Natural gas

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For the rock band, see Natural Gas (band).
The global natural gas trade in 2013. Numbers are in billion cubic meters per ye
ar.[1]
Natural gas extraction by countries in cubic meters per year
Natural gas is a naturally occurring hydrocarbon gas mixture consisting primaril
y of methane, but commonly including varying amounts of other higher alkanes, an
d sometimes a small percentage of carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and/or hydrogen sulf
ide.[2] It is formed when layers of decomposing plant and animal matter are expo
sed to intense heat and pressure over thousands of years. The energy that the pl
ants originally obtained from the sun is stored in the form of chemical bonds in
the gas.[3]
Natural gas is a fossil fuel used as a source of energy for heating, cooking, an
d electricity generation. It is also used as fuel for vehicles and as a chemical
feedstock in the manufacture of plastics and other commercially important organ
ic chemicals. It is a non-renewable resource.[3]
Natural gas is found in deep underground rock formations or associated with othe
r hydrocarbon reservoirs in coal beds and as methane clathrates. Petroleum is an
other resource and fossil fuel found in close proximity to, and with natural gas
. Most natural gas was created over time by two mechanisms: biogenic and thermog
enic. Biogenic gas is created by methanogenic organisms in marshes, bogs, landfi
lls, and shallow sediments. Deeper in the earth, at greater temperature and pres
sure, thermogenic gas is created from buried organic material.[4][5]
When gas is associated with petroleum production it may be considered a byproduc
t and be burnt as flare gas. The World Bank estimates that over 150 billion cubi
c metres of natural gas are flared or vented annually.[6] Before natural gas can
be used as a fuel, it must be processed to remove impurities, including water,
to meet the specifications of marketable natural gas. The by-products of this pr
ocessing include: ethane, propane, butanes, pentanes, and higher molecular weigh
t hydrocarbons, hydrogen sulfide (which may be converted into pure sulfur), carb
on dioxide, water vapor, and sometimes helium and nitrogen.
Natural gas is often informally referred to simply as "gas", especially when com
pared to other energy sources such as oil or coal. However, it is not to be conf
used with gasoline, especially in North America, where the term gasoline is ofte
n shortened in colloquial usage to gas.
Natural gas was used by the Chinese in about 500 BC (possibly even 1000 BC[7]).
They discovered a way to transport gas seeping from the ground in crude pipeline
s of bamboo to where it was used to boil salt water to extract the salt,[8] in t
he Ziliujing District of Sichuan. The world's first industrial extraction of nat
ural gas started at Fredonia, New York, USA in 1825.[9] By 2009, 66 trillion cub
ic meters (or 8%) had been used out of the total 850 trillion cubic meters of es
timated remaining recoverable reserves of natural gas.[10] Based on an estimated
2015 world consumption rate of about 3.4 trillion cubic meters of gas per year,
the total estimated remaining economically recoverable reserves of natural gas
would last 250 years at current consumption rates. An annual increase in usage o
f 23% could result in currently recoverable reserves lasting significantly less,
perhaps as few as 80 to 100 years.[10]
Natural gas coming out of the ground in Taiwan.
Contents [hide]

1
Sources
1.1
Natural gas
1.2
Shale gas
1.3
Town gas
1.4
Biogas
1.5
Crystallized natural gas hydrates
2
Natural gas processing
3
Depletion
4
Uses
4.1
Mid-stream natural gas
4.2
Power generation
4.3
Domestic use
4.4
Transportation
4.5
Fertilizers
4.6
Aviation
4.7
Hydrogen
4.8
Other
5
Storage and transport
6
Environmental effects
6.1
Effect of natural gas release
6.2
CO2 emissions
6.3
Other pollutants
7
Safety concerns
7.1
Production
7.2
Fracking
7.3
Use
8
Energy content, statistics, and pricing
8.1
European Union
8.2
United States
8.3
Canada
8.4
Elsewhere
9
Natural gas as an asset class for institutional investors
10
Adsorbed natural gas (ANG)
11
See also
12
References
13
External links
Sources[edit]
See also: List of natural gas fields, List of countries by natural gas proven re
serves and List of countries by natural gas production
Natural gas[edit]
Natural gas drilling rig in Texas.
Trends in the top five natural gas-producing countries (US EIA data)
In the 19th century, natural gas was usually obtained as a by-product of produci
ng oil, since the small, light gas carbon chains came out of solution as the ext
racted fluids underwent pressure reduction from the reservoir to the surface, si
milar to uncapping a soft drink bottle where the carbon dioxide effervesces. Unw
anted natural gas was a disposal problem in the active oil fields. If there was
not a market for natural gas near the wellhead it was prohibitively expensive to
pipe to the end user.
In the 19th century and early 20th century, unwanted gas was usually burned off
at oil fields. Today, unwanted gas (or stranded gas without a market) associated
with oil extraction often is returned to the reservoir with 'injection' wells w
hile awaiting a possible future market or to repressurize the formation, which c
an enhance extraction rates from other wells. In regions with a high natural gas
demand (such as the US), pipelines are constructed when it is economically feas
ible to transport gas from a wellsite to an end consumer.

In addition to transporting gas via pipelines for use in power generation, other
end uses for natural gas include export as liquefied natural gas (LNG) or conve
rsion of natural gas into other liquid products via gas-to-liquids (GTL) technol
ogies. GTL technologies can convert natural gas into liquids products such as ga
soline, diesel or jet fuel. A variety of GTL technologies have been developed, i
ncluding FischerTropsch (FT), methanol to gasoline (MTG) and STG+. FT produces a sy
nthetic crude that can be further refined into finished products, while MTG can
produce synthetic gasoline from natural gas. STG+ can produce drop-in gasoline,
diesel, jet fuel and aromatic chemicals directly from natural gas via a single-l
oop process.[11] In 2011, Royal Dutch Shells 140,000 barrel per day FT plant went
into operation in Qatar.
Natural gas can be "associated" (found in oil fields), or "non-associated" (isol
ated in natural gas fields), and is also found in coal beds (as coalbed methane)
.[12] It sometimes contains a significant amount of ethane, propane, butane, and
pentaneheavier hydrocarbons removed for commercial use prior to the methane bein
g sold as a consumer fuel or chemical plant feedstock. Non-hydrocarbons such as
carbon dioxide, nitrogen, helium (rarely), and hydrogen sulfide must also be rem
oved before the natural gas can be transported.[13]
Natural gas extracted from oil wells is called casinghead gas (whether or not tr
uly produced up the annulus and through a casinghead outlet) or associated gas.
The natural gas industry is extracting an increasing quantity of gas from challe
nging resource types: sour gas, tight gas, shale gas, and coalbed methane.
There is some disagreement on which country has the largest proven gas reserves.
Sources that consider that Russia has by far the largest proven reserves includ
e the US CIA (47.6 trillion cubic meters),[14] the US Energy Information Adminis
tration (47.8 tcm),[15] and OPEC (48.7 tcm).[16] However, BP credits Russia with
only 32.9 tcm,[17] which would place it in second place, slightly behind Iran (
33.1 to 33.8 tcm, depending on the source). With Gazprom, Russia is frequently t
he world's largest natural gas extractor. Major proven resources (in billion cub
ic meters) are world 187,300 (2013), Iran 33,600 (2013), Russia 32,900 (2013), Q
atar 25,100 (2013), Turkmenistan 17,500 (2013) and the United States 8,500 (2013
).
It is estimated that there are about 900 trillion cubic meters of "unconventiona
l" gas such as shale gas, of which 180 trillion may be recoverable.[18] In turn,
many studies from MIT, Black & Veatch and the DOE predict that natural gas will
account for a larger portion of electricity generation and heat in the future.[
19]
The world's largest gas field is the offshore South Pars / North Dome Gas-Conden
sate field, shared between Iran and Qatar. It is estimated to have 51 trillion c
ubic meters of natural gas and 50 billion barrels of natural gas condensates.
Because natural gas is not a pure product, as the reservoir pressure drops when
non-associated gas is extracted from a field under supercritical (pressure/tempe
rature) conditions, the higher molecular weight components may partially condens
e upon isothermic depressurizingan effect called retrograde condensation. The liq
uid thus formed may get trapped as the pores of the gas reservoir get depleted.
One method to deal with this problem is to re-inject dried gas free of condensat
e to maintain the underground pressure and to allow re-evaporation and extractio
n of condensates. More frequently, the liquid condenses at the surface, and one
of the tasks of the gas plant is to collect this condensate. The resulting liqui
d is called natural gas liquid (NGL) and has commercial value.
Shale gas[edit]
Globe icon.
The examples and perspective in this article deal primarily with the United Stat

es and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject. Please improve this art
icle and discuss the issue on the talk page. (September 2013)
The location of shale gas compared to other types of gas deposits.
Main article: Shale gas
Shale gas is natural gas produced from shale. Because shale has matrix permeabil
ity too low to allow gas to flow in economical quantities, shale gas wells depen
d on fractures to allow the gas to flow. Early shale gas wells depended on natur
al fractures through which gas flowed; almost all shale gas wells today require
fractures artificially created by hydraulic fracturing. Since 2000, shale gas ha
s become a major source of natural gas in the United States and Canada.[20] Foll
owing the success in the United States, shale gas exploration is beginning in co
untries such as Poland, China, and South Africa.[21][22][23] With the increase o
f shale production it has caused the United States to become the number one natu
ral gas producer in the world[24]
Town gas[edit]
Main article: History of manufactured gas
Town gas is a flammable gaseous fuel made by the destructive distillation of coa
l and contains a variety of calorific gases including hydrogen, carbon monoxide,
methane, and other volatile hydrocarbons, together with small quantities of non
-calorific gases such as carbon dioxide and nitrogen, and is used in a similar w
ay to natural gas. This is a historical technology, not usually economically com
petitive with other sources of fuel gas today. But there are still some specific
cases where it is the best option and it may be so into the future.
Most town "gashouses" located in the eastern US in the late 19th and early 20th
centuries were simple by-product coke ovens that heated bituminous coal in air-t
ight chambers. The gas driven off from the coal was collected and distributed th
rough networks of pipes to residences and other buildings where it was used for
cooking and lighting. (Gas heating did not come into widespread use until the la
st half of the 20th century.) The coal tar (or asphalt) that collected in the bo
ttoms of the gashouse ovens was often used for roofing and other waterproofing p
urposes, and when mixed with sand and gravel was used for paving streets.
Biogas[edit]
Main article: Biogas
Methanogenic archaea are responsible for all biological sources of methane. Some
live in symbiotic relationships with other life forms, including termites, rumi
nants, and cultivated crops. Other sources of methane, the principal component o
f natural gas, include landfill gas, biogas, and methane hydrate. When methane-r
ich gases are produced by the anaerobic decay of non-fossil organic matter (biom
ass), these are referred to as biogas (or natural biogas). Sources of biogas inc
lude swamps, marshes, and landfills (see landfill gas), as well as agricultural
waste materials such as sewage sludge and manure[25] by way of anaerobic digeste
rs, in addition to enteric fermentation, particularly in cattle. Landfill gas is
created by decomposition of waste in landfill sites. Excluding water vapor, abo
ut half of landfill gas is methane and most of the rest is carbon dioxide, with
small amounts of nitrogen, oxygen, and hydrogen, and variable trace amounts of h
ydrogen sulfide and siloxanes. If the gas is not removed, the pressure may get s
o high that it works its way to the surface, causing damage to the landfill stru
cture, unpleasant odor, vegetation die-off, and an explosion hazard. The gas can
be vented to the atmosphere, flared or burned to produce electricity or heat. B
iogas can also be produced by separating organic materials from waste that other
wise goes to landfills. This method is more efficient than just capturing the la
ndfill gas it produces. Anaerobic lagoons produce biogas from manure, while biog
as reactors can be used for manure or plant parts. Like landfill gas, biogas is
mostly methane and carbon dioxide, with small amounts of nitrogen, oxygen and hy
drogen. However, with the exception of pesticides, there are usually lower level
s of contaminants.

Landfill gas cannot be distributed through utility natural gas pipelines unless
it is cleaned up to less than 3 per cent CO2, and a few parts per million H
2S, because CO2 and H
2S corrode the pipelines.[26] The presence of CO2 will lower the energy level of
the gas below requirements for the pipeline.[clarification needed] Siloxanes in
the gas will form deposits in gas burners and need to be removed prior to entry
into any gas distribution or transmission system. Consequently, it may be more
economical to burn the gas on site or within a short distance of the landfill us
ing a dedicated pipeline. Water vapor is often removed, even if the gas is burne
d on site. If low temperatures condense water out of the gas, siloxanes can be l
owered as well because they tend to condense out with the water vapor. Other non
-methane components may also be removed to meet emission standards, to prevent f
ouling of the equipment or for environmental considerations. Co-firing landfill
gas with natural gas improves combustion, which lowers emissions.
Biogas, and especially landfill gas, are already used in some areas, but their u
se could be greatly expanded. Experimental systems were being proposed[when?] fo
r use in parts of Hertfordshire, UK, and Lyon in France.[citation needed] Using
materials that would otherwise generate no income, or even cost money to get rid
of, improves the profitability and energy balance of biogas production. Gas gen
erated in sewage treatment plants is commonly used to generate electricity. For
example, the Hyperion sewage plant in Los Angeles burns 8 million cubic feet (23
0,000 m3) of gas per day to generate power[27] New York City utilizes gas to run
equipment in the sewage plants, to generate electricity, and in boilers.[28] Us
ing sewage gas to make electricity is not limited to large cities. The city of B
akersfield, California, uses cogeneration at its sewer plants.[29] California ha
s 242 sewage wastewater treatment plants, 74 of which have installed anaerobic d
igesters. The total biopower generation from the 74 plants is about 66 MW.[30]
The McMahon natural gas processing plant in Taylor, British Columbia, Canada.[31
]
Crystallized natural gas hydrates[edit]
Huge quantities of natural gas (primarily methane) exist in the form of hydrates
under sediment on offshore continental shelves and on land in arctic regions th
at experience permafrost, such as those in Siberia. Hydrates require a combinati
on of high pressure and low temperature to form.
In 2010, the cost of extracting natural gas from crystallized natural gas was es
timated to 100200 per cent the cost of extracting natural gas from conventional s
ources, and even higher from offshore deposits.[32]
In 2013, Japan Oil, Gas and Metals National Corporation (JOGMEC) announced that
they had recovered commercially relevant quantities of natural gas from methane
hydrate.[33]
Natural gas processing[edit]
Main article: Natural gas processing
The image below is a schematic block flow diagram of a typical natural gas proce
ssing plant. It shows the various unit processes used to convert raw natural gas
into sales gas pipelined to the end user markets.
The block flow diagram also shows how processing of the raw natural gas yields b
yproduct sulfur, byproduct ethane, and natural gas liquids (NGL) propane, butane
s and natural gasoline (denoted as pentanes +).[34][35][36][37][38]
Schematic flow diagram of a typical natural gas processing plant.
Depletion[edit]

Main article: Gas depletion

Natural gas production in the U.S. reached a peak in 1973, and went over a secon
d lower peak in 2001, but recently has peaked again and is continuing to rise.[3
9] [40]
Uses[edit]
Natural gas is primarily used in the northern hemisphere, North America and Euro
pe are major consumers.
Mid-stream natural gas[edit]
Natural gas flowing in the distribution lines and at the natural gas well head a
re often used to power natural gas powered engines. These engines rotate compres
sors to facilitate the natural gas transmission. These compressors are required
in the mid-stream line to pressurize and to re-pressurize the natural gas in the
transmission line as the gas travels. The natural gas transmission lines extend
to the natural gas processing plant or unit which removes the higher molecular
weighted natural gas hydrocarbons to produce a British thermal unit (BTU) value
between 950 and 1050 BTUs. The processed natural gas may then be used for reside
ntial, commercial and industrial uses.
Often mid-stream and well head gases require removal of many of the various hydr
ocarbon species contained within the natural gas. Some of these gases include he
ptane, pentane, propane and other hydrocarbons with molecular weights above Meth
ane (CH4) to produce a natural gas fuel which is used to operate the natural gas
engines for further pressurized transmission. Typically, natural gas compressor
s require 950 to 1050 BTU per cubic foot to operate at the natural gas engines r
otational name plate specifications.
Several methods are used to remove these higher molecular weighted gases for use
at the natural gas engine. A few technologies are as follows:
JouleThomson skid
Cryogenic or chiller system
Chemical enzymology system[41]
Power generation[edit]
Natural gas is a major source of electricity generation through the use of cogen
eration, gas turbines and steam turbines. Natural gas is also well suited for a
combined use in association with renewable energy sources such as wind or solar[
42] and for alimenting peak-load power stations functioning in tandem with hydro
electric plants. Most grid peaking power plants and some off-grid engine-generat
ors use natural gas. Particularly high efficiencies can be achieved through comb
ining gas turbines with a steam turbine in combined cycle mode. Natural gas burn
s more cleanly than other hydrocarbon fuels, such as oil and coal, and produces
less carbon dioxide per unit of energy released. For transportation, burning nat
ural gas produces about 30 per cent less carbon dioxide than burning petroleum.
For an equivalent amount of heat, burning natural gas produces about 45 per cent
less carbon dioxide than burning coal for power.[43] The US Energy Information
Administration reports the following emissions in million metric tons of carbon
dioxide in the world for 2012:[44]
Natural gas: 6,799
Petroleum: 11,695
Coal: 13,787
Coal-fired electric power generation emits around 2,000 pounds of carbon dioxide
for every megawatt hour generated, which is almost double the carbon dioxide re
leased by a natural gas-fired electric plant per megawatt hour generated.[45] Be
cause of this higher carbon efficiency of natural gas generation, as the fuel mi
x in the United States has changed to reduce coal and increase natural gas gener
ation, carbon dioxide emissions have unexpectedly fallen. Those measured in the
first quarter of 2012 were the lowest of any recorded for the first quarter of a

ny year since 1992.[46]

Combined cycle power generation using natural gas is currently the cleanest avai
lable source of power using hydrocarbon fuels, and this technology is widely and
increasingly used as natural gas can be obtained at increasingly reasonable cos
ts. Fuel cell technology may eventually provide cleaner options for converting n
atural gas into electricity, but as yet it is not price-competitive. Locally pro
duced electricity and heat using natural gas powered Combined Heat and Power pla
nt (CHP or Cogeneration plant) is considered energy efficient and a rapid way to
cut carbon emissions.[47] Natural gas power plants are increasing in popularity
and generate 22% of the worlds total electricity. Approximately half as much as
generated with coal.[48]
Domestic use[edit]
Natural gas dispensed in a residential setting can generate temperatures in exce
ss of 1100 C (2000 F) making it a powerful domestic cooking and heating fuel.[49]
In much of the developed world it is supplied through pipes to homes, where it i
s used for many purposes including ranges and ovens, gas-heated clothes dryers,
heating/cooling, and central heating. Heaters in homes and other buildings may i
nclude boilers, furnaces, and water heaters. Both North America and Europe are m
ajor consumers of natural gas.
In the US Compressed natural gas (CNG) is used in rural homes without connection
s to piped-in public utility services, or with portable grills.[citation needed]
Natural gas is also supplied by independent natural gas suppliers through Natur
al Gas Choice programs throughout the United States. However, as CNG costs more
than LPG, LPG (propane) is the dominant source of rural gas.
A Washington, D.C. Metrobus, which runs on natural gas.
Transportation[edit]
CNG is a cleaner and also cheaper alternative to other automobile fuels such as
gasoline (petrol) and diesel. By the end of 2012 there were 17.25 million natura
l gas vehicles worldwide, led by Iran (3.3 million), Pakistan (3.1 million), Arg
entina (2.18 million), Brazil (1.73 million), India (1.5 million), and China (1.
5 million).[50] The energy efficiency is generally equal to that of gasoline eng
ines, but lower compared with modern diesel engines. Gasoline/petrol vehicles co
nverted to run on natural gas suffer because of the low compression ratio of the
ir engines, resulting in a cropping of delivered power while running on natural
gas (10%15%). CNG-specific engines, however, use a higher compression ratio due t
o this fuel's higher octane number of 120130.[51] [52]
Fertilizers[edit]
Natural gas is a major feedstock for the production of ammonia, via the Haber pr
ocess, for use in fertilizer production.
Aviation[edit]
Russian aircraft manufacturer Tupolev is currently running a development program
to produce LNG- and hydrogen-powered aircraft.[53] The program has been running
since the mid-1970s, and seeks to develop LNG and hydrogen variants of the Tu-2
04 and Tu-334 passenger aircraft, and also the Tu-330 cargo aircraft. It claims
that at current market prices, an LNG-powered aircraft would cost 5,000 roubles
(~ US$218/ 112) less to operate per ton, roughly equivalent to 60 per cent, with
considerable reductions to carbon monoxide, hydrocarbon and nitrogen oxide emiss
ions.
The advantages of liquid methane as a jet engine fuel are that it has more speci
fic energy than the standard kerosene mixes do and that its low temperature can
help cool the air which the engine compresses for greater volumetric efficiency,
in effect replacing an intercooler. Alternatively, it can be used to lower the

temperature of the exhaust.

Hydrogen[edit]
See also: Industrial gas
Natural gas can be used to produce hydrogen, with one common method being the hy
drogen reformer. Hydrogen has many applications: it is a primary feedstock for t
he chemical industry, a hydrogenating agent, an important commodity for oil refi
neries, and the fuel source in hydrogen vehicles.
Other[edit]
Natural gas is also used in the manufacture of fabrics, glass, steel, plastics,
paint, and other products.[citation needed]
Storage and transport[edit]
Polyethylene plastic main being placed in a trench.
Because of its low density, it is not easy to store natural gas or to transport
it by vehicle. Natural gas pipelines are impractical across oceans. Many existin
g pipelines in America are close to reaching their capacity, prompting some poli
ticians representing northern states to speak of potential shortages. In Western
Europe, the gas pipeline network is already dense.[54] New pipelines are planne
d or under construction in Eastern Europe and between gas fields in Russia, Near
East and Northern Africa and Western Europe. See also List of natural gas pipel
ines.
LNG carriers transport liquefied natural gas (LNG) across oceans, while tank tru
cks can carry liquefied or compressed natural gas (CNG) over shorter distances.
Sea transport using CNG carrier ships that are now under development may be comp
etitive with LNG transport in specific conditions.
Gas is turned into liquid at a liquefaction plant, and is returned to gas form a
t regasification plant at the terminal. Shipborne regasification equipment is al
so used. LNG is the preferred form for long distance, high volume transportation
of natural gas, whereas pipeline is preferred for transport for distances up to
4,000 km (2,485 mi) over land and approximately half that distance offshore.
CNG is transported at high pressure, typically above 200 bars. Compressors and d
ecompression equipment are less capital intensive and may be economical in small
er unit sizes than liquefaction/regasification plants. Natural gas trucks and ca
rriers may transport natural gas directly to end-users, or to distribution point
s such as pipelines.
Peoples Gas Manlove Field natural gas storage area in Newcomb Township, Champaig
n County, Illinois. In the foreground (left) is one of the numerous wells for th
e underground storage area, with an LNG plant, and above ground storage tanks ar
e in the background (right).
In the past, the natural gas which was recovered in the course of recovering pet
roleum could not be profitably sold, and was simply burned at the oil field in a
process known as flaring. Flaring is now illegal in many countries.[55] Additio
nally, higher demand in the last 2030 years has made production of gas associated
with oil economically viable. As a further option, the gas is now sometimes reinjected into the formation for enhanced oil recovery by pressure maintenance as
well as miscible or immiscible flooding. Conservation, re-injection, or flaring
of natural gas associated with oil is primarily dependent on proximity to marke
ts (pipelines), and regulatory restrictions.
A "master gas system" was invented in Saudi Arabia in the late 1970s, ending any
necessity for flaring. Satellite observation, however, shows that flaring[56] a
nd venting[57] are still practiced in some gas-extracting countries.

Natural gas is used to generate electricity and heat for desalination. Similarly
, some landfills that also discharge methane gases have been set up to capture t
he methane and generate electricity.
Natural gas is often stored underground inside depleted gas reservoirs from prev
ious gas wells, salt domes, or in tanks as liquefied natural gas. The gas is inj
ected in a time of low demand and extracted when demand picks up. Storage nearby
end users helps to meet volatile demands, but such storage may not always be pr
acticable.
With 15 countries accounting for 84 per cent of the worldwide extraction, access
to natural gas has become an important issue in international politics, and cou
ntries vie for control of pipelines.[58] In the first decade of the 21st century
, Gazprom, the state-owned energy company in Russia, engaged in disputes with Uk
raine and Belarus over the price of natural gas, which have created concerns tha
t gas deliveries to parts of Europe could be cut off for political reasons.[59]
The United States is preparing to export natural gas.[60]
Floating Liquefied Natural Gas (FLNG) is an innovative technology designed to en
able the development of offshore gas resources that would otherwise remain untap
ped because due to environmental or economic factors it is nonviable to develop
them via a land-based LNG operation. FLNG technology also provides a number of e
nvironmental and economic advantages:
Environmental Because all processing is done at the gas field, there is no requi
rement for long pipelines to shore, compression units to pump the gas to shore,
dredging and jetty construction, and onshore construction of an LNG processing p
lant, which significantly reduces the environmental footprint.[61] Avoiding cons
truction also helps preserve marine and coastal environments. In addition, envir
onmental disturbance will be minimised during decommissioning because the facili
ty can easily be disconnected and removed before being refurbished and re-deploy
ed elsewhere.
Economic Where pumping gas to shore can be prohibitively expensive, FLNG makes d
evelopment economically viable. As a result, it will open up new business opport
unities for countries to develop offshore gas fields that would otherwise remain
stranded, such as those offshore East Africa.[62]
Many gas and oil companies are considering the economic and environmental benefi
ts of Floating Liquefied Natural Gas (FLNG). There are currently projects underw
ay to construct five FLNG facilities. Petronas is close to completion on their F
LNG-1[63] at Daewoo Shipbuilding and Marine Engineering and are underway[64] on
their FLNG-2 project at Samsung Heavy Industries. Shell Prelude is due to start
production 2017 and the Browse LNG project has completed FEED with final investm
ent decisions expected in mid-2016.[65]
Environmental effects[edit]
See also: Environmental impact of the energy industry
Effect of natural gas release[edit]
See also: Atmospheric methane
Natural gas is mainly composed of methane. After release to the atmosphere it is
removed by gradual oxidation to carbon dioxide and water by hydroxyl radicals (O
H) formed in the troposphere or stratosphere, giving the overall chemical reacti
on CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O.[66][67] While the lifetime of atmospheric methane is rel
atively short when compared to carbon dioxide,[68] with a half-life of about 7 y
ears,[69] it is more efficient at trapping heat in the atmosphere, so that a giv
en quantity of methane has 84 times the global-warming potential of carbon dioxi
de over a 20-year period and 28 times over a 100-year period. Natural gas is thu
s a more potent greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide due to the greater global-war
ming potential of methane.[70] But because when it is burned, it produces more w
ater than carbon dioxide by mole, in contrast to coal which produces mainly carb

on dioxide, it produces only about half the carbon dioxide per kilowatt-hour tha
t coal does. Current estimates by the EPA place global emissions of methane at 8
5 billion cubic metres (3.01012 cu ft) annually,[68] or 3.2 per cent of global pr
oduction.[71] Direct emissions of methane represented 14.3 per cent by volume of
all global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions in 2004.[72]
During extraction, storage, transportation, and distribution, natural gas is kno
wn to leak into the atmosphere, particularly during the extraction process. A Co
rnell University study in 2011 demonstrated that the leak rate of methane may be
high enough to jeopardize its global warming advantage over coal.[73] This stud
y was criticized later for its over-estimation of methane leakage values.[74] Pr
eliminary results of some air sampling from airplanes done by the National Ocean
ic and Atmospheric Administration indicated higher-than-estimated methane releas
es by gas wells in some areas,[75] but the overall results showed methane emissi
ons in line with previous EPA estimates[76]
Natural gas extraction also releases an isotope of radon, ranging in activity fr
om 5 to 200,000 becquerels per cubic meter of gas.[77]
CO2 emissions[edit]
Natural gas is often described as the cleanest fossil fuel. It produces about 29
% and 44% less carbon dioxide per joule delivered than oil and coal respectively
,[43] and potentially fewer pollutants than other hydrocarbon fuels.[78] However
, in absolute terms, it comprises a substantial percentage of human carbon emiss
ions, and this contribution is projected to grow. According to the IPCC Fourth A
ssessment Report, in 2004, natural gas produced about 5.3 billion tons a year of
CO2 emissions, while coal and oil produced 10.6 and 10.2 billion tons respectiv
ely. According to an updated version of the Special Report on Emissions Scenario
by 2030, natural gas would be the source of 11 billion tons a year, with coal a
nd oil now 8.4 and 17.2 billion respectively because demand is increasing 1.9 pe
rcent a year.
Other pollutants[edit]
Natural gas produces far lower amounts of sulfur dioxide and nitrous oxides than
other fossil fuels.[79] The other pollutants due to natural gas combustion are
listed below[78][80] in pounds per billion BTU:
Carbon monoxide 40
Sulfur dioxide 1
Nitrogen oxide 92
Particulates 7
Safety concerns[edit]
A pipeline odorant injection station
Production[edit]
Some gas fields yield sour gas containing hydrogen sulfide (H2S). This untreated
gas is toxic. Amine gas treating, an industrial scale process which removes aci
dic gaseous components, is often used to remove hydrogen sulfide from natural ga
s.[81]
Extraction of natural gas (or oil) leads to decrease in pressure in the reservoi
r. Such decrease in pressure in turn may result in subsidence, sinking of the gr
ound above. Subsidence may affect ecosystems, waterways, sewer and water supply
systems, foundations, and so on.[citation needed]
Fracking[edit]
Main article: Environmental impact of hydraulic fracturing
Releasing natural gas from subsurface porous rock formations may be accomplished
by a process called hydraulic fracturing or "fracking". It's estimated that hyd
raulic fracturing will eventually account for nearly 70% of natural gas developm

ent in North America.[82] Since the first commercial hydraulic fracturing operat
ion in 1949, approximately one million wells have been hydraulically fractured i
n the United States.[83] The production of natural gas from hydraulically fractu
red wells has utilized the technological developments of directional and horizon
tal drilling, which improved access to natural gas in tight rock formations.[84]
Strong growth in the production of unconventional gas from hydraulically fractu
red wells occurred between 2000-2012.[85]
In hydraulic fracturing, well operators force water mixed with a variety of chem
icals through the wellbore casing into the rock. The high pressure water breaks
up or "fracks" the rock, which releases gas from the rock formation. Sand and ot
her particles are added to the water as a proppant to keep the fractures in the
rock open, thus enabling the gas to flow into the casing and then to the surface
. Chemicals are added to the fluid to perform such functions as reducing frictio
n and inhibiting corrosion. After the "frack," oil or gas is extracted and nearl
y 30 percent to 70 percent of the frack fluid, i.e. the mixture of water, chemic
als, sand, etc., flows back to the surface. Many gas-bearing formations also con
tain water, which will flow up the wellbore to the surface along with the gas, i
n both hydraulically fractured and non-hydraulically fractured wells. This produ
ced water often has a high content of salt and other dissolved minerals that occ
ur in the formation.[86]
The volume of water used to hydraulically fracture wells varies according to the
hydraulic fracturing technique. In the United States, the average volume of wat
er used per hydraulic fracture has been reported as nearly 7,375 gallons for ver
tical oil and gas wells prior to 1953, nearly 197,000 gallons for vertical oil a
nd gas wells between 2000-2010, and nearly 3 million gallons for horizontal gas
wells between 2000-2010.[87]
Determining which fracking technique is appropriate for well productivity depend
s largely on the properties of the reservoir rock from which to extract oil or g
as. If the rock is characterized by low-permeability which refers to its ability
to let substances, i.e. gas, pass through it, then the rock may be considered a
source of tight gas.[88] Fracking for shale gas, which is currently also known
as a source of unconventional gas, involves drilling a borehole vertically until
it reaches a lateral shale rock formation, at which point the drill turns to fo
llow the rock for hundreds or thousands of feet horizontally.[89] In contrast, c
onventional oil and gas sources are characterized by higher rock permeability, w
hich naturally enables the flow of oil or gas into the wellbore with less intens
ive hydraulic fracturing techniques than the production of tight gas has require
d.[90][91] The decades in development of drilling technology for conventional an
d unconventional oil & gas production has not only improved access to natural ga
s in low-permeability reservoir rocks, but also posed significant adverse impact
s on environmental and public health.[92][93][94][95][96]
The U.S. EPA has acknowledged that toxic, carcinogenic chemicals, i.e. benzene a
nd ethylbenzene, have been used as gelling agents in water and chemical mixtures
for high volume horizontal fracturing (HVHF).[97] Following the hydraulic fract
ure in HVHF, the water, chemicals, and frack fluid that return to the well's sur
face, called flowback or produced water, may contain radioactive materials, heav
y metals, natural salts, and hydrocarbons which exist naturally in shale rock fo
rmations.[98] Fracking chemicals, radioactive materials, heavy metals, and salts
that are removed from the HVHF well by well operators are so difficult to remov
e from the water they're mixed with, and would so heavily pollute the water cycl
e, that most of the flowback is either recycled into other fracking operations o
r injected into deep underground wells, eliminating the water that HVHF required
from the hydrologic cycle.[99]
Use[edit]
In order to assist in detecting leaks, a minute amount of odorant is added to th

e otherwise colorless and almost odorless gas used by consumers. The odor has be
en compared to the smell of rotten eggs, due to the added tert-Butylthiol (t-but
yl mercaptan). Sometimes a related compound, thiophane, may be used in the mixtu
re. Situations in which an odorant that is added to natural gas can be detected
by analytical instrumentation, but cannot be properly detected by an observer wi
th a normal sense of smell, have occurred in the natural gas industry. This is c
aused by odor masking, when one odorant overpowers the sensation of another. As
of 2011, the industry is conducting research on the causes of odor masking.[100]
Gas network emergency vehicle responding to a major fire in Kiev, Ukraine
Explosions caused by natural gas leaks occur a few times each year. Individual h
omes, small businesses and other structures are most frequently affected when an
internal leak builds up gas inside the structure. Frequently, the blast is powe
rful enough to significantly damage a building but leave it standing. In these c
ases, the people inside tend to have minor to moderate injuries. Occasionally, t
he gas can collect in high enough quantities to cause a deadly explosion, disint
egrating one or more buildings in the process. The gas usually dissipates readil
y outdoors, but can sometimes collect in dangerous quantities if flow rates are
high enough. However, considering the tens of millions of structures that use th
e fuel, the individual risk of using natural gas is very low.
Natural gas heating systems are a source of carbon monoxide deaths. In 2011, unv
ented or poorly vented furnaces, space heaters, water heaters and stoves operati
ng on natural gas were blamed in 11 carbon monoxide deaths in the US. Another 22
deaths were attributed to appliances running on liquified petroleum gas, and 17
deaths on gas of unspecified type. Improvements in natural gas furnace designs
have greatly reduced CO poisoning concerns. Detectors are also available that wa
rn of carbon monoxide and/or explosive gas (methane, propane, etc.).[101]
Energy content, statistics, and pricing[edit]
Main article: Natural gas prices
See also: Billion cubic metres of natural gas
Natural gas prices at the Henry Hub in US dollars per million BTUs ($/mmbtu).
Comparison of natural gas prices in Japan, United Kingdom, and United States, 20
072011
Quantities of natural gas are measured in normal cubic meters (corresponding to
0 C at 101.325 kPa) or in standard cubic feet (corresponding to 60 F (16 C) and 14.
73 psia). The gross heat of combustion of 1 m3 of commercial quality natural gas
is around 39 MJ (10.8 kWh), but this can vary by several percent. This comes to
about 49 MJ (13.5 kWh) for 1 kg of natural gas (assuming a density of 0.8 kg m3, a
n approximate value).[citation needed]
The price of natural gas varies greatly depending on location and type of consum
er. In 2007, a price of $7 per 1000 cubic feet (about 25 cents per m3) was typic
al in the United States. The typical caloric value of natural gas is roughly 1,0
00 British thermal units (BTU) per cubic foot, depending on gas composition. Thi
s corresponds to around $7 per million BTU, or around $7 per gigajoule. In April
2008, the wholesale price was $10 per 1,000 cubic feet (28 m3) ($10/MMBTU).[102
] The residential price varies from 50% to 300% more than the wholesale price. A
t the end of 2007, this was $12$16 per 1000 cubic feet (about 50 cents per m3).[1
03] Natural gas in the United States is traded as a futures contract on the New
York Mercantile Exchange. Each contract is for 10,000 MMBTU (~10,550 gigajoules)
, or 10 billion BTU. Thus, if the price of gas is $10 per million BTUs on the NY
MEX, the contract is worth $100,000.
European Union[edit]
Gas prices for end users vary greatly across the EU.[104] A single European ener

gy market, one of the key objectives of the European Union, should level the pri
ces of gas in all EU member states. Moreover, it would help to resolve supply an
d global warming issues,[105] as well as strengthen relations with other Mediter
ranean countries and foster investments in the region.[106]
United States[edit]
U.S. Natural Gas Marketed Production 1900 to 2012, source US EIA
In US units, one standard cubic foot 1 cubic foot (28 L) of natural gas produces
around 1,028 British thermal units (1,085 kJ). The actual heating value when th
e water formed does not condense is the net heat of combustion and can be as muc
h as 10% less.[107]
In the United States, retail sales are often in units of therms (th); 1 therm =
100,000 BTU. Gas meters measure the volume of gas used, and this is converted to
therms by multiplying the volume by the energy content of the gas used during t
hat period, which varies slightly over time. Wholesale transactions are generall
y done in decatherms (Dth), or in thousand decatherms (MDth), or in million deca
therms (MMDth). A million decatherms is roughly a billion cubic feet of natural
gas. Gas sales to domestic consumers may be in units of 100 standard cubic feet
(scf). The typical annual consumption of a single family residence is 1,000 ther
ms or one RCE.
Canada[edit]
Canada uses metric measure for internal trade of petrochemical products. Consequ
ently, natural gas is sold by the Gigajoule, cubic metre (m3) or thousand cubic
metres (E3m3). Distribution infrastructure and meters almost always meter volume
(cubic foot or cubic meter). Some jurisdictions, such as Saskatchewan, sell gas
by volume only. Other jurisdictions, such as Alberta, gas is sold by the energy
content (GJ). In these areas, almost all meters for residential and small comme
rcial customers measure volume (m3 or ft3), and billing statements include a mul
tiplier to convert the volume to energy content of the local gas supply.
A gigajoule (GJ) is a measure approximately equal to half a barrel (250 lbs) of
oil, or 1 million BTUs, or 1000 cu ft of gas, or 28 m3 of gas. The energy conten
t of gas supply in Canada can vary from 37 to 43 MJ per m3 depending on gas supp
ly and processing between the wellhead and the customer.
Elsewhere[edit]
In the rest of the world, natural gas is sold in Gigajoule retail units. LNG (li
quefied natural gas) and LPG (liquefied petroleum gas) are traded in metric tons
or MMBTU as spot deliveries. Long term natural gas distribution contracts are s
igned in cubic metres, and LNG contracts are in metric tonnes (1,000 kg). The LN
G and LPG is transported by specialized transport ships, as the gas is liquified
at cryogenic temperatures. The specification of each LNG/LPG cargo will usually
contain the energy content, but this information is in general not available to
the public.
In the Russian Federation, Gazprom sold approximately 250 billion cubic metres o
f natural gas in 2008. In 2013 the Group produced 487.4 billion cubic meters of
natural and associated gas. Gazprom supplied Europe with 161.5 billion cubic met
ers of gas in 2013.
In August 2015, possibly the largest natural gas discovery in history was made a
nd notified by an Italian gas company ENI. The energy company indicated that it
has unearthed a "supergiant" gas field in the Mediterranean Sea covering about 4
0 square miles. It was also reported that the gas field could hold a potential 3
0 trillion cubic feet of natural gas. ENI said that it is about the energy equiv
alent of 5.5 billion barrels of oil. The field was found in the deep waters off
the northern coast of Egypt and ENI claims that it will be the largest ever in t

he Mediterranean and even the world.[108]

Natural gas as an asset class for institutional investors[edit]
Research conducted by the World Pensions Council (WPC)[when?] suggests that larg
e US and Canadian pension funds and Asian and MENA area SWF investors have becom
e particularly active in the fields of natural gas and natural gas infrastructur
e, a trend started in 2005 by the formation of Scotia Gas Networks in the UK by
OMERS and Ontario Teachers' Pension Plan.[citation needed]
Adsorbed natural gas (ANG)[edit]
Another way to store natural gas is adsorbing it to the porous solids called sor
bents. The best condition for methane storage is at room temperature and atmosph
eric pressure. The used pressure can be up to 4 MPa (about 40 times atmospheric
pressure) for having more storage capacity. The most common sorbent used for ANG
is activated carbon (AC). Three main types of activated carbons for ANG are: Ac
tivated Carbon Fiber (ACF), Powdered Activated Carbon (PAC), activated carbon mo
nolith.[109]
See also[edit]
Portal icon
Sustainable development portal
Portal icon
Energy portal
Portal icon
Renewable energy portal
Associated petroleum gas
Compressed natural gas
Drip gas
Gas depletion
Gas oil ratio
Gas to liquids
Giant oil and gas fields
Shale gas
Hydraulic fracturing
Natural gas by country
Natural gas prices
Peak gas
Power to gas
Renewable natural gas
General:
World energy resources and consumption
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External links[edit]
The future of Natural Gas MIT study
A Comparison between Shale Gas in China and Unconventional Fuel Development in t
he United States: Health, Water and Environmental Risks by Paolo Farah and Ricca
rdo Tremolada. This is a paper presented at the Colloquium on Environmental Scho
larship 2013 hosted by Vermont Law School (11 October 2013)
New Technology For High BTU Natural Gas Fuel Conditioning
[hide] v t e
Fuel gas
Types
Manufactured fuel gas
(History)
Coal gas Coal gasification Underground coal gasification Biogas Blast furnace ga
s Blau gas Gasification Landfill gas Mond gas Pintsch gas Producer gas Regasific
ation Syngas Water gas Wood gas
Natural gas
APG CBM CNG HCNG LNG NGC SNG Bio-SNG
LPG
Autogas Butane Propane
Gas flame
Infrastructure
Compressor station Gas carrier Gas holder Gas meter Gasworks Natural-gas process
ing Natural gas storage Odorizer Pipeline transport
Uses
Bunsen burner Gas burner Gas engine Gas heater Gas lighting Gas mantle Gas stove
Gas turbine Pilot light
Authority control
GND: 4015143-8 NDL: 00572845
Categories: Natural gasFuel gas
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