass company. As with the crystallization dish,
samples of any thickness could be accommodated by
modifying the arrangement accordingly.
The taper cup was used in the testing of polystyrene.

Test conditions and vapour pressure

regulators

Sample(diameter vari able

to suit thickness)

.Vapour pressure
regulator

Fig. 4. The taper cup

Temperature
With the exception of brick, permeability testing was
carried out on the selected material types at four temperatures - 10, 15, 20 and 25C.

Relative humidity
In the initial stages of the work it became apparent that
the measurement of average permeability values for use
in the construction of differential permeability curves
could most effectively be done through a combination of
different vapour pressure regulators and chamber conditions. It was also anticipated that the specification of such
curves for any given temperature would require as many
as 10-12 separate test results.
In consequence of this latter viewpoint, the early test
sequences, carried out on plywood (1) at 20 and 25C,
were rather elaborate. For example, the sequence at 25CC,
which was detailed in ref. 1, combined three chamber
conditions with wet cups, dry cups and six saturated salt
solutions, giving a total of eleven results, representing in
many cases overlapping humidity regions. The work
involved in preparing this large number of samples was
very demanding and would have been difficult to sustain
over a long test programme. In addition, because of the
excessive amount of information which had to be reconciled, the application of such a volume of results proved to
be difficult and time-consuming.

It was obvious that the experimental investigation

would have to be based on a simpler test procedure and,
consequently, a reappraisal of the actual information
necessary to allow the accurate generation of a differential permeability curve was undertaken. This reappraisal
was influenced by three observations. First, curve construction was rendered a much simpler task if results for
overlapping humidity regions were modified to correspond to consecutive regions (Fig. 5); second, a test result
does not define a single point on a curve but the stricter
condition of two areas which must be matched (Fig. 2);
third, the predicted change in permeability with humidity
at low values of humidity is small (ref. 1).
On the basis of these considerations, it was concluded
that a procedure incorporating the following chamber and
internal relative humidities represented the optimum for
specification of the permeability-humidity relationship:
chamber
60%
80%

vapour pressure regulator

wet cup (100%)
dry cup (0%)
salt solution (-90%)
wet cup (100%)

The above sequence was adopted for the major part of

the experimental programme and was found to be fully
adequate for all the material types tested.

85

MOISTURE TRANSMISSION TESTING

were used: Ammonium dihydrogen orthophosphate

(NH4H2PO4) or Zinc sulphate (ZnSO4).
The equilibrium humidities of these salts over the test
temperature range are given in Table 2. The ZnSO4 value
at 20C and the NH4H2PO4 values at 20/25C are tabulated
figures (ref. 9). The remaining values have been calculated using a temperature-correction procedure based on
the Clausius-Clapeyron equation for liquid-vapour
equilibrium (ref. 10). The variation of these equilibrium
relative humidities is small over the temperature range
considered as seen from the average and standard deviations presented in Table 2.

Preparation of samples

RH2
Relative Humidity /

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Fig. 5. The permeability of overlapping and

consecutive humidity regions
Vapour pressure regulators
Wet cups

Distilled water was used as the vapour pressure regulator

in the wet cup arrangement. In accordance with accepted
convention (refs 5,6), the vapour pressure at the inside
surface of the test specimen was taken as the saturation
vapour pressure at the chamber temperature. Strictly, of
course, this is an approximation, as a vapour pressure
difference will exist between the liquid surface and the
sample. With an airspace of 10-15 mm, as used in the
experimental work, a drop typically equivalent to 0.5-2%
RH can be predicted on the basis that the air is still.
However, in practice, convection effects due to density
gradients within the cup will act to reduce this internal
resistance (ref. 6).
Dry cups
The desiccant selected for the dry cup tests was calcium
chloride. The use of this material is widely recommended
(refs 6,7) and its performance as a vapour pressure
regulator has been well investigated by Chang and
Hutcheon (ref. 8). They showed that, for an airspace of
6 mm, the effective relative humidity in a dry cup could be
limited to about 3 %, provided that pre-drying was carried
out at 200C, the cup was shaken periodically during the
test and the moisture content at the end of the test was
restricted to 10%. With a chamber condition of 60%RH,
this corresponds to a maximum error of about 5 %. In order
further to reduce any such effects, the airspace used in
this work was 3-4 mm and the maximum test-end moisture content was typically 2%.
Salt solutions
In order to produce the required internal relative humidity
of around 90%, either of two saturated salt solutions

For each vapour pressure regulator, generally six material

specimens were tested. It was felt that this represented
the minimum number required in order to account for
experimental variations. A larger number of samples,
although desirable, became rather impracticable in terms
of preparation time.
All of the specimens used in the tests, except brick,
were turned on a lathe. The BS cup generally used a
64.5 mm diameter sample, the crystallization cup a 93 mm
sample and the taper cup a 77 mm sample. Lathe-cutting
allowed the required diameters to be produced to an
accuracy of 0.1 mm, without causing any damage to the
structure of the material. Brick specimens were prepared
by coring whole bricks to a diameter of 64.5 mm and then
slicing the core to a nominal thickness of 12 mm using a
diamond-tipped saw.
In order to standardize the state of materials prior to
testing, the cut samples were generally preconditioned in
the chamber at the test relative humidity of 60%. Preconditioning was continued until no gain or loss of weight
was observed. Before mounting, the average thickness of
each batch of specimens was measured with a micrometer.

Attainment of equilibrium
After the material samples had been mounted, the sealed
cups were placed in the environmental chamber at the
initial test relative humidity of 60%. Results from the tests
which were used in the calculation of permeability required the attainment of an equilibrium for each cup
assembly, i.e. a linear weight gain/loss with time. The
period taken to reach this condition varied with the
material under test and the chamber temperature.
Over the range of test temperatures, the plasterboard
and polystyrene came to equilibrium quickly, while the
wood and brick generally took several days. The longest
equilibrium times occurred with plywood and, at the
lower test temperatures, substantial intervals were

Table 2. Equilibrium relative humidities of selected salt solutions

Salt

NH 4 H 2 PO 4
ZnSO 4

Temperature C
10

15

20

25

93.8
92.9

93.4
91.4

93.1
90

93
88.8

Average
%RH

Standard
deviation

93.3
90.8

0.36
1.77

McLEAN etal.

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86

involved. The data corresponding to the wet cups illustrate this point.
25C 4 days
20C 7 days
15C 18 days
10C 28 days
Where salt solutions were used with plywood, the
equilibrium periods were even longer than the figures
quoted above. In fact, at 10C, an equilibrium condition
had still not been attained after several weeks in the
chamber. In view of this difficulty, it was decided not to
pursue the use of salt solutions at the two lower test
temperatures but instead to restrict the plywood tests to
wet and dry cups at the chamber humidity of 60%RH.
Although this was a deviation from the planned sequence, it was felt that sufficient information would be
gathered to allow the verification of general material
behaviour over the RH range and the identification of any
significant temperature effect.
Once an equilibrium had been established, sufficient
readings were taken to permit the accurate specification
of the slope of the weight change-time function. Generally, five readings were considered appropriate and a
standard regression technique was applied to determine
the 'best-fit' line. The weighing of the test cups was
normally conducted on a daily basis, although where the
vapour flow rates were particularly small, a two-day
interval was used.
After completion of the tests at 60%RH, the chamber
relative humidity was increased to 80% and the procedure
was repeated, in this case using only the wet cups.

Results
The results of the experimental investigation are presented here under the following format:
Test values of average permeability describes the
tabulations of average permeability determined on the
basis of the weighing, regression and calculation
procedure already outlined.
Material performance describes the generation of differential permeability relations for each of the test
materials.
Temperature effect illustrates the effects of temperature on the test values of permeability obtained and
general material behaviour.

Test values of average permeability

Table 3 summarizes the average permeabilities determined for the selected test materials.
This table gives the differences in relative humidity
across the samples, and the mean values of JL for each test
temperature. The relative humidity ranges quoted agree
generally with the test sequence previously outlined. In
cases where salt solutions were used, the permeabilities
have been calculated using the actual relative humidities
for each temperature as given in Table 2. However, for
ease of presentation the results are given corresponding
to a nominal relative humidity of 93% which is the average
equilibrium value for NH4H2PO4. Results determined
using ZnSO4 are distinguished using an asterisk (*).
During some tests at 10C, a chamber humidity of 65%
was used instead of 60 % and in those cases the results are
marked (+). This occurred where the prevailing atmospheric conditions prevented the lower value from being
within the capability of the air-conditioning plant.

Material performance: differential

permeability relations at 20C
Plywood, wood, brick
Figs 6 to 9 contain differential permeability curves for
plywood (types 1 and 2), wood and brick. In drawing these
curves, the experimental average permeability values
(Table 3) were first modified to correspond to the consecutive humidity intervals: 0-60; 60-80; 80-90(93); 90(93)100 on the basis of the area-weighting technique of Fig. 5.
These results were then applied in accordance with the
construction procedure illustrated in Fig. 2.
Curve fitting
The differential permeability curves shown could be
used, as given, to evaluate Jl for any specified humidity
interval (ref. 1). However, a more practical description of
the i(RH) function would be in the form of a mathematical
relationship. To this end, a curve-fitting exercise was
undertaken.
From an examination of the hand-drawn constructions
and a comprehensive investigation of the various possibilities, it was established that an acceptable correlation for
the data was obtained using an exponential-type equation superimposed upon a constant value taken as the dry

Table 3. Average permeability test results kgm/Ns xlO1

RH difference

0-60

60-100

80-100

60-93

across sample
20
25
10
10
15
Temp. (C)
0.10 Plywood (1)
0.10 0.12
0.10 0.11
0.49
Plywood (2)
Plasterboard (1) 2.00 2.18
2.13 2.10
2.39
2.37 2.33
2.82
Plasterboard (2) 2.30 2.42
0.18 0.16 + 1.56
+0.31 0.23
Wood
0.64 0.62 +0.61
Insulation
+0.63 0.62

Brick
0.071 0.073

15
0.47
2.64
3.05
1.57
0.61
0.24

20
0.69
0.53
2.62
3.21
1.42
0.63
0.22

25
0.52
2.44
3.00
1.28
0.65

+Environmental chamber at 65% RH. Rather than 60% RH

*Zinc sulphate used as vapour pressure regulator (RH 91% - see Table 2)

10
+2.67
+3.10
+ 1.47
+0.62

15
2.43
3.00
1.35
0.66
0.15

20
0.35
*0.29
*2.33
2.87
1.15
0.66
0.13

25
*0.28
*2.36
2.81
0.95
0.68

10
3. 04
3. 52
2. 20
0. 63

15
2.75
3.46
2.40
0.64
0.36

20
1.15
0.88
3.04
3.57
2.30
0.64
0.34

25
0.88
2.82
3.42
2.07
0.64
-

MOISTURE TRANSMISSION TESTING

87

Table 4. Curve fit parameters for plywood, wood and brick

Constant

Material

1.02 x 10"i2
1.04 xlO- 12
0.18 xlO""
0.73 x 10-12

Plywood (1)
Plywood (2)
Wood
Brick

9.158 x
5.505 x
1.959 x
1.652 x

0.102
0.105
0.076
0.106

Table 5. Comparison between mathematically predicted and measured permeabilities for plywood,
wood and brick
Relative humidity range

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Material

Plywood (1)
Plywood (2)
Wood
Brick

Measured
Predicted
Measured
Predicted
Measured
Predicted
Measured
Predicted

0-60

60-100

60-90(93)

80-100

1.02x10-12
1.09 xlO" 12
1.04x10-12
1.09x10-12
0.18x10-"
0.22X10-U
0.73 x 10-i2

6.87 x 10"i2
6.96 x 10-12
5.34 xlO- 12

3.48 x lO" 12

11.50X10-12
11.53 xlO- 12
8.79 x 10-i2
9.39 x 10-12
2.30x10-"
2.19x10""
3.38xlO"i2
3.48 x 1Q-12

(2)

where A is the intercept on the p axis, and is equivalent to

Mo-60- Other forms of curve-fit equations can be generated
which are more accurate, but the increase in accuracy
achieved does not warrant the increase in the number of
characteristic constants required for each material.
The parameters A, B and C for plywood, wood and brick
are given in Table 4, and the resulting curves are shown in
the same figures as the hand-drawn graphs. The values
listed for B and C were determined by carrying out a
regression analysis on the permeability data for the
consecutive humidity intervals, 60-80; 80-90(93); 90(93)100. It was assumed in this analysis that the average
permeability data for each humidity region could be taken
as being equivalent to the spot permeability corresponding to the region mid-point. As the intervals of relative
humidity in each case are small, the error associated with
this assumption is small.
The average permeability for a given RH range can be
predicted from the integrated form of equation (2)
2

-e~

1.42x10""
1.41x10""

1.15x10-"
1.02x10""

2.21 x IO-12
2.27x10-12

0.74 x 10" 12

cup measurement with the chamber set at 60% relative

humidity. Thus

JUe

5.73 x IO-12

3.79x10-12
2.86xlO-i 2
2.13x10-12

(3)

where RHj and RH2 represent the limits of integration.

Inserting limits which correspond to the test relative
humidity conditions, Table 5 indicates a favourable
comparison between the original experimental results
and the average permeability values obtained with this
equation.

1.34x10-12
1.60x10-12

Plasterboard, polystyrene
The behaviour of these materials is significantly different
from those discussed in the previous paragraphs, having
only a small variation in permeability over the test ranges
considered. The experimental permeabilities for these
materials have been plotted at the mid-point relative
humidities as shown in figs 10 to 12. Linear regression has
been used to determine a best-fit straight line for each
material as given below:
Thin plasterboard: M = (1.68 + 0.0124RH)
x lO-" kgm/Ns
Thick plasterboard: fi= (1.78 + 0.018RH)
x 10-" kgm/Ns
;u = (0.64 +1.81 xlO- 5 RH)
Polystyrene:
x 1Q-"k g m / N s
The above equations are shown plotted in the corresponding figs 10 to 12. Inspection of these lines shows that
the gradient in each case is relatively small. Therefore,
only a limited loss of accuracy would result if a constant
value of permeability corresponding to ^60-100 was used
over the range of interest for calculation purposes.
For consistency with the results for plywood, wood and
brick, it is possible to apply the same exponential form of
differential permeability relation to plasterboard and
polystyrene, with the parameters B and C being designated as zero where necessary (Table 6).

Temperature effect
The relationship between test temperature and permeability can be examined by calculating the overall
average permeability /I&-100 for plywood (2), plasterboard
(thick and thin), wood and polystyrene. This has been

McLEAN etai.

88
2

x 10

HAND DRAWN
MATHEMATICAL FUNCTION

2S
26

ft =(102 +9-158)i 10' 4 e 0l<!2RH )XX5 12

24

HAND DRAWN
MATHEMATICAL FUNCTION

22

y. = ( 0 - 7 3 * 1 - 6 5 2 x l O " 4 e

20

)X1O M 2

>ihty,u kgm/N

J
/

2 10
E

2
30

40

Relative

50

60

70

80

90

1
a

Q.

2
1
0

100

10

30
40
so
eo
Relative Humidity'/.

20

Humidity "'

Fig. 6. Differential permeability of plywood

(l)at20C

70

80

90

Fig. 9. Differential permeability ofbrick at 20C

HAND DRAWN
MATHEMATICAL FUNCTION
= (104 + 5-505

JO

40
50
60
Relative Humidity*/.

10

Fig. 7. Differential permeability of plywood

(2)at20C

20

30
40
50
60
Relative Humidity /

70

80

90

WO

Fig. 10. Differential permeability of plasterboard

(thin)at20C

XlO

HAND DRAWN

40

1
1
II

MATHEMATICAL FUNCTION
, -3 0076RH )x , c -11
p- = (0-18 + 1-959 x 0 e

35

a
E

vt

30
ut
2
- 2 5

X1O'

II

z
E
n't-O

//
//
//
/ /
/ /
/ /
/ /

is
//

io

>
S 3
o
E20

_^,

___-

+
"

"

Per

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IO6RH

//

1-0

05
0
0

10

20

30
40
50
Relative Humidity'/.

$0

70

60

90

Fig. 8. Differential permeability of wood at 20C

100

10

20

30
40
50
60
Relative Humidity /.

70

80

90

100

Fig. 11. Differential permeability of plasterboard

(thick) at 20C

100

89

MOISTURE TRANSMISSION TESTING

Table 6. Curve-fit parameters for plasterboard and polystyrene

Constant
Material

Plasterboard (thin)
Plasterboard (thick)
Polystyrene

2.62
3.21
0.63

0
0
0

Z 0-8

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10

20

30

40
SO
SO
Relative Humidity

70
"/

80

90

100

Fig. 12. Differential permeability of polystyrene

at20C

determined for each of the four test temperatures using

the 0-60% and 60-100% relative humidity data. By area
weighting
Mo-ioo = 0.6

+ 0.4 (M6O-IOO)

The percentage differences between JIo-ioo at 20C and

the corresponding values at the other test temperatures
have then been evaluated for each material and plotted as
shown in Fig. 13. This figure illustrates that the effect of
temperature is small and clearly indicates that there is no
obvious relationship between test temperature and permeability.

Discussion of results
The test results are discussed under two headings,
'Material Performance' and 'Temperature Effect'.
Material performance
The differential permeability graphs given in Figs 6 to 12
illustrate clearly that the materials tested can be classified
under two distinct performance patterns, which relate
generally to the expected transmission characteristics of
non-hygroscopic and hygroscopic media (ref. 1). With
plasterboard and polystyrene, only relatively small variations in permeability with humidity occur, whereas with
wood, plywood and brick, extremely large variations are
evident. For example, for plywood (2), the value of
permeability at 9 5 % RH is some twenty times greater than
the value at low humidity.

0
0
0

Polystyrene, plasterboard
The permeability of polystyrene is effectively constant
over the whole humidity range and any of the test values
plotted in Fig. 12 would be sufficient for its specification.
Plasterboard displays an increase in permeability with
humidity, due probably to the effects of the paper coating,
although this is small compared with the changes which
occur with wood, plywood and brick. The permeability
variations for both thicknesses are accurately represented by the linear regression relations shown in Figs 10
and 11. Similar expressions could, of course, be obtained
from two test results, one at high humidity and the other
at low humidity. It is also clear that, at the expense of
some accuracy, the vapour permeability of this material
would be adequately specified by a single test value,
preferably one corresponding to the upper end of the
humidity range, e.g. At6o-iooPlywood, wood, brick
From Figs 6 to 9, the existence of two effective humidity
regimes is clearly identified, with a transition between
them occurring at around 60%RH for plywood and wood
and 75%RH for brick. Below this transition, material
behaviour is similar to that of plasterboard, with the
permeability increasing only slowly with humidity.
Above the transition, changes in permeability are rapid.
The higher transition humidity apparent for brick suggests a much smaller pore size distribution than exists for
the other materials.
The obvious dependence of permeability on humidity
for plywood, wood and brick confirms the uniqueness of
permeability test values to the conditions of the test (refs
1,2). Values of permeability presented without reference
to the test conditions, as illustrated in ref. 1, are therefore
of little use to a designer. However, even where test
conditions are specified, the permeability values quoted
may still bear little relevance to the permeability associated with the conditions to which a material might be
subjected in practice. For example, a relative humidity
range of 75100% is not untypical of the situation which
could prevail during the winter months. Under such
operating conditions, the average permeabilities for the
four test materials can be determined from the appropriate mathematical equations as
plywood (1): 9.93 x 10"12kgm/Ns
plywood (2): 8.10 x 10"12kgm/Ns
wood: 19.3 x 10~12kgm/Ns
brick: 3.05 x 10"12 kgm/Ns
These values can be compared with the permeabilities
listed in Table 7, which correspond to the humidity limits
for the standard tests of various countries. It is clear that
the actual average permeabilities for the required 75100% RHrange differ substantially, in some cases by a

90

McLEAN etal.

Table 7. Values of average permeability for plywood, wood and brick pertaining to standard tests
Standard
test
British (ref. 11)
French (ref. 7)
German (ref. 12)

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American (ref. 6)

Permeability kgm/Ns x 1012

RH

Range
0-75
0-88
0-88.5
0-50
50-93
0-50
50-100
0-90
90-100

Plywood (1)

Plywood (2)

Wood

Brick

1.21
1.66
1.69
0.95

1.16
1.47

0.8

0.98

3.4

2.7

2.7
4.0
4.1
1.8
8.6
1.8

1.5

0.95

0.98

5.8
1.8

4.6
1.6

17.8

13.9

factor of about ten, from the values which would be

obtained from the various standards and that, by themselves, these test results would be insufficient to predict
values for other conditions.
It is interesting to note that the values given above for
plywood, namely 9.93 and 8.10 x 10"12 kgm/Ns, are in
excess of even the largest value which appears in Table 2
of ref. 1 and some 50 times greater than the smallest.
Another point of interest is that the 3.05 x 10"12 kgm/Ns
figure for brick is almost ten times less than the typical
design values quoted in refs (3) and (11). The unsatisfactory state of the currently available permeability database, which was the question addressed in ref. 1, is
therefore given further confirmation.
Temperature effect
From Table 3 and Fig. 13 it is seen that values of average
permeability do vary with the test temperature. However,
the following important observations can be made:
The largest variations in permeability which occur with
temperature are small compared to the variations
which can occur with changing humidity.
For the various materials tested, the overall average
permeability, /IQ-IOOI displays remarkably little variation over the test temperature range. The maximum %
differences from the values calculated at 20C indicated in Fig. 13isoftheorderof7% for plywood, 7% for
plasterboard, 3% for polystyrene and 13% for wood.
The relative magnitudes of the wet cup, M60-100, and dry
cup, /I0-60. values, which will exert a governing influence on the shape of the differential permeability
graphs, generally show no significant changes with
temperature.
No specific trend in the effect of temperature on
permeability is apparent, with each material displaying different characteristics. It may be that structural
variability within a given material classification may
account for some of the identified changes in average
permeability.
In the light of the above points and on the basis of the
materials tested, it seems reasonable to suggest that
there is no significant temperature effect on permeability
under isothermal conditions and that, for practical purposes, differential permeability relations generated at
20C may be considered representative of material performance over the normal range of temperatures associated with building design problems.

1.23
1.28
0.73
1.26
0.73
1.93
0.91
5.05

12.25
4.4

31.2

Conclusions and recommendations

Conclusions
The main conclusions which can be drawn from the
experimental work reported can be summarized as follows:
The vapour permeability of building materials is not
affected significantly by the prevailing ambient
temperature.
For effectively non-hygroscopic materials, such as
plasterboard and polystyrene, the permeability is

V H

10

/i?

""w^-^lS1 'C

r .10
b
! - 5
(b) Plasterboard (thin)

(a) Plwood (2)

:H

8 5

;*:

.- -15

-IS

(d) Polystyrene

(a) Plasterboard (thick)

10

*-.>
(c) Wood

Fig. 13. Effect of temperature on test values of

permeability

MOISTURE TRANSMISSION TESTING

essentially independent of humidity and a constant
value can be assumed in calculations with little error.
For hygroscopic materials, like wood, plywood and
brick, the permeability depends substantially on
humidity and may vary over a wide range. The moisture transmission performance of such components
will therefore be governed to a great extent by the
prevailing humidity conditions and, if this behaviour
pattern is not taken into account, large errors will be
incurred in calculations, no matter how sophisticated
the computing procedure.

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Recommendations
Permeability specification-a new approach
Data presentation
The research has confirmed that, when permeability
varies significantly with relative humidity, a realistic
assessment of material performance requires the provision of a curve of differential permeability. It has been
shown that a suitable mathematical representation of
such permeability data is possible in terms of three
curve-fit parameters, taken with an exponential form of
differential permeability relationship (equations 2 and 3).
A new system of data presentation, in which these three
constants are listed for any given material, would therefore allow a complete performance specification to be
provided. In certain cases, one or more of the values
would be zero.
Test procedure
The test procedure which has been developed enables
the required mathematical function between permeability and humidity to be established in a straightforward
manner. Although it is certainly more elaborate than any
existing test technique, involving as it does three vapour
pressure regulators and two chamber conditions, the
additional effort required is fully justified by the relationship which it renders.
Some reluctance is to be anticipated in introducing an
enhanced test method of this type. However, the importance of condensation control in buildings is such that a
serious attempt should be made to establish vapour
transmission data to a much higher degree of accuracy
than exists at present.
Test temperature
The two main requirements pertaining to the suitability of
a test temperature are:
the test permeabilities obtained should be representative of the values prevailing in practice, and
the tests themselves should not be made unduly
cumbersome.
In the absence of any significant temperature-dependence of permeability, the second requirement becomes
predominant. Obviously, it is desirable that testing be
carried out at a temperature which corresponds as much
as possible to practical applications and, intuitively, the
lower end of the temperature scale is given consideration.
However, there are certain disadvantages to low-temperature testing, the main one being the long test periods
necessary. This is particularly noticeable with low-permeability hygroscopic materials such as plywood, as the

91

equilibrium times given under Attainment of Equilibrium

illustrate. On this basis, and noting that 25C lies within
the peak range for mould growth (underside of samples),
it would seem appropriate that a test temperature of 20C
is adopted.
Future work
The information which has been obtained up to the
present time relates only to the seven common building
materials tested. If the enhanced approach to permeability testing and data presentation suggested here is to be
adopted, then it is important that:
a series of further testing be embarked upon so that a
comprehensive database can be established, and
studies are undertaken to incorporate the differential
permeability concept into existing interstitial condensation prediction procedures (Glaser).
Some work has already been carried out into the second
item at the University of Strathclyde and the Building
Research Establishment Scottish Laboratory, with encouraging results.

Acknowledgement
The experimental work described was funded by the
Building Research Establishment Scottish Laboratory and
forms part of their overall research programme into
condensation in buildings. A preview of this paper,
providing a brief summary of the work undertaken and
introducing the new system of data presentation proposed, was published in Construction, the journal of
technical information for professional and technical staff
in the Departments of Environment and Transport.

References
1. Galbraith, G.H. and McLean, R.C. (1986) 'Realistic vapour
permeability values', Building Research and Practice, 14, 2,
March/April.
2. McLean, R.C. and Galbraith, G.H. (1988) 'Interstitial condensation: Applicability of conventional vapour permeability
values', Building Services Engineering Research and Technology, Series A, 9, 1.
3. Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers Guide,
A10. 'Moisture Transfer', 1986.
4. American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Engineers (1985) Handbook of Fundamentals.
5. Joy, F.A. and Wilson, A.G. (1966) 'Standardisation of the dish
method for measuring water vapour transmission'. National
Research Council of Canada, 31.
6. ASTM E96-80, 1980. 'Standard test methods for water vapour
transmission of materials.'
7. Norme Experimentale T56-131, 1982. 'Determination of the
water vapour permeability index of rigid cellular materials.'
8. Chang, S.C. and Hutcheon, N.B. (1953) 'Performance of
desiccants in the dry pan test for water vapour permeance of
membranes'. Canadian Journal of Technology, 31.
9. Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 48th edition, 1968. The
Chemical Rubber Co., Cleveland, Ohio.
10. Sears, F.W. (1956) 'Thermodynamics, the kinetic theory of
gases and statistical mechanics', 2nd edition. AddisonWesley.
11. British Standard 4370 (1973) 'Methods of test for rigid cellular
materials'.
12. Deutsche Normen DIN 52615, 1973. 'Determination of water
vapour permeability of building and insulating materials'.