Definition of Surveying

Surveying is defined as the science of making measurements of the

earth specifically the surface of the earth. This is being carried out by
finding the spatial location (relative / absolute) of points on or near the
surface of the earth.
Different methods and instruments are being used TO facilitate the
work of surveying.
The primary aims of field surveying are :
To measure the Horizontal Distance between points.
To measure the Vertical elevation between points.
To find out the Relative direction of lines by measuring horizontal
angles with reference To any arbitrary direction and
To

find

out Absolute

direction by

measuring horizontal

angles with reference To a fixed direction.

These parameters are utilized To find out the relative or absolute
coordinates of a point / location.
Importance of Surveying TO Civil Engineers
The planning and design of all Civil Engineering projects such as
construction of highways, bridges, tunnels, dams etc are based upon
surveying measurements.
Moreover,

during

execution,

project

of

any

magnitude

is

constructed along the lines and points established by surveying.

Thus, surveying is a basic requirement for all Civil Engineering
projects.
Other principal works in which surveying is primarily utilised are

 To fix the national and state boundaries;

To chart coastlines, navigable streams and lakes;
To establish control points;

To execute hydrographic and oceanographic charting and

mapping; and
To prepare Topographic map of land surface of the earth.
Objectives of Surveying
To collect field data;
To prepare plan or map of the area surveyed;
To analyse and To calculate the field parameters for setting out
operation of actual engineering works.
To set out field parameters at the site for further engineering
works.
Plan: Orthographic representation of features on or near the
surface of the earth in Large Scale on a horizontal plane.
Map: Graphical representation of features on or near the surface of
the earth in small scale on a horizontal plane and is constructed using
a projection system other than orthographic.
Divisions of Surveying
The approximate shape of the earth can best be defined as
an oblate tri-axial ovaloid. But, most of the civil engineering works,
concern only with a small portion of the earth which seems TO be a
plane surface. Thus, based upon the consideration of the shape of the
earth, surveying is broadly divided into two types.

Geodetic Surveying

Plane Surveying

Oblate (spheroid): An oblate (spheroid) is a surface of revolution

obtained by rotating an ellipse about its minor axis i.e., having
equatorial radius greater than the polar radius.
Ovaloid: A pear shaped figure having dimension of one hemisphere
larger than the other for earth, southern hemisphere is larger than the
northern.
Geodetic Surveying
In this branch of surveying, the true shape of the earth is taken
into consideration.
This type of surveying is being carried out for highly precise work
and is adopted for surveying of large area.
Plane Surveying
In this method of surveying, the mean surface of the earth is
considered to be a plane surface. This type of survey is applicable
for small area (less than 200 square kilometer). Thus for most of the
Civil Engineering projects, methods of plane surveying are valid.
This course is restricted to the different aspects of plane
surveying. Henceforth, in this course work, the word surveying
implies plane surveying.
Fundamental assumptions in Plane surveying
All distances and directions are horizontal;
The direction of the plumb line is same at all points within the
limits of the survey;

 All angles (both horizontal and vertical) are plane angles;

Elevations are with reference to a datum.
Plumb line: The direction of the lines of force of earth's gravity
field. In field surveying, it is defined by the direction of a freely
suspended plumb-bob
Elevation: The vertical distance of a point from a datum.
Datum: A leveled surface taken as reference for the determination
of elevations of points.
Classifications of Surveying
Based on the purpose (for which surveying is being conducted),
Surveying has been classified into:
Control surveying: To establish horizontal and vertical positions
of control points.
Land surveying: To determine the boundaries and areas of
parcels of land, also known as property survey, boundary survey or
cadastral survey.
Topographic survey: To prepare a plan/ map of a region which
includes natural as well as and man-made features including
elevation?
Engineering survey: To collect requisite data for planning,
design and execution of engineering projects. Three broad steps are
1)

Reconnaissance

survey: To

explore

site

conditions

and

availability of infrastructures.
2) Preliminary survey: To collect adequate data To prepare
plan / map of area To be used for planning and design.
3) Location survey: To set out work on the ground for actual

construction / execution of the project.

Route survey: To plan, design, and laying out of route such as
highways, railways, canals, pipelines, and other linear projects.
Construction
establishment

of

surveys: Surveys
points,

lines,

which

grades,

are

and

for

required

for

staking

out

engineering works (after the plans have been prepared and the
structural design has been done).
Astronomic surveys: To determine the latitude, longitude (of the
observation station) and azimuth (of a line through observation
station) from astronomical observation.
Mine surveys: To carry out surveying specific for opencast and
underground mining purposes.
Principles of Surveying
The fundamental principles upon which the surveying is being
carried out are

Working from whole To part.

After deciding the position of any point, its reference must

be kept from at least two permanent objects or stations whose

positions have already been well defined.
The purpose of working from whole To part is

To localize the errors and

To control the accumulation of errors.

This is being achieved by establishing a hierarchy of networks

of control points. The less precise networks are established within
the higher precise network and thus restrict the errors. To minimize
the error limit, highest precise network (primary network) Figure
1.1 of control are established using the most accurate / precise

instruments for collection of data and rigorous methods of analysis

are employed To find network parameters. This also involves most
skilled manpower and costly resources which are rare and cost
intensive. Further elaboration has been done in Lesson 3 under
"Overview of Land Surveying".
Control points: Stations having known position.

.
he reference of any point, say X, has TO kept with respect TO, at
least, two permanent objects or well defined points, say Y and Z.
Generally, this has been achieved by taking measurement of two
parameters. The location of a point, say X can be done as shown in
the figure below.
(a) Distances YX and ZX (Figure 1.2)

(b) Perpendicular distance OX and distance OY or OZ (Figure 1.3)

(c) Distance YX or ZX and angle YZX or ZYX (Figure 1.4(a))and

(Figure 1.4(b))

(d) Angles YZX and ZYX. (Figure 1.5)

The point of intersection of the two measured parameters defines

the position of the point.
Operations in Surveying
Operations in surveying consists of :

Planning

Field Observation

Office Works

Setting out Works

Planning
To decide
the methods To be adopted for surveying;
the resources (instruments & personnel) To be used;
The control points / stations To be used (those already available
and/ or To set up).
The planning operation needs a-priori field visit and this is known
as reconnaissance.

Field Observation

It involves
Collection of field data by making necessary measurements;
Recording of observed data in a systematic manner.
Before starting any field observation, the permanent adjustments of
all the instruments need TO be checked thoroughly by trained
personnel and if required, it must be adjusted.

Office Work
It involves
Processing, analysing and calculation of observed data;

Preparation of necessary data (for making plan or map of the

area);
Making of a plan or map of the area;
Computation of relevant field parameters as per design for setting
out engineering works at site.
Setting out Works
To locate and establish different parameters / dimensions at the
site as per design for further engineering works.
Mapping Fundamentals
The data collected through field surveying are presented in the
form of a plan or a map.
Since, the actual surface of the earth is curved, and the surface of
the map is flat, a method of projection is usually used To fit a curved
surface of earth into a plane surface of paper. However, no map can

represent a terrain without some distortion. To minimize the effect of

distortion, conformal projections are generally employed.
To prepare a map, first a grid of meridians and parallels of latitude
is being prepared To provide a framework of map. Control points are
then plotted by their spherical coordinates (latitude, longitude). A
plane coordinate system is then used To plot other points accurately
in orthogonal coordinate system obviating direct use of spherical
coordinates.
In case of plane surveying, the earth's surface is regarded as plane
and thus, a map is constructed by orthographic projection. Points are
being plotted by their rectangular coordinates, angles and distances
as horizontal.
During the preparation of maps, the factors which need important
considerations are:
Scales
Conventional symbols
Generalization of details
Plotting accuracy
Rectangular Coordinates
Scales
The selection of scale is one of the most important considerations
during mapping. It is decided on the basis of :
purpose of the map;
nature of terrain To be mapped;
the size of the final sheet;
Availability of resources To get it prepared and printed.

Some of these factors are of opposite and conflicting in nature.

Therefore, in selecting the scale, the map-maker has To make a
judicious decision and To make a compromise.

Table 2.1 Suggested scales for different types of survey

Serial No

Purpose of Survey

Scale

R.F.

1.

Land Survey

1 cm = 5 m TO 50 m

1:500 TO 1:5000

2.

Topographical Survey

3.

Building Site

1 cm = 10 m

1:1000

4.

Route Survey

1 cm = 100 m

1:10,000

5.

Town Planning

1 cm = 100 m

1:10,000

1 cm = 0.25 km TO 2.5 km

1:25,000 TO 1:250,000

Conventional Symbols
After the selection of scale of plotting, the map preparation should
be carried out in such a way that it becomes intelligible. It conveys
useful meaning TO the reader only when one can identify the ground
features identical with those shown on the map. In India, conventional
symbols, proposed by Survey of India, are used To depict objects on
map. Symbols generally used for preparation of Topographical map are

shown in Figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1 Standard (Survey of India) Conventional Signs of Salient
objects for Topographic Map
Symbol

Description

Symbol

Description

Village (open)

Telephone Line

Church

Electric Power Line

Temple

Railway,Broad
Double Line

Gauge

Mosque

Bridge carrying Railway

over Road

Idgah

Metalled Road

Burial-Ground

National Highway

Boundary pillar

UN-Metalled Road

Aerodrome

Level Crossing

Well

Foot
Bridge,Culvert

Path

with

Swamp or Marsh with Cultivation

( Road
Embankment

or

Railway

Orchard
Plantation

Garden

Lake with
a)Defined Limit
b)Fluctuating Limit
c)Embankment

Single Line Stream

Trees

a) Perennial

a) Scattered

b) Non-Perennial

b) Surveyed

Canal with Navigation Lock and

Road

Bench Mark

Aqueduct with Road Alongside

Triangulation Station

Earthwork Dam

Broken or Rocky Ground

Masonry dam with Road

ConTOurs

Map Generalization
Since a map represents earth's surface in a small scale, it cannot
depict all the objects present on the surface of earth. However, it is
essential To show the important details and weed out the trivials.
The process involved in selecting the essential details from the
multitude of Topographical objects and representing them in a
specified manner is called generalization'. It serves the purpose of
facilitating the production of a legible homogenous map.
Moreover, when the representation of an important object / feature
is done by its conventional sign, it occupies more space on the map
sheet than what the scale permits. This space occupied by the
conventional sign may require cutting down of some other details
known as generalization of details on maps. A Topographical map or
even a large scale engineering survey map therefore may not contain
all the details as actually present on the surface of the earth, as its

scale does not permit the same.

The salient points required for generalization are:
Choice of object / features in connection with its purpose and the
scale of map.
Elimination of terrain details that cannot be maintained because
of legibility and clarity in the map.
Simplification of the form of terrain details that cannot be omitted
but of which a detailed representation would interfere with the image
of the map.
Plotting Accuracy
The precision of a map / plan depends on the fineness and
accuracy with which the details are plotted. Moreover, the plotting
accuracy on paper, varies between 0. 1 mm TO 0.4 mm, of which the
mean value of 0.25 mm is usually adopted as plotting accuracy. This,
therefore, imposes limit on linear measurements that can be
represented on the map at a given scale and thus accuracy. The
measurements TO be made on the ground. For example, if the
plotting scale is 1: 1000, than the maximum possible distance on
ground that can be represented as map is 0.25 x 1,000 mm i.e., 0.25
meter. Thus, any detail having length less than 0.25 meter cannot be
plotted and thus, field measurement for objects having dimensioned
less than 0.25 meter are not needed. If the scale is still smaller say
1: 50,000, then maximum plottable ground distance is 0.25 x
50,000mm i.e., 12.5 meter. Thus any object having length or width
less than 12.5 meter, such as roads, railway track, etc. cannot be
plotted on map. However, if the features are important and cannot be
ignored, these are represented on map by proper conventional signs
and colours adopting the Principles of Generalization' of Details.

Rectangular Coordinates
Large scale maps of plane surveying are generally prepared by
means of a system of rectangular coordinates with two reference
axes

representing

the

east-west

and

north-south

directions

respectively in horizontal and vertical directions. In order TO make

the individual surveys related TO common system and make the data
useful for multi-purpose cadastral survey, at least one station
(Control point) within the area of survey should be designated by a
pair of coordinates in the National coordinate system. This is
significant as the point such described is unique within the system.
For India, Survey of India defined the National rectangular coordinate
system with origin at Kalianpur (2407', 7739'), Madhya Pradesh.
Examples
Ex2-1 In a plan, a 10 cm scale drawn shrunks TO 9.7 cm. If the
scale of the given plan is written as 1:250, determine the actual
length of a line which at present shows 10 cm.
Solution :

Present representative fraction (R.F.) =

Therefore Actual distance =

= 25.77 m

Overview of Land Surveying

The fundamental objective of land surveying is TO prepare
a plan or map of an area. The map thus prepared serves as the
primary source of information about the surface of the earth for
further engineering works. The data required for making of a map
gets collected through field surveying. TO start field surveying, it is
required TO know very accurately, the geographical coordinates
(latitude, longitude) of at least one point, known as control point and
the length as well as azimuth of a line, known as baseline(Figure 3.1).
The Latitude of the point and the azimuth of the line are determined
through astronomical survey and longitude from time measurement.
The length of the line is measured with a distance measuring
instrument.
From the control point in association with the base line, a number
of intervisible points are selected such that on joining these points
well shaped triangles are required TO be formed. These triangles
carry forward points whose geographical positions are calculated
from the measurements (horizontal distance, horizontal angles) taken
from the network of triangles. The calculated parameters undergo
further

adjustment

by

satisfying

the

geometrical

conditions

associated with the parameters as well as with figures. This helps in

minimisation

of

errors

which

may

creep

in

further

surveying

operation. Inside the big triangles formed by widely spaced control

points, network of smaller triangles get established (Figure 3.2). This
process gets repeated materializing the basic principle of surveying
"To work from whole To part". Thus the entire area TO be surveyed
gets covered with network of triangles.
The detail surveying is then carried out within the smallest
triangle.

During

surveying,

measurements

(distance,

direction,

angles, height etc.) for important objects/ points are taken. The
measurements

are

then

used

for

necessary

calculations

and

adjustments resulting in identification and finding positions (with

respect To standard reference) of salient objects.
To prepare map, first a grid of medians and parallels of latitudes
is being prepared To provide a frame work of map. Control points are
then plotted by their spherical coordinates.
Then

objects

are

graphically

represented

in

rectangular

coordinate system for depicting planimetric position. Terrain height

is depicted by using contours at regular interval. The identification of
objects is depicted using conventional symbols and colours Figure
2.1.
TO prepare map of the area, inside the marked area in Figure 3.3,
first the surveying measurements and plotting are being carried out
for plot number 1(Figure3.4).
Next, detail surveying (Figure3.5) and plotting are being carried
out for plot number 2 (Figure 3.6) and subsequently detail mapping is
carried out for plot number 3 and plot number 4. Then, a final map of
the whole area is being prepared by mosaicing the component maps
(Figure 3.7)

Indian Topographic Maps

Topographic maps provide the graphical portrayal of objects
present on the surface of the earth. These maps provide the
preliminary information about a terrain and thus very useful for
engineering works. For most part of India, Topographic maps are
available which are prepared by the Survey of India. TO identify a
map of a particular area, a map numbering system has been adopted
by Survey of India. The system of identification is as follows:
An International Series (within 4 N TO 40 N Latitude and 44 E
TO 124 E Longitude) at the scale of 1: 1,000,000 is being considered
as base map. The base map is divided into sections of 4 latitude x 4
longitude and designated from 1 (at the extreme north-west) TO 136,
covering only land areas and leaving any 4 square if it falls
completely in the sea (Figure 3.8).

For Indian Topographic maps, each section is further divided into

16 sections (4 rows by 4 columns), each of 1 latitude x 1 longitude
(1:250,000), staring from a letter A (North-West corner) and ending on
P, column-wise. These degree sheets are designated by a number and
an alphabet such as 53 C (Figure 3.9).

These degree sheets are further sub-divided in the following ways:

Each sheet is divided into four parts (2 rows by 2 columns),, each
of 30' latitude x 30' longitude (1:100,000) designating them by cardinal

directions NW, NE, SW, and SE. Such sheets are identified as 53 M/SE
(Figure 3.10).

Degree sheets have also been divided into 16 sheets (4 rows by 4

columns), each 15' latitude x 15' longitude (1:50,000) and numbered
from 1 (at the north-west corner of the particular degree sheet) TO 16
column wise and are identified as 53 B/3 (Figure 3.11).

Each 1:50,000 scale sheets contain four (2 rows by 2 columns)

1:25,000 sheet (7 1/2 latitude x 7' 1/2 longitude) which are numbered
NW, NE, SW, and SE. Such sheets are identified as 53 O/14/NE (Figure
3.12).

In this way, the Topographic map of most of the area of India may
be acquired at the scale available and subsequently can be updated
and upgraded as required for a particular project. For large scale
maps, further surveying needs To carry out.