Section B.

Q2.
Keeping in view the type of industry and volume of production, the type of layout to be selected is to be
decided from the following:
1. Product or Line Layout
2. Process or Functional Layout.
3. Fixed Position Layout.
4. Combination type of Layout.
1. Product or Line Layout:
If all the processing equipment and machines are arranged according to the sequence of operations of the product,
the layout is called product type of layout. In this type of layout, only one product of one type of products is
produced in an operating area. This product must be standardized and produced in large quantities in order to justify
the product layout.
The raw material is supplied at one end of the line and goes from one operation to the next quite rapidly with a
minimum work in process, storage and material handling. Fig. 8.3 shows product layout for two types of products A
and B.

2. Process or Functional Layout:

The process layout is particularly useful where low volume of production is needed. If the products are not
standardized, the process layout is more low desirable, because it has creator process flexibility than other. In this
type of layout, the machines and not arranged according to the sequence of operations but are arranged according to
the nature or type of the operations. This layout is commonly suitable for non repetitive jobs.
Same type of operation facilities are grouped together such as lathes will be placed at one place, all the drill
machines are at another place and so on. See Fig. 8.4 for process layout. Therefore, the process carried out in that
area is according to the machine available in that area.

3. Fixed Position Layout:

This type of layout is the least important for todays manufacturing industries. In this type of layout the major
component remain in a fixed location, other materials, parts, tools, machinery, man power and other supporting
equipments are brought to this location.
The major component or body of the product remain in a fixed position because it is too heavy or too big and as such
it is economical and convenient to bring the necessary tools and equipments to work place along with the man
power. This type of layout is used in the manufacture of boilers, hydraulic and steam turbines and ships etc.
4. Combination Type of Layout:
Now a days in pure state any one form of layouts discussed above is rarely found. Therefore, generally the layouts
used in industries are the compromise of the above mentioned layouts. Every layout has got certain advantages and
limitations. Therefore, industries would to like use any type of layout as such.
Flexibility is a very important factory, so layout should be such which can be molded according to the requirements
of industry, without much investment. If the good features of all types of layouts are connected, a compromise
solution can be obtained which will be more economical and flexible.
The eight factors affecting plant layout are as follows: 1. Man Factor 2. Material Factor 3. Machinery Factor 4.
Movement Factor 5. Waiting Factor 6. Service Factor 7. Building Factor 8. Flexibility Factor.
Whatever be the type of layout being contemplated, the following factors are to be considered because these factors
have got significant influence on the design of the layout.
1. Man Factor:

The man is very flexible element who can be made suitable for all sort of layouts.
Main considerations are as follows:
(i) Safety and working conditions.
(ii) Man power requirements-skill level of workers, their number required and their training programme.
(iii) Man power utilization in the plant.
(iv) Human relations.
2. Material Factor:

It includes the various input materials like raw materials, semi-finished parts and materials in process scrap, finished
products, packing materials, tools and other services.
The main considerations are:
(i) Design and specifications of the product to be manufactured.
(ii) Quantity and variety of products and materials.
(iii) Physical and chemical characteristics of various input materials.
(iv) Component parts or material and their sequence of operations i.e. how they go together to generate the final
product.
3. Machinery Factor:

The operating machinery is also one of the most important factors therefore all the informations regarding
equipment and the tools are necessary for inspection, processing and maintenance etc.
(i) The processes and methods should be standardized first.
(ii) Machinery and tools selections depend upon the type of process and method, so proper machinery and other
supporting, equipment should be selected on the basis of volume of production.
(iii) Equipment utilization depends on the variation in production, requirements and operating balance. Machines
should be used to their optimum levels of speed, feed and depth of cut.
(iv) Machinery requirement is mostly based on the process/method.
(v) Maintenance of machines and replacement of parts is also important.
4. Movement Factor:

It mainly deals with the movement of men and materials. A good layout should ensure short moves and should
always tend towards completion of product. It also includes interdepartmental movements and material handling
equipment. This includes the flow pattern reduction of unnecessary handling, space for movement and analysis of
handling methods.
5. Waiting Factor:

Whenever material or men is stopped, waiting occurs which costs money. Waiting includes handling cost in waiting
area, money tied up with idle material etc.
Waiting may occur at the receiving point, materials in process, between the operations etc.
The important considerations in this case are:
(a) Location of storage or delay points.

(b) Method of storing

(c) Space for waiting.
(d) Safeguard equipment for storing and avoiding delay.
6. Service Factor:

It includes the activities and facilities for personnel such as fire protection, lighting, heating and ventilation etc.
Services for material such as quality control, production control, services for machinery such as repair and
maintenance and utilities liked power, fuel/gas and water supply etc.
7. Building Factor:

It includes outside and inside building features, shape of building, type of building (single or multistory) etc.
8. Flexibility Factor:

This includes consideration due to changes in material, machinery, process, man, supporting activities and
installation limitations etc. It means easy changing to new arrangements or it includes flexibility and expendability
of layouts.

Q3.
A Gantt chart, commonly used in project management, is one of the most popular and useful ways of showing
activities (tasks or events) displayed against time. On the left of the chart is a list of the activities and along the top is
a suitable time scale. Each activity is represented by a bar; the position and length of the bar reflects the start date,
duration and end date of the activity. This allows you to see at a glance:

What the various activities are

When each activity begins and ends

How long each activity is scheduled to last

Where activities overlap with other activities, and by how much

The start and end date of the whole project

To summarize, a Gantt chart shows you what has to be done (the activities) and when (the schedule).

A simple Gantt chart

Gantt Chart History
The first Gantt chart was devised in the mid 1890s by Karol Adamiecki, a Polish engineer who ran a steelworks in
southern Poland and had become interested in management ideas and techniques. Some 15 years after Adamiecki ,
Henry Gantt, an American engineer and management consultant, devised his own version of the chart and it was this
that became widely known and popular in western countries. Consequently it was Henry Gantt whose name was to
become associated with charts of this type.
Originally Gantt charts were prepared laboriously by hand; each time a project changed it was necessary to amend or
redraw the chart and this limited their usefulness, continual change being a feature of most projects. Nowadays,
however, with the advent of computers and project management software, Gantt charts can be created, updated and
printed easily.
Today, Gantt charts are most commonly used for tracking project schedules. For this it is useful to be able to show
additional information about the various tasks or phases of the project, for example how the tasks relate to each
other, how far each task has progressed, what resources are being used for each task and so on.
Purpose: Gantt charts are helpful for planning and guiding projects. They are most appropriate for small- to mediumsized projects, but can be used for larger projects, such as capital projects on occasion. They are ideal for most
planning projects that a department or college would be involved in. Gantt charts are particularly helpful ways of
dealing with scheduling tasks, understanding critical paths of a project, and planning of resources. Two concepts are
particularly important in terms of the use of Gantt charts, the concept of sequential and parallel tasks. Parallel tasks
are those that can go on at the same time. Projects often take much longer than necessary because people assume that
one thing follows another. A simple example would be the signatures on a form. If each individual is approving a
project, do they need to sign-off on the idea one after the other, or could multiple proposals be sent out at the same
time and each reviewer sign within the same time frame? However, using the same example, there may be a reason
for the approvals to come sequentially. It may be that the dean does not want to give approval if the chair has not
signed off first. Sequential tasks must occur one after the other. Both sequential and parallel tasks are well
represented in Gantt charts. Gantt charts can be developed using VISIO software.

Q4.
Quality control, or QC for short, is a process by which entities review the quality of all factors involved in
production. ISO 9000 defines quality control as "A part of quality management focused on fulfilling quality
requirements".
This approach places an emphasis on three aspects:
1. Elements such as controls, job management, defined and well managed processes, performance and integrity
criteria, and identification of records

2. Competence, such as knowledge, skills, experience, and qualifications

3. Soft elements, such as personnel, integrity, confidence, organizational culture, motivation, team spirit, and
quality relationships.
Controls include product inspection, where every product is examined visually, and often using a stereo
microscope for fine detail before the product is sold into the external market. Inspectors will be provided with lists
and descriptions of unacceptable product defects such ascracks or surface blemishes for example.
The quality of the outputs is at risk if any of these three aspects is deficient in any way.
Quality control emphasizes testing of products to uncover defects and reporting to management who make the
decision to allow or deny product release, whereas quality assurance attempts to improve and stabilize production
(and associated processes) to avoid, or at least minimize, issues which led to the defect(s) in the first place. For
contract work, particularly work awarded by government agencies, quality control issues are among the top reasons
for not renewing a contract
There is a tendency for individual consultants and organizations to name their own unique approaches to quality
controla few of these have ended up in widespread use:
Terminology

Statistical quality
control (SQC)

Approximate
year of first use

Description

1930s

The application of statistical methods (specifically control

charts and acceptance sampling) to quality control.[5]:556

Total quality control

(TQC)

1956

Popularized by Armand V. Feigenbaum in a Harvard Business

Review article[6] and book of the same name.[7] Stresses involvement
of departments in addition to production (e.g., accounting, design,
finance, human resources, marketing, purchasing, sales).

Statistical process
control (SPC)

1960s

The use of control charts to monitor an individual industrial process

and feed back performance to the operators responsible for that
process. Inspired by control systems.

Company-wide quality
control (CWQC)

1968

Japanese-style total quality control[7]

Total Quality
Management(TQM)

1985

Quality movement originating in the United States Department of

Defense that uses (in part) the techniques of statistical quality control
to drive continuous organizational improvement.[8]

Six Sigma (6)

1986

Statistical quality control applied to business strategy.[9] Originated

by Motorola.

Statistical process control (SPC) is a method of quality control which uses statistical methods. SPC is applied in
order to monitor and control a process. Monitoring and controlling the process ensures that it operates at its full
potential. At its full potential, the process can make as much conforming product as possible with a minimum (if not
an elimination) of waste (rework or scrap). SPC can be applied to any process where the "conforming product"
(product meeting specifications) output can be measured. Key tools used in SPC include control charts; a focus
on continuous improvement; and the design of experiments. An example of a process where SPC is applied is
manufacturing lines.
Objective analysis of variation
SPC must be practiced in 2 phases: The first phase is the initial establishment of the process, and the second phase is
the regular production use of the process. In the second phase, a decision of the period to be examined must be
made, depending upon the change in 4 - M conditions (Man, Machine, Material, Method) and wear rate of parts used
in the manufacturing process (machine parts, jigs, and fixture)
Emphasis on early detection
An advantage of SPC over other methods of quality control, such as "inspection", is that it emphasizes early
detection and prevention of problems, rather than the correction of problems after they have occurred.
Increasing rate of production
In addition to reducing waste, SPC can lead to a reduction in the time required to produce the product. SPC makes it
less likely the finished product will need to be reworked.

Q7.
Work measurement (WM)
Work measurement is the application of techniques designed to establish the time for a qualified worker to carry
out specified jobs at a defined level of performance.
Work measurement (WM) is concerned with investigating, reducing and eliminating ineffective time, whatever may
be the cause.
WM is the means of measuring the time taken in the performance of an operation or series of operations in such a
way that the ineffective time is shown up and can be separated out.
Work measurement is also called by the name time study. Work measurement is absolutely essential for both the
planning and control of operations. Without measurement data, we cannot determine the capacity of facilities or it is
not possible to quote delivery dates or costs. We are not in a position to determine the rate of production and
also labor utilization and efficiency.
It may not be possible to introduce incentive schemes and standard costs for budget control.
Objectives of Work Measurement
The use of work measurement as a basis for incentives is only a small part of its total application.
The objectives of work measurement are to provide a sound basis for:

1. Comparing alternative methods.

2. Assessing the correct initial manning (manpower requirement planning).
3. Planning and control.
4. Realistic costing.
5. Financial incentive schemes.
6. Delivery date of goods.
7. Cost reduction and cost control.
8. Identifying substandard workers.
9. Training new employees.
Techniques of Work Measurement
For the purpose of work measurement, work can be regarded as:
1. Repetitive work: The type of work in which the main operation or group of operations repeat continuously
during the time spent at the job. These apply to work cycles of extremely short duration.
2. Non-repetitive work: It includes some type of maintenance and construction work, where the work cycle itself is
hardly ever repeated identically.

Techniques of Work Measurement

Various techniques of work measurement are:
1. Time study (stop watch technique),
2. Synthesis,
3. Work sampling,

4. Predetermined motion and time study,

5. Analytical estimating.
Time study and work sampling involve direct observation and the remaining are data based and analytical in nature.
1. Time study: A work measurement technique for recording the times and rates of working for the elements of a
specified job carried out under specified conditions and for analysing the data so as to determine the time necessary
for carrying out the job at the defined level of performance. In other words measuring the time through stop watch is
called time study.
2. Synthetic data: A work measurement technique for building up the time for a job or pans of the job at a defined
level of performance by totalling element times obtained previously from time studies on other jobs containing the
elements concerned or from synthetic data.
3. Work sampling: A technique in which a large number of observations are made over a period of time of one or
group of machines, processes or workers. Each observation records what is happening at that instant and the
percentage of observations recorded for a particular activity, or delay, is a measure of the percentage of time during
which that activities delay occurs.
4. Predetermined motion time study (PMTS): A work measurement technique whereby times established for basic
human motions (classified according to the nature of the motion and conditions under which it is made) are used to
build up the time for a job at the defined level of performance. The most commonly used PMTS is known as
Methods Time Measurement (MTM).
5. Analytical estimating: A work measurement technique, being a development of estimating, whereby the time
required to carry out elements of a job at a defined level of performance is estimated partly from knowledge and
practical experience of the elements concerned and partly from synthetic data.
The work measurement techniques and their applications are shown in Table.
Table: Work measurement techniques and their application
Techniques
Applications
1. Time study
Short cycle repetitive jobs.
Widely used for direct work.
2. Synthetic Data
Short cycle repetitive jobs.
3. Working sampling
Long cycle
jobs/heterogeneous operations.
4. MTM
Manual operations confined to
one work centre.
5. Analytical estimation
Short cycle non-repetitive job.

Unit of measurement
Centiminute (0.01 min)
Centi minutes
Minutes
TMU (1 TMU = 0.006 min)
Minutes

Section A
iii.)
Some of the most important types of production are: (i) Job Production (ii) Batch production and (iii) Mass or flow
production
i) Job Production:

Under this method peculiar, special or non-standardized products are produced in accordance with the orders
received from the customers. As each product is non- standardized varying in size and nature, it requires separate job
for production. The machines and equipments are adjusted in such a manner so as to suit the requirements of a
particular job.
Job production involves intermittent process as the work is carried as and when the order is received. It consists of
bringing together of material, parts and components in order to assemble and commission a single piece of
equipment or product.
(ii) Batch production:
Batch production pertains to repetitive production. It refers to the production of goods, the quantity of which is
known in advance. It is that form of production where identical products are produced in batches on the basis of
demand of customers or of expected demand for products.
This method is generally similar to job production except the quantity of production. Instead of making one single
product as in case of job production, a batch or group of products are produced at one time. It should be remembered
here that one batch of products may not resemble with the next batch.
(iii) Mass or flow production:
This method involves a continuous production of standardized products on a large scale. Under this method,
production remains continuous in anticipation of future demand. Standardization is the basis of mass production.
Standardized products are produced under this method by using standardized materials and equipment. There is a
continuous or uninterrupted flow of production obtained by arranging the machines in a proper sequence of
operations. Process layout is best suited method for mass production units.
Flow production is the manufacture of a product by a series of operations, each article going on to a succeeding
operation as soon as possible. The manufacturing process is broken into separate operations.
iv.)
Principles of Plant Layout:

According to Muther there are six basic principles of best layout.

These are:
1. Principle of Overall Integration:
According to this principle the best layout is one which provides integration of production facilities like men,
machinery, raw materials, supporting activities and any other such factors which result in the best compromise.
2. Principle of Minimum Distance:
According to this principle, the movements of men and materials should be minimized.
3. Principle of Flow:

According to Muther, the best layout is one which arranges the work station for each operate process in same order
or sequence that forms treats or assembles the materials.
4. Principle of Cubic Space Utilization:
According to this, the best layout utilizes cubic space i.e. space available both in vertical and horizontal directions is
most economically and effectively utilized.
5. Principle of Satisfaction and Safety:
According to this principle, best layout is one which provides satisfaction and safety to all workers.
6. Principle of Flexibility:
In automotive and other allied industries where models of products change after sometime, the principle of
flexibility provides adoption and rearrangements at a minimum cost and least inconvenience.
v.)
A master production schedule (MPS) is a plan for individual commodities to be produced in each time period such
as production, staffing, inventory, etc.[1] It is usually linked to manufacturing where the plan indicates when and how
much of each product will be demanded.This plan quantifies significant processes, parts, and other resources in
order to optimize production, to identify bottlenecks, and to anticipate needs and completed goods. Since an MPS
drives much factory activity, its accuracy and viability dramatically affect profitability. Typical MPS's are created by
software with user tweaking.
Due to software limitations, but especially the intense work required by the "master production schedulers",
schedules do not include every aspect of production, but only key elements that have proven their control effectivity,
such as forecast demand, production costs, inventory costs, lead time, working hours, capacity, inventory levels,
available storage, and parts supply. The choice of what to model varies among companies and factories. The MPS is
a statement of what the company expects to produce and purchase (i.e. quantity to be produced, staffing levels,
dates, available to promise, projected balance).
The MPS translates the customer demand (sales orders, PIRs), into a build plan using planned orders in a true
component scheduling environment. Using MPS helps avoid shortages, costly expediting, last minute scheduling,
and inefficient allocation of resources. Working with MPS allows businesses to consolidate planned parts, produce
master schedules and forecasts for any level of the Bill of Material (BOM) for any type of part.

vi.)
Long term Scheduling

The long term scheduler determines which programs are admitted to the system for processing. Thus, it controls the
degree of multiprogramming. Once admitted a job or user program becomes a process and added to the queue for the

short term scheduler. In some systems, a newly created process begins in a swapped-out condition, in which case it is
added to the queue for the medium term scheduler.

Medium term scheduling

Medium term scheduling is a part of the swapping function. The swapping in decision is based on the need to
manage the degree of multiprogramming.
It is the decision to add to the number of processes that are partially of fully in main memory.

Short term scheduling

The short term scheduler is also known as the dispatcher executes must frequently and makes the fine grained
decision of which process to execute next.

viii)
Common Types of Charts
The types of charts are often classified according to the type of quality characteristic that they are supposed to
monitor: there are quality control charts for variables and control charts for attributes. Specifically, the following
charts are commonly constructed for controlling variables:
X-bar chart. In this chart, the sample means are plotted in order to control the mean value of a variable (e.g., size of
piston rings, strength of materials, etc.).
R chart. In this chart, the sample ranges are plotted in order to control the variability of a variable.
S chart. In this chart, the sample standard deviations are plotted in order to control the variability of a variable.
S**2 chart. In this chart, the sample variances are plotted in order to control the variability of a variable.
For controlling quality characteristics that represent attributes of the product, the following charts are commonly
constructed:
C chart. In this chart (see example below), we plot the number of defectives (per batch, per day, per machine, per
100 feet of pipe, etc.). This chart assumes that defects of the quality attribute are rare, and the control limits in this
chart are computed based on the Poisson distribution

U chart. In this chart we plot the rate of defectives, that is, the number of defectives divided by the number of units
inspected (the n; e.g., feet of pipe, number of batches). Unlike the C chart, this chart does not require a constant
number of units, and it can be used, for example, when the batches (samples) are of different sizes.
Np chart. In this chart, we plot the number of defectives (per batch, per day, per machine) as in the C chart.
However, the control limits in this chart are not based on the distribution of rare events, but rather on the binomial
distribution. Therefore, this chart should be used if the occurrence of defectives is not rare (e.g., they occur in more
than 5% of the units inspected). For example, we may use this chart to control the number of units produced with
minor flaws.
P chart. In this chart, we plot the percent of defectives (per batch, per day, per machine, etc.) as in the U chart.
However, the control limits in this chart are not based on the distribution of rare events but rather on the binomial
distribution (of proportions). Therefore, this chart is most applicable to situations where the occurrence of defectives
is not rare (e.g., we expect the percent of defectives to be more than 5% of the total number of units produced).

ix)
Maintenance, repair and operations[1] (MRO) or maintenance, repair, and overhaul involves fixing any sort
of mechanical, plumbingor electrical device should it become out of order or broken (known as repair, unscheduled,
or casualty maintenance). It also includes performing routine actions which keep the device in working order
(known as scheduled maintenance) or prevent trouble from arising (preventive maintenance). MRO may be defined
as, "All actions which have the objective of retaining or restoring an item in or to a state in which it can perform its
required function. The actions include the combination of all technical and corresponding administrative,
managerial, and supervision actions
Corrective maintenance: The set of tasks is destined to correct the defects to be found in the different equipment and
that are communicated to the maintenance department by users of the same equipment.
Preventive Maintenance: Its mission is to maintain a level of certain service on equipment, programming the
interventions of their vulnerabilities in the most opportune time. It is used to be a systematic character, that is, the
equipment is inspected even if it has not given any symptoms of having a problem.
Predictive Maintenance: It pursues constantly know and report the status and operational capacity of the installations
by knowing the values of certain variables,which represent such state and operational ability. To apply this
maintenance, it is necessary to identify physical variables (temperature, vibration, power consumption, etc.). Which
variation is indicative of problems that may be appearing on the equipment. This maintenance it is the most
technical, since it requires advanced technical resources, and at times of strong mathematical, physical and / or
technical knowledge.
Zero Hours Maintenance (Overhaul): The set of tasks whose goal is to review the equipment at scheduled intervals
before appearing any failure, either when the reliability of the equipment has decreased considerably so it is risky to
make forecasts of production capacity . This review is based on leaving the equipment to zero hours of operation,
that is, as if the equipment were new. These reviews will replace or repair all items subject to wear. The aim is to
ensure, with high probability, a good working time fixed in advance.