Nutrition

in Humans
Chapter 6

Learning Objectives

Questions to answer!
1. What is nutrition?
2. Which parts of the body are involved in digestion?
3. What is digestion?
4. What happens to the food after digestion?

What is Nutrition?
Objective 1:

State the definition of

nutrition.

What is Nutrition?

Definition of Nutrition

Nutrition is the process of taking in food

and converting it into living matter.
Animals feed by taking in complex
organic matter
HOLOZOIC NUTRITION

What is Nutrition?

5 Processes of Nutrition

1. Feeding or ingestion: food is taken into the body.

2. Digestion: large food molecules are broken down into
smaller soluble molecules that can be absorbed into
the body cells.
3. Absorption: digested food substances are absorbed
into body cells.
4. Assimilation: some of the absorbed food substances
are converted into new protoplasm or used to
provide energy.

5. Egestion: undigested food is being passed out of the

body via the anus.

Which parts of the body are involved in

digestion?

Objective 2:
Describe the functions
of the main regions of
the alimentary canal.

Which parts of the body

are involved in digestion?

The Digestive System

Consists of the alimentary

canal and the glands and
organs associated with it.
The alimentary canal is like a
tube that extends from the
mouth to the anus.
Most of its length is coiled in
the abdominal cavity.

Which parts of the body

are involved in digestion?

mouth
teeth

The Digestive System

salivary gland
pharynx

oesophagus

stomach

liver
Gall bladder

pancreas
pyloric sphincter

duodenum
ileum
ascending colon
caecum
appendix

descending colon

rectum
anus

The Digestive System - Mouth

Food enters the body
through the mouth.
The mouth leads to the
buccal cavity.

The Digestive System - Mouth

What do you find in the mouth?:
Teeth: chewing action
(mastication) breaks down large
pieces of food into smaller
pieces. This increases surface
area to volume ratio of the food
for enzyme action.
Salivary glands: secrete saliva
into the mouth via ducts.
Tongue: helps to mix food with
saliva. Taste buds help one to
identify and select suitable
foods.
Process of nutrition??

mouth

teeth

salivary gland

The Digestive System - Pharynx

Connects the buccal
cavity to the oesophagus
and larynx (voice box).
Leads to the trachea.
Both food and air must
pass through the pharynx
then they enter the
body.
Air will pass to the
trachea, while food will
go into the oesophagus.

pharynx
air

glottis
trachea
(windpipe)

larynx
(voicebox)
oesophagus

The Digestive System - Pharynx

The epiglottis is above the
larynx, and it prevents food
from going the wrong way.
During swallowing, the
larynx moves up and the
epiglottis moves
downwards so that the
epiglottis covers the larynx.
If food or water enters the
trachea, it induces
coughing to force the
food/water particles out
and prevent choking.

pharynx
food
particles
epiglottis
glottis
larynx
(voice-box)
trachea
(windpipe)

oesophagus

The Digestive System - Oesophagus

Also known as the gullet.
A narrow, muscular tube.
Passes through the thorax
(chest) and the diaphragm
to join the stomach.

The Digestive System - Oesophagus

Made up of 2 layers of
muscles, present from the
oesophagus to the rectum:
Longitudinal muscles
(outer layer)
Circular muscles (inner
layer)

These muscles are

antagonistic muscles
when one contracts, the
other relaxes

circular
muscles

longitudinal
muscles

Part of the gut wall

The Digestive System - Oesophagus

The muscles cause
peristalsis rhythmic,
wave-like contractions of
the gut walls.
It helps to move food along
the gut while mixing the
food with digestive juices.

circular
muscles

longitudinal
muscles

Part of the gut wall

Which parts of the body

are involved in digestion?

mouth
teeth

oesophagus

The Digestive System

salivary gland

The Digestive System - Oesophagus

PERISTALSIS
When circular muscles contract, longitudinal muscles relax.
The gut wall constricts (becomes narrower and longer). Food
is squeezed or pushed forward.
When longitudinal muscles contract, circular muscles relax.
The gut wall dilates (becomes wider and shorter). This widens
the lumen for food to enter. wall dilates to allow
food to enter
circular muscles
longitudinal
muscles
food mass

wall constricts to push food forward

The Digestive System - Oesophagus

PERISTALSIS
When circular muscles contract, longitudinal muscles relax.
The gut wall constricts (becomes narrower and longer). Food
is squeezed or pushed forward.
When longitudinal muscles contract, circular muscles relax.
The gut wall dilates (becomes wider and shorter). This widens
the lumen for food to enter.

Process of nutrition??

Which parts of the body are involved in

digestion?

Objective 2:
Describe the functions
of the main regions of
the alimentary canal.

The Digestive System - Stomach

The stomach is a distensible
(muscular) bag.
The muscles of the stomach
wall are thick and welldeveloped.
When fully stretched, it
sends signals to the brain to
indicate that it is full.

The Digestive System - Stomach

The stomach wall has many
pits which lead to gastric
glands.
They secrete gastric juices
into the stomach.

What is one
enzyme found in
gastric juice?
pits

The
Digestive
System - Stomach
Where
else can
we find circular

The stomach stores food for

a few muscles?
hours. It digests food
to become chyme.
Food stays in the stomach
because of the pyloric
sphincter a ring of circular
muscle located between the
stomach and duodenum.
Contracts: stomach exit closes
Relaxes: stomach exit opens,
food leaves the stomach.

Process of nutrition??

The Digestive System Small Intestine

Consists of 3 parts:
Duodenum progressively
Jejunum
more coiled
Ileum

The Digestive System Small Intestine

Wall of small intestine
has 2 functions:
Contains glands which
secrete intestinal juice. It
contains digestive
enzymes.
Wall is adapted to
absorb digested food
products and water.

Process of nutrition??

The Digestive System Large Intestine

large
intestine

The large intestine is

about 1.5 m long
Shorter and wider than
the small intestine

Consists of 2 parts:
Colon
Rectum
colon
rectum
small
intestine

The Digestive System Large Intestine

Only undigested food
enters the colon.
It absorbs water and
mineral salts from the
food.
No digestion occurs in
the colon.
colon

The Digestive System Large Intestine

The rectum temporarily
stores faeces.
When it contracts,
faeces is expelled
through the anus.

rectum

The Digestive System Large Intestine

Between the small and
large intestines lie the
caecum and appendix.
The caecum has no function
in humans.
The appendix contains
bacteria that are useful to
the body.

caecum

Process of nutrition??

appendix

Which parts of the body

are involved in digestion?

The Digestive System

Which parts of the body are involved in

digestion?

Objective 3:
Describe the functions
of the organs
associated with
digestion.

Which parts of the body

are involved in digestion?

mouth
teeth

The Digestive System

salivary gland
pharynx

oesophagus

stomach

liver
Gall bladder

pancreas
pyloric sphincter

duodenum
ileum
ascending colon
caecum
appendix

descending colon

rectum
anus

The Digestive System - Liver

The largest internal organ in
the body
There are 3 important
blood vessels attached to
the liver:
Hepatic vein
Hepatic artery
Hepatic portal vein

The Digestive System - Liver

liver

It is also the largest

Whygland in
the body. alkaline
Secretes bile into?the
duodenum

Properties of bile:
Alkaline
Greenish-yellow
Contains bile salts and bile
pigments
Produced in the liver, stored
in the gall bladder

gall
bladder

bile duct

The Digestive System - Liver

liver

Functions of bile:

Neutralize acid in chyme

Activate intestinal enzymes
Speed up fat digestion
Gives faeces its colour

When the gall bladder

contracts, bile is secreted
into the duodenum via the
bile duct.

Process of nutrition??

gall
bladder

bile duct

The Digestive System - Pancreas

Connected to the
duodenum via the
pancreatic duct
Secretes pancreatic juice
which contains digestive
enzymes.
Also secretes hormones
which control blood
glucose level.

Process of nutrition??

What is Digestion?
Objective 4:

State the definition of

digestion.

What is Digestion?

Definition of Digestion

Digestion is the process by which the

body breaks down carbohydrates, fats
and proteins into simpler substances
that cells can absorb and use.

Physical digestion
The mechanical break up of
food into small particles.

Chemical digestion
The breaking down of large
molecules in food into small,
soluble molecules which can
be absorbed.

Chemical digestion involves hydrolysis catalyzed by digestive enzymes.

What is Digestion?
Objective 5:
Describe the process of
digestion in the
alimentary canal and
the functions of
digestive enzymes.

What is Digestion?

Physical Digestion

Physical digestion breaks down food into smaller particles.

Purpose: to increase surface area to volume ratio of the
food to aid enzyme action.
Food substances are not chemically changed during
physical digestion.
Where does physical digestion occur?
In the mouth
chewing / mastication
Along the alimentary canal
peristalsis
Physical digestion of fats in the small intestine

emulsification

What is Digestion?

Physical Digestion

EMULSIFICATION
Fats do not dissolve in water they
tend to clump together.
This reduces the surface area for
enzymes to work, slowing down fat
digestion.
Bile molecules place themselves in
between the fat and water half
the molecule is hydrophilic, half is
hydrophobic.
This prevents the fat from clumping
together.
Surface area of fat molecules is
increased, speeding up enzyme
action.

Picture taken from

http://www.colorado.edu/eeb/web_resources/carto
ons/bile.html

Chemical Digestion

What is Digestion?

Breaking down of large molecules in food (starch,

protein, fats) into small soluble molecules which can be
absorbed.
Hydrolytic reactions catalysed by ENZYMES

Three groups of enzymes:

Carbohydrases

Lipases

Proteases

Chemical digestion occurs mainly in 3 parts of the

alimentary canal:
Mouth, stomach, small intestine

What is Digestion?

Chemical Digestion

In the mouth...
Food in the mouth stimulates the salivary glands to
secrete saliva.
Saliva is mixed with food. Mucin in saliva softens the food.
Salivary amylase is found in saliva:
Digests

to

maltose is pH 7.
The optimum pHstarch
of salivary amylase

The pH of saliva is neutral.

The tongue rolls the food into small, slippery, round

masses called boli (singular: bolus).
The boli are swallowed and passed down into the
oesophagus.

What is Digestion?

Chemical Digestion

In the stomach...
The presence of food in the stomach stimulates the
gastric glands to secrete gastric juice into the stomach.
Gastric juice contains 3 substances:
Hydrochloric acid
Pepsinogen
Prorennin

What is Digestion?

Chemical Digestion

In the stomach... Action of Pepsin

Pepsinogen is activated to pepsin by hydrochloric acid.
Pepsin then digests protein to polypeptides.

pepsinogen

proteins

hydrochloric acid

pepsin

pepsin

polypeptides

Chemical Digestion

What is Digestion?

In the stomach... Action of Rennin

Prorennin is activated to rennin by hydrochloric acid.
Rennin curdles milk proteins by converting soluble protein
caseinogen into insoluble casein.
Soluble caseinogen would pass through the stomach as
easily as water and not be digested.
Insoluble casein can remain in the stomach to be digested.

prorennin
caseinogen
casein

hydrochloric acid
rennin

pepsin

rennin
casein
polypeptides

What is Digestion?

Chemical Digestion

In the stomach... Purpose of Hydrochloric Acid

Stops the activity of salivary amylase by denaturing it

Activates pepsinogen and prorennin to form pepsin and
rennin
respectively
Provides acidic medium for the action of pepsin and
rennin

Kills harmful microorganisms in food

What is Digestion?

Chemical Digestion

In the small intestine...

When chyme enters the small intestine, it stimulates 3
glands:
Intestinal glands secrete intestinal juice, which
contains enzymes sucrase, maltase, intestinal lipase,
lactase, enterokinase, and erepsin.
SMILEE!
Pancreas secretes pancreatic juice, which contains
pancreatic amylase, pancreatic lipase, and ALT
trypsinogen.
Gall bladder releases bile. It does not contain enzyme

What is Digestion?

Chemical Digestion

In the small intestine...

All 3 fluids are alkaline:

Neutralize acidic chyme
Provide suitable pH for the action of pancreatic and
intestinal enzymes

What is Digestion?

Chemical Digestion

In the small intestine... Carbohydrate digestion

starch

pancreatic
amylase

maltose
lactose
sucrose

maltase

lactase

sucrase

glucose
glucose + galactose
glucose + fructose

What is Digestion?

Chemical Digestion

In the small intestine... Protein digestion

trypsinogen
proteins
polypeptides

enterokinase
trypsin

erepsin

trypsin
polypeptides
amino acids

Chemical Digestion

What is Digestion?

In the small intestine... Fat digestion

fats

lipase

fatty acids + glycerol

Recall: What process

speeds up fat digestion
in the small intestine?

What is Digestion?

Digestive Enzymes

small intestine

mouth

Carbohydrate digestion
starch

salivary
amylase

maltose

starch

pancreatic
amylase

maltose

maltase

glucose

lactose

lactase

glucose + galactose

sucrose

sucrase

glucose + fructose

Digestive Enzymes

What is Digestion?

Protein digestion
stomach

prorennin
caseinogen

small intestine

casein

hydrochloric acid
rennin
pepsin

rennin
casein
polypeptides

trypsinogen
proteins
polypeptides

enterokinase
trypsin
erepsin

trypsin
polypeptides
amino acids

What happens to the food after

digestion?
Objective 6:

Describe how digested

food is absorbed.

What happens to food

after digestion?

Absorption

Where does absorption occur?

In the small intestine and large intestine

What nutrients are being absorbed?

Simple sugars
Amino acids

Fatty acids and glycerols

Water and mineral salts

What happens to food

after digestion?

Absorption

How does absorption take place in the small intestine?

Glucose and amino acids:
Absorbed by diffusion into blood capillaries of the villi.
Absorbed by active transport when there is lower
concentration of digested food substances in the small
intestine than in the blood capillaries.
Fatty acids and glycerol:
Absorbed by diffusion into the epithelium
Combine to form fat globules which enter the lacteals
Water and mineral salts:
small intestine
Absorbed by the
and colon
Most of the water is absorbed by the ileum

What happens to food

after digestion?

Absorption: Small Intestine

Adaptations of the Small Intestine for Absorption

The rate of absorption of digested food substances
depends on 3 factors:
1. Surface area
2. The thickness of
cell membranes
3. Concentration
gradient

What happens to food

after digestion?

Absorption: Small Intestine

1. Surface Area
The surface area of the small intestine is increased for
absorption in 4 ways:
1. Inner walls have folds
2. The surface of the folds are lined with numerous
villi (singular: villus), which are minute finger-like
projections.
3. The epithelial cells of the villi have numerous
microvilli.
4. The small intestine is long, providing large surface
area and ample time for absorption.

What happens to food

after digestion?

Absorption: Small Intestine

What happens to food

after digestion?

Absorption: Small Intestine

What happens to food

after digestion?

Absorption: Small Intestine

2. Thickness of Cell Membranes

The villi have very thin membranes: the epithelium is
only one-cell thick.
3. Concentration Gradient
In each villus is a lacteal (lymphatic capillary)
surrounded by blood capillaries.
The lacteal continually transports fats away from the
villus, while the blood capillaries transports sugars
and amino acids away.
This maintains the concentration gradient needed for
the absorption of food substances.

What happens to food

after digestion?

Egestion

Some food substances cannot be digested and remain

unabsorbed in the large intestine.
These are stored temporarily in the rectum.
When the rectum is full, they are discharged as faeces
through the anus .
This process is known as egestion or defecation.

What happens to the food after

digestion?
Objective 7:

Describe how digested

food is assimilated.

What happens to food

after digestion?

Transport and Assimilation

Transport of Simple Sugars

After absorption, the blood in the villi is rich in sugars.
Blood capillaries unite to form the hepatic portal vein.
The hepatic portal vein transports sugars to the liver.

What happens to food

after digestion?

Transport and Assimilation

Assimilation of Simple Sugars

In the liver, most sugars are converted to glycogen and
stored.
Glucose leaves the liver and is distributed around the
body by the bloodstream.
Used during respiration to provide energy for cells.

Excess glucose is returned to the liver

Hormone insulin (produced by Islets of Langerhan in the
pancreas) stimulates the liver to convert glucose to
glycogen for storage.
When more glucose is required, the liver will convert
glycogen back to glucose.

What happens to food

after digestion?

Transport and Assimilation

Transport and Assimilation of Amino Acids

Amino acids pass through the liver before they are
transported to the rest of the body.
How are amino acids used?
Converted to protoplasm by cells, used for growth and
repair of body parts
Used to form enzymes and hormones

Excess amino acids are deaminated.

What happens to the food after

digestion?
Objective 8:

State the functions of

the liver.

What happens to food

after digestion?

Functions of the Liver

The Liver has 7 Functions

1. Regulation of blood glucose concentration
2. Production of bile
3. Protein synthesis
4. Iron storage
5. Deamination of amino acids
6. Detoxification
7. Heat production

What happens to food

after digestion?

Functions of the Liver

1. Regulation of Blood Glucose Concentration

Blood normally contains about 70-90 mg of glucose per
100 cm3 of blood.
After a meal:
Amount of glucose in the blood rises
Stimulates Islets of Langerhans in the pancreas to
secrete insulin into the bloodstream
Insulin is transported to the liver.
Insulin stimulates liver to convert excess glucose to
glycogen for storage.
Blood leaving the liver contains a constant amount of
glucose.

What about adrenaline??

What happens to food

after digestion?

Functions of the Liver

1. Regulation of Blood Glucose Concentration

When body cells need glucose:
Glucose level in the blood drops.
Islets of Langerhan are stimulated to secrete hormone
glucagon.
Glucagon stimulates liver to convert stored glycogen to
glucose.
Glucose enters the blood; blood glucose level returns to
normal.

What happens to food

after digestion?

Functions of the Liver

1. Regulation of Blood Glucose Concentration

If we have not eaten for a long time:
Glucose level in the blood drops below average.
Blood that is low in glucose reaches the hypothalamus
in the brain.
Brain sends signals to the stomach.
This causes strong contractions and we feel hunger
pangs.
After eating, the blood glucose level rises. The
hypothalamus signals to the stomach to stop
contracting.

What happens to food

after digestion?

Functions of the Liver

1. Regulation of Blood Glucose Concentration

high blood
glucose
concentration

pancreas
secretes insulin

converts glucose
to glycogen

pancreas
secretes
glucagon

low blood
glucose
concentration

converts glycogen
to glucose

normal blood glucose concentration

What happens to food

after digestion?

Functions of the Liver

2. Production of Bile
The liver produces bile which is stored in the gall
bladder before use.
Bile is used in the emulsification of fats.

3. Protein Synthesis
Blood plasma contains amino acids from the diet.
The liver synthesizes these amino acids to form
proteins, e.g.:
Albumins, globulins, fibrinogen (for blood clotting)

What happens to food

after digestion?

Functions of the Liver

4. Iron Storage
Red blood cells contain a iron, which is involved in the
transportation of oxygen around the body.
These cells become worn out after some time.
They are destroyed in the spleen, a gland near the liver.
Haemoglobin from red blood cells is brought to the
liver.
Haemoglobin is broken down, forming iron and bile.
Iron is stored in the liver.

What happens to food

after digestion?

Functions of the Liver

5. Deamination of Amino Acids

Excess amino acids are transported to the liver.
The amino groups are removed and converted to urea.
Urea leaves the body in urine.
The remains of the amino acid are converted into
glucose.
glycogen
Excess glucose is converted to
.

What happens to food

after digestion?

Functions of the Liver

6. Detoxification
This is the process of converting harmful substances
into harmless ones.
Breaks down alcohol to acetaldehyde by the action of
alcohol dehydrogenase
Acetaldehyde can be broken down to compounds
which can be used in respiration.
Excessive alcohol consumption stimulates acid
secretion in the stomach, increasing the risk of gastric
ulcers.

What happens to food

after digestion?

Functions of the Liver

6. Detoxification
Prolonged alcohol use can lead to cirrhosis of the liver.
Liver cells are being destroyed and replaced with fibrous
tissue
Cells are less able to function
Can lead to liver failure and death

What happens to food

after digestion?

Functions of the Liver

7. Heat Production
There are many chemical reactions taking place in the
liver.
Heat is produced from these reactions.
The heat is distributed by the blood to other parts
other body.
Helps to maintain body temperature.

Pure Biology Chapter 6

Nutrition

Alimentary Canal

consists of

consists of

Ingestion

Mouth

Organs and Glands

In digestion
Teeth

consists of

Tongue
Liver
Pharynx

Salivary
glands

Pancreas

contains
leads to

secretes

Gall bladder

Oesophagus

stores

Digestion

Pancreatic
amylase

Bile
secreted into

Hormones
consist
of

Stomach
Duodenum

Insulin
Small intestine

Absorption
Colon

Jejunum
Ileum

Hepatic
portal vein

Glucagon

walls
have

Large intestine

unite to form

Folds
Rectum

Assimilation
Anus

Simple
sugars

Villi

via
Amino
acids

Microvilli

Egestion

Fats
absorbs

via

Blood
capillaries

Lacteals

Pure Biology Chapter 6

Nutrition

Alimentary Canal

consists of

consists of
Mouth

Organs and Glands

In digestion
Teeth

consists of

Tongue
Pharynx

Salivary
glands

contains
leads to

secretes

Gall bladder
stores
Pancreatic
amylase

secreted into

consist
of

Hepatic
portal vein
Colon

Hormones

Glucagon

walls
have
unite to form

Folds
Rectum

Simple
sugars

Anus

via
Amino
acids

Microvilli

Fats
absorbs

via