Journal of Air Transport Management 29 (2013) 17e22

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

Journal of Air Transport Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jairtraman

The intention and determining factors for airline passengers

participation in carbon offset schemes
Fang-Yuan Chen*
Department of Transportation Technology and Management, Feng Chia University, 100, Wenhwa Rd., Seatwen, Taichung 40724, Taiwan, ROC

a b s t r a c t
Keywords:
Carbon offset schemes
The model of goal-directed behavior
Attitudes
Personal norms
Anticipated emotions
Desires

Many airlines are now offering carbon offset schemes for their passengers to reduce their carbon footprint. This study uses the model of goal-directed behavior (MGB) as a basis to understand the intention
and determining factors for airline passengers participating in carbon offset plans. Structural equation
modeling is used to analyze data collected from 360 passengers in Taiwan. The results show that personal
norms and positive anticipated emotions have a positive effect on desires. Desires have a positive and
signicant inuence on intentions to participate in carbon offset schemes. The ndings of this study can
be benecial for airlines wishing to promote carbon offset schemes.
2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The impact of aviation on the environment is receiving
increasing attention. Airlines are important members of the aviation industry and they have adopted a number of measures to
reduce the adverse effects that their operations have on the environment (Li et al., 2003; Clarke, 2006; Girvin, 2009). Carbon offset
schemes, such as the Fly Greener plan adopted by Cathay Pacic
and the CO2 ZERO plan of the KLM Royal Dutch Airlines, are among
the many measures established. Airline passengers can volunteer to
participate in carbon offset schemes and choose to use cash or
earned member mileage to offset the amount of CO2 emitted during
ights (Mair, 2011; Lu and Shon, 2012).
However, improving the earths environment cannot be
accomplished over the short-term, and the effect of an individuals
pro-environmental action is limited. Therefore, airline passengers
participation in carbon offset schemes cannot be fully explained
using traditional cost-benet analysis. Some researchers have
called for the inclusion of other factors in explaining peoples
ecological behaviors (Kals et al., 1999; Carrus et al., 2008). This
study proposes that goals, motivations, and emotions are potential
factors that inspire airline passengers to participate in carbon offset
schemes. The model of goal-directed behavior (MGB) is employed
as a basis to understand the intention and determining factors for
airline passengers participating in carbon offset schemes. Specifically, the goal of this study is to protect the environment, with the

* Tel.: 886 4 24517250 4666.

E-mail address: fychen@fcu.edu.tw.
0969-6997/$ e see front matter 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jairtraman.2013.01.001

participation in the offset schemes specied as the focal behavior

that can be pursued to achieve this goal. The results of this study
cannot only enhance academic understanding of this issue, but also
provide a reference for airlines implementing carbon offset
schemes.
2. Conceptual background
The MGB was proposed by Perugini and Bagozzi (2001) as an
extension of the theory of planned behavior (TPB). The TPB uses
attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control to
predict and explain individual behaviors (Ajzen, 1985, 1990).
Although the TPB has been successfully applied to understand a
wide variety of human behaviors (Chu and Chiu, 2003; Shaw et al.,
2007; Han and Kim, 2010), some have questioned its predictive and
explanatory power (Perugini and Bagozzi, 2001). The MGB
broadens and deepens the TPB by introducing new concepts of
desires, positive and negative anticipated emotions, and past
behavior that emphasize the importance of emotions, motivations,
and goals in decision-making processes.
Attitudes are evaluative reactions to an action and are thought
to reect predispositions to respond in a favorable or unfavorable
manner (Eagly and Chaiken, 1993; Bagozzi and Dholakia, 2006).
Attitudes are therefore formulated to refer to a target behavior (i.e.,
attitudes toward the act). As an antecedent in the TPB, attitudes are
considered to lack strong motivational content needed to induce an
intention to act (Perugini and Bagozzi, 2001; Bagozzi et al., 2003). A
consumer, for example, may have a positive attitude toward an
Apple iphone 5 and has the money to make a purchase, but he/she
may not form an intention to buy it simply because of personal

18

F.-Y. Chen / Journal of Air Transport Management 29 (2013) 17e22

preference (i.e., lack of motivation). Motivation is therefore the

driving force that makes people take action and ultimately
accomplish aims and goals. The MGB incorporates desires as a key
intervening variable that provide the motivating impetus for intentions to form and suggests that all antecedents work through
desires (intrinsic motivations) enroute to inuencing intentions
(Perugini and Bagozzi, 2001). Therefore, desires are conceptually
distinct from attitudes and intentions within the MGB. Perugini and
Bagozzi (2004) dened desires as a state of mind whereby an
agent has a personal motivation to perform an action or to achieve a
goal. This type of motivation is triggered by an integration of
different sources of appraisals (e.g., emotional, evaluative, and social) and represents the rst step toward a decision to act, typically
followed by an intention to do so (Carrus et al., 2008). In its deepest
essence, desires are conceptualized to encapsulate a future orientation, whereby future outcomes are deemed desirable or undesirable (Shiu et al., 2008).
Another difference between the MBG and the TPB is the addition
of the anticipated emotions that take into account the emotional
consequences of both achieving and not achieving a certain goal.
Positive emotions arising as a result of anticipated goal attainment
and negative emotions as a result of anticipated goal failure motivate one to act so as to promote goal achievement and avoid goal
failure (Bagozzi and Dholakia, 2006; Leone et al., 2004). Some researchers have suggested that ecological behaviors should not be
considered as the mere result of a rational choice. Factors such as
interest, love, and emotional afnity toward nature can also stimulate peoples ecological behaviors (Kals et al., 1999). Similarly,
Vining and Ebreo (2002) suggested that both positive and negative
emotions could be predictors of ecological behavior. It is now
generally accepted that an integration of cognitive and affective
factors can better explain peoples ecological behaviors. Norms are
guidelines or rules that control behaviors in the social environment
and can affect peoples inner psyches and external behaviors. Personal norms emphasize that a person is personally convinced that a
certain behavior is either right or wrong, and is not affected by
pressure from other people or groups (Bamberg et al., 2003, 2007).
The central characteristic of personal norms is internalization. In
other words, personal norms are adopted by people not because
they fear social sanctions, but because they worry that negative
emotions (such as regret and guilt) will be generated when the
norm is violated.
Previous studies have documented the effectiveness of the MGB
in the prediction of a wide range of human behaviors. Building on
the TPB, Perugini and Bagozzi (2001) developed the MGB and
tested it in two studies. In the body weight regulation study, attitudes and subjective norms positively inuenced desires, which in
turn had a positive inuence on intentions. In the study effort data,
attitudes, negative anticipated emotions and subjective norms
positively inuenced desires. Desires also had a positive inuence
on intentions. For both studies, the MGB explained signicantly
more variance in intentions and behavior than the TPB. Bagozzi and
Dholakia (2006) investigated the social and psychological antecedents of customer participation in a Harley-Davidson and a non
Harley-Davidson motorcycle riding groups. For the Harley rider
groups, desire to participate in the brand community was signicantly inuenced by attitude, positive anticipated emotions, and
negative anticipated emotions. For the non-Harley rider groups,
desire was signicantly affected by attitude and positive anticipated emotions. For both groups, desire had a strong inuence on
social intentions and fully mediated the effect of attitude on social
intentions.
Han and Ryu (2012) extended the MGB by incorporating
important factors relating to the re-buying intentions and tested
the new model in a full-service restaurant setting. The results

indicated that desire was a positive function of attitude, and rebuying intention was positively predicted by desire. In the
tourism context, Lee et al. (2012) developed an extended MGB to
explore potential travelers decision-making processes when the
risk of 2009 H1N1 infection discouraged international travel. The
results showed that attitude, subjective norm, positive anticipated
emotion, and negative anticipated emotion were positively associated with desire to travel internationally. Desire was positively
associated with intention to travel internationally. Bamberg et al.
(2007) investigated the role of personal norms in the decision to
use public transportation instead of the car in two samples. The
results showed that personal norm was a signicant predictor of
public transportation-use intention. Other studies have provided
further support for the role of personal norms as an additional
determinant of pro-environmental behavioral intention (Harland
et al., 1999).
Researchers have also pointed out that the MGB is an appropriate
framework for the study of pro-environmental behavior because it
takes into account personal goals, motivations, and emotions that
were largely ignored by previous research in this area (Carrus et al.,
2008). The work of Carrus et al. (2008) applied the MGB to predict
intentions to use public transportation instead of the private car for
going to work, and to recycle household waste. The results showed
that the MGB was superior to the TPB in explaining intentions to
perform the two ecological behaviors. Negative anticipated emotions
were found to be signicant psychological drivers of individual
desire to engage in pro-environmental actions. Desire, in turn,
exerted a positive inuence on pro-environmental behavioral intentions. A recent study by Song et al. (2012) provided further support for the application of the MGB in the ecological behavior
domain. They proposed an extended MGB incorporating environmental concern, perceived customer effectiveness, and environmentally friendly tourism behaviors to understand the nature-based
festival visitors behavioral intention formation process. The results
demonstrated that attitudes, subjective norms, and positive anticipated emotions affected desires, which in turn inuenced behavioral
intentions.
In light of the above literature, this study proposes the following
hypotheses
H1. Attitudes have a positive effect on desires.
H2. Personal norms have a positive effect on desires.
H3. Positive anticipated emotions have a positive effect on desires.
H4. Negative anticipated emotions have a negative effect on
desires.
H5. Desires have a positive effect on intention to participate in
carbon offset schemes.
3. Methodology
The conceptual framework is presented in Fig. 1. Attitudes,
personal norms, positive anticipated emotions, and negative
anticipated emotions were latent exogenous variables. Perceived
behavioral control and past behavior were excluded because they
were less relevant to this study. Desires were used as the intervening variable through which the exogenous variables inuence
intention to participate. The goal of this study (i.e., protecting the
environment) is implicitly expressed in the measures of anticipated
emotions and desires. People who are concerned about the environment are more likely than others to perform certain behaviors
(e.g., participate in the offset scheme) to reach their goals (i.e.,
protecting the environment). Although the inuence of an individuals pro-environmental behavior is small, the aggregate

F.-Y. Chen / Journal of Air Transport Management 29 (2013) 17e22

Attitudes

H1
Personal
norms

H2
Desires
H3

H5

Intention
to
participate

Positive
anticipated
emotions
H4

Negative
anticipated
emotions

Fig. 1. Research framework.

impact may be signicant when many people choose to do so

(Stern, 2000); thereby contributing to the attainment of the goal.
A self-administered questionnaire was developed based on a
thorough literature review. This review helped guarantee the
content validity of the scales. Attitudes were focused on behavior
itself and dened as the assessment and perspective of airline
passengers regarding participation in carbon offset schemes. This
variable was measured using three items adapted from the scale
developed by Casal et al. (2010). Each item was measured using a
5-point scale that ranged from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly
agree). The higher the respondents level of agreement with the
questionnaire items, the more positive their attitudes toward
participating in carbon offset schemes.
In this study, subjective norms, a predictor of desires in the MGB,
were replaced with personal norms because participation in carbon
offset schemes is voluntary and need not obtain approvals from
important others. Personal norms were dened as the degree to
which individual airline passengers believe they should participate
in carbon offset schemes and were measured using two items from
Bamberg et al. (2007). Each item was measured using a 5-point
scale that ranged from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).
The greater the respondents level of agreement with the questionnaire items, the stronger their belief that they should participate in carbon offset schemes.
Anticipated emotions were focused on the achievement of
personal goals and dened as emotions experienced by airline
passengers when assessing whether they could achieve certain
goals. The scales developed by Perugini and Bagozzi (2001) were
used to measure anticipated emotions. Respondents replied to one
hypothetical question regarding positive anticipated emotions
(How would you feel if you could improve the earths environment?) using a 5-point scale to express the intensity felt for each
emotion (delighted, excited, happy, satised, proud, and self-assured),
where 1 represented not at all and 5 represented very much.
Another hypothetical question was designed to assess negative
anticipated emotions (How would you feel if you could not
improve the earths environment?). Respondents also used a
5-point scale to express the intensity felt for each emotion (angry,
frustrated, disappointed, unsatised, sad, and guilty), where 1 represented not at all and 5 represented very much.
Desires were dened as the airline passengers mental state
when they have a motivation to perform an action. Desires were
measured using two items based on the work of Carrus et al. (2008).

19

Each item was assessed using a 5-point scale that ranged from 1
(absolutely incorrect/very weak) to 5 (absolutely correct/very strong).
Intention to participate was dened as airline passengers behavioral tendency to participate in carbon offset schemes. The scale
was adapted from the scales developed by Casal et al. (2010) and
Carrus et al. (2008). Each item was measured using a 5-point scale
that ranged from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The
greater the respondents level of agreement with the questionnaire
items, the stronger their intention to participate in carbon offset
schemes.
We conducted an airline passenger survey in Taiwan. Taiwan
was chosen as the research setting because most Taiwanese passengers were unaware of carbon offset schemes (Lu and Shon,
2012). The research ndings can provide useful insights for
Taiwanese airlines when introducing these schemes. The initial
questionnaire was pre-tested on a convenient sample of 30
Taiwanese passengers at the survey site. Based on the comments
collected during the process, a nal questionnaire was developed
(Table 1). The formal survey was conducted in June 2012 by trained
assistants with airline passengers at Taoyuan International Airport.
The convenient sampling method was employed. The interviewers
rst asked the respondents whether they understood the meaning
and signicance of carbon offset schemes. If the respondents stated
that they did not understand, the interviewers would explain the
meaning and signicance to the respondents before distributing
questionnaires. The survey period lasted for 2 weeks and included
weekdays, holidays, and peak and off-peak hours to reduce sampling bias and increase the representativeness of the sample.
4. Results
A total of 360 questionnaires were distributed and 330 valid
responses were retained for analysis. The response rate is 91.7%. The
nal sample comprised slightly more males (51.1%) than females
(48.9%). The major proportion of the respondents (38.6%) was aged
between 20 and 29, followed by ages between 30 and 39 (30.8%)
and ages between 40 and 49 (20.2%). The sample appeared to be
overrepresented by more well-educated customers (78.0% held
university-level or higher education).
Conrmatory factor analyses (CFAs) were used to test the adequacy of the measurement model using LISREL 8.52. The results
indicated a good t between the model and the observed data:
c2(174) 474.47, p 0.00, GFI 0.91, NNFI 0.98, CFI 0.98,
RMSEA 0.063, and RMR 0.035. The large c2-value was not
surprising because the c2 statistic in LISREL has been shown to be
directly related to sample size. The ratio of c2 to degree-of-freedom
(df) was 2.73, lower than the suggested value of 3. GFI, CFI, and
NNFI all exceeded the recommended 0.9 threshold level (Bollen
and Long, 1992). In addition, RMR and RMSEA were lower than or
close to 0.05 (Hu and Bentler, 1999).
Convergent validity was supported because all standardized
loadings were highly signicant and all of the items squared
multiple correlations exceeded 0.50 (Fornell and Larcker, 1981). In
addition, the average variance extracted (AVE) for each construct
was greater than 0.50, thus providing support for the convergent
validity of the measure for each construct. Composite reliability
was used to analyze the reliability of the constructs. All of the
composite reliability values exceeded the threshold of 0.7, indicating that all constructs were reliable (Table 1). Discriminant
validity is the extent to which a construct is distinct from other
constructs and is assessed through comparing the AVEs to square
inter-construct correlations for any two constructs. The results
indicated that all AVEs were greater than the corresponding interconstruct correlation estimates, conrming the existence of
discriminant validity across all pairs of constructs. Table 2 shows

20

F.-Y. Chen / Journal of Air Transport Management 29 (2013) 17e22

Table 1
Measurement model results.
Construct

Items

Standardized
loading

Variance
explained

I believe that participating in carbon offset

schemes is good for me.
I believe that participating in carbon offset
schemes is benecial for me.
I have a positive view of participating in
carbon offset schemes.

0.51***

0.55

0.68***

0.74

0.62***

0.65

Because of my values, I feel an obligation to

participate in carbon offset schemes.
Regardless of what other people think,
because of my own values I feel an obligation
to participate in carbon offset schemes.

0.75***

0.86

0.66***

0.55

Delighted
Excited
Happy
Satised
Proud
Self-assured

0.76***
0.72***
0.79***
0.76***
0.72***
0.76***

0.81
0.72
0.80
0.77
0.53
0.62

Angry
Frustrated
Disappointed
Unsatised
Sad
Guilty

0.91***
0.92***
0.90***
0.92***
0.91***
0.88***

0.83
0.86
0.82
0.85
0.85
0.70

I desire to participate in carbon

offset schemes
to protect the environment.
My desire for participating in
carbon offset
schemes to protect the
environment is _______________.

0.74***

0.82

0.72***

0.75

I have the intention to participate

in carbon offset schemes.
The next opportunity I get, I will
participate in carbon offset schemes.

0.76***

0.84

0.76***

0.85

Attitudes

Personal norms

Positive anticipated emotions

Negative anticipated emotions

Desires

Intention to participate

means, standard deviations, and inter-correlations among the

variables.
The same t indices were used to examine the structural model.
The t indices were indicative of adequate t to the sample data:
c2(178) 527.13, p 0.00, GFI 0.90, NNFI 0.97, CFI 0.98,
RMSEA 0.067, and RMR 0.053. Fig. 2 presents the results of the
structural equation model. Attitudes did not signicantly affect

Composite
reliability

Average variance
extracted

0.89

0.73

0.88

0.78

0.89

0.58

0.89

0.57

0.73

0.58

0.91

0.83

Attitudes

0.01
(0.23)

Table 2
Means, standard deviations, and intercorrelations.a
Mean Standard 1
deviation
1 Attitudes
2 Personal
norms
3 Positive
anticipated
emotions
4 Negative
anticipated
emotions
5 Desires
6 Intention
to participate

4.47
3.87

0.75
1.18

0.43***

3.28

0.91

0.29*** 0.61***

2.32

1.01

0.10

3.50
3.42

0.83
0.83

0.38*** 0.79*** 0.68*** 0.23***

0.14** 0.54*** 0.68*** 0.25*** 0.70***

Personal
norms

0.54***
(5.11)

Desires

0.37***
(5.69)

0.75***

Intention
to
participate

(15.44)

Positive
anticipated
emotions
-0.02
(-0.84)

0.24*** 0.36***

**Parameter estimate is signicant at the 0.01 level.

***Parameter estimate is signicant at the 0.001 level.
a
Correlations are Festimates from LISREL output.

Negative
anticipated
emotions

Fig. 2. Results of the structural model. ***Parameter estimate is signicant at the 0.001
level. t values are in parentheses. Dotted lines indicate non-signicant paths.

F.-Y. Chen / Journal of Air Transport Management 29 (2013) 17e22

Table 3
Direct/indirect/total effects on desires and intention to participate.
Endogenous variable
Desires
Attitudes
Personal norms
Positive anticipated
emotions
Negative anticipated
emotions
Intention to participate
Attitudes
Personal norms
Positive anticipated
emotions
Negative anticipated
emotions
Desires

Direct effects
0.01
0.54***
0.37***
0.02

Indirect effects
e
e
e

0.01
0.54***
0.37***

e
e
e

0.02

0.01
0.41***
0.28***

0.02
0.75***

Total effects

0.01
0.41***
0.28***
0.02
0.75***

***p < 0.001.

desires (g11 0.01, p > 0.05). Hypothesis 1 was not supported at the
0.05 level of signicance. This could be explained by the phenomenon of attitudinal ambivalence which might have weakened the
attitude-intention link (Costarelli and Colloca, 2004; Carrus et al.,
2008). As predicted in Hypothesis 2, personal norms had a significant impact on desires (g12 0.54, p < 0.001). As hypothesized in
Hypothesis 3, positive anticipated emotions had a moderate effect
on desires (g13 0.37, p < 0.001). Contrary to Hypothesis 4, the
relationship between negative anticipated emotions and desires
was not supported at the 0.05 level of signicance (g14 0.02,
p > 0.05). This nding reveals that positive anticipated emotions
may be a more signicant variable than negative anticipated
emotions in inuencing ones desire formation. Finally, as expected,
desires had a strong inuence on intention to participate
(b21 0.75, p < 0.001). All together, the model explained 72% and
53%, respectively, of the variance of desires and intention to
participate.
Following Perugini and Bagozzis (2001) approach, chi-square
difference tests were used to test for the signicance of direct
paths from attitudes, personal norms, positive anticipated emotions, and negative anticipated emotions to intention to participate,
respectively. The results revealed that each added path from the
antecedents to intention to participate was insignicant. It can
therefore be concluded that desires provide impetus for intention
formation and fully mediate the effects of all antecedents on
intention to participate, which is consistent with the mediation
effect implied in the MGB.
Comparing the direct, indirect, and total effects among the study
variables showed that personal norms had the strongest direct effect on desires, followed by positive anticipated emotions. Attitudes
and negative anticipated emotions had no signicant effect on
desires. Personal norms also had the largest indirect and total effect
on intention to participate (Table 3).
5. Conclusions
This study investigated the factors behind air passengers
participation in carbon offset schemes using a different perspective. It complements and adds to similar analyses in the acceptance
of carbon offset schemes (MacKerron et al., 2009; Van Birgelen
et al., 2011; Lu and Shon, 2012) by stressing that personal goals,
desires, and emotions all have a part to play in affecting individuals intention to participate in carbon offset schemes. The
study found that personal norms were the most important determinants of desires, followed by positive anticipated emotions.
Passengers develop a desire to participate when they believe that

21

protecting the environment is the right thing to do. Furthermore,

the positive emotions elicited as a result of anticipating the
achievement of goals are also an important psychological driving
factor when it comes to developing personal desires. Lastly, desires
had a positive and signicant inuence on intention to participate;
passengers intention to take part in a carbon offset scheme
increased in line with a developing desire to protect the earth and
environment.
The present study provides valuable practical implications for
the promotion of carbon offset schemes. According to the results,
airlines can appeal to and act on both peoples beliefs and affects,
which supports the ndings of Carrus et al. (2008). First, to
encourage people to take more personal responsibility for the
environment, airlines could highlight through appropriate media
and promotional tools that it is right to protect the environment
and that everyone is obliged to do so. Second, when it comes to
pushing a carbon offset scheme, airlines must not ignore the role
emotive factors can play aside from rational appeals. Airlines
environmental communications should be conveyed in a healthy
and positive manner and should put more emphasis on the
psychological states of happiness, pleasure and contentment
brought about by the understanding that individuals participation in carbon offset activities can make up for the damage caused
to the environment. Positive anticipated emotions of this kind
are useful for airlines to inspire motivations on the passengers
part so as to trigger their intention to participate in carbon offset
schemes.
Acknowledgments
This research was supported by the National Science Council of
Taiwan, Republic of China, under contract number NSC 100-2410H-035-042.
References
Ajzen, I., 1985. From intention to action: a theory of planned behavior. In: Kuhl, J.,
Beckmann, J. (Eds.), Action Control: From Cognition to Behavior. Springer-Verlag, NY.
Ajzen, I., 1990. The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human
Decision Processes 50, 179e211.
Bagozzi, R.P., Dholakia, U.M., Basuroy, S., 2003. How effortful decisions get enacted:
the motivating role of decision processes, desires, and anticipated emotions.
Journal of Behavioral Decision Making 16, 273e295.
Bagozzi, R.P., Dholakia, U.M., 2006. Antecedents and purchase consequences of
customer participation in small group brand communities. International Journal of Research in Marketing 23, 45e61.
Bamberg, S., Ajzen, I., Schmidt, P., 2003. Choice of travel mode in the theory of
planned behavior: the role of past behavior, habit and reasoned action. Basic
and Applied Social Psychology 25, 175e187.
Bamberg, S., Hunecke, M., Blobaum, A., 2007. Social context, personal norms and
the use of public transportation: two led studies. Journal of Environmental
Psychology 27, 190e203.
Bollen, K., Long, S., 1992. Tests for structural equation models: introduction. Sociological Methods and Research 21, 123e131.
Carrus, G., Passafaro, P., Bonnes, M., 2008. Emotions, habits and rational choices in
ecological behaviours: the case of recycling and use of public transportation.
Journal of Environmental Psychology 28, 51e62.
Casal, L.V., Flavin, C., Guinalu, M., 2010. Determinants of the intention to
participate in rm-hosted online travel communities and effects on consumer
behavioral intentions. Tourism Management 31, 898e911.
Chu, P.Y., Chiu, J.F., 2003. Factors inuencing household waste recycling behavior:
test of an integrated model. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 33, 604e626.
Clarke, J.P., 2006. The role of advanced air trafc management in reducing the
impact of aircraft noise and enabling aviation growth. Journal of Air Transport
Management 9, 161e165.
Costarelli, S., Colloca, P., 2004. The effects of attitudinal ambivalence on proenvironmental behavioural intentions. Journal of Environmental Psychology
24, 279e288.
Eagly, A.H., Chaiken, S., 1993. The Psychology of Attitudes. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Fort Worth, TX.
Fornell, C., Larcker, D.F., 1981. Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research 18,
39e50.

22

F.-Y. Chen / Journal of Air Transport Management 29 (2013) 17e22

Girvin, R., 2009. Aircraft noise-abatement and mitigation strategies. Journal of Air
Transport Management 15, 14e22.
Han, H., Kim, Y., 2010. An investigation of green hotel customers decision formation: developing an extended model of the theory of planned behavior. International Journal of Hospitality Management 29, 659e668.
Han, H., Ryu, K., 2012. The theory of repurchase decision-making (TRD): Identifying
the critical factors in the post-purchase decision-making process. International
Journal of Hospitality Management 31, 786e797.
Harland, P., Staats, H., Wilke, H.A.M., 1999. Explaining proenvironmental intention
and behavior by personal norms and the theory of planned behavior. Journal of
Applied Social Psychology 29, 2505e2528.
Hu, L.T., Bentler, P.M., 1999. Cutoff criteria for t indexes in covariance structure
analysis: conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation
Modeling 6, 1e55.
Kals, E., Schumacher, D., Montada, L., 1999. Emotional afnity toward nature as
motivational basis to protect nature. Environment and Behavior 31, 178e202.
Lee, C.K., Song, H.J., Bendle, L.J., Kim, M.J., Han, H., 2012. The impact of nonpharmaceutical interventions for 2009 H1N1 inuenza on travel intentions: a
model of goal-directed behavior. Tourism Management 33, 89e99.
Leone, L., Perugini, M., Ercolani, A.P., 2004. Studying, practicing, and mastering: a
test of the model of goal-directed behavior (MGB) in the software learning
domain. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 34, 1945e1973.
Li, X.D., Poon, C.S., Lee, S.C., Chung, S.S., Luk, F., 2003. Waste reduction and recycling
strategies for the in-ight services in the airline industry. Resources, Conservation and Recycling 37, 87e99.
Lu, J.L., Shon, Z.Y., 2012. Exploring airline passengers willingness to pay for carbon
offsets. Transportation Research Part D 17, 124e128.

MacKerron, G.J., Egerton, C., Gaskell, C., Parpia, A., Mourato, S., 2009. Willingness to
pay for carbon offset certication and co-benets among (high-)ying young
adults in the UK. Energy Policy 37, 1372e1381.
Mair, J., 2011. Exploring air travellers voluntary carbon-offsetting behaviour. Journal
of Sustainable Tourism 19, 215e230.
Perugini, M., Bagozzi, R.P., 2001. The role of desires and anticipated emotions in
goal-directed behaviours: broadening and deepening the theory of planned
behaviour. British Journal of Social Psychology 40, 79e98.
Perugini, M., Bagozzi, R.P., 2004. The distinction between desires and intentions.
European Journal of Social Psychology 34, 69e84.
Shaw, D., Shiu, E., Hassan, L., Bekin, C., Hogg, G., 2007. Intending to be ethical: an
examination of consumer choice in sweatshop avoidance. Advances in Consumer Research 34, 31e38.
Shiu, E.M.K., Hassan, L.M., Thomson, J.A., Shaw, D., 2008. An empirical examination
of the extended model of goal-directed behavior: assessing the role of behavioural desire. European Advances in Consumer Research 8, 66e71.
Song, H.J., Lee, C.K., Kang, S.K., Boo, S.J., 2012. The effect of environmentally friendly
perceptions on festival visitors decision-making process using an extended
model of goal-directed behavior. Tourism Management 33, 1417e1428.
Stern, P.C., 2000. Toward a coherent theory of environmentally signicant behavior.
Journal of Social Issues 56, 407e424.
Van Birgelen, M., Semeijn, J., Behrens, P., 2011. Explaining pro-environment
consumer behavior in air travel. Journal of Air Transport Management 17,
125e128.
Vining, J., Ebreo, A., 2002. Emerging theoretical and methodological perspective on
conservation behavior. In: Bechtel, R., Churchman, A. (Eds.), Handbook of
Environmental Psychology. Wiley, NY.