I wrote this research paper back in college, during my freshman year.

I just finished encoding

it, whew. I used an electric typewriter back then, no pc yet wehehe :-P There might be some
typo errors, ok? i'll review it later.
*****
Arabic literature is the collective prose and poetry of Arabia. It is approximately fourteen
hundred years old. It has had a long history which is marked by an evolution that originated
within native Arabia. This evolution was highly affected by various external influences that
were able to permeate the cloak of the Arab society throughout the existence of Arabic
literature.
Arabic literature began planting its seeds in Arabian soil in the late 5th century, two hundred
years before the advent of Islam, a period known as the Pre-Islamic period. M.H. Bakalla calls
this period as the Age of Darkness or Ignorance, due to the absence of Islam (113). The origin
of Arabic literature is purely Arabic in nature since it started without any external influences
whatsoever.
The conditions in Arabia during that time helped in the creation of Arabic literature. Most of
the native Arabs lived and earned their living in the desert. Being their immediate
environment, the desert became the first theme in Arabic literature or to be more specific, in
Arabic poetry, which was the only literary genre present at that time.
Andras Hamori describes the desert as the true stage for poetry in the Pre-Islamic Period
(4). The Arabs, during their lengthy journeys back and forth across the desert, began singing
to themselves songs about the desert, songs which later evolved into poems that kept them
company (Huart 4-5). It can be said, therefore, that Arabic literature was born out of the
inspiration which the Arabian desert presented.
The political situation in native Arabia prompted the next step of development that Arabic
literature was to take. I.M. Filshtinsky tackles this in his book Arabic Literature (9-10). He
says that during the 6th century, the bonds that held the primitive- communal system of
Arabia together began to weaken, leaving in its wake a number of intertribal war fares and
social conflicts. He goes on further to say that this juncture among tribes was responsible for
the creation of an Arabic poetry which was largely paganistic in nature and that the society of
this time placed high value upon the skills of poets.
The Arabs used poetry as a weapon against their enemy tribes. They used Arabic literature as
a silent sword aimed at the hearts of the opposing camp, not with the purpose of drawing
blood, but with the goal of insulting the pride of their enemies through words. Clement Huart
presented proof for this in his book A History of Arabic Literature. According to him, the poet
was expected to compose satires which would consequently provoke the poets of their enemy
tribes to come up with retaliating satires (7). Because of this, poetry became a social tool and
poets acquired for themselves a highly-respected position in the society. In the Cassells
Encyclopedia of Literature, it is mentioned that during this time, the poet was a tribal artist,
chronicler, advocate, publicist, philosopher and prophet (Arabic literature 29).
The introduction of Islam during the 7th century shook the social status of the poets during
the Pre-Islamic era. Zaki Ali, in discussing the Islamic social order, mentioned that one of the

major five cardinal obligations of Muslims is the belief that there is a God and that God is
Allah (19). The ideals of Islam, therefore, acted against the paganistic themes which
characterized the Pre-Islamic Arabic poetry. This resulted to a temporary standstill in Arabic
poetry, taking the limelight away from the poets since the Arabs were no longer as interested
in the craft of poetry as before. The few poets left during this period did not do much at all.
Reynold Nicholson noted that the poets of this time preferred looking back to the pre-Islamic
poetry than creating their own poetry (285).
Eventually, however, there came a revived interest in Arabic literature as Islam acquired a
greater following. Arabs began to recognize the Holy Quran, the Holy Book of Islam. Many
of those who are studying Arabic Literature today are quick to point out the significance of
the Holy Quran in Arabic Literature.
Eric Ceadel, in the book Literature of the East: A Survey, said that to me Koranic studies
are the most exacting and satisfying of all the branches of Arabic Literature (31). H.A.R.
Gibb, meanwhile, commented that the Quran is a uniqre production having neither
forerunners nor successors in its own idiom (qtd in Bakalla 137). Another comment was
made in the Cassells Encyclopedia of Literature saying the book (Quran) is the center of
literary and educational tradition (Arabic literature 30).
The most obvious reason why the Holy Quran is considered important in Arabic literature is
its contribution to a gradual increase in the number of themes. I.M. Filshtinsky noted that the
poets who adopted Islam created poems glorifying the new faith (57). In this case, religion
became one of the new themes in Arabic poetry.
The poets who did not accept Islam focused on themes other than religion but they did not
focus on paganism either since this theme lost its appeal to most of the Arabs already. One of
the new themes, according to H.A.R. Gibb, is the parallel theme, which he described as a
theatrical display of ingenuity and virtuosity, apart from a somewhat monotonous repertoire
of personal taunts and indecencies (Arabic literature 43). It was also during this time that the
love poetry emerged, obviously with love as its theme (Bakalla 139).
It is clear to see that with the help of Islam, Arabic literature was already progressing from its
roots. Despite the fact that they were isolated from foreign cultures, the Arabs were able to
develop Arabic literature on their own. This shows that Arabic literature owes its early
development to the Arabs themselves.
After the death of Prophet Muhammad, the person who introduced Islam, the Arabs, along
with other Muslims of the East, executed the Islamic expansion and in less than a century,
Muslim rule extended from the Atlantic to India (Yates 330). Some of the places which they
conquered are Spain, Egypt, the Near East and North Africa. The expansion brought
influences from the outside although these influences were not extensive and did not affect
Arabic literature directly. What resulted was a gradual absorption of foreign systems of
thought into Arabic literature but then again, there were really no outward signs of changes in
said literature.
When the Abbasids, one of the powerful families in Arabia at that time, acquired rule over
most of the Muslims in 749 A.D., they established their seat of the Caliphate government in
Baghdad. According to H.A.R. Gibb, the Abbasids were able to become the ruling dynasty
with the support of the Persians and other subject-peoples (Arabic Literature 46). These

subject-peoples include the Indians, Aramaeans and the Hellenized people.

The influx of these highly diverse and different races along with their respective cultures mad
Baghdad one of the most excellent examples of cultural refinement during that time. F. Roy
Willis, in his book World Civilizations, said that for three centuries Baghdad was a byword
for Oriental splendor (363).
The cultural supremacy which was characteristic of Baghdad during this time was highly
conducive to the growth of Arabic literature. It was during this time that Arabic literature
reached its Golden Age. For this achievement, foreign influences are largely responsible, for it
was their arrival that spurred the Arabs to be interested in other cultures.
One of the most important contributions of foreigners to Arabic literature during the Golden
Age was the introduction of literary prose. This signifies that Arabic literature was finally
evolving not only in theme but also in style and genre. According to Muhammad Manazir
Ahsan (1-2) , this literary prose was given the name Adab. Adab prose dealt largely with
morals and etiquette and its introduction to Baghdad can be attributed to Persian scribes who
gave ethical instructions and rules of conduct to Arab society. Therefore, Persia must be given
credit for the integration of prose into Arabic literature.
According to D.M. Dunlop (20), the Abbasid period or the Golden Age of Arabic literature, is
also considered the great period of translation in Islam. Greek works, which the Arabs
received at second hand through Syriac translations, were being translated into Arabic. Aside
from this, the Bible and books from Persia and India were also being translated.
Due to this contact with various sciences and philosophy, Arabic literature edged away from
the standards set by the previous literary periods. It was only natural for Arabic literature to
develop in this manner, since the Arabs were probably encouraged to make a conscious effort
in the advancement of their literature by the diverse cultures which were introduced to them.
According to M.H. Bakalla (146), other changes that took place during the Golden Age of
Arabic literature include the development of secular literature as the widening of the Arabs
mental horizon provided them with more themes to write about. He also stressed that it was
during this time that the Arabs began compiling literary works, especially those on the
tradition of the Prophet Muhammad.
Arabic literature did not flourish only in Baghdad but also overseas, especially in Spain.
Norman Daniel, in his book The Arabs and Mediaeval Europe, commented that no one could
question that the biggest impact of the Arabs on Mediaeval Europe was in Spain (80).
In literature, there emerged a poetry in Spain that came from Arabia but was slightly different
because it had some Spanish substance in it. According to James Kritzeck, two forms of
Arabic literature which were poetic in nature, the muwashshah and the zajal, were brought to
perfection in Spain (141).
It was during this time that Arabic literature was able to give what is perhaps its greatest
contribution to Spain and to Europe, in general. This is the role which it played in the
transmission of ancient Greek texts. M.C. Howatson made note of this in the book The
Oxford Companion to Classical Literature (59-60). He said the Arabs translated the works of
Aristotle and these works were studied by other nations in the East. Later, when the Arabs

conquered Spain, these works became accessible to the Spaniards, and eventually, to the rest
of Europe.
As can be seen, even though foreign influence contributed much to the progress of Arabic
literature, it also gave some contributions to foreigners. As time passed by, Arabic literature
acquired another purpose, that as a tool for communication.
The Golden Age of Arabic literature ended in 1055 A.D.. The Silver Age followed suit.
According to F. Roy Willis, that year marked the capture of Baghdad by the Turks (365). Such
an event usually signified unfavorable conditions to the maintenance of any form of culture,
literature included.
There was a clear deterioration in the quality of Arabic literature during the Silver Age, but it
continued its growth in terms of quantity only, not in quality (Bakalla 137). This is an effect
of the political chaos which resulted from the arrival of the Turks. Perhaps the reason why the
number of literary works being produced did not decrease was because the Arabs might have
thought that by writing the same amount of literary output, they would be preserving Arabic
literature. They failed, however, to maintain its degree of quality, and this in itself was a sign
of imminent disaster in Arabic literature.
Despite this deterioration in quality of Arabic literature, however, this period would not have
been called the Silver Age of Arabic literature for nothing. There were also a number of
positive developments during this era.
According to Ziauddin Sardar and Zafar Abbas Malik (96-97), it was then that the poetry of
nature was pioneered by a certain Ibn Hamdis. A whole genre of rhymed prose was also
initiated by a writer named Fakhr Ad-din Ar-razi.
The development of the narrative also took place and an example of this is the highly popular
Arabian nights (Arabic Literature 1953 30-31). Aside from this, there was an increased
interest in scholastic tradition and theological subjects (Bakalla 174).
Although there were some positive changes that occurred in Arabic literature during its Silver
Age, the excellence which it possessed in its Golden Age was never equaled again. Besides,
the political disorder in and outside Baghdad was becoming more and more pronounced by
the minute, leaving the progress of Arabic literature slower and lesser in quality.
Baghdad became victim to the second batch of invaders, the Mongols, in 1258 A.D. (Willis
365). This resulted to the end of the Caliphate in Baghdad. It lost its political and cultural
supremacy in the East. Other Eastern countries were given the opportunity to shine on their
own, especially because Baghdad had taken a downfall and no longer overshadowed them.
Persian literature began producing masterpieces in prose and poetry one after the other
(Kritzeck 152). In contrast, there was practically no development in Arabic literature aside
from its gradual descent into oblivion. This resulted to the stagnation of Arabic literature.
The political instability that infested the Arab society must have preoccupied them and taken
all their time, thus hindering them from undertaking any measure that might have alleviated
the condition of Arabic literature. At this point, the evolution of the Arabic literature seemed
to have take a wrong turn and found itself on a dead end street. Unfortunately, it was destined

to be trapped at that dead end for four centuries.

Whatever literary activity that might have occurred during these four centuries, if there was
any at all, is one thing that people could only surmise about. Most history books about Arabic
literature do not offer much information concerning this era, perhaps an effect of this periods
literary silence.
If people would take a close inspection of history books on Arabic literature, it can easily be
noted that the writers know a lot about literary works produced before this period and
practically nothing about the said period itself. When the Arabs noticed that the quality of
their literature was sinking lower and lower, they must have taken an interest in the Arabic
literature of the Golden and Silver Ages. In the process of studying the literature of their
ancestors, they must have preserved the literary works of preceding literary periods, which
probably explains why writers of today have much Arabic literary material on which they can
base their historical research. James Kritzeck, in his book Anthology of Islamic Literature,
mentioned something about this, although he did not make any reference as to whether or not
the Arabs were responsible for the preservation of literary works but was only talking about
the Arabs interest in the Arabic literature that was produced before this time. He said:
What might seem the most generous view of this period is probably also the truest. These
generations were appreciating the excellence of the literature they had inherited and, evidently
estimating their own talents quite correctly, did little but try to imitate it. If they failed to
create new forms, at least the old ones were not dishonored by their efforts. (261)
This continued interest of the Arabs in Arabic literature, by far, is the best thing that this
period has to offer to the evolution of Arabic literature. Because of this, Arabic literature was
still a part of their society even if it was the literature of the past that was being valued. And if
the Arabs were indeed responsible for the conservation of old literary works because of this
interest, then people should be thankful for this since it made classical Arabic literary works
available for study today.
Despite this interest among Arabs, however, Arabic literature maintained this kind of
monotonous existence for a long time. It was only re-awakened when the Renaissance of
Arabic literature took place in the eighteenth century. The Grolier Encyclopedia of
Knowledge refers to this period as Nahda, which literally means the 'reawakening' ( "Arabic
literature" 62). It must be mentioned that this event is totally different from the more popular
European Renaissance. The latter happened at a much earlier date and involved almost all of
the arts while the Arabic Renaissance took place centuries later and focused only on Arabic
literature.
The Arabic literary Renaissance was a result of the first extensive contact of the East and the
West. According to Dale Eickelman, many historians consider Napoleon Bonaparte's
expedition to the Muslim Orient in 1978 as very significant in the history of the Middle East,
since it was because of this expedition that the Arabs were forced to come face-to-face with
European civilizations, leaving the profoundly affected in many aspects (29).
The Arabs thrived in cultural isolation for a long time after the Mongol invasion, since this
event made it necessary for them to attend first to more important national matters such as
their economy before attempting any interaction with other countries. But because of the

arrival of this expedition, the Arabs must have been forced to give up their 'closed' culture.
This sudden introduction of yet more difficult cultures must have robbed the Arabs of the
indifference with which they treated their culture since the Mongol invasion.
Among the sectors in Arabic culture which were greatly affected by the arrival of the West
was of course, literature. Once the Arabs came in contact with European culture, they must
have turned to their literature, hoping to uncover anything that might prove to be of equal
magnificence with the strange but efficient contributions that were steadily coming in from
the West.
The Western contributions which led to a renewed interest among the Arabs not only in their
classical literature but also in the creation of a contemporary one include the introduction of
the first official press by Napoleon Bonaparte and the establishment of formal institutions
whose primary goal was the preservation of Classical literary works ( Bakalla 185). Western
influence made Arabic literature evolve into something that is of a national issue and that has
become worthy enough to be argued about. It is quite heartening to see a nation which has
shown little interest in their culture for four centuries fight over a simple literary matter such
as this.
The Renaissance of Arabic literature is probably the best example of the advantages of the
introduction of foreign influence into Arab society and ultimately, to Arabic literature. Not
only was it responsible for the numerous changes that Arabic literature underwent, it also gave
way to a common ground between the Arabs and the Europeans which is of course, literature.
Most of all, it reasserted Arabic literature as a major part of the Arab society.
Arabic literature is relatively young in modern standards. Right now, it is undergoing its
contemporary period. This period is probably the hardest to discuss concerning the evolution
of the Arabic literature. It is characteristically more complicated that the previous periods
since it is now more open to external influences. This is only natural in today's world wherein
every nation is dependent on others for survival and almost everybody has become tolerant of
foreigners. Thus, it is harder to pinpoint which foreign influence is actually responsible for the
path that Modern Arabic literature is taking right now and for the direction that it is likely to
take in the future.
Another condition that characterizes Neo-Arabic literature is the ongoing conflict between the
traditionalists and modernists. This shows that although the West has made a considerable
impact on Arabic literature, some sectors of the society consider its effects as harmful. M.M
Badawi, in trying to describe the contemporary poets particularly the young ones, commented
that"
One revealing feature of the New poets is their very obsession with newness or
modernity...That modernity or newness has become a value in itself, is the source of both the
strength and weakness of this poetry...So anxious are they to become international that they
stand in the danger of working against the genius of the Arabic language. (258-259)
This conflict may be partly responsible for the new level of maturity which Modern Arabic
literature has achieved. Both the traditionalists and the modernists work hard to integrate the
systems of thoughts which they believe in into their works. By doing so, they are able to
cultivate the best of the Eastern and Western worlds, making Arabic literature richer.

Modern Arabic literature is the fruit of fourteen hundred years of evolution. Yet it is not clear
what kind of literature it has become. It is still reaping the benefits of its reawakening which
happened just a century ago and like what was said before, it is quite young by modern
standards. It is still undergoing a state of transition from the classical period to the modern
era. H.A.R. Gibb, in attempting to describe Modern Arabic literature, said that:
Neo-Arabic literature is only to a limited extent the heir of the old "classical" Literature, and
even shows a tendency to repudiate its inheritance entirely. Its leaders are for the most part
men who have drunk from other springs and look at the world with different eyes. Yet the past
still plays a part in their intellectual background, and there is a section among them upon
whom the past retains a hold scarcely shaken by newer influences. ( Studies on Civilizaiton of
Islam 246- 247)
This observation by Gibb does nothing else but reinfore the clear fact that Arabic literature
contains both national and international factors in its midst. He does not say, however, what
roles each of these factors played in the evolution of Arabic literature.
To paint a clear picture of how these factors contributed to Arabic literature, one must think of
the said literature as a castle. Its native Arab origins make up all of the posts and beams which
serve as the foundation of the whole structure. The external influences which it encountered
throughout time, on the other hand, compose the rest of the castle. The foreign influences
obviously make up the larger part and are responsible for giving the castle shape but the
structure would not have been completed at all if there were no foundations to start with.
Arabic literature, therefore, is the literature that it is now due to the qualities which it was able
to acquire from the two diverse factors that were present throughout its evolution, these two
being its purely Arabic roots and the foreign influences that accompanied it throughout its
growth. These two might have unequal roles in the development of Arabic literature but their
significance should not be judged by how bigger or how smaller their roles were. These two
are complementary for Arabic literature would not have come into being or survived at all if
any one of them was absent. To put it simply, Arabic literature owes its beginnings to its
native origins, its growth to external factors and its entirety to both.
WORKS CITED
Ahsan, Muhammad Manazir. Social Life Under the Abbasids. London: Longman Grp. Ltd.,
1979.
Ali, Zaki. Islam in the World. New York: AMS Press, 1973.
" Arabic Literature." The Grolier Encyclopedia of Knowledge. Ed. Jeffrey Hacker. 1992 ed.
U.S.A.: Grolier Inc., 1992.
" Arabic Literature." Cassell's Encyclopedia of Literature. Ed. S.H. Steinberg. 2 vols. London:
Cassell & Co. Ltd., 1953.
Badawi, M.M.. A Critical Introduction to Modern Arabic Poetry. Cambridge: Cambridge UP,
1975.
Bakalla, M.H. Arabic Culture through its Language and Literature. Great Britain: Kegan Paul

Int'l Ltd., 1984.

Ceadel, Eric. Literatures of the East: A Survey. New York: Groove Press Inc., 1959.
Daniel, Norman. The Arabs and Mediaeval Europe. London: Longman Grp. Ltd., 1979.
Dunlop, D.M. Arab Civilization to AD 1500. London: Longman Grp. Ltd. and Libraire du
Liban, 1971.
Eickelman, Dale. The Middle East: An Anthroplogical Approach. U.S.A.: Prentice-Halls Inc.,
1989.
Filshtinsky, I.M.. Arabic Literature. Moscow: Nauka Publishing House, 1966.
Gibb, H.A.R.. Arabic Literature: An Introduction. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1963.
------, Studies on the Civilization of Islam. New Jersey: Princeton UP, 1982.
Hamori, Andras. On the Art of Medieval Arabic Literature. New Jersey: Princeton UP, 1974.
Howatson, M.C.. The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature. New York: Oxford UP,
1997.
Huart, Clement. A History of Arabic Literature. Lebanon: Khayat Book and Publishing Co.,
1976.
Kritzeck, James. Anthology of Islamic Literature. U.S.A.: Meridial Books, 1964.
Nicholson, Reynold. A Literary History of the Arabs. Great Britain: Cambridge UP, 1956.
Sardar, Ziauddin and Zafar Abbas Malik. Introducing Muhammad. U.S.A.: Totem Books.
1994.
Willis, F. Roy. World Civilizations. U.S.A.: D.C. Heath & Co., 1982.
Yates, Kyle, Jr.. The Religious World: Communities of Faith. U.S.A.: MacMillan Publishing
Co., 1988.
Posted by toie at Wednesday, March 12, 2008
http://beerwar.blogspot.com/2008/03/evolution-of-arabic-literature.html