Creating, implementing and evaluating story-based learning

text for teaching fractions

Charalambos Lemonidis, Ioanna Kaiafa
Professor of Mathematics Education, University of Western Macedonia
Master in Mathematics Education, University of Western Macedonia
Abstract
According to researchers, Children's literature is an effective tool for mathematics
instruction because it incorporates stories into the teaching and learning of mathematics,
furthermore introduces math concepts and contexts in a motivating manner, acts as a
source for generating problems and building problem solving skills and finally helps
build a conceptual understanding of math skills through illustrations. In addition,
incorporating children's literature into the teaching of mathematics is vital to creating
concrete conceptual understanding of abstract mathematic concepts.
The present study outlines the theoretical framework that supports the idea of linking
literature and mathematics for educational purposes and presents a text of childrens
literature created to promote the teaching and learning fractions in the fifth grade of
primary school. The text entitled Orpheus and Nefeli in Fractionland.
Afterwards, the results of texts evaluation, conducted by teachers and students, are
presented and analyzed. Teachers used, as an assessment tool, a rule with 16 criteria
relating to literary and educational value of the text. Eventually, we present and analyze
the outcomes from the instruction of the text to children of 5th grade.
Keywords: literature and mathematics, story-based learning text, fractions teaching
1. Theoretical background
The use of childrens literature to teach mathematics is becoming an increasingly
common practice in elementary schools. The integration of mathematics and literature is
logical since mathematics and literature have similarities in content and structure
(Griffiths & Clyne, 1988). Kliman (1993) argued that the use of literature in
mathematics instruction can make the study of mathematics more meaningful and
specific, while it provides a framework for increasing students' enjoyment and
comprehension of literature.
The use of childrens literature in mathematics instruction fosters all forms of
communication. The NCTM resource Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School
Mathematics (1989) supports the integration of childrens literature into the K-8
classroom because, Many childrens books present interesting problems and illustrate
how other children solve them. Through these books, students see mathematics in a
different context while they use reading as a form of communication (p. 28).
Richard Lesh & Christy Larson (2006) in their article under the title The Power of
Stories in Mathematics Learning & Problem Solving refer to the benefits arising from
the use of stories in teaching mathematics.
They are stressing more specifically that:

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First, we focus on learning and problem solving situations which are

simulations of real life activities in which some significant types of
mathematical thinking are needed. Consequently, students make sense of
these situations based on extensions of their own personal real life knowledge
and experiences; and, such knowledge tends to be organized around experience
more than around abstractions.
Second, such activities usually require students to go through a series of cycles
in which they iteratively express, test, and revise (or reject) their existing ways
of thinking; and, relevant ideas tend to be expressed using a variety of
interacting representational media which include not only written symbols,
spoken language, and pictures or diagrams, but also experienced-based
structural metaphors.
Third, in realistically complex problem solving situations, where solutions often
involve trade-offs (e.g., high quality but low costs), useful ways of thinking
generally need to integrate ideas and abilities drawn from a variety of textbook
topic areas. So again, useful knowledge tends to be organized around
experience as much as around abstractions; and, stories tend to be useful for
expressing such multi-topic and multi-media chunks of knowledge (p.1).

Childrens books can spark students imaginations in ways that exercises in textbooks or
workbooks often dont. Connecting math to literature can promote confidence for
children who love books but dont like mathematics. And students who already love
math can learn to appreciate literature in a whole new way. Key to the value of
incorporating childrens books into instruction is making good choices about the books
to use (Burns 2007).
The results of a study conducted by Hasley (2005) indicated that teachers play a
significant role in evaluating the quality of children's literature they use in their
classroom.
Childrens literature may be used in many ways in mathematics instruction (Schiro,
1997, Welchman-Tischler, 1992). Schiro (1997) used literature for mathematical
literary criticism and edited as a way to incorporate mathematics and literature from
using literature as a springboard into mathematics activities. Welchman-Tischler (1992)
proposed several ways to use literature as a part of a math lesson (e.g., providing a
context or posing a problem).
Burns (2007) provides a general lesson plan for structuring math instruction around a
childrens book. This includes: a) reading aloud, b) class discussion, c) introduction of
the math connection and assignment of the math work to be done in class, d) class
discussion for students to present their work and listen and respond to one anothers
ideas and e) assignment of homework based on the lesson (if it is
appropriate).
Findings of studies conducted in classrooms support the effectiveness of using
children's literature to promote mathematics learning. Specifically, researchers observed
(Kliman 1993, Hong 1996, Burnett & Wichman 1997, Sriraman 2003 & 2004,
Mitakidou & Tressou 2005):

Improvement in student performance in mathematics

Creating, implementing and evaluating story-based learning text for teaching

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Reduction of math anxiety

Increase in the students ability to problems solve in real-life situations
Creation of a positive classroom climate
Development of more positive attitudes toward mathematics

We can not claim, however, that the use of stories in teaching mathematics can replace
analytical thinking. However, it completes the analytical thinking because it helps
students to develop their imagination, encourages them to formulate alternative
interpretations and creates a learning environment in which the student engage
voluntarily and spontaneously (Koleza, 2006).
2. Study
The purpose of this study is threefold: first to create a story-based text for fractions
instruction based on mathematics curriculum, second to implement it in a classroom and
third to explore teachers and students views about it.
2.1 Creating story-based learning text for teaching fractions
The text entitled Orpheus and Nefeli in Fractionland and it was created to support the
teaching and learning of fractions with emphasis on mental calculations.
We've selected fractions as the focus because research has shown that students have
many difficulties with them. It is widely agreed that fractions form is an important part
of mathematics Curriculum (Litwiller & Bright, 2002) supporting the development of
proportional reasoning, and important for later subjects in mathematics, such as algebra
and probability. However, it is clear that it is a topic which many teachers find difficult
to understand and teach (Post, Cramer, Behr, Lesh, & Harel, 1993) and many students
find difficult to learn (Behr, Lesh, Post, & Silver, 1983; Kieren, 1976; Streefland, 1991).
Among the factors that make fractions difficult to understand are their many
interpretations and representations (Kilpatrick, Swafford, & Findell, 2001). Moreover,
generalizations that have taken place during instruction on whole numbers are
responsible for students' misconceptions in fractions (Streefland, 1991). Post,
Wachsmuth, Lesh and Behr (1985) argued that "children's understandings about
ordering whole numbers often adversely affect their early understandings about
ordering fractions. For some children, these misunderstandings persist even after
relatively intense instruction based on the use of manipulative aids" (p. 33).
Our text is addressed to students of fifth grade. Students have an active role. They
should help the heroes of story to escape the land of numbers, where reigns a
terrifying magician. It is a mathematical adventure in five episodes. Activities include:
multiplying fractions, estimating sums of fractions, comparing fractions and placement
of fraction on the number line.
The student, after giving the answer, is asked to describe in writing his way of thinking
(metacognitive process). Writing fosters community in a classroom and, as writing is a
social act, it is a vehicle for students to learn more about themselves and others
(Urquhart 2009). David Pugalle (2005), who works the relationship between language
and mathematics learning, argues that writing supports mathematical reasoning and
problem solving and assists students internalize the characteristics of effective

Creating, implementing and evaluating story-based learning text for teaching

fractions

communication. He suggests that teachers read student writing for evidence of logical
conclusions, justification of answers and processes, and the use of facts to explain their
thinking.
All possible solutions (conceptual and procedural) of mathematical problems are
presented and analyzed at the end of the text. Moreover, extension exercises are
designed and provided to be used for additional practice.
2.2 Evaluating story-based learning text for teaching fractions
2.2.1 Criteria for evaluating a story-based learning text for teaching mathematics
Regardless of their view of use of childrens literature to teach mathematics, teachers
need to examine the quality of the stories they select. Using stories to teach mathematics
requires teachers to choose the books they feel offer the best qualities in both
mathematics and literature (Hasley 2005).
Schiro (1997) described a procedure for assessing trade books in relation to a set of
mathematical standards called mathematical literary criticism. In this framework,
students are encouraged to discover their own problems and experience mathematics
within the context of a story. Mathematical literary criticism involves students in four
components:
1) Participating in both mathematical and literary experiences
2) Responding to to story and, the mathematics integrated in the story, and to quality of
the presentation of both,
3) Reflecting on mathematical and literary concepts related to the book, and
4) Constructing an understanding of the book's mathematics and story, as well as
viewing themselves as making critics and doing problem-solving (Hasley, 2005). Based
on these components, Schiro has developed an instrument to measure the quality of
children's literature for mathematics instruction. Hasley (2005), in her inquiry, used this
instrument to examine the trade book recommendations of three second-grade
mathematics textbook publishers. In our research we used the same instrument since we
added another seven criteria from a pedagogical, didactical and literary point of view.
2.2.2 Teachers evaluate the text.
An evaluation sheet (table 1) was created for the book Orpheus and Nefeli in
Fractionland on a Likert scale. For each of these criteria, teachers rated the book as
excellent, good, average, fair, or poor using the Likert scale of 5-1 respectively. Fifty
teachers (34 women and 16 men) read and evaluated the book. Ten of them were
interviewed by a researcher about positive and negative elements of the book. Average
years of their service was 14,7. Seventeen teachers (34%) were holders of a master
degree.
Scores for the eighteen mathematical standards ranged from an average of 4.4 to an
average of 4.74. Average scores are presented in Table 2. Results are listed in rank order
for each of the standards. The overall average is 4.6.
Nr

Table 1: Evaluation sheet

Schiro's (1997) Standards for Assessing Mathematics in Children's

Creating, implementing and evaluating story-based learning text for teaching

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1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

12
13
14
15
16
17
18

Literature as they were used in inquiry of Hasley (2005)

Is book's mathematics correct and accurate?
Is book's mathematics effectively presented, including relevant mathematical?
Is book's mathematics worthy of being learned?
Is book's mathematics visible to the reader in texts and illustrations?
Does the book present an appropriate view of mathematics as enjoyable,
useful, active, creative, and accessible?
Is book's mathematics developmentally and intellectually appropriate?
Does the book involve the reader in its mathematics?
Does the book provide the information needed to do the math (e.g. clear
instructions, materials, answer key)?
Do the book's story and mathematics complement each other?
Does the book facilitate readers' use, application, transfer, and generalizations
of mathematics?
Does the book balance necessary resources to help readers benefit from the
book's mathematics (e.g. time, effort, money)?
Additional standards1
Is the book free of gender, ethnic, and socioeconomic bias?
Is the book free of negative patterns?
Is the book linguistically correct?
Has the book an interesting plot with strong elements of surprise and reversal?
Does the book's mathematics correspond to the teaching objectives?
Does the presentation of mathematical concepts follow the principles of
discovery and inquiry learning?
Does the book utilize students prior knowledge?

Table 2: Average Scores for Mathematical Standards

Nr
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
1

Text
Story and math complement each other
Math is correct and accurate
Text involves readers in its mathematics
Math is developmentally and intellectually appropriate
Math is visible in the text and illustrations
Math is worthy of being learned
Book presents an appropriate view of math
Book facilitates application, transfer, and generalization of math
Book provides enough information to do the math
Book provides resources to help reader benefit from math
Math is presented effectively (relevant math ideas and relationships)

These criteria were added by the researchers

Text
4,72
4,5
4,6
4,68
4,56
4,44
4,7
4,4
4,68
4,54
4,6

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12
13
14
15
16
17
18

Book is free of gender, ethnic, and socioeconomic bias

Book has an interesting plot with strong elements of surprise and
reversal.
Book is linguistically correct.
Book is free of negative patterns
Book's mathematics correspond to the teaching objectives
The presentation of mathematical concepts follows the principles of
discovery and inquiry learning
Book utilizes students prior knowledge

4,56
4,68
4,66
4,74
4,52
4,64
4,62

The study applied content analysis techniques to transcripts of interviews in an attempt

to discover positive and negative elements of the book.
Categories that emerged from content analysis for each question are:
A. Positive elements of the book
Interesting plot (six references)
T4: The plot of the story is interesting. Interesting is the reversal at the end, namely
that all turn a dream
Accessible and familiar heroes (four references)
T4: Storys main characters are a boy and a girl. They are fifth graders as students.
This favors students identification with protagonists and encourages their involvement
in problem solving.
Original activities (three references)
T3: In my opinion, activities are novel and interesting ... there is a variety that does
not tire student.
Humor (three references)
T9: Its funny and causes pleasant feelings to children
Correct use of language (three references)
T5: It is a well written book. It uses Greek language correctly
Presentation and analysis of all possible solutions (two references)
T2: The solutions of the exercises are given in a simple and understandable manner
for students. Also, because all possible solutions are given, student understands that a
problem can be solved in many ways.
Metacognitive dimension of the learning process (two references)
T1: It is interesting that students are asked to describe their mode of thinking.
Whenever I do it in classroom (orally or in writing), results are very positive. I
understand how my students think and which the reasons for their mistakes are.
Positive role models (two references)
T2: In my opinion, book, apart from mathematics, teaches cooperation, emulation and
altruism.
Flexibility (one reference)
T3: Book is flexible. If teacher wants, can change numbers ... and make it easier or
more difficult ... depending on level of students ...

Creating, implementing and evaluating story-based learning text for teaching

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B. Negative elements of the book

Gender Bias (two references)
T4: Men have a leading role in all the activities, the magician is a man, and in the
morning the mother awakens Orpheus to go to school
Deficits in illustration (two references)
T5: Illustration is ... somewhat ... poor ... well ... not so professional ... although, I
liked some images very much.
Non progressive difficulty of activities (one reference)
T8: I think it would be better to have a progressive difficulty with exercises. If
exercises went from the easiest to the hardest, we would have a clearer picture of
student performance.
Absence of introductory note for teachers or parents (one reference)
T7: I would like to see an introduction with directions for teacher or parent ... a
page ... no more...
2.2.3 Students evaluate the text
The sample consists of ten students (6 girls and four boys). Five of these are fifth
graders and the other five are sixth graders. Students were given a week to read the
book. Using a questionnaire with 10 closed-ended questions and tow open-ended, we
explored students view about book. The questionnaire covered the following themes:

Students attitude towards reading extracurricular books

Students attitude towards mathematics
Students opinion about the book Orpheus and Nefeli to Fractionland
Students opinion about storys effectiveness in understand fractions
Positive and negative elements of the book

Students responses are presented in the following tables:

Table 3: frequency of extracurricular reading
Answer
At all
Rarely
Often
Very often

Students
2
4
2
2
Table 4: Students responses

1. Students attitude
towards mathematics
2. Students opinion
about the book
Orpheus and Nefeli in

Very much
3
6

Much Moderately
3
2
3

Little
2

At all
0

Creating, implementing and evaluating story-based learning text for teaching

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Fractionland
3. Students opinion
about storys
effectiveness in
understand fractions

We see that even students who do not like mathematics and do not read extracurricular
books, however they express a positive view of story.
According to students opinion, plot and humor are the positive elements of the story. A
student says: "I liked that we read the story with my dad and we solved the problems
and laughed ... Usually, when I study mathematics with my dad, I' m bored, daddy gets
angry and we argue
The answer of a schoolgirl demonstrates attachment to procedural knowledge regarding
the instruction of fractions: I liked that all solutions are given. I could not imagine that
you can give some solutions without paper and pencil. At school, we just make fractions
homonymous.
2.3 Implementing story-based learning text for teaching fractions
Two student teachers from the Faculty of Education of the University of Western
Macedonia teach mathematics using the text. This was part of their internship. Teaching
was carried out in a fifth grade class in school of Florina. Its duration was two teaching
hours. Student teachers had a full lesson plan, PowerPoint with storys pictures and
worksheets.
Using a questionnaire with 6 open-ended questions, we explored student teachers view
about their experience. Specifically, the following research questions were raised:
1. Did literature contribute to a positive climate in the classroom? If so, how?
2. How image projection assisted in teaching?
3. Did storys using contribute in students involvement?
4. How effective was the material used in this teaching (Power Point, worksheets)?
5. Did storys using contribute to the achievement of objectives? If so, how?
From the content analysis conducted, the following conclusions arise:

Storys contribution to a positive climate in classroom

S.T.1: According to the class teacher, and as we saw when we visited the class, there
were disciplinary problems. However, during the instruction, students attended the story
with full attention and unflagging interest. Importantly, there were no disciplinary
problems.

Images contribution to an effective teaching and learning environment

Creating, implementing and evaluating story-based learning text for teaching

fractions

S.T.2: Image projection contributes to unflagging attention of students and their

personal involvement because it created an empathy condition. Story came alive
through the representational power of images.

Storys contribution to students involvement

S.T.1: All students involved in the learning process and they were willing to propose
solutions to help Orpheus and Nefeli

Effectiveness of teaching material (Power Point, worksheets)

S.T.2: Material was clearly handy and complete. Power Point and worksheets are a
complete instruction and, in my opinion, excellent teaching transformed.

Storys using contribution to achievement of objectives

S.T.2: In my opinion, storys using was exactly the means to achieve learning
outcomes. Storys action "pushed" student thinking to solve the problems. Students
desire to hear the end of story turned into mathematical thinking.
At the end of the lesson, students were asked to express their views in writing about
teaching. The vast majority of students expressed a positive view. Indicatively:
S1: I liked the lesson very much. But I do not like math
S2: I really like this lesson. It was not boring at all.
S3: I liked the lesson very much, although I do not like math. I like it because we
traveled in a fairytale. It was amazing that in the end everything was a dream.
3. Conclusions
The first purpose of this study was to create an objective centered story-based learning
text for teaching fractions. Texts creating was based on mathematics curriculum
considering the difficulties experienced by students in understanding fractions and the
many misconceptions they hold. The second purpose was to asses the texts quality.
Because research has indicated that teachers play an important role in assessing the
quality of the children's literature they use in their classroom (Hasley 2005), we asked
fifty teachers to evaluate the text. The results indicate that teachers attitude towards
story-based learning text for teaching fractions, as it emerges through the scores they
gave, is very positive. Also, students who read the text and students who attended the
experimental teaching expressed a positive opinion. It is interesting that even students
who do not like math said that they liked the text and experimental teaching.
Teacher's rating indicates a balance between the literary, mathematical and pedagogical
quality of the text. This balance was a challenge, since we aimed at creating a nondimensional text. Childrens literature offers a wonderful vehicle for helping
teachers teach mathematical concepts in an effective manner. Thus, both the
mathematical and literary quality of the text is required.
The fact that the text got mostly positive reception from teachers and students highlights
the need to create texts that support the teaching and learning mathematics, since very
few trade books with mathematical content are available in Greek.

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Finally, the third purpose was to implement the text in a classroom in order to ascertain
its effectiveness as a teaching tool. The student teachers, who taught mathematics using
the text, reported that literature has helped to create a positive climate in the classroom
and attracted the students interest.
The results of this study are consistent with the overall literature's findings that indicate
that childrens literature is an effective tool for teaching mathematics.
4. Limitations and suggestions for future research
In this study we limited ourselves to confirm that teaching mathematics through
childrens literature can improve students dispositions toward mathematics. The
effects of texts using on mathematics achievement not investigated in the present study.
Future research could provide a decisive answer. Also, the investigation of profile of
students who might benefit most from the use of stories in teaching mathematics, could
be a research question for future research.
5. References
Burnett, S.J., Wichman, A. M. (1997). Mathematics and Literature: An Approach to
Success. Action Research Project, Saint Xavier University.
Burns, M. (2007), About teaching Mathematics A K8 RESOURCE, Math Solutions
Publications.
Griffiths, R., & Clyne, M. (1988). Books You Can Count On: Linking Mathematics and
Literature. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Haekyung Hong (1996) Effects of Mathematics learning Through Childrens literature
on Math Achievement and Dispositional Outcomes, Early Childhood Research
Quarterly, 11, 477-494.
Halsey, P. (2005). Assessing mathematics trade books: Do they measure up? Reading
improvement, 42, 158-163.
Kilpatrick, J., Swafford, J., & Findell, B. (Eds.) (2001). Adding it up: Helping children
learn mathematics. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Kliman, M. (1993). Integrating mathematics and literature in the elementary classroom.
The Arithmetic Teacher, 40 (6), 318-321.
Koleza, E. (2006), Mathematics through the mirror of Literature: a trip to wonderland.
Proceedings of the Sixth two day dialogue on Teaching Mathematics. Thessaloniki.
Lesh, R. & Larson, C. (2006). The Power of Stories in Mathematics Learning &
Problem Solving. Presentation in Symbolic Cognition Symposium January 3-9. The
White House of Wilmington.
Litwiller, B., & Bright, G. (2002). Making sense of fractions, ratios, and proportions
(Yearbook of the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics). Reston, VA:
NCTM.
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (1989). Curriculum and evaluation
standards for school mathematics. Reston, VA: Author.

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Post, T., Cramer, K., Behr,M., Lesh, R., & Harel, G. (1993). Curriculum implications of
research on the learning, teaching and assessing of rational number concepts. In T.
Carpenter, E. Fennema & T. Romberg (Eds.), Rational numbers: An integration of
research (pp. 327361). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Post, T., Wachsmuth, I., Lesh, R., & Behr, M. (1985) Order and equivalence of rational
numbers: A cognitive analysis. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education,
16(1), 18-36.
Pugalee, D. K. (2004). A comparison of verbal and written description of students
problem-solving processes. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 55, 27-47.
Schiro, Michael (1997), Integrating childrens literature and mathematics in the
classroom: Children as meaning makers, problem solvers, and literary critics. New
York: Teachers College Press.
Streefland, L. (1991). Fractions in realistic mathematics education: A paradigm of
developmental research. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publications.
Sriraman, B. (2003). Mathematics and Literature: Synonyms, Antonyms or the Perfect
Amalgam. The Australian Mathematics Teacher, 59 (4), 26-31.
Sriraman, B. (2004). Mathematics and Literature (the sequel): Imagination as a pathway
to advanced mathematical ideas and philosophy. The Australian Mathematics
Teacher. 60 (1), 17-23.
Mitakidou, C., Tressou, E. (2005) Teaching language and mathematics through
literature. Athens: Epikentro
Urquhart, V. (2009), Using Writing in Mathematics to Deepen Student Learning,
McREL, Denver, CO. Retrieved August 19, 2012 from the World Wide Web:
http://www.mcrel.org/~/media/Files/McREL/Homepage/Products/01_99/prod19_Wr
iting_in_math.ashx
Welchman-Tischler, R. (1992). How
mathematics. Reston, VA: NCTM.

to

use

children's

literature

to

teach

6. Brief bios
Charalambos Lemonidis is a professor of didactic of mathematics at the Department of
Primary Education - University of Western Macedonia (Florina, Greece) . He is born in
Amygdaleona of Kavala in 1961. He has graduated from the Department of Mathematics Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. He received a master and a Ph.D. in Didactic of
Mathematics from the University of Luis Pasteur (France) . He is dean of Faculty of
Pedagogy in the University of Western Macedonia and director of Postgraduate
Programme in the Department of Primary Education. He has founded the school entitled
Mathematics of Nature and Life . His scientific interests are, mental calculation, use of
technology in teaching/learning mathematics, mathematics disabilities, life long learning of
mathematics.

Creating, implementing and evaluating story-based learning text for teaching

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Ioanna Kaiafa is a PhD student in Mathematics Education at the Department of

Primary Education - University of Western Macedonia (Florina, Greece). She has
graduated from the Department of Philosophy - Aristotle University of Thessaloniki and
from the Department of Primary Education - University of Western Macedonia. She
received a master in Didactic of Mathematics from the University of Western
Macedonia. Her research interests are: Literature and Mathematics, Learning disabilities
in Mathematics.