RELAY

What is a relay?
Relays are simple switches which are operated both electrically and mechanically. Relays
consist of an electromagnet and also a set of contacts. The switching mechanism is carried
out with the help of the electromagnet. There are also other operating principles for its
working. But they differ according to their applications. Most of the devices have the
application of relays.
Construction
There are only four main parts in a relay. They are

Electromagnet

Movable Armature

Switch point contacts

Spring

It is an electro-magnetic relay with a wire coil, surrounded by an iron core. A path of very low
reluctance for the magnetic flux is provided for the movable armature and also the switch
point contacts. The movable armature is connected to the yoke which is mechanically
connected to the switch point contacts. These parts are safely held with the help of a spring.
The spring is used so as to produce an air gap in the circuit when the relay becomes deenergized.
How relay works?

An iron core is surrounded by a control coil. As shown, the power source is given to the
electromagnet through a control switch and through contacts to the load. When current starts
flowing through the control coil, the electromagnet starts energizing and thus intensifies the
magnetic field. Thus the upper contact arm starts to be attracted to the lower fixed arm and
thus closes the contacts causing a short circuit for the power to the load. On the other hand,

if the relay was already de-energized when the contacts were closed, then the contact move
oppositely and make an open circuit.
As soon as the coil current is off, the movable armature will be returned by a force back to its
initial position. This force will be almost equal to half the strength of the magnetic force. This
force is mainly provided by two factors. They are the spring and also gravity.
Relays are mainly made for two basic operations. One is low voltage application and the
other is high voltage. For low voltage applications, more preference will be given to reduce
the noise of the whole circuit. For high voltage applications, they are mainly designed to
reduce a phenomenon called arcing.
Relay Basics
The basics for all the relays are the same. Take a look at a 4 pin relay shown below. There
are two colours shown. The green colour represents the control circuit and the red colour
represents the load circuit. A small control coil is connected onto the control circuit. A switch
is connected to the load. This switch is controlled by the coil in the control circuit. Now let us
take the different steps that occur in a relay.

Relay operation

Energized Relay (ON)

As shown in the circuit, the current flowing through the coils represented by pins 1 and 3
causes a magnetic field to be aroused. This magnetic field causes the closing of the pins 2
and 4. Thus the switch plays an important role in the relay working. As it is a part of the load
circuit, it is used to control an electrical circuit that is connected to it. Thus, when the relay in
energized the current flow will be through the pins 2 and 4.

Energized Relay (ON)

De Energized Relay (OFF)

As soon as the current flow stops through pins 1 and 3, the switch opens and thus the open
circuit prevents the current flow through pins 2 and 4. Thus the relay becomes de-energized
and thus in off position.

De-Energized Relay (OFF)

In simple, when a voltage is applied to pin 1, the electromagnet activates, causing a
magnetic field to be developed, which goes on to close the pins 2 and 4 causing a
closed circuit. When there is no voltage on pin 1, there will be no electromagnetic
force and thus no magnetic field. Thus the switches remain open.
Pole and Throw
Relays have the exact working of a switch. So, the same concept is also applied. A relay is
said to switch one or more poles. Each pole has contacts that can be thrown in mainly three
ways. They are:

Normally Open Contact (NO) NO contact is also called a make contact. It closes
the circuit when the relay is activated. It disconnects the circuit when the relay is
inactive.

Normally Closed Contact (NC) NC contact is also known as break contact. This is
opposite to the NO contact. When the relay is activated, the circuit disconnects. When
the relay is deactivated, the circuit connects.

Change-over (CO) / Double-throw (DT) Contacts This type of contacts are used
to control two types of circuits. They are used to control a NO contact and also a NC
contact with a common terminal. According to their type they are called by the
names break before make and make before break contacts.

Relays are also named with designations like

Single Pole Single Throw (SPST) This type of relay has a total of four terminals.
Out of these two terminals can be connected or disconnected. The other two terminals
are needed for the coil.

Single Pole Double Throw (SPDT) This type of a relay has a total of five
terminals. Out f these two are the coil terminals. A common terminal is also included
which connects to either of two others.

Double Pole Single Throw (DPST) This relay has a total of six terminals. These
terminals are further divided into two pairs. Thus they can act as two SPSTs which are
actuated by a single coil. Out of the six terminals two of them are coil terminals.

Double Pole Double Throw (DPDT) This is the biggest of all. It has mainly eight
relay terminals. Out of these two rows are designed to be change over terminals. They
are designed to act as two SPDT relays which are actuated by a single coil.

Interfacing of Stepper Motor

A stepper motor is a type of DC motor that rotates in steps.
When electrical signal is applied to it, the motor rotates in steps and the
speed of rotation depends on the rate at which the electrical signals are
applied and the direction of rotation is dependent on the pattern of pulses
that is followed.
A stepper motor is made up of a rotor, which is normally a permanent
magnet and it is, as the name suggests the rotating component of the
motor. A stator is another part which is in the form of winding. In the
diagram below, the center is the rotor which is surrounded by the stator
winding. This is called as four phase winding.

Working of Stepper Motor

The centre tap on the stator winding allows the current in the coil to
change direction when the winding are grounded. The magnetic property
of the stator changes and it will selectively attract and repel the rotor,
thereby resulting in a stepping motion for the motor.
Stepping Sequence
In order to get correct motion of the motor, a stepping sequence has to be
followed. This stepping sequence gives the voltage that must be applied
to the stator phase. Normally a 4 step sequence is followed.
When the sequence is followed from step 1 to 4, we get a clock wise
rotation and when it is followed from step 4 to 1, we get a counter
clockwise rotation.

Step No
1
2
3
4

A
1
1
0
0

A
0
1
1
0

B
0
0
1
1

B
1
0
0
1

Interfacing Diagram
The diagram below shows the interfacing of stepper motor to a microcontroller. This is general diagram and can be applied to any microcontroller family like PIC micro-controller, AVR or 8051 micro-controller.

Since, the micro-controller cannot provide enough current to run the

motor, a driver like a ULN2003 is used to drive the motor. Similarly,
individual transistors or any other driver IC can also be used to drive the
motor. See to it that if required, the external pull up resistors is connected
to pins depending on the micro-controller you use. The motor must never
be directly connected to the controller pins. The motor Voltage depends
on the size of the motor.
A typical 4 phase uni-polar stepper motor has 5 terminals. 4 phase
terminals and one common terminal of the center tap that is connected to
ground.
The programming algorithm for continuous rotation in clockwise mode is
given below-

1) Initialize the port pins used for the motor as outputs

2) Write a common delay program of say 500 ms
3) Output first sequence-0 x 09 on the pins
4) Call delay function
5) Output second sequence-0 x 0 c on the pins
6) Call delay function
7) Output third sequence-0 x 06 on the pins
8) Call delay function
9) Output fourth sequence-0 x 03 on the pins
10)

Call delay function

11)

Go to step 3

Step Angle
The number of steps required to complete one full rotation depends on the
step angle of the stepper motor. The step angle can vary from 0.72
degrees to 15 degrees per step. Depending on that 500 to 24 steps may
be required to complete one rotation. In position control applications the
selection on motor should be based on the minimum degree of rotation
that is required per step.
Half Stepping
Stepper motors can be used at half the actual step angle. This is called
half stepping. Suppose a motor is rated for 15 degrees per step, then it
can be programmed in such a way that it rotates at 7.5 degrees per step
by applying a special half stepping sequence to it.
Step No

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
1
1
1
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
1
1
1
0

1
0
0
0
0
0
1
1

DC MOTOR INTERFACING AND PWM

We use Assembly and C language programs to demonstrate the concept of pulse width
modulation (PWM) and show how to control the speed and direction of a DC motor.
DC motors
A direct current (DC) motor is another widely used device that translates electrical pulses
into mechanical movement. In the DC motor we have only + and leads. Connecting them
to a DC voltage source moves the motor in one direction. By reversing the polarity, the DC
motor will move in the opposite direction.
One can easily experiment with the DC motor.
For example, small fans used in many motherboards to cool the CPU are run by DC motors.
By connecting their leads to the + and voltage source, the DC motor moves. While a
stepper motor moves in steps of 1 to 15 degrees, the DC motor moves continuously. In a
stepper motor, if we know the starting position we can easily count the number of steps the
motor has moved and calculate the final position of the motor. This is not possible in a DC
motor. The maximum speed of a DC motor is indicated in rpm and is given in the data sheet.
The DC motor has two rpms: no-load and loaded. The manufacturers data sheet gives the
no-load rpm. The no-load rpm can be from a few thousand to tens of thousands. The rpm is
reduced when moving a load and it decreases as the load is increased. For example, a drill
turning a screw has a much lower rpm speed than when it is in the no-load situation. DC
motors also have voltage and current ratings. The nominal voltage is the voltage for that
motor under normal conditions, and can be from 1 to 150V, depending on the motor. As we
increase the voltage, the rpm goes up. The current rating is the current consumption when
the nominal voltage is applied with no load, and can be from 25mA to a few amps. As the
load increases, the rpm is decreased, unless the current or voltage provided to the motor is
increased, which in turn increases the torque. With a fixed voltage, as the load increases,
the current (power) consumption of a DC motor is increased. If we overload the motor it will
stall, and that can damage the motor due to the heat generated by high current
consumption.

Selected DC Motor Characteristics

Unidirection Control
Figure 17-13 shows the DC motor rotation for clockwise (CW) and counterclockwise (CCW)
rotations. See Table 17-9 for selected DC motors.

Figure 17-13. DC Motor Rotation (Permanent Magnet Field) Bidirectional control

With the help of relays or some specially designed chips we can change the direction of the
DC motor rotation. Figures 17-14 through 17-17 show the basic concepts of H-Bridge control
of DC motors.

Figure 17-14. H-Bridge Motor Configuration

Figure 17-14 shows the connection of an H-Bridge using simple switches. All the switches
are open, which does not allow the motor to turn.

Figure 17-15. H-Bridge Motor Clockwise Configuration

Figure 17-15 shows the switch configuration for turning the motor in one direction. When
switches 1 and 4 are closed, current is allowed to pass through the motor.

Figure 17-16. H-Bridge Motor Counterclockwise Configuration

Figure 17-16 shows the switch configuration for turning the motor in the opposite direction
from the configuration of Figure 17-15. When switches 2 and 3 are closed, current is allowed
to pass through the motor.

Figure 17-17. H-Bridge in an Invalid Configuration

Figure 17-17 shows an invalid configuration. Current flows directly to ground, creating a
short circuit. The same effect occurs when switches 1 and 3 are closed or switches 2 and 4
are closed.
Table 17-10 shows some of the logic configurations for the H-Bridge design.

H-Bridge control can be created using relays, transistors, or a single 1C solution such as the
L293. When using relays and transistors, you must ensure that invalid configurations do not
occur.

Although we do not show the relay control of an H-Bridge, Example 17-5 shows a simple
program to operate a basic H-Bridge.

Transmission control unit

A transmission control unit or TCU is a device that controls modern
electronic automatic transmissions. A TCU generally uses sensors from the
vehicle as well as data provided by the engine control unit (ECU) to
calculate how and when to change gears in the vehicle for optimum
performance, fuel economy and shift quality.
Electronic automatic transmissions have been shifting from
purely hydromechanical controls to electronic controls since the late
1980s. Since then, development has been iterative and today designs
exist from several stages of electronic automatic transmission control
development. Transmission solenoids are a key component to these
control units.
The evolution of the modern automatic transmission and the integration of
electronic controls have allowed great progress in recent years. The
modern automatic transmission is now able to achieve better fuel
economy, reduced engine emissions, greater shift system reliability,
improved shift feel, improved shift speed and improved vehicle handling.
The immense range of programmability offered by a TCU allows the
modern automatic transmission to be used with appropriate transmission
characteristics for each application.
On some applications, the TCU and the ECU are combined into a single
unit as a powertrain control module (PCM).

Input parameters
The typical modern TCU uses signals from engine sensors, automatic
transmission sensors and from other electronic controllers to determine
when and how to shift.[2] More modern designs share inputs or obtain
information from an input to the ECU, whereas older designs often have
their own dedicated inputs and sensors on the engine components.
Modern TCUs are so complex in their design and make calculations based
on so many parameters that there are an indefinite amount of possible
shift behaviours
1. Vehicle speed sensor (VSS)
This sensor sends a varying frequency signal to the TCU to
determine the current speed of the vehicle. The TCU uses this

information to determine when a gear change should take place

based in the various operating parameters. The TCU also uses a
ratio between the TSS and WSS which is used to determine when to
change gears. If either the TSS or WSS fails or
malfunctions/becomes faulty, the ratio will be wrong which in return
can cause problems like false speedometer readings and
transmission slipping. To test these parts, check the resistance to
make sure it's within manufacturer specs.
2. Wheel speed sensor (WSS)
Modern automatic transmissions also have a wheel speed sensor
input to determine the true speed of the vehicle to determine
whether the vehicle is going downhill or uphill and also adapt gear
changes according to road speeds, and also whether to decouple
the torque converter at a standstill to improve fuel consumption and
reduce load on running gear.
3. Throttle position sensor (TPS)
The TPS sensor along with the vehicle speed sensor are the two
main inputs for most TCUs. Older transmissions use this to
determine engine load, with the introduction of drive-bywire technology, this is often a shared input between the ECU and
TCU. The input is used to determine the optimum time and
characteristics for a gear change according to load on the engine.
The rate of change is used to determine whether a downshift is
appropriate for overtaking, for example, the value of the TPS is also
continually monitored during the journey and shift programmes are
changed accordingly (economy, sport mode, etc.). The TCU can also
reference this information with the vehicle speed sensor to
determine vehicle acceleration and compare this with a nominal
value; if the actual value is much higher or lower (such as driving
uphill or towing a trailer) the transmission will change its gearshift
patterns to suit the situation.
4. Turbine speed sensor (TSS)

This may also be known as an input speed sensor (ISS). This sensor
sends a varying frequency signal to the TCU to determine the
current rotational speed of the input shaft or torque converter. The
TCU uses the input shaft speed to determine slippage across the
torque converter and potentially to determine the rate of slippage
across the bands and clutches. This information is vital to regulate
the application of the torque converter lock-up clutch smoothly and
effectively.
5. Transmission fluid Temperature sensor (TFT)
This may also be known as Transmission Oil Temperature. This
sensor determines the fluid temperature inside the transmission.
This is often used for diagnostic purposes to check ATF (Automatic
Transmission Fluid) at the correct temperature. The main use of this
has been as a failsafe feature to downshift the transmission if the
ATF becomes extremely hot. On more modern TCUs this input allows
the TCU to modify the line pressure and solenoid pressures
according to the changing viscosity of the fluid based on
temperature, and also to determine regulation of the torque
converter lock-up clutch
6. Kick down switch
One of the most common inputs into a TCU is the kick down switch
which is used to determine if the accelerator pedal has been
depressed past full throttle.[3] When activated the transmission
downshifts into the lowest permissible gear based on current road
speed to use the full power reserves of the engine. This is still
present in most transmissions though is no longer as necessary to
use as the TCU uses the throttle position sensor and rapid rate of
change to determine whether a downshift may be necessary, thus
there is no need to use the kickdown feature in most circumstances.
7. Brake light switch
This input is used to determine whether to activate the shift lock
solenoid to prevent the driver selecting a driving range with no foot
on the brake. In more modern TCUs this input is also used to

determine whether to downshift the transmission to increase engine

braking effect if the transmission detects that the vehicle is going
downhill.
8. Traction Control System (TCS)
Many TCUs now have an input from the vehicles traction control
system. If the TCS detects unfavourable road conditions, a signal is
sent to the TCU. The TCU can modify shift programmes by upshifting
early, eliminating the torque converter lock-up clutch application,
and also eliminating the first gear totally and pulling off in 2nd.
9. Switches
These simple on/off electric switches detect the presence or
absence of fluid pressure in a particular hydraulic line. They are
used for diagnostic purposes and in some cases for controlling the
application or release of hydraulic control elements.
10.

Cruise control module

An overlooked factor is that many TCUs also have a signal from

the cruise control module in order to change gear change behaviour
to take into account the throttle is not being operated by the driver,
this eliminates unexpected gear changes when the cruise control is
engaged.
11.

Inputs from other controllers

A wide variety of information is delivered to the TCU via Controller

Area Network communications or similar protocols (such as
Chrysler's CCD bus, an early EIA-485-based vehicle local area
network). In older vehicle designs, as well as in aftermarket TCUs
sold into the racing and hobbyist markets, the TCU receives only the
signals needed to control the transmission (engine speed, vehicle
speed, throttle position or manifold vacuum, shift lever position).

Output parameters
The typical modern TCU sends out signals to shift solenoids, pressure
control solenoids, torque converter lockup solenoids and to other
electronic controllers.
1. Shift lock
Many automatic transmissions lock the selector lever via a shiftlock
solenoid to stop a driving range being selected if the brake pedal is
not depressed.
2. Shift solenoids
Modern electronic automatic transmissions have electrical solenoids
which are activated to change gears. Simple electronic-control
designs (such as Ford's AOD-E, AXOD-E and E4OD) use the solenoids
to modify the shift points in an existing valve body, while more
advanced designs (such as the Chrysler Ultradrive and its followons) use the solenoids to control the clutches directly, by way of a
greatly simplified valve body.
3. Pressure control solenoids
Modern electronic automatic transmissions are still fundamentally
hydraulic. This requires precise pressure control. Older automatic
transmission designs only use a single line pressure control solenoid
which modifies pressure across the entire transmission. Newer
automatic transmission designs often use many pressure control
solenoids, and sometimes allow the shift solenoids themselves to
provide precise pressure control during shifts by ramping the
solenoid on and off. The shift pressure affects the shift quality (too
high a pressure will result in rough shifting; too low a pressure will
cause the clutches to overheat) and shift speed.
4. Torque converter clutch solenoid (TCC)
Most electronic automatic transmissions utilize a TCC solenoid to
regulate the torque converter electronically. Once fully locked, the
torque converter no longer applies torque multiplication and will

spin at the same speed as the engine. This provides a major

increase in fuel economy. Modern designs provide partial lockup in
lower gears to improve fuel economy further, but this can increase
wear on the clutch components.
5. Output to ECU
Many TCUs provide an output to the ECU to retard the ignition
timing, or reduce the fuel quantity, for a few milliseconds to reduce
load on the transmission during heavy throttle. This allows
automatic transmissions to shift smoothly even on engines with
large amounts of torque which would otherwise result in a harder
shift.
6. Outputs to other controllers
The TCU provides information about the health of the transmission,
such as clutch wear indicators and shift pressures, and can
raise trouble codes and set the malfunction indicator lamp on
the instrument cluster if a serious problem is found. An output to the
cruise control module is also often present to deactivate the cruise
control if a neutral gear is selected, just like on a manual
transmission.

Anti-lock braking system.

An anti-lock braking system (ABS) is an automobile safety system that
allows the wheels on a motor vehicle to maintain tractive contact with the
road surface according to driver inputs while braking, preventing the
wheels from locking up (ceasing rotation) and avoiding uncontrolled
skidding. It is an automated system that uses the principles of threshold
braking and cadence braking which were practiced by skillful drivers with
previous generation braking systems. It does this at a much faster rate
and with better control than a driver could manage.

SYMBOL
ABS generally offers improved vehicle control and decreases stopping
distances on dry and slippery surfaces; however, on loose gravel or snowcovered surfaces, ABS can significantly increase braking distance,
although still improving vehicle control.
Since initial widespread use in production cars, anti-lock braking systems
have been improved considerably. Recent versions not only prevent wheel
lock under braking, but also electronically control the front-to-rear brake
bias. This function, depending on its specific capabilities and
implementation, is known as electronic brakeforce
distribution (EBD), traction control system, emergency brake assist,
or electronic stability control (ESC).
Components:
There are four main components of ABS: wheel speed sensors, valves, a pump, and a controller.
Speed sensors
A speed sensor is used to determine the acceleration or deceleration of the wheel. These
sensors use a magnet and a Hall effect sensor, or a toothed wheel and
anelectromagnetic coil to generate a signal. The rotation of the wheel or differential

induces a magnetic field around the sensor. The fluctuations of this magnetic field
generate a voltage in the sensor. Since the voltage induced in the sensor is a result of
the rotating wheel, this sensor can become inaccurate at slow speeds. The slower
rotation of the wheel can cause inaccurate fluctuations in the magnetic field and thus
cause inaccurate readings to the controller.
Valves
There is a valve in the brake line of each brake controlled by the ABS. On some systems,
the valve has three positions:

In position one, the valve is open; pressure from the master cylinder is passed right
through to the brake.

In position two, the valve blocks the line, isolating that brake from the master
cylinder. This prevents the pressure from rising further should the driver push the
brake pedal harder.

In position three, the valve releases some of the pressure from the brake.

The majority of problems with the valve system occur due to clogged valves. When a
valve is clogged it is unable to open, close, or change position. An inoperable valve will
prevent the system from modulating the valves and controlling pressure supplied to the
brakes.
Pump
The pump in the ABS is used to restore the pressure to the hydraulic brakes after the
valves have released it. A signal from the controller will release the valve at the detection
of wheel slip. After a valve release the pressure supplied from the user, the pump is used
to restore a desired amount of pressure to the braking system. The controller will
modulate the pumps status in order to provide the desired amount of pressure and
reduce slipping.
Controller
The controller is an ECU type unit in the car which receives information from each
individual wheel speed sensor, in turn if a wheel loses traction the signal is sent to the
controller, the controller will then limit the brake force (EBD) and activate the ABS
modulator which actuates the braking valves on and off.

Body control module

In automotive electronics, body control module is a generic term for an electronic control
unit responsible for monitoring and controlling various electronic accessories in a vehicle's body.

Typically in a car the BCM controls the power windows, power mirrors, air
conditioning, immobilizer system, central locking, etc. The BCM communicates with other onboard computers via the car's vehicle bus, and its main application is controlling load drivers
actuating relays that in turn perform actions in the vehicle such as locking the doors or dimming
the salon overhead lamp.