SECTION 1 - HUMAN CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION TO THE

CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
Learn more about the cardiovascular system
and the functions of the blood.
Topic
1.

Cardiovascular System - Learning

Outcomes
2.
Introduction to the Cardiovascular
System
3.
The Circulatory System
4.
Components of the Circulatory System
5.
Introduction to Blood
6.
Blood for Transport
7.
Blood and Energy Mobilization
8.
Responses to Hemorrhage
9.
Blood Transfusion and Blood Matching
10. Temperature Control by Means of the
Blood
11. Cardiovascular System - Lesson
Summary

1.Cardiovascular System - Learning Outcomes

After completing this module you will be able to:
Identify why there is a need for a circulatory system in
the human body.
Identify the substances carried to and from cells in the
body.
List some circulatory systems.
Briefly describe the components of a circulatory system.
Briefly outline the structure and functions of the human
cardiovascular system.
Define blood.
List and briefly describe the components of blood.
Briefly describe the functions of blood.
List the steps involved in response to hemorrhage.
Distinguish between whole blood and plasma
transfusions.
Recognize why blood donors and recipients must be
matched.
Outline the role played by blood in temperature control.

2.Introduction to the Cardiovascular System

The cardiovascular system is the primary circulatory system of the
human body.
It includes:
a heart
blood
blood vessels
Cardiovascular System
Brief description of the human cardiovascular system.
General Functions of the Cardiovascular System
One function of the cardiovascular system is transport.
Some substances carried by the cardiovascular system are dissolved
or suspended in the fluid portion of
the blood.
Others are bound up in special cellular elements (RBCs).
The cardiovascular system also provides protection against foreign
substances.
This function involves active attack by white blood cells as well as
more subtle processes of the immune system.

Direction of Flow of Arteries and Veins

Blood vessels make up a closed system, since there is no place in
the system where whole blood can leave.
Arteries carry blood from the chambers of the heart to the tissue of
the body.
Veins carry blood from the tissues to the chambers of the heart.
(Coronary arteries carry blood from the chambers of the heart inside
to the walls of the heart outside.)
Two Cycle System
See graphic Cardiovascular circulatory pattern.
Blood circulation is also a two cycle system.
It involves both the pulmonary cycle and the systemic cycle. Blood
circulates through two circuits.
In the pulmonary cycle, blood circulates from the heart to the lungs
and back to the heart.
In the systemic cycle, blood circulates from the heart to the rest of
the body and back to the heart.
Fetal Circulation
Since the fetus is located within the uterus, its lungs do not take in
air.
Therefore, the pulmonary cycle does not function in the fetus.

Essentially, fetal blood flows to and from the placenta.

There are certain bypasses in the heart to avoid the pulmonary
cycle.
At the time of birth, the fetal circulation is changed to the normal
pattern.

3. The Circulatory System

In simple organisms such as unicellular and one-or two-layer
organisms, materials can be transferred among cells by simple
processes of diffusion.
However, in large organisms, a system is needed for the distribution
and collection of materials.
This is because diffusion does not occur fast enough to carry the
large volumes of materials necessary through the greater distances
required.
Circle graphic title
Substances carried by circulatory systems in the human body
include:
Nutrients
Some of the substances distributed to the body cells are products of
the digestive system.
These materials meet individual cell requirements for energy,
growth, repair, synthesis of new materials, and storage for later
5

use.
Oxygen
Oxygen is obtained by the blood through the process of external
respiration in the lungs.
Oxygen is then transported to the individual body cells, where it is
used in metabolic oxidation.
This provides energy for production of ATP (adenosine
triphosphate), which is necessary for carrying on the life processes
of the body.
Waste Substances
Some substances are collected from the body cells for elimination.
These include carbon dioxide, nitrogenous wastes, and other
potentially harmful substances that are carried to organs like the
lungs, liver, or kidneys for elimination from the body.
Hormones
Hormones are the products of endocrine glands.
Hormones and other control substances are distributed throughout
the body by circulatory systems.
The tissues or organs affected by these substances are usually
called target organs.
In turn, substances released by the target organs often affect the
original endocrine gland. This results in a feedback system.
6

Extra Information
Continuous renewal and removal of fluids - Secretory processes
continuously renew the various fluid systems of the human body.
At the same time, the volume of fluid in each system is kept at a
constant level through the removal of excess fluids.
Should the removal processes be interrupted, the volume of fluid
will increase. The resulting increase in pressure can have serious
consequences. Depending on the system involved, the
consequences might include
deafness, hydrocephalus, or pulmonary edema.

4. Components of the Circulatory System

Any circulatory system has three general components as follows:
Vehicle
Conduits
Motive forces
Vehicle
The vehicle is a fluid (flowing) medium. The materials being carried
are dissolved or suspended in this fluid.
This is the blood, lymph, or cerebrospinal fluid.
Conduits
Conduits are like pipes.
7

They contain the fluids in which materials are transported to and

from the various parts of the body.
These are the blood vessels or lymph vessels.
Motive Forces
Motive forces act upon the vehicle to make it flow through the
conduits.
In the cardiovascular system these are provided by the heart.
Extra information screen
Some examples of circulatory systems of the human body include:
the cardiovascular system
the lymphatic system
the CSF (cerebrospinal fluid) system
The lesser systems include:
the aqueous humor of the bulbus oculi (eyeball)
the endolymph and perilymph, which are fluids of the inner ear
This course focuses on the cardiovascular system.

5. Introduction to Blood

Blood is the vehicle of the cardiovascular system.

Thus, it is the component which actually transports substances.
Blood is composed of the following:
Plasma
Formed elements
Plasma Water Component
Plasma makes up about 55 percent of the total blood volume.
The major constituent of plasma is water.
The physical characteristics of water make it a very good vehicle for
the following reasons:
water is fluid therefore it can flow through the conduits.
most substances can be dissolved in water, it is often known as
the "universal solvent."
at ordinary pressures, water is essentially non-compressible.
Plasma Water Component
In addition, water has important temperature characteristics.
Water has an ample heat-carrying capacity. It can carry heat readily
throughout the body.
Some of this heat is transferred to the water of the sweat glands.
Since water can dissipate great quantities of heat through
9

evaporation, excess heat can

be efficiently disposed of at the surface of the skin.
Plasma Dissolved and Suspended substances
To some extent, all transported substances are dissolved or
suspended in the water of the plasma.
These substances include:
various gases
end products of digestion
various control substances
waste products
three major plasma proteins--albumin, globulins, and fibrinogen
dissolved salts (electrolytes)
Together with the dissolved salts (electrolytes), the plasma proteins
help to maintain the tonicity of the plasma. In addition, fibrinogen is
important to blood clotting.
Formed Elements
The remainder of the blood volume consists of the formed elements:
red blood cells
white blood cells
platelets
In adults, these formed elements normally make up 40 percent to 45
percent of the total blood volume.
10

This measure is called the hematocrit.

Red Blood Cells
Red Blood Cells are also called RBCs or Erythrocytes.
Hemoglobin is a special protein which is found within the RBC
cytoplasm.
Because of its iron atoms, hemoglobin has a great affinity for
oxygen.
It will readily pick up oxygen until it is saturated.
At the same time, however, hemoglobin will readily give up oxygen
in areas of low concentration.
The primary function of RBCs is to carry oxygen to the majority of
the oxygen to the individual cells of the body.
Structure of Red Blood Cells
The normal, mature red blood cell is a biconcave disc.
The biconcave shape results from the loss of the nucleus just before
the final maturation of the RBC.
Since this shape increases the surface area of the disc, there is an
increase in the capacity for the flow of substances into and out of
the RBC.
The Life Cycle of the Red Blood Cell
Because of the loss of its nucleus, the RBC has a limited life period
11

(about 120 days).

At the end of this period, the spleen removes the "worn out" RBC,
and the liver salvages the "pieces," particularly the iron.
White Blood Cells
White blood cells are another of the formed elements of the blood,
they are also known as WBCs or Leucocytes.
There are several types of WBC. Neutrophils, Monocytes and other
phagocytic WBCs. Some phagocytic WBCs can move independently
out of the capillaries and penetrate into the tissues of the body.
There, they actively attack foreign substances and engulf them in a
process called phagocytosis. When these WBCs are overcome by
foreign substances and die, their bodies accumulate to form a
substance called pus.
Lymphocytes are another type of WBC. They are involved with the
immune system of the body, including the production of antibodies.
Platelets
The platelets are the third type of formed element in the blood.
Platelets are fragments of former cells.
They play an important role in the clotting process.
Serum
While blood plasma is whole blood minus the blood cells, serum is
12

whole blood minus the cells and minus fibrinogen and other clotting
factors. ??????????????
A clear pale straw colored fluid called serum remains after blood has
been treated to remove the formed elements and the protein
fibrinogen.

6. Blood for Transport

The blood is the vehicle for the cardiovascular system, it is used to
transport substances around the body.
Transport of Gases - General
One very important transport function of the blood is to carry gases
back and forth between the lungs and the individual cells of the
body. The alveoli and the individual body cells are the sites of
exchange of gases to and from the blood.At these sites, the gases
move according to the directions of pressure of concentration
gradients.That is, each gas moves from an area where it is in higher
concentration to an area of lesser concentration.

Oxygen
Oxygen is in the air filling the alveolus of the lung.
The oxygen passes through the walls of the alveolus and capillary to
become dissolved in the
plasma of the blood.Most of the dissolved oxygen is rapidly picked
up by the hemoglobin of the RBCs. Thus, the RBC is the main
transporting element for oxygen in the blood.

Carbon Dioxide
Carbon dioxide is produced during metabolic oxidation within the
individual cell. It passes through the cell membrane and the wall of
the capillary to become dissolved in the plasma of the blood.
Through action of an enzyme in the RBCs, most of the carbon
13

dioxide (CO2) is transformed into bicarbonate ions (HCO3).

Transport of Nutrients
Other substances, such as the end products of digestion, are also
carried by the blood. They are either dissolved or suspended in the
plasma.

7.Blood and Energy Mobilization

The life processes cannot continue in the bodys cells without
sources of energy.The blood carries glucose and oxygen around the
body.Energy is released from the glucose during metabolic oxidation
and stored in ATP molecules. This stored energy can then be
retrieved when required by the life processes of the body.
Hormones
When the hormone epinephrine (Adrenalin) is secreted by the
adrenal gland, it is delivered to all parts of the body by the
cardiovascular system. Among other effects, epinephrine increases
the rate of metabolism of all cells of the body. This helps to mobilize
energy during a "fight-or-flight" stress reaction.
Fats
The body can use its stores of fat in when a lot of energy is
required.The lymphatic circulatory system picks up the end
products of lipid (fat) digestion and carries them to the
cardiovascular system.
This fat is generally deposited throughout the body, particularly the
subcutaneous layer, as yellow fat. In a rapid turnover, the high
energy content of the fat is released for use throughout the body.
In infants, there is often brown fat at the junctions of the major
blood vessels. In periods of high- energy requirements, this brown
fat releases energy into the blood stream immediately.
14

Prioritisation of Blood Supply

Blood can be delivered to the body parts where it is most
needed.For example, when a specific portion of the cerebral cortex
is active, more blood is delivered to that portion.

8. Responses to Hemorrhage
A blood vessel may be damaged by transection (cutting across) or
rupture.At such points, a volume of whole blood can flow out of the
blood vessels. This escape of
blood from the blood vessels is called hemorrhage.
HEMO = blood
RRHAGE = excessive flow ("bursting forth")
When this happens the bloods clotting system

Step 1 Vascular Contraction

Vascular contraction. The first response to a cut or ruptured vessels
is contraction (spasm) of the blood vessel itself. This may
considerably reduce the volume of blood loss.

Step 2 Platelet Plug

Platelet Plug. If the hole is small, a plug formed by clumping of the
platelets
may be adequate to stop the bleeding.

Step 3 Blood Clotting

Blood Clotting. There is a complicated process for sealing off holes
or ends of blood vessels after a cut or rupture. By this process,
called coagulation or clotting, the blood forms a solid mass to seal
the opening where the blood is escaping. The mass is called a blood
clot. After many intermediate steps, the protein fibrinogen of the
blood is converted into sticky strands of fibrin. These sticky strands
adhere to the wall of the opening and form a meshwork in the
opening, which traps RBCs and plasma. Thus, the opening is sealed.

Step 4 Hematoma
15

Hematoma. A hematoma is a collection of blood, usually clotted, in

an organ, space, or tissue. When found immediately beneath the
skin, it will produce a purplish spot or mark.With time, as the clot is
broken down and resorbed, the hematoma changes color and
becomes smaller.
Step 5 Mobilization of Blood Reservoirs
Mobilization of Blood Reservoirs. Certain areas of the body contain
enough blood that they can be used as reservoirs to maintain the
circulating blood volume. This is important when a volume of blood
has been lost through hemorrhage.Among these are the spleen and
the liver, whose sinuses together can release several hundred
milliliters of blood. Also important are several groups of veins,
including the large abdominal veins, which can also provide several
hundred milliliters of blood.

9. Blood Transfusion and Blood Matching

In cases where an individual has lost whole blood by hemorrhaging,
it is often necessary to give transfusions of whole blood. Whole
blood transfusions continue the functions of the RBCs.On the other
hand, if an individual has suffered burns causing a loss of fluid but
not the loss of formed elements, plasma or a plasma substitute will
often be used.

Blood Matching
There are a number of substances (antigens) on the surfaces of
RBCs that vary among individuals. The blood of other individuals
may contain or develop antibodies to these antigens. Before blood
transfusions, the blood of the recipient and the donor must be
matched to avoid potentially fatal reactions. Important systems of
such antigens include the ABO system and the Rh system.

16

10.

Temperature Control by Means of the Blood

The cardiovascular system plays a role in the control of body

temperature control in the following areas:

Elimination of Excess Heat
Conservation of Body Heat
Core Temperature Control
Core Temperature Control - Counter Current Mechanism
Cooling of Organs with a High Metabolic Rate
Warming of Inflowing Air
Erythema

Elimination of Excess Heat

Heat is produced as a by-product by various activities of the
human body, particularly muscular contractions. When excess
heat is accumulated, it must be eliminated from the body to
maintain a healthy condition.The water of the blood has a
great heat-carrying capacity.There are superficial capillary
beds in the subcutaneous layer, close to the surface of the
body. When the blood flows through these beds, some of its
heat can radiate directly to the surrounding environment.The
sweat glands take water from the blood and secrete it onto the
surface of the skin. Here, even more calories of heat are lost
during the evaporation of the water.

Conservation of Body Heat

On the other hand, if the body has an insufficient amount of
heat, heat loss must be reduced. For this purpose, the
superficial capillary beds can be closed down. Then, the fat in
the subcutaneous layer serves as insulation.
17

Core Temperature Control

Unlike the peripheral portions of the body, whose
temperatures may vary considerably, the center of the body
must be maintained at a certain temperature within very
narrow limits. There are special temperature detectors in the
hypothalamus of the forebrain stem. These continuously
monitor the temperature of the blood flowing through the
brain. The blood system uses a counter current mechanism to
maintain core temperature as follows:
The peripheral blood in the limbs is several degrees cooler
than the blood in the center of the body. Therefore, it must be
warmed as it returns toward the heart. The arteries and veins
of the limbs are located side by side as they extend from the
trunk and through the length of the limbs. As it returns to the
trunk, cool venous blood is gradually warmed by the arterial
blood flowing in the opposite direction. Cooling of Organs with
a High Metabolic Rate. Certain organs of the body, such as the
brain and the liver, have a relatively high metabolic rate.
Because of this, they produce excessive heat. Part of the blood
supply to these organs is specifically designed to remove the
excess calories of heat.

Warming of Inflowing Air

As blood flows through the arteries of the mucoperiosteum of
the nasal chambers, the inflowing air is warmed.

Erythema
At the site of an infection or injury, the most common reaction
observed is redness (erythema). This indicates that extra
blood and heat are available for healing.

18

11.

Cardiovascular System - Lesson

Summary
Large multicellular organisms such as humans require
circulatory systems for the distribution and collection of
substances.
Substances carried by circulatory systems include oxygen,
nutrients, waste products and hormones.
Circulatory systems in the human body include the
cardiovascular system, the lymphatic system and the
cerebrospinal fluid system.
The components of any circulatory system include the vehicle,
conduits and motive forces.
The cardiovascular system comprises the blood, the blood
vessels (arteries and veins) and the heart.
The cardiovascular system provides transport and protection
for the body.
Generally, arteries carry blood from the heart to the body
tissues, while veins carry blood from the body tissues to the
heart.
Blood circulation is also a two cycle system. It involves both
the pulmonary cycle and the systemic cycle.
Blood is the vehicle of the cardiovascular system
Blood is composed of plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells
and platelets.
The red blood cells carry oxygen.
The white blood cells play a role in protecting the body from
infection.
The blood transports oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, waste
products and hormones.

19

 The response of the vascular system to hemorrhaging involves

vascular contraction, clumping of platelets and the blood
clotting process.
The cardiovascular system enables energy mobilization by:
i. carrying the oxygen required to make ATP
ii. carrying hormones needed to mobilize energy
iiii. carrying fats needed for energy
iv. increasing blood supply to particular areas when they most
need it.
Recipient and donor blood types must be matched for blood
transfusions.
Blood plays an important role in temperature control in the
body.

20