Racial Oppression of People of Color

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for Capstone II

Guilford College
Greensboro, North Carolina

Introduction
Regardless of the common belief that Americans live in a time that looks past race, and
that the threat of structural or institutionalized inequalities like racism or classism now cease to
exist; many marginalized groups have been experiencing struggles that are quite contrary to
popular belief. For many years marginalized groups of people have struggled to overcome
challenges with systematic inequalities and unbalanced definitions of racial labels, giving one
group of people power and control over other groups of people. This system placed many nonwhite groups of people at a disadvantage and caused extreme difficulties in reference to where
they belonged within society. Oral and written history indicates that many non-white groups of
people have been racially oppressed since the beginning of history as a result of capitalism and
the idea that one group of people were superior to others based on ancestry and the color of
ones skin.
This created a complex system of classification that caused minority group members,
more specifically, people of color to have limited access to opportunities and other social goods
and benefits. Despite the imagined barriers produced as a byproduct of the racial construct, social
sociologists and biologists have proven that race is not biological, but in fact just a social idea
created by one group of people. The purpose of this paper is to present a general overview of
racial oppression, towards non-white people. Why did a racial caste system begin? How did
people of color and other marginalized groups deal with racial oppression historically? Are there
any theories regarding racial oppression? How are people dealing with such barriers today? In
other words, what are the current effects of racial oppression? In order to fully understand the
magnitude of racial oppression taking place within America, the history or roots of this system
must first be examined. I will begin with a brief overview of the first racialized classification
system, which is also known as a caste system that began many years ago.

History
Many years ago, a complex system of classification was introduced to American that
caused people of color to have limited access to opportunities and other social advantages. Racial
categories based on physical characteristics and ancestral origins stem from: An extended
encounter between European and non-European peoples, which began in the late 15 th and early
16th centuries. Upon discovering human beings in Asia, Africa, and the Americas, who looked,
and often acted very different from themselves, Europeans concluded that these superficial
differences were an indication of much more fundamental differences. This conclusion enabled
them to colonize, enslave, and even eradicate many of those peoples. Europeans came to believe
that races are in fact distinct and identifiable human groups, and that there are systematic,
inherited, biological differences between races. Ultimately, Europeans believed that non-white
races were instinctively inferior to whites and as a result, a caste system was constructed.
(Cornell, S., & Hartmann, D., 1998).
Throughout the years, numerous scientific scholars have established that race is not
biological. Again, race was created by the dominate race to enable one group to have power over
the other groups. The caste system officially began during the conquest of Mexico and other
Latin American countries by the Spaniards, which produced four overall racial categories:
Europeans (Spaniards), Mestizos, Indians and Slaves. By the 18th Century, the class of mestizo
was broke down into as many as sixteen different racial categories. Rutilio Martinez and Vish
Iyer of the University of Northern Colorado discussed the caste system as follows:
In colonial times the Latin American societies were organized in a rigid, racially
determined, caste system. The upper two castes included whites only. Below these two
came the castes formed by individuals of mixed European and Indian ancestry, the

Mestizos. Next in the pecking order were those of mixed European and Africa ancestry,
the Mulattos. In the lowest castes were the Indians and the blacks. From the perspective
of the whites, this hierarchy was more than a mere expression of colonial power. It was
also an expression of the natural order regarding intelligence and beauty among the races.
(Martinez & Iyer, 2008).
Historically, people of color did not have much of a say so over what happened to them and were
usually were placed in the lowest caste within society. It was extremely difficult for people of
color to obtain wealth, status and freedom. Fortunately, there were a small few who were able to
beat the odds against them, but this only happened very rarely and when it did occur, it was
frowned upon by many. Many people of color had no choice but to use whatever advantages
were at their disposal to secure the future of themselves and their children. As a means to escape
some people of color migrated to other countries where oppression was not as severe and where
they had a better chance to provide a decent way of life for themselves and their families.
Theory
From a theoretical perspective, some scholars suggest that racial oppression stems from
or is perhaps connected to the power-conflict theory. This concept highlights violence, coercion
and power as a means to perpetuate and maintain a specific social order by which White
Americans regulate and abuse others for their own person gain. Freire (1970):
Views oppression as an act (or acts) of violence that by its very nature interferes with a
persons ability to evolve as a complete human being. He defines oppression as any
attempt by an individual or group of individuals to exploit, block, or hinder a persons or
group of persons pursuit of self-determination. Not only is oppression achieved and
maintained by violence, but the violence gradually permeates all aspects of the social

order, through which it affects the everyday lives of the oppressed (Fanon, 1963, 1967).
(Ponterotto, Utsey, & Pedersen, 2006).
According to the article, Toward a Comprehensive Theory of racial Oppression, by Joe and
Clairece Feagins, there are six major themes in the development of racial oppression. The first
theme was regarded as, Initiation of Oppression. This of course, was during the Colonial
period when Europeans established the first hierarchical group. During these times, domination
was used to oppress and exploit others (mainly people of color) for their land and labor
according to racial terms, and is known today as legalized slavery. Based on the article,
racialized oppression never ended but currently remains within American society today. The
second theme indicates Mechanisms of Oppression. These mechanisms are recorded as the
dominant-groups feelings and attitudes, which include weapons of hostility, contempt and fear.
Racial hierarchies are said to be perpetuated mainly through discriminatory practices against
minority groups.
The third theme is noted as, Privileges of Oppression. Great material and symbolic
privileges are among the benefits allotted to those in the dominant racial group, while often
times, a magnitude of misery and harmful social and economic despair belong to those in the
subordinate racial groups. To illustrate this information, the article referred to William E. B.
Dubois. He indicated how desolation and poverty within Europes colonies were the direct cause
of wealth and indulgence in Europe. As a consequence of poverty and famine came disease,
ignorance and crime. Du Bois claimed that the historical origins of African colonization was
removed from conventional histories of the dominate groups development, wealth and affluence.
The fourth theme is regarded as, Elite Maintenance of Oppression. It was further argued by Du
Bois that the economic resources of Africans were taken to help generate the wealth that the

white-elite continue to possess and control today. Various actions of the white elite have
continually constructed and maintained organizations, institutions and ideologies that reflect only
the best interests of those at the top of the racial hierarchies. The majority of non-elite whites
have accepted oppressive conditions in the past and present in exchange for fewer material
resources because they are still regarded as higher than other non-white groups. So, in order to
maintain their access to specific privileges or advantages, they continue to perpetuate or go along
with the white-elite.
The fifth theme is titled, Rationalization of Oppression. Here the system of racial
oppression is defended, it is protected and rationalized through racist ideas and concepts. These
ideologies emphasize superiority and inferiority among racial groups, and is continually
perpetuated by whites in power. Finally, the sixth theme is called, Resistance to Oppression.
History has established or demonstrated persistent opposition to racial oppression. This is clearly
indicated through many long drawn-out battles of individual and group protests against the
burdens of racial oppression by African Americans and other minority groups. Unfortunately, the
sad fact remains that since the beginning, the government has been utilized to continuously
enforce racial oppression.
Employment
Today, as a result of the current racialized system of oppression that has been held in
place for many centuries, people of color continually have unequal access to life, liberty and the
pursuit of happiness. People of color have had multiple limitations placed upon them in terms of
beneficial goods and resources that help form the quality of day to day life. The heavy reality of
oppression comes regularly in the form of discrimination against people of color and can be seen
throughout the educational system, the judicial system, the healthcare system, and other

organizations primarily regulated by whites. One of the most common forms of discrimination
can be observed through the restricted access of better-paying jobs. The majority of low-wage
labor and unskilled jobs are occupied in large numbers by people of color. Although, there are
so-called legal bans on racial discrimination, racism and prejudices remain a significant
problem throughout the employment sector. Economic disparities between white and non-white
groups of people continue to have devastating effects on African Americans and their families.
During the 1990s, unemployment rates soared for people of color, (specifically Black men). The
numbers were twice as high for African Americans compared to their white counter-parts. Racial
injustice by way of joblessness among other things, increased dramatically during this period of
time. (Pager, Bonikowski, & Western, 2009).
There have been numerous studies that relied on surveys and interviews, which indicate
that many White employers are reluctant to hire people of color, especially Black men, because
they are viewed as unreliable, dishonest, or lacking in social or cognitive abilities (Pager,
Bonikowski, & Western, 2009). Additionally, there are laws and policies in place that severely
restrict and limit both the quality and quantity of employment opportunities. All of these
conditions combined, are highly prevalent among people of color, causing great injustice. The
devastating consequence of just being black and or having a criminal record intensifies racial
oppressive dominating American society, which furthers restricts people of color from living up
to their full potential. In brief, evidence continues to expose employment discrimination as a
result of oppressive systems maintained to keep power in the hands of a few.
Judicial System
Currently, punitive crime control measures have considerably increased for people of
color because they are consistently viewed as deviants by the judicial system, and other

institutions. The very system that was initially intended to support the people and their
communities, decided to utilize methods of domination and oppression instead. During the
2000s, the US prison population increased to five times what is was during the early 1970s,
displaying disproportionate numbers, which were mostly people of color (more specifically
Black males). Disturbingly, statistics indicate that people of color are convicted at rates so high
that it equals out to a number even greater than their actual representation in the population.
Today approximately 30 percent of African American men are without college education and
have been to prison by their mid-thirties. (Pettit & Western, 2004).
According to an article by (Pettit & Western, 2004) the U.S. prison system has actually
increased by six fold between 1972 and 2000, leaving 1.3 million Black men in state and federal
prisons by the end of the century. By 2002, around 12 percent of Black men in their thirties
ended up in prison or jail. The majority of Black individuals with past conviction histories,
chronically face significant barriers to successful reintegration when attempting to enter or
reenter the job force. As a consequence of these actions, gainful employment is highly unlikely
because of the social stigma that comes from having a criminal record.
The current oppressive state of the Black man has been characterized as the era of mass
incarceration, which is ultimately a youth control complex created by a network of dominate
group members by which they employ weapons of racialized criminalization and retribution as
an alternative form to legal slavery. Various institutions continue to control, manage-down, and
incapacitate people of color in order to maintain power over them. Michelle Alexander, author
of, The New Jim Crow, argues that the present levels of targeted imprisonment represent a new
chapter in American racial oppression. (Goffman, 2014). Racial oppression persistently

dehumanizes people of color in all subordinated groups by stripping them of their rights to enjoy
life to fullest extinct possible.
Health
Besides all the physical barriers people of color face, they also have to deal with
physiological and psychological effects of racial oppression. Research suggests that many mental
ailments have come about as a response closely connected to racial oppression and
discrimination. One well-known mental condition prevalent among individuals experiencing
racism is depression. There have been numerous reports of lower life satisfaction, diminished
self-esteem, and feelings of trauma, loss and helplessness all due to oppression. Studies show
that racially charged situations bring about feelings of paranoia, frustration, resentment and fear
as basic coping mechanisms when exposure to racism is prolonged for extended periods of time,
and produces harmful effects to ones health and well-being.
For example, when anger is suppressed as a result of encounters with racism, this leads to
greater chances for increased blood pressure, hostility and substance abuse that has been seen in
a large amount of cases with African Americans. In addition to this, racism-related fatigue is
another issue being discussed and studied. Racism-related fatigue causes not only psychological
impairments, but physiological ones as well, all as a response to repeated exposure to racial
oppression. Race-related fatigue can cause people of color to struggle in maintaining normal day
to day activities and tasks that require mental concentration or physical exertion. This condition
often goes ignored or unrecognized because it goes hand in hand with other obligations, life
challenges and work environments. (Ponterotto, Utsey, & Pedersen, 2006). The list can go on but
I chose to keep it brief and only name a few. Overall, people of color have been marginalized and
continue to be marginalized because of the devastating effects of racial oppression. We witnessed

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it in past and still continue to observe its continual occurrence in the present, and as severe
consequence, a large number of minority group members experience a diminished quality of life,
restricted access to better-paying jobs and greater health problems among other things, all
because of racial oppression in America.

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REFERENCES
Cornell, S., & Hartmann, D. (1998). Ethnicity and race: Making Identities in a Changing
Feagin, J., & Feagin, C. (2015). Toward a Comprehensive Theory of Racial Oppression.
Retrieved from
http://homepage.smc.edu/delpiccolo_guido/Soc34/Soc34readings/Theory%20of
%20Racial%20Oppression.pdf
Goffman, A. (2014). On the run: Fugitive life in an American city. Chicago, IL: University of
Chicago Press.
Martinez, R., & Iyer, V. (2008). Latin America's Racial Caste System: Salient Marketing
Implications. International Business & Economics Research Journal, 7(11).
Pager, D., Bonikowski, B., & Western, B. (2009). Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market:
A Field Experiment. American Sociological Review, 74(5), 777-799. Doi:
10.1177/000312240907400505
Pettit, B., & Western, B. (2004). Mass Imprisonment and the Life Course: Race and Class
Inequality in U.S. Incarceration. American Sociological Review, 69(2), 151-169. Doi:
10.1177/000312240406900201
Ponterotto, J. G., Utsey, S. O., & Pedersen, P. (2006). Causes and Consequences of Racial
Prejudice. In Preventing prejudice: A guide for counselors, educators, and parents
(2nd ed., pp. 48-55). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.