Basalt

For the World War II raid, see Operation Basalt. For the rocks exhibit a wide range of shading due to regional geocities, see Basalt, Colorado and Basalt, Idaho.
chemical processes. Due to weathering or high concentrations of plagioclase, some basalts can be quite lightBasalt (pronounced /bslt/, /bslt/, /bslt/, or coloured, supercially resembling andesite to untrained
eyes. Basalt has a ne-grained mineral texture due to the
/beslt/)[1] is a common extrusive igneous (volcanic)
rock formed from the rapid cooling of basaltic lava ex- molten rock cooling too quickly for large mineral crystals
to grow; it is often porphyritic, containing larger crystals
posed at or very near the surface of a planet or moon.
formed prior to the extrusion that brought
(phenocrysts)
Flood basalt describes the formation in a series of lava
the
magma
to
the surface, embedded in a ner-grained
basalt ows.
matrix. These phenocrysts usually are of olivine or a
calcium-rich plagioclase, which have the highest melting
temperatures of the typical minerals that can crystallize
1 Denition
from the melt.
Basalt with a vesicular texture is called vesicular basalt,
when the bulk of the rock is mostly solid; when the vesicles are over 1/2 the volume of a specimen, it is called
scoria. This texture forms when dissolved gases come
out of solution and form bubbles as the magma decompresses as it reaches the surface, yet are trapped as the
erupted lava hardens before the gases can escape.
The term basalt is at times applied to shallow intrusive
rocks with a composition typical of basalt, but rocks
of this composition with a phaneritic (coarser) groundmass are generally referred to as diabase (also called dolerite) or, when more coarse-grained (crystals over 2 mm
across), as gabbro. Gabbro is often marketed commercially as black granite.
In the Hadean, Archean, and early Proterozoic eras of
Earths history, the chemistry of erupted magmas was sigColumnar basalt ows in Yellowstone National Park, USA
nicantly dierent from todays, due to immature crustal
and asthenosphere dierentiation. These ultra-mac volBy denition, basalt is an aphanitic (ne-grained) igneous canic rocks, with silica (SiO2 ) contents below 45% are
rock with generally 45-55% silica (SiO2 ) and less than usually classied as komatiites.
10% feldspathoid by volume, and where at least 65%
of the rock is feldspar in the form of plagioclase. It is
the most common volcanic rock type on Earth, being a 1.1 Etymology
key component of oceanic crust as well as the principal volcanic rock in many mid-oceanic islands, including The word basalt is ultimately derived from Late
Iceland, Runion and the islands of Hawaii. Basalt com- Latin basaltes, a misspelling of Latin basanites very
monly features a very ne-grained or glassy matrix inter- hard stone, which was imported from Ancient Greek
spersed with visible mineral grains. The average density (basanites), from (basanos, touchis 3.0 gm/cm3 .
stone) and perhaps originated in Egyptian bauhun
slate.[2] The modern petrological term basalt describing a particular composition of lava-derived rock originates from its use by Georgius Agricola in 1556 in his
famous work of mining and mineralogy De re metallica,
libri XII. Agricola applied basalt to the volcanic black
rock of the Schloberg (local castle hill) at Stolpen, believing it to be the same as the very hard stone described

Basalt is dened by its mineral content and texture, and

physical descriptions without mineralogical context may
be unreliable in some circumstances. Basalt is usually
grey to black in colour, but rapidly weathers to brown
or rust-red due to oxidation of its mac (iron-rich) minerals into hematite and other iron oxides and hydroxides. Although usually characterized as dark, basaltic
1

2 OCCURRENCE

Large masses must cool slowly to form a polygonal joint pattern,

as here at the Giants Causeway in Northern Ireland

Columnar basalt at Szent Gyrgy Hill, Hungary

Near Bazaltove, Ukraine

High-alumina basalt may be silica-undersaturated or

-oversaturated (see normative mineralogy). It has
greater than 17% alumina (Al2 O3 ) and is intermediate in composition between tholeiite and alkali
basalt; the relatively alumina-rich composition is
based on rocks without phenocrysts of plagioclase.
Vesicular basalt at Sunset Crater, Arizona. US quarter for scale.

by Pliny the Elder in Naturalis Historiae.[3]

1.2

Types

Tholeiitic basalt is relatively rich in silica and poor in

sodium. Included in this category are most basalts
of the ocean oor, most large oceanic islands, and
continental ood basalts such as the Columbia River
Plateau.
Mid-ocean ridge basalt (MORB) is a tholeiitic
basalt commonly erupted only at ocean ridges
and is characteristically low in incompatible
elements.[4][5]

Alkali basalt is relatively poor in silica and rich in

sodium. It is silica-undersaturated and may contain
feldspathoids, alkali feldspar and phlogopite.
Boninite is a high-magnesium form of basalt that is
erupted generally in back-arc basins, distinguished
by its low titanium content and trace-element composition.

2 Occurrence
On Earth, most basalt magmas have formed by
decompression melting of the mantle. Basalt commonly
erupts on Io, the third largest moon of Jupiter, and has
also formed on the Moon, Mars, Venus, and the asteroid
Vesta.

3.1

Geochemistry

The crustal portions of oceanic tectonic plates are com- compatible elements.
posed predominantly of basalt, produced from upwelling Alkali basalts typically have mineral assemblages that
mantle below, the ocean ridges.
lack orthopyroxene but contain olivine. Feldspar phenocrysts typically are labradorite to andesine in composition. Augite is rich in titanium compared to augite in
tholeiitic basalt. Minerals such as alkali feldspar, leucite,
3 Petrology
nepheline, sodalite, phlogopite mica, and apatite may be
present in the groundmass.
Basalt has high liquidus and solidus temperaturesvalues
at the Earths surface are near or above 1200 C (liquidus)
and near or below 1000 C (solidus); these values are
higher than those of other common igneous rocks.
The majority of tholeiites are formed at approximately
50100 km depth within the mantle. Many alkali basalts
may be formed at greater depths, perhaps as deep as 150
200 km. The origin of high-alumina basalt continues
to be controversial, with disagreement over whether it
is a primary melt or derived from other basalt types by
fractionation.[6]:65

3.1 Geochemistry
Relative to most common igneous rocks, basalt compositions are rich in MgO and CaO and low in SiO2 and the
alkali oxides, i.e., Na2 O + K2 O, consistent with the TAS
classication.

Photomicrograph of a volcanic (basaltic) sand grain; upper picture is plane-polarized light, bottom picture is cross-polarized
light, scale box at left-center is 0.25 millimeter. Note white plagioclase microlites in cross-polarized light picture, surrounded
by very ne grained volcanic glass.

Basalt generally has a composition of 4555 wt% SiO2 ,

26 wt% total alkalis, 0.52.0 wt% TiO2 , 514 wt% FeO
and 14 wt% or more Al2 O3 . Contents of CaO are commonly near 10 wt%, those of MgO commonly in the range
5 to 12 wt%.

High-alumina basalts have aluminium contents of 1719

wt% Al2 O3 ; boninites have magnesium contents of up
to 15 percent MgO. Rare feldspathoid-rich mac rocks,
akin
to alkali basalts, may have Na2 O + K2 O contents of
The mineralogy of basalt is characterized by a preponder12% or more.
ance of calcic plagioclase feldspar and pyroxene. Olivine
can also be a signicant constituent. Accessory minerals The abundances of the lanthanide or rare-earth elements
present in relatively minor amounts include iron oxides (REE) can be a useful diagnostic tool to help explain the
and iron-titanium oxides, such as magnetite, ulvospinel, history of mineral crystallisation as the melt cooled. In
and ilmenite. Because of the presence of such oxide min- particular, the relative abundance of europium compared
erals, basalt can acquire strong magnetic signatures as it to the other REE is often markedly higher or lower, and
cools, and paleomagnetic studies have made extensive use called the europium anomaly. It arises because Eu2+ can
of basalt.
substitute for Ca2+ in plagioclase feldspar, unlike any of
In tholeiitic basalt, pyroxene (augite and orthopyroxene the other lanthanides, which tend to only form 3+ cations.
or pigeonite) and calcium-rich plagioclase are common
phenocryst minerals. Olivine may also be a phenocryst,
and when present, may have rims of pigeonite. The
groundmass contains interstitial quartz or tridymite or
cristobalite. Olivine tholeiite has augite and orthopyroxene or pigeonite with abundant olivine, but olivine may
have rims of pyroxene and is unlikely to be present in
the groundmass. Ocean oor basalts, erupted originally
at mid-ocean ocean ridges, are known as MORB (midocean ridge basalt) and are characteristically low in in-

Mid-ocean ridge basalts (MORB) and their intrusive

equivalents, gabbros, are the characteristic igneous rocks
formed at mid-ocean ridges. They are tholeiites particularly low in total alkalis and in incompatible trace elements, and they have relatively at rare earth element
(REE) patterns normalized to mantle or chondrite values.
In contrast, alkali basalts have normalized patterns highly
enriched in the light REE, and with greater abundances
of the REE and of other incompatible elements. Because
MORB basalt is considered a key to understanding plate

3 PETROLOGY

tectonics, its compositions have been much studied. Although MORB compositions are distinctive relative to average compositions of basalts erupted in other environments, they are not uniform. For instance, compositions
change with position along the Mid-Atlantic ridge, and
the compositions also dene dierent ranges in dierent ocean basins.[7] Mid-ocean ridge basalts have been
subdivided into varieties such as normal (NMORB) and
those slightly more enriched in incompatible elements
(EMORB).
Isotope ratios of elements such as strontium, neodymium,
lead, hafnium, and osmium in basalts have been much
studied to learn about the evolution of the Earths mantle. Isotopic ratios of noble gases, such as 3 He/4 He, are
also of great value: for instance, ratios for basalts range
from 6 to 10 for mid-ocean ridge tholeiite (normalized to
atmospheric values), but to 1524 and more for oceanisland basalts thought to be derived from mantle plumes.

A types of blocky, cinder and breccia ows of thick,

viscous basaltic lava are common in Hawaii. Phoehoe
is a highly uid, hot form of basalt which tends to form
thin aprons of molten lava which ll up hollows and sometimes forms lava lakes. Lava tubes are common features
of pahoehoe eruptions.
Basaltic tu or pyroclastic rocks are rare but not unknown. Usually basalt is too hot and uid to build up sufcient pressure to form explosive lava eruptions but occasionally this will happen by trapping of the lava within the
volcanic throat and buildup of volcanic gases. Hawaiis
Mauna Loa volcano erupted in this way in the 19th century, as did Mount Tarawera, New Zealand in its violent
1886 eruption. Maar volcanoes are typical of small basalt
tus, formed by explosive eruption of basalt through the
crust, forming an apron of mixed basalt and wall rock
breccia and a fan of basalt tu further out from the volcano.

Source rocks for the partial melts probably include both Amygdaloidal structure is common in relict vesicles and
peridotite and pyroxenite (e.g., Sobolev et al., 2007).
beautifully crystallized species of zeolites, quartz or
calcite are frequently found.

3.2

Morphology and textures

An active basalt lava ow

Columnar jointed basalt in Turkey

The shape, structure and texture of a basalt is diagnostic Columnar basalt

See also: List of places with
of how and where it eruptedwhether into the sea, in an columnar basalt
explosive cinder eruption or as creeping pahoehoe lava
ows, the classic image of Hawaiian basalt eruptions.
During the cooling of a thick lava ow, contractional
joints or fractures form. If a ow cools relatively rapidly,
signicant contraction forces build up. While a ow
3.2.1 Subaerial eruptions
can shrink in the vertical dimension without fracturing,
it can't easily accommodate shrinking in the horizontal
Main article: Subaerial eruption
direction unless cracks form; the extensive fracture network that develops results in the formation of columns.
Basalt that erupts under open air (that is, subaerially) The topology of the lateral shapes of these columns can
forms three distinct types of lava or volcanic deposits: broadly be classed as a random cellular network. These
scoria; ash or cinder (breccia); and lava ows.
structures are predominantly hexagonal in cross-section,
Basalt in the tops of subaerial lava ows and cinder cones but polygons with three to twelve or more sides can be
will often be highly vesiculated, imparting a lightweight observed.[8] The size of the columns depends loosely on
frothy texture to the rock. Basaltic cinders are often the rate of cooling; very rapid cooling may result in very
red, coloured by oxidized iron from weathered iron-rich small (<1 cm diameter) columns, while slow cooling is
minerals such as pyroxene.
more likely to produce large columns.

5
3.2.2

Submarine eruptions

Main article: Submarine eruption

The island of Surtsey in the Atlantic Ocean is a basalt

volcano which breached the ocean surface in 1963. The
initial phase of Surtseys eruption was highly explosive, as
the magma was quite wet, causing the rock to be blown
apart by the boiling steam to form a tu and cinder cone.
This has subsequently moved to a typical pahoehoe-type
behaviour.
Volcanic glass may be present, particularly as rinds on
rapidly chilled surfaces of lava ows, and is commonly
(but not exclusively) associated with underwater eruptions.
Pillow basalt is also produced by some subglacial volcanic
eruptions.

4 Life on basaltic rocks

Pillow basalts on the south Pacic seaoor

Outcrop of a pillow basalt, Italy

Pillow basalts

The common corrosion features of underwater volcanic

basalt suggest that microbial activity may play a signicant role in the chemical exchange between basaltic
rocks and seawater. The signicant amounts of reduced
iron, Fe(II), and manganese, Mn(II), present in basaltic
rocks provide potential energy sources for bacteria. Some
Fe(II)-oxidizing bacteria cultured from iron-sulde surfaces are also able to grow with basaltic rock as a
source of Fe(II).[9] Fe- and Mn- oxidizing bacteria have
been cultured from weathered submarine basalts of Loihi
Seamount.[10] The impact of bacteria on altering the
chemical composition of basaltic glass (and thus, the
oceanic crust) and seawater suggest that these interactions
may lead to an application of hydrothermal vents to the
origin of life.

5 Distribution

Main article: Pillow lava

When basalt erupts underwater or ows into the sea, contact with the water quenches the surface and the lava
forms a distinctive pillow shape, through which the hot
lava breaks to form another pillow. This pillow texture is very common in underwater basaltic ows and is
diagnostic of an underwater eruption environment when
found in ancient rocks. Pillows typically consist of a negrained core with a glassy crust and have radial jointing.
The size of individual pillows varies from 10 cm up to Paran Traps, Brazil
several meters.
When pahoehoe lava enters the sea it usually forms pillow basalts. However, when a'a enters the ocean it forms
a littoral cone, a small cone-shaped accumulation of tuaceous debris formed when the blocky a'a lava enters the
water and explodes from built-up steam.

Basalt is one of the most common rock types in the

world. Basalt is the rock most typical of large igneous
provinces. The largest occurrences of basalt are in the
ocean oor that is almost completely made up by basalt.
Above sea level basalt is common in hotspot islands and

7 ALTERATION OF BASALT

around volcanic arcs, specially those on thin crust. However, the largest volumes of basalt on land correspond
to continental ood basalts. Continental ood basalts
are known to exist in the Deccan Traps in India, the
Chilcotin Group in British Columbia, Canada, the Paran
Traps in Brazil, the Siberian Traps in Russia, the Karoo
ood basalt province in South Africa, the Columbia River
Plateau of Washington and Oregon.

Lunar basalts show exotic textures and mineralogy, particularly shock metamorphism, lack of the oxidation typical of terrestrial basalts, and a complete lack of hydration.
While most of the Moon's basalts erupted between about
3 and 3.5 billion years ago, the oldest samples are 4.2 billion years old, and the youngest ows, based on the age
dating method of crater counting, are estimated to have
erupted only 1.2 billion years ago.

Many archipelagoes and island nations have an over- Basalt is also a common rock on the surface of Mars, as
whelming majority of its exposed bedrock made up by determined by data sent back from the planets surface,[11]
basalt due to being above hotspots, for example, Iceland and by Martian meteorites.
and Hawaii.
Ancient Precambrian basalts are usually only found in
fold and thrust belts, and are often heavily metamor- 7
phosed. These are known as greenstone belts, because
low-grade metamorphism of basalt produces chlorite, 7.1
actinolite, epidote and other green minerals.

Alteration of basalt
Metamorphism

Lunar and Martian basalt

Basalt structures in Namibia

Basalts are important rocks within metamorphic belts,

as they can provide vital information on the conditions
of metamorphism within the belt. Various metamorphic
facies are named after the mineral assemblages and rock
types formed by subjecting basalts to the temperatures
and pressures of the metamorphic event. These are:
Lunar olivine basalt collected by Apollo 15.

Blueschist facies
The dark areas visible on Earths moon, the lunar maria,
are plains of ood basaltic lava ows. These rocks
were sampled by the manned American Apollo program,
the robotic Russian Luna program, and are represented
among the lunar meteorites.
Lunar basalts dier from their terrestrial counterparts
principally in their high iron contents, which typically
range from about 17 to 22 wt% FeO. They also possess a
stunning range of titanium concentrations (present in the
mineral ilmenite), ranging from less than 1 wt% TiO2 ,
to about 13 wt.%. Traditionally, lunar basalts have been
classied according to their titanium content, with classes
being named high-Ti, low-Ti, and very-low-Ti. Nevertheless, global geochemical maps of titanium obtained
from the Clementine mission demonstrate that the lunar
maria possess a continuum of titanium concentrations,
and that the highest concentrations are the least abundant.

Eclogite facies
Granulite facies
Greenschist facies
Zeolite facies
Metamorphosed basalts are important hosts for a variety of hydrothermal ore deposits, including gold deposits,
copper deposits, volcanogenic massive sulde ore deposits and others.

7.2 Weathering
Main article: Weathering

7
Compared to other rocks found on Earths surface, basalts
weather relatively fast. The typically iron-rich minerals
oxidise rapidly in water and air, staining the rock a brown
to red colour due to iron oxide (rust). Chemical weathering also releases readily water-soluble cations such as
calcium, sodium and magnesium, which give basaltic areas a strong buer capacity against acidication. Calcium
released by basalts binds up CO2 from the atmosphere
forming CaCO3 acting thus as a CO2 trap. To this it must
be added that the eruption of basalt itself is often associated with the release of large quantities of CO2 into the
atmosphere from volcanic gases.

Uses

Basalt is used in construction (e.g. as building blocks or

in the groundwork), making cobblestones (from columnar basalt) and in making statues. Heating and extruding
basalt yields stone wool, said to be an excellent thermal
insulator.

[4] Hyndman, Donald W. (1985). Petrology of igneous and

metamorphic rocks (2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07031658-9.
[5] Blatt, Harvey and Robert Tracy (1996). Petrology (2nd
ed.). Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-2438-3.
[6] Ozerov, Alexei Y (January 2000). The evolution of highalumina basalts of the Klyuchevskoy volcano, Kamchatka,
Russia, based on microprobe analyses of mineral inclusions. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research
95 (1-4): 6579. doi:10.1016/S0377-0273(99)00118-3.
[7] Hofmann, A. W. (21 October 2014). 3.3 Sampling
Mantle Heterogeneity through Oceanic Basalts: Isotopes
and Trace Elements. In Carlson, Richard W. The Mantle and Core. Treatise on Geochemistry 3. Elsevier B.V.
pp. 67101. doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-095975-7.002035. ISBN 978-0-08-098300-4.
[8] Weaire, D.; Rivier, N. (20 August 2006). Soap,
cells and statisticsrandom patterns in two dimensions.
Contemporary Physics 25 (1): 5999.
doi:10.1080/00107518408210979.

Carbon sequestration in basalt has been studied as a

means of removing carbon dioxide, produced by hu- [9]
man industrialization, from the atmosphere. Underwater
basalt deposits, scattered in seas around the globe, have
the added benet of the water serving as a barrier to the
re-release of CO2 into the atmosphere.[12]
[10]

See also
Basalt ber
Flood basalt
Igneous rocks
Mac rocks

Edwards, Katrina J.; Bach, Wolfgang; Rogers, Daniel R.

(April 2003). Geomicrobiology of the Ocean Crust: A
Role for Chemoautotrophic Fe-Bacteria. Biological Bulletin 204: 180185. Retrieved 4 November 2015.
Templeton, Alexis S.; Staudigel, Hubert; Tebo,
Bradley M. (April 2005). Diverse Mn(II)-Oxidizing
Bacteria Isolated from Submarine Basalts at Loihi
Seamount. Geomicrobiology Journal 22 (3-4): 127139.
doi:10.1080/01490450590945951.

[11] Grotzinger, J. P. (26 September 2013). Analysis of Surface Materials by the Curiosity Mars Rover. Science 341
(6153): 14751475. doi:10.1126/science.1244258.
[12] Hance, Jeremy (5 January 2010). Underwater rocks
could be used for massive carbon storage on Americas
East Coast. Mongabay. Retrieved 4 November 2015.

Spilite
Volcano

10

References

[1] basalt, n.. Oxford English Dictionary Online. Oxford

University Press. September 2015. Retrieved 4 November 2015.
[2] Harper, Douglas. basalt (n.)". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 4 November 2015.
[3] Pliny the Elder, Naturalis Historiae. Book 36, section
11 (Loeb Classical Library): The Egyptians also discovered in Ethiopia what is called basanites, a stone which in
colour and hardness resembles iron: hence the name they
have given it. This stone is now believed to have been
greywacke, a sedimentary rock unrelated to basalt.

11 Further reading
Alexander Ablesimov, N. E.; Zemtsov, A.
N. (2010).

.
: [Relaxation eects in nonequilibrium condensed systems.
Basalts from eruption to ber] (in Russian).
Moscow.
Francis, Peter; Oppenheimer, Clive (2003). Volcanoes (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
ISBN 0-19-925469-9.
Gill, Robin (2010). Igneous rocks and processes :
a practical guide. Chichester, West Sussex, UK:
Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4443-3065-6.

12
Hall, Anthony (1996). Igneous petrology. Harlow: Longman Scientic & Technical. ISBN
9780582230804.
Alexander V. Sobolev, Albrecht W. Hofmann,
Dmitry V. Kuzmin, Gregory M. Yaxley, Nicholas T.
Arndt, Sun-Lin Chung, Leonid V. Danyushevsky,
Tim Elliott, Frederick A. Frey, Michael O. Garcia, Andrey A. Gurenko, Vadim S. Kamenetsky, Andrew C. Kerr, Nadezhda A. Krivolutskaya, Vladimir V. Matvienkov, Igor K. Nikogosian,
Alexander Rocholl, Ingvar A. Sigurdsson, Nadezhda
M. Sushchevskaya, and Mengist Teklay (20 April
2007). The Amount of Recycled Crust in Sources
of Mantle-Derived Melts. Science 316 (5823):
412417.
Siegesmund, Siegfried; Snethlage, Rolf, eds.
(2013). Stone in architecture properties, durability (3rd ed.). Springer Science & Business Media.
ISBN 3662100703.
Young, Davis A. (2003). Mind over magma : the
story of igneous petrology. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-10279-1.

12

External links

Basalt Columns
Basalt in Northern Ireland
Lavawater interface
PetDB, the Petrological Database
Petrology of Lunar Rocks and Mare Basalts
Pillow lava USGS

EXTERNAL LINKS

13
13.1

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13.2

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File:20011005-0039_DAS_large.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/20011005-0039_DAS_large.jpg

License: Public domain Contributors: United States Department of the Interior, United States Geological Survey, http://volcanoes.usgs.
gov/images/pglossary/basalt.php Original artist: United States Geological Survey
File:Basalt_columns_in_yellowstone_2.jpg Source:
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yellowstone_2.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Brocken Inaglory
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File:ItalyPillowBasalt.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/ItalyPillowBasalt.jpg License: CC BY-SA
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File:Lunar_Olivine_Basalt_15555_from_Apollo_15_in_National_Museum_of_Natural_History.jpg Source:
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TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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13.3

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