Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Taxes
Net Operating Income (NOI)
-Interest (I)
-Depreciation expense (DE)
= Taxable Income
x Investors income tax rate
= Income Tax Due
Another perspective:
From PBTCF to EATCF. . .
Operating:
PBTCF
- DS <---_______
EBTCF
- tax <---_______
EATCF
IE
+PP
(NOI)
-(DE) <---"Tax Shield" (DTS)
-(IE) <---"Tax Shield" (ITS) offset
by tax expense to lender
Reversion:
PBTCF
- OLB
______
EBTCF
- CGT = G[VT SE (V0 + AccCI)] + R(AccDE)
______
EATCF
6
Depreciation Expense:
z Straight-line
39 years, commercial
27.5 years, residential (apts)
z Land
not depreciable:
Exhibit 14-2
Exhibit 14-2: Example After-Tax Income & Cash Flow Proformas . . .
Property Purchase Price (Year 0): $1,000,000
Unlevered:
Levered:
Depreciable Cost Basis:
$800,000
Before-tax IRR:
6.04%
7.40%
Ordinary Income Tax Rate:
35.00%
After-tax IRR:
4.34%
6.44%
Capital Gains Tax Rate:
15.00%
Ratio AT/BT:
0.719
0.870
25.00% ____________________ ______________________________ ________________________________________________________________
Depreciation Recaptur___________
Operating:
Accrual Items:
NOI
- Depr.Exp.
- Int.Exp.
=Net Income (BT)
- IncTax
=Net Income (AT)
Year:
1
$60,000
$29,091
$41,250
($10,341)
($3,619)
($6,722)
2
$60,600
$29,091
$41,140
($9,631)
($3,371)
($6,260)
($3,619)
$16,750
($3,371)
$17,460
Oper. Reversion
Yr.10
Item:
$61,206
$29,091
$41,030
($8,915)
($3,120)
($5,795)
$61,818
$29,091
$40,920
($8,193)
($2,867)
($5,325)
$62,436
$29,091
$40,810
($7,465)
($2,613)
($4,852)
$63,061
$29,091
$40,700
($6,730)
($2,356)
($4,375)
$63,691
$29,091
$40,590
($5,990)
($2,096)
($3,893)
$64,328
$29,091
$40,480
($5,243)
($1,835)
($3,408)
$64,971
$29,091
$40,370
($4,490)
($1,571)
($2,918)
$50,000
$29,091
$2,000
($28,704)
$0
$29,091
$2,000
$21,766
$0
$29,091
$2,000
$22,239
$0
$29,091
$2,000
$22,716
$0
$29,091
$2,000
$23,198
$50,000
$29,091
$2,000
($26,317)
$0
$29,091
$2,000
$24,173
($3,120)
($31,824)
($2,867)
$18,898
($2,613)
$19,626
($2,356)
$20,361
($2,096)
$21,101
($1,835)
($28,152)
($1,571)
$22,601
Rever.
Yr.10
Total
Yr.10
$1,104,622
$809,091
$295,531
$73,421
$222,111
$219,686
$0
$29,091 + Book Val
$2,000
-LoanBal
$24,667
=EATCF
$809,091
$730,000
$301,202
$325,868
($1,305)
$23,361
$73,421
$374,622
$397,983
+ CGT
=EBTCF
$291,801
- Depr.Exp.
- Int.Exp.
- IncTax
-DebtAmort
=EATCF
+ IncTax
=EBTCF
= VT - SE
= NOI11/.06 - SE = 1.01*$65,621/0.06 0 = $1,104,620
- Book Val
=Book Gain
- CGT
=Gain (AT)
= + $809,091
-LoanBal
=EATCF
+ CGT
= + $73,421
=EBTCF
10
- tax <---_______
EATCF
IE
+PP
(NOI)
= - (.4)$90,000 = $36,000, 1st yr.
-(DE) <---(DTS)
= + (.4)$29,091 = $11,636, ea.yr.
-(IE) <---(ITS)
= + (.4)$75,000 = $30,000, 1st yr.
_______
= $13,000 - $36,000 + $11,636 + $30,000
= $18,636, 1st yr.
Reversion (Yr.10):
PBTCF
- OLB
______
EBTCF
- CGT Mkt Gain Component
= 1.025*$112,398/0.09 = $1,280,085.
= $750,000 (10*$2,000) = $730,000.
________
= 1280085 730000 = $550,085
= G[VT SE (V0 + AccCI)]
= - (0.20)(1280085-0-(1000000+100000)
= - (0.20)(1280085 1100000) = $36,017.
= - R(AccDE)
= - (0.25)($290,910) = - $72,728.
You should get:
________
EATCF=$20,369 (oper)
= 550085 (36017 + 72728)
& $301,202 (rever)
= 550085 - 108744 = $441,340.
11
Operating:
Accrual Items:
NOI
- Depr.Exp.
- Int.Exp.
=Net Income (BT)
- IncTax
=Net Income (AT)
Year:
1
$60,000
$29,091
$41,250
($10,341)
($3,619)
($6,722)
2
$60,600
$29,091
$41,140
($9,631)
($3,371)
($6,260)
($3,619)
$16,750
($3,371)
$17,460
Oper. Reversion
Yr.10
Item:
$61,206
$29,091
$41,030
($8,915)
($3,120)
($5,795)
$61,818
$29,091
$40,920
($8,193)
($2,867)
($5,325)
$62,436
$29,091
$40,810
($7,465)
($2,613)
($4,852)
$63,061
$29,091
$40,700
($6,730)
($2,356)
($4,375)
$63,691
$29,091
$40,590
($5,990)
($2,096)
($3,893)
$64,328
$29,091
$40,480
($5,243)
($1,835)
($3,408)
$64,971
$29,091
$40,370
($4,490)
($1,571)
($2,918)
$50,000
$29,091
$2,000
($28,704)
$0
$29,091
$2,000
$21,766
$0
$29,091
$2,000
$22,239
$0
$29,091
$2,000
$22,716
$0
$29,091
$2,000
$23,198
$50,000
$29,091
$2,000
($26,317)
$0
$29,091
$2,000
$24,173
($3,120)
($31,824)
($2,867)
$18,898
($2,613)
$19,626
($2,356)
$20,361
($2,096)
$21,101
($1,835)
($28,152)
($1,571)
$22,601
Rever.
Yr.10
Total
Yr.10
$1,104,622
$809,091
$295,531
$73,421
$222,111
$219,686
$0
$29,091 + Book Val
$2,000
-LoanBal
$24,667
=EATCF
$809,091
$730,000
$301,202
$325,868
($1,305)
$23,361
$73,421
$374,622
$397,983
+ CGT
=EBTCF
$291,801
12
Apprec.Rate =
Yield =
Income Tax Rate =
1.00%
6.00%
35.00%
(1)
Year
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Prop.Val
$1,000,000
$1,010,000
$1,020,100
$1,030,301
$1,040,604
$1,051,010
$1,061,520
$1,072,135
$1,082,857
$1,093,685
$1,104,622
(2)
NOI
$60,000
$60,600
$61,206
$61,818
$62,436
$63,061
$63,691
$64,328
$64,971
$65,621
Bldg.Val/Prop.Val=
Depreciable Life=
CGTax Rate =
DepRecapture Rate=
(3)
(4)
(5)
tax w/out
CI
PBTCF
shields
$0
$0
$50,000
$0
$0
$0
$0
$50,000
$0
$0
($1,000,000)
$60,000
$60,600
$11,206
$61,818
$62,436
$63,061
$63,691
$14,328
$64,971
$1,170,243
6.04%
$21,000
$21,210
$21,422
$21,636
$21,853
$22,071
$22,292
$22,515
$22,740
$23,661
80.00%
27.5 years
15.00%
25.00%
(6)
(7)
(4)-(5)+(6)
DTS
PATCF
$10,182
$10,182
$10,182
$10,182
$10,182
$10,182
$10,182
$10,182
$10,182
($62,545)
Loan= $750,000
Int=
5.50%
Amort/yr
$2,000
(8)
(9)
Loan
DS
($1,000,000)
$49,182
$49,572
($34)
$50,364
$50,765
$51,171
$51,581
$1,995
$52,413
$1,084,037
LoanBal
$750,000
($750,000)
$748,000
$43,250
$746,000
$43,140
$744,000
$43,030
$742,000
$42,920
$740,000
$42,810
$738,000
$42,700
$736,000
$42,590
$734,000
$42,480
$732,000
$42,370
$730,000 $772,260
4.34%
5.50%
(10)
ITS
(11)
(4)-(9)
EBTCF
($250,000)
$14,438
$14,399
$14,361
$14,322
$14,284
$14,245
$14,207
$14,168
$14,130
$14,091
$16,750
$17,460
($31,824)
$18,898
$19,626
$20,361
$21,101
($28,152)
$22,601
$397,983
7.40%
(12)
(13)
(7)-(9)+(10)
(9)-(10)
EATCF LoanATCFs
($250,000)
($750,000)
$20,369
$28,813
$20,831
$28,741
($28,704)
$28,670
$21,766
$28,598
$22,239
$28,527
$22,716
$28,455
$23,198
$28,384
($26,317)
$28,312
$24,173
$28,241
$325,868
$758,169
6.44%
13
3.58%
Equity (Levd)
Before-tax
6.04%
7.40%
After-tax
4.34%
6.44%
434/604 = 72%
644/740 = 87%
AT/BT
Effective Tax Rate
With ord inc=35%,
CGT=15%, Recapt=25%.
14
Lower effective tax rate on levered equity does not imply any
free lunch . . .
Risk & Return, AT
8%
In equilibrium,
7%
the linear
relationship (RP
proportional to
risk)
6%
5%
4%
RP
3%
2%
rf
1%
0%
0.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
1.20
1.40
1.60
1.80
AT Risk Units
AT Returns
15
Lower
effective tax
rate in levered
return does
not imply that
risk premium
per unit of risk
is greater with
leverage than
without.
7%
Using these
returns from
our apartment
bldg example,
we could have
this linear
relationship
6.4%
= rL AT
6%
5%
4%
RP
4.3% = rU AT
3%
2%
2% = rf AT
1%
0%
0.00
0.17
0.34
0.51
0.68
0.85
1.02
1.19
1.36
1.52
1.69
16
Example:
Recall the apartment property with the 6.04% PBTCF-based going-in IRR
The 6.04% PBT going-in IRR would presumably be empirically observable
in the manner described in Section 11.2 of Chapter 11:
Based on analysis of ex post return performance (e.g., NCREIF Index);
Based on current market survey information (&/or brokers knowledge);
Backed out from observable recent transaction prices in the market (cap rates
+ realistic growth, accounting for CI).
Then apply the 6.04% market PBT discount rate to derive the $1,000,000
MV of the property (based on the PBTCF).
Recognize that this MV also equals IV for marginal investors, those typical
on both the buy-side and sell-side of the market.
As noted in Ch.12, its probably best to assume you are a marginal investor
unless you can clearly document how you differ (e.g., in tax status) from
typical investors in the market.
21
Example (cont.):
As a next step (after youve estimated the $1,000,000 market value from market
evidence), you can develop an EATCF for a typical marginal investor in the market
for this type of property, and derive the levered equity after-tax OCC for the
property, based on the typical EATCFs and the $1,000,000 MV and the fact that MV
= IV for marginal investors.
In our previous example, if the investor subject to the 35% ordinary income tax rate
(& 15% capital gains & 25% recapture rates) were typical, then we would derive the
6.44% rate noted previously, for the given amount of leverage. (In most markets,
such taxable investors are probably typical marginal investors.)
This 6.44% after-tax, levered equity market OCC could then be used as the discount
rate in an analysis of your investment value (based on your own EATCF projection),
assuming a similar holding period and similar degree of leverage. (Dont forget to
add the loan amount to the equity value.) (See Section 14.3.4.)
22
Example (cont.):
Obviously, if you are similar to the typical marginal investor in the market, you will
get the same $1,000,000 PV again, as you should (when you discount the same
EATCFs @ the 6.44% IRR that was based on that price and those EATCFs, and
add the loan amount). Your IV will equal MV, by construction (defining your
EATCFs as typical of marginal investors). Hence, the validity of the PBT shortcut.
But if you are not similar (i.e., your EATCFs differ from the typical investors),
then (using the 6.44% discount rate) you may get a personal IV for yourself that
differs from the MV (and marginal IV) of the property (i.e., different from
$1,000,000).
But still, remember that you should not generally pay more than MV (or sell for less
than MV), even if your IV differs from MV. (Recall Section 12.1 in Chapter 12.)
Use the PBT shortcut to estimate MV (based on as much market price evidence as
you can get).
Corollary: If you are not a marginal investor, then the after-tax levered equity IRR you
calculate based on the propertys current market value and your CFs will not equal the
opportunity cost of capital relevant for evaluating your investment value of that levered
equity, and will therefore not be relevant for quantifying the risk in that position.
23
1.00%
6.00%
35.00%
(1)
Year
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Prop.Val
$1,000,000
$1,010,000
$1,020,100
$1,030,301
$1,040,604
$1,051,010
$1,061,520
$1,072,135
$1,082,857
$1,093,685
$1,104,622
(2)
NOI
$60,000
$60,600
$61,206
$61,818
$62,436
$63,061
$63,691
$64,328
$64,971
$65,621
Bldg.Val/Prop.Val=
Depreciable Life=
CGTax Rate =
DepRecapture Rate=
(3)
(4)
(5)
tax w/out
CI
PBTCF
shields
$0
$0
$50,000
$0
$0
$0
$0
$50,000
$0
$0
($1,000,000)
$60,000
$60,600
$11,206
$61,818
$62,436
$63,061
$63,691
$14,328
$64,971
$1,170,243
6.04%
$21,000
$21,210
$21,422
$21,636
$21,853
$22,071
$22,292
$22,515
$22,740
$23,661
80.00%
27.5 years
15.00%
25.00%
(6)
(7)
(4)-(5)+(6)
DTS
PATCF
$10,182
$10,182
$10,182
$10,182
$10,182
$10,182
$10,182
$10,182
$10,182
($62,545)
Loan= $750,000
Int=
5.50%
Amort/yr
$2,000
(8)
(9)
Loan
DS
($1,000,000)
$49,182
$49,572
($34)
$50,364
$50,765
$51,171
$51,581
$1,995
$52,413
$1,084,037
LoanBal
$750,000
($750,000)
$748,000
$43,250
$746,000
$43,140
$744,000
$43,030
$742,000
$42,920
$740,000
$42,810
$738,000
$42,700
$736,000
$42,590
$734,000
$42,480
$732,000
$42,370
$730,000 $772,260
4.34%
5.50%
IRR(EATCF) = 6.44%
(10)
ITS
(11)
(4)-(9)
EBTCF
($250,000)
$14,438
$14,399
$14,361
$14,322
$14,284
$14,245
$14,207
$14,168
$14,130
$14,091
$16,750
$17,460
($31,824)
$18,898
$19,626
$20,361
$21,101
($28,152)
$22,601
$397,983
7.40%
(12)
(13)
(7)-(9)+(10)
(9)-(10)
EATCF LoanATCFs
($250,000)
($750,000)
$20,369
$28,813
$20,831
$28,741
($28,704)
$28,670
$21,766
$28,598
$22,239
$28,527
$22,716
$28,455
$23,198
$28,384
($26,317)
$28,312
$24,173
$28,241
$325,868
$758,169
6.44%
24
3.58%
1.00%
6.00%
0.00%
(1)
Year
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Prop.Val
$1,000,000
$1,010,000
$1,020,100
$1,030,301
$1,040,604
$1,051,010
$1,061,520
$1,072,135
$1,082,857
$1,093,685
$1,104,622
(2)
NOI
$60,000
$60,600
$61,206
$61,818
$62,436
$63,061
$63,691
$64,328
$64,971
$65,621
Bldg.Val/Prop.Val=
Depreciable Life=
CGTax Rate =
DepRecapture Rate=
(3)
(4)
(5)
tax w/out
CI
PBTCF
shields
$0
$0
$50,000
$0
$0
$0
$0
$50,000
$0
$0
($1,000,000)
$60,000
$60,600
$11,206
$61,818
$62,436
$63,061
$63,691
$14,328
$64,971
$1,170,243
6.04%
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
80.00%
27.5 years
0.00%
0.00%
(6)
(7)
(4)-(5)+(6)
DTS
PATCF
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
Loan= $750,000
Int=
5.50%
Amort/yr
$2,000
(8)
(9)
Loan
DS
($1,000,000)
$60,000
$60,600
$11,206
$61,818
$62,436
$63,061
$63,691
$14,328
$64,971
$1,170,243
LoanBal
$750,000
($750,000)
$748,000
$43,250
$746,000
$43,140
$744,000
$43,030
$742,000
$42,920
$740,000
$42,810
$738,000
$42,700
$736,000
$42,590
$734,000
$42,480
$732,000
$42,370
$730,000 $772,260
6.04%
5.50%
(10)
ITS
(11)
(4)-(9)
EBTCF
($250,000)
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$16,750
$17,460
($31,824)
$18,898
$19,626
$20,361
$21,101
($28,152)
$22,601
$397,983
7.40%
PV @6.44%=
$270,548.47
(12)
(13)
(7)-(9)+(10)
(9)-(10)
EATCF LoanATCFs
($250,000)
($750,000)
$16,750
$43,250
$17,460
$43,140
($31,824)
$43,030
$18,898
$42,920
$19,626
$42,810
$20,361
$42,700
$21,101
$42,590
($28,152)
$42,480
$22,601
$42,370
$397,983
$772,260
7.40%
Applying the mkt after-tax levered OCC of 6.44% to the P.F.s EATCF:
IVA(equity) = $270,548 > $250,000 = MV(equity) = IVM(equity).
Add to this the $750,000 loan amt, P.F. has max ability to pay for the
property [for NPV(IVA) 0] equal to:
IVA(prop) = $1,020,548 > $1,000,000 = MV(prop) = IVM(prop).
25
5.50%
IVA = $1,020,548
= PV(eatcfA @ 6.44%)+loan amt
MV = $1,000,000 = PV(pbtcf @ 6.04%)
= PV(eatcfM @ 6.44%)+loan amt = IVM
Q0
Q*
Q
Quantity of Trading
27
Therefore:
E=VD
30
31
IVM =
(1.25 ) 4
1.03
(1.25 ) 4
(1.03 )2
(1.25 ) 4
(1.03 )3
+L =
3
0.03
= $100
33
Mkt Int.Rate = 4%
Q*
Note: We started out with the assumption that Mary was the
marginal investor.
Suppose we didnt know that she was the marginal investor.
Or suppose that we didnt know that the marginal investor
faced an effective tax rate of 25%.
How could we derive (from empirically observable data)
that the markets after-tax OCC is 3%?
Answer:
If there is a simultaneous market for tax-exempt bonds, and
investors can trade between the two markets, then we can
directly observe the markets after-tax OCC as the yield on
tax-exempt (municipal) bonds.
36
We can also compare the yields across the two types of bond
mkts (taxed & tax-exempt) to derive what must be the
effective tax rate of the marginal investor.
In the previously described situation (4% yield in bond mkt,
marginal investors face 25% tax rate), what will be the
observed mkt yield in the municipal (tax-exempt) bond
mkt?
Answer: 3%, because 3% = (1-.25)4% = after-tax yield for
marginal investors in bond mkt.
Otherwise, what?...
37
IVA =
Thus:
(1.20 ) 4
1.03
+ (1(1..0320))24 + (1(1..0320))34 + L =
3.20
0.03
= $107
39
IVC =
Thus:
(1.30 ) 4
1.03
+ (1(1..0330))24 + (1(1..0330))34 + L =
2.80
0.03
= $93
40
Exhibit 14-7:
Mkt Int.Rate = 4%
Q0
Q*
41
Exhibit 14-7:
Mkt Int.Rate = 4%
Q0
Q*
42
43
PV ( ITS ) M =
(.25 ) 4
1.03
)4
(.25 ) 4
+ ((.125
+
+L =
(1.03 )3
.03 )2
1
0.03
= $33.
PV ( ITS ) A =
(.20 ) 4
1.03
)4
(.20 ) 4
+ ((.120
+
+L =
(1.03 )3
.03 )2
PV ( ITS ) C =
(.30 ) 4
1.03
)4
(.30 ) 4
1.20
+ ((.130
+
+
=
L
0.03 = $40.
.03 )2
(1.03 )3
0.80
0.03
= $27.
(
= 100 (
= 100 (
NPVM = 100
NPV A
NPVC
(1.25 ) 4
1.03
)
+ L) = 100
+ L) = 100
(1.20 ) 4
1.03
+ (1(1..0320))24 + (1(1..0320))34
(1.30 ) 4
1.03
+ (1(1..0330))24 + (1(1..0330))34
3.20
0.03
2.80
0.03
= 100 93 = +$7.
Even though the ITS have substantial value to all three investors,
Borrowing is zero NPV for the marginal investor (Mary).
Borrowing is negative NPV for the tax-advantaged investor
(Abner).
Borrowing is only positive NPV for the tax-disadvantaged investor
(relative to the marginal investor in the bond mkt),
And even for him (Clarence) the NPV of borrowing is much
smaller than the PV of his ITS ($7 vs $40).
(Note: This is NPV based on IV. NPV based on MV is zero by defn in non-subsidized loan.)
45
46
3
0.04
= $75
MV = IVM =
(1.25 ) 3
1.03
.25 ) 3
(1.25 ) 3
+ ((11.03
+
+L =
)2
(1.03 )3
2.25
0.03
= $75
47
(
= 100 (
= 100 (
(1.25 ) 3
1.03
)
+ L) = 100
+ L) = 100
.25 ) 3
(1.25 ) 3
+ ((11.03
+ L = 100 20..25
2 +
03 = 100 75 = +$25.
)
(1.03 )3
(1.20 ) 3
1.03
.20 ) 3
(1.20 ) 3
+ (1(1.03
2 +
)
(1.03 )3
(1.30 ) 3
1.03
+ (1(1..0330))23 + (1(1..0330))33
2.40
0.03
= 100 80 = +$20.
2.10
0.03
= 100 70 = +$30.
3
1.04
(1.25 ) 3
1.03
.25 ) 3
(1.25 ) 3
2.25
+ (1(1.03
+
2
3 + L = 100 0.03 = 100 75 = +$25.
)
(1.03 )
Its the same (as you would expect, for margl investor).
1-period: NPV(loan @ MV) =
103
100 31+.100
=
100
04
1.04 = 100 99.04 = +$0.96.
) 3+100
.25
100 (1.251.03
= 100 102
1.03 = 100 99.27 = +$0.73.
Recall Ch.12 (sect.12.1) rules about what to do when NPV differs from MV and IV perspectives:
Use common sense!
49
Lets now apply APV to dissect the valuation of our previous apartment property . . .
Prop.Val
$1,000,000
$1,010,000
$1,020,100
$1,030,301
$1,040,604
$1,051,010
$1,061,520
$1,072,135
$1,082,857
$1,093,685
$1,104,622
1.00%
6.00%
35.00%
25.00%
(2)
NOI
$60,000
$60,600
$61,206
$61,818
$62,436
$63,061
$63,691
$64,328
$64,971
$65,621
Bldg.Val/Prop.Val=
Depreciable Life=
CGTax Rate =
DepRecapture Rate=
(3)
(4)
(5)
tax w/out
CI
PBTCF
shields
$0
$0
$50,000
$0
$0
$0
$0
$50,000
$0
$0
($1,000,000)
$60,000
$60,600
$11,206
$61,818
$62,436
$63,061
$63,691
$14,328
$64,971
$1,170,243
6.04%
$21,000
$21,210
$21,422
$21,636
$21,853
$22,071
$22,292
$22,515
$22,740
$23,661
80.00%
27.5 years
15.00%
25.00%
(6)
(7)
(4)-(5)+(6)
DTS
PATCF
$10,182
$10,182
$10,182
$10,182
$10,182
$10,182
$10,182
$10,182
$10,182
($62,545)
Loan= $750,000
Int=
5.50%
Amort/yr
$2,000
(8)
(9)
Loan
DS
($967,119)
$49,182
$49,572
($34)
$50,364
$50,765
$51,171
$51,581
$1,995
$52,413
$1,084,037
LoanBal
$750,000
($750,000)
$748,000
$43,250
$746,000
$43,140
$744,000
$43,030
$742,000
$42,920
$740,000
$42,810
$738,000
$42,700
$736,000
$42,590
$734,000
$42,480
$732,000
$42,370
$730,000 $772,260
4.76%
5.50%
(10)
ITS
(11)
(4)-(9)
EBTCF
($250,000)
$14,438
$14,399
$14,361
$14,322
$14,284
$14,245
$14,207
$14,168
$14,130
$14,091
$16,750
$17,460
($31,824)
$18,898
$19,626
$20,361
$21,101
($28,152)
$22,601
$397,983
7.40%
(12)
(13)
(7)-(9)+(10)
(9)-(10)
EATCF LoanATCF&Val
($250,000)
($717,119)
$20,369
$28,813
$20,831
$28,741
($28,704)
$28,670
$21,766
$28,598
$22,239
$28,527
$22,716
$28,455
$23,198
$28,384
($26,317)
$28,312
$24,173
$28,241
$325,868
$758,169
6.44%
4.13%
Suppose $1,000,000 = MV of property, & 25% is tax rate of marginal investor in debt mkt,
ATOCC dbt = (1-.25)*5.5% = 4.13%
Suppose the modeled investor (tax rates = 35%, 15%, 25%) is typical of marginal
investors in mkt for this type of property, & modeled leverage & holding period (75%
LTV, 10-yr hold) is typical of marginal investors in mkt for this type of property. IVbased APV = 0 for whole deal (inclu debt).
Then we know margl invstr in prop mkt is intra-marginal in debt mkt on the sell
(borrow) side: Debt part is pos-NPV, thus:
APV = 0 (mkt equilibr) Property (unlevrd) is neg-NPV.
IV(loan liab) @ 4.13% =
Exhibit 14-8:
Apprec.Rate =
Yield =
Income Tax Rate =
Debt Mkt Margl Tax Rate=
(1)
Year
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Prop.Val
$1,000,000
$1,010,000
$1,020,100
$1,030,301
$1,040,604
$1,051,010
$1,061,520
$1,072,135
$1,082,857
$1,093,685
$1,104,622
1.00%
6.00%
35.00%
25.00%
(2)
NOI
$60,000
$60,600
$61,206
$61,818
$62,436
$63,061
$63,691
$64,328
$64,971
$65,621
Bldg.Val/Prop.Val=
Depreciable Life=
CGTax Rate =
DepRecapture Rate=
(3)
(4)
(5)
tax w/out
CI
PBTCF
shields
$0
$0
$50,000
$0
$0
$0
$0
$50,000
$0
$0
($1,000,000)
$60,000
$60,600
$11,206
$61,818
$62,436
$63,061
$63,691
$14,328
$64,971
$1,170,243
6.04%
$21,000
$21,210
$21,422
$21,636
$21,853
$22,071
$22,292
$22,515
$22,740
$23,661
80.00%
27.5 years
15.00%
25.00%
(6)
(7)
(4)-(5)+(6)
DTS
PATCF
$10,182
$10,182
$10,182
$10,182
$10,182
$10,182
$10,182
$10,182
$10,182
($62,545)
-$717,119
Loan= $750,000
Int=
5.50%
Amort/yr
$2,000
(8)
(9)
Loan
DS
($967,119)
$49,182
$49,572
($34)
$50,364
$50,765
$51,171
$51,581
$1,995
$52,413
$1,084,037
LoanBal
$750,000
($750,000)
$748,000
$43,250
$746,000
$43,140
$744,000
$43,030
$742,000
$42,920
$740,000
$42,810
$738,000
$42,700
$736,000
$42,590
$734,000
$42,480
$732,000
$42,370
$730,000 $772,260
4.76%
5.50%
(10)
ITS
(11)
(4)-(9)
EBTCF
($250,000)
$14,438
$14,399
$14,361
$14,322
$14,284
$14,245
$14,207
$14,168
$14,130
$14,091
$16,750
$17,460
($31,824)
$18,898
$19,626
$20,361
$21,101
($28,152)
$22,601
$397,983
7.40%
(12)
(13)
(7)-(9)+(10)
(9)-(10)
EATCF LoanATCF&Val
($250,000)
($717,119)
$20,369
$28,813
$20,831
$28,741
($28,704)
$28,670
$21,766
$28,598
$22,239
$28,527
$22,716
$28,455
$23,198
$28,384
($26,317)
$28,312
$24,173
$28,241
$325,868
$758,169
6.44%
4.13%
Exhibit 14-8:
Apprec.Rate =
Yield =
Income Tax Rate =
Debt Mkt Margl Tax Rate=
(1)
Year
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Prop.Val
$1,000,000
$1,010,000
$1,020,100
$1,030,301
$1,040,604
$1,051,010
$1,061,520
$1,072,135
$1,082,857
$1,093,685
$1,104,622
1.00%
6.00%
35.00%
25.00%
(2)
NOI
$60,000
$60,600
$61,206
$61,818
$62,436
$63,061
$63,691
$64,328
$64,971
$65,621
Bldg.Val/Prop.Val=
Depreciable Life=
CGTax Rate =
DepRecapture Rate=
(3)
(4)
(5)
tax w/out
CI
PBTCF
shields
$0
$0
$50,000
$0
$0
$0
$0
$50,000
$0
$0
($1,000,000)
$60,000
$60,600
$11,206
$61,818
$62,436
$63,061
$63,691
$14,328
$64,971
$1,170,243
6.04%
$21,000
$21,210
$21,422
$21,636
$21,853
$22,071
$22,292
$22,515
$22,740
$23,661
80.00%
27.5 years
15.00%
25.00%
(6)
(7)
(4)-(5)+(6)
DTS
PATCF
$10,182
$10,182
$10,182
$10,182
$10,182
$10,182
$10,182
$10,182
$10,182
($62,545)
Loan= $750,000
Int=
5.50%
Amort/yr
$2,000
(8)
(9)
Loan
DS
($967,119)
$49,182
$49,572
($34)
$50,364
$50,765
$51,171
$51,581
$1,995
$52,413
$1,084,037
LoanBal
$750,000
($750,000)
$748,000
$43,250
$746,000
$43,140
$744,000
$43,030
$742,000
$42,920
$740,000
$42,810
$738,000
$42,700
$736,000
$42,590
$734,000
$42,480
$732,000
$42,370
$730,000 $772,260
4.76%
5.50%
(10)
ITS
(11)
(4)-(9)
EBTCF
($250,000)
$14,438
$14,399
$14,361
$14,322
$14,284
$14,245
$14,207
$14,168
$14,130
$14,091
$16,750
$17,460
($31,824)
$18,898
$19,626
$20,361
$21,101
($28,152)
$22,601
$397,983
7.40%
(12)
(13)
(7)-(9)+(10)
(9)-(10)
EATCF LoanATCF&Val
($250,000)
($717,119)
$20,369
$28,813
$20,831
$28,741
($28,704)
$28,670
$21,766
$28,598
$22,239
$28,527
$22,716
$28,455
$23,198
$28,384
($26,317)
$28,312
$24,173
$28,241
$325,868
$758,169
6.44%
Then back out the value of the property without debt using
the APV = 0 equilibrium condition for marginal investor.
4.13%
Prop.Val
$1,000,000
$1,010,000
$1,020,100
$1,030,301
$1,040,604
$1,051,010
$1,061,520
$1,072,135
$1,082,857
$1,093,685
$1,104,622
1.00%
6.00%
35.00%
25.00%
(2)
NOI
$60,000
$60,600
$61,206
$61,818
$62,436
$63,061
$63,691
$64,328
$64,971
$65,621
Bldg.Val/Prop.Val=
Depreciable Life=
CGTax Rate =
DepRecapture Rate=
(3)
(4)
(5)
tax w/out
CI
PBTCF
shields
$0
$0
$50,000
$0
$0
$0
$0
$50,000
$0
$0
($1,000,000)
$60,000
$60,600
$11,206
$61,818
$62,436
$63,061
$63,691
$14,328
$64,971
$1,170,243
6.04%
$21,000
$21,210
$21,422
$21,636
$21,853
$22,071
$22,292
$22,515
$22,740
$23,661
80.00%
27.5 years
15.00%
25.00%
(6)
(7)
(4)-(5)+(6)
DTS
PATCF
$10,182
$10,182
$10,182
$10,182
$10,182
$10,182
$10,182
$10,182
$10,182
($62,545)
Loan= $750,000
Int=
5.50%
Amort/yr
$2,000
(8)
(9)
Loan
DS
($967,119)
$49,182
$49,572
($34)
$50,364
$50,765
$51,171
$51,581
$1,995
$52,413
$1,084,037
LoanBal
$750,000
($750,000)
$748,000
$43,250
$746,000
$43,140
$744,000
$43,030
$742,000
$42,920
$740,000
$42,810
$738,000
$42,700
$736,000
$42,590
$734,000
$42,480
$732,000
$42,370
$730,000 $772,260
4.76%
5.50%
(10)
ITS
(11)
(4)-(9)
EBTCF
($250,000)
$14,438
$14,399
$14,361
$14,322
$14,284
$14,245
$14,207
$14,168
$14,130
$14,091
$16,750
$17,460
($31,824)
$18,898
$19,626
$20,361
$21,101
($28,152)
$22,601
$397,983
7.40%
(12)
(13)
(7)-(9)+(10)
(9)-(10)
EATCF LoanATCF&Val
($250,000)
($717,119)
$20,369
$28,813
$20,831
$28,741
($28,704)
$28,670
$21,766
$28,598
$22,239
$28,527
$22,716
$28,455
$23,198
$28,384
($26,317)
$28,312
$24,173
$28,241
$325,868
$758,169
6.44%
DTS & loan ATCF are relatively low risk (legally fixed): OCC = 4.13%.
PBTCF & tax w/out shields are relatively high risk: OCC = 4.76%.
54
4.13%
Exhibit 14-9b:
DTS
DTS
$10,182
$10,182
$10,182
$10,182
$10,182
$10,182
$10,182
$10,182
$10,182
($62,545)
DS - ITS
$28,813
$28,741
$28,670
$28,598
$28,527
$28,455
$28,384
$28,312
$28,241
$758,169
Fixed
PBTCF
-$18,631
-$18,559
-$18,488
-$18,416
-$18,345
-$18,273
-$18,202
-$18,130
-$18,059
-$820,714
$60,000
$60,600
$11,206
$61,818
$62,436
$63,061
$63,691
$14,328
$64,971
$1,170,243
PV @ 4.13% = - $683,592
Fixed + Risky = EATCF
Fixed
Risky
EATCF
-$18,631
-$18,559
-$18,488
-$18,416
-$18,345
-$18,273
-$18,202
-$18,130
-$18,059
-$820,714
$39,000
$39,390
-$10,216
$40,182
$40,584
$40,989
$41,399
-$8,187
$42,231
$1,146,583
$20,369
$20,831
-$28,704
$21,766
$22,239
$22,716
$23,198
-$26,317
$24,173
$325,868
tax w/out
shields
$21,000
$21,210
$21,422
$21,636
$21,853
$22,071
$22,292
$22,515
$22,740
$23,661
Risky
$39,000
$39,390
-$10,216
$40,182
$40,584
$40,989
$41,399
-$8,187
$42,231
$1,146,583
PV @ 4.76% = $933,257
Risky Val:
$933,257
$249,664
MV prop = IVMequity + loan amt = $250,000 + $750,000 = $1,000,000 = $966,473 val w/out tax
shields + $33,527 IVM tax shields to margl investor .
Does the lower effective tax rate on levered equity imply that
borrowing is profitable (in the sense of NPV>0)?
(Do you believe in a free lunch?...)
Recall from Chapter 13:
Leverage increases expected total return,
But it also increases risk.
Risk increases proportionately to risk premium in E[r].
Hence E[RP] / Unit of Risk remains constant.
Hence, NPV(borrowing)=0 (No free lunch).
This holds true after-tax as well as before-tax (at least for
marginal investors those with tax rates typical of marginal
investors in the debt market).
57
In equilibrium,
7%
the linear
relationship (RP
proportional to
risk)
8%
6%
5%
4%
RP
3%
2%
rf
1%
0%
0.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
1.20
1.40
1.60
1.80
AT Risk Units
AT Returns
58
Lower
effective tax
rate in levered
return does
not imply that
risk premium
per unit of risk
is greater with
leverage than
without.
7%
Using these
returns from
our apartment
bldg example,
we could have
this linear
relationship
6.4%
= rL AT
6%
5%
4.1% = rD AT
4.8% = rU AT
4%
RP
3%
2%
Debt
Risk
2% = rf AT
1%
Prop.
Risk
Levd
Prop.
Risk
0%
0.00
0.17
0.34
0.51
0.68
0.85
1.02
1.19
1.36
1.52
1.69
59
Exhibit 14-5:
Apprec.Rate =
Yield =
Income Tax Rate =
1.00%
6.00%
0.00%
(1)
Year
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Prop.Val
$1,000,000
$1,010,000
$1,020,100
$1,030,301
$1,040,604
$1,051,010
$1,061,520
$1,072,135
$1,082,857
$1,093,685
$1,104,622
(2)
NOI
$60,000
$60,600
$61,206
$61,818
$62,436
$63,061
$63,691
$64,328
$64,971
$65,621
Bldg.Val/Prop.Val=
Depreciable Life=
CGTax Rate =
DepRecapture Rate=
(3)
(4)
(5)
tax w/out
CI
PBTCF
shields
$0
$0
$50,000
$0
$0
$0
$0
$50,000
$0
$0
($1,000,000)
$60,000
$60,600
$11,206
$61,818
$62,436
$63,061
$63,691
$14,328
$64,971
$1,170,243
6.04%
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
80.00%
27.5 years
0.00%
0.00%
(6)
(7)
(4)-(5)+(6)
DTS
PATCF
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
Loan= $750,000
Int=
5.50%
Amort/yr
$2,000
(8)
(9)
Loan
DS
($1,000,000)
$60,000
$60,600
$11,206
$61,818
$62,436
$63,061
$63,691
$14,328
$64,971
$1,170,243
LoanBal
$750,000
($750,000)
$748,000
$43,250
$746,000
$43,140
$744,000
$43,030
$742,000
$42,920
$740,000
$42,810
$738,000
$42,700
$736,000
$42,590
$734,000
$42,480
$732,000
$42,370
$730,000 $772,260
6.04%
5.50%
(10)
ITS
(11)
(4)-(9)
EBTCF
($250,000)
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$16,750
$17,460
($31,824)
$18,898
$19,626
$20,361
$21,101
($28,152)
$22,601
$397,983
PV @6.44%=
$270,548.47
(12)
(13)
(7)-(9)+(10)
(9)-(10)
EATCF LoanATCFs
($250,000)
($750,000)
$16,750
$43,250
$17,460
$43,140
($31,824)
$43,030
$18,898
$42,920
$19,626
$42,810
$20,361
$42,700
$21,101
$42,590
($28,152)
$42,480
$22,601
$42,370
$397,983
$772,260
7.40%
7.40%
60
5.50%
61
Exhibit 14-10:
Apprec.Rate =
Yield =
Income Tax Rate =
Debt Mkt Margl Tax Rate=
1.00%
6.00%
0.00%
25.00%
(2)
(1)
Year
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Prop.Val
$1,000,000
$1,010,000
$1,020,100
$1,030,301
$1,040,604
$1,051,010
$1,061,520
$1,072,135
$1,082,857
$1,093,685
$1,104,622
NOI
$60,000
$60,600
$61,206
$61,818
$62,436
$63,061
$63,691
$64,328
$64,971
$65,621
Bldg.Val/Prop.Val=
Depreciable Life=
CGTax Rate =
DepRecapture Rate=
(3)
(4)
(5)
tax w/out
CI
PBTCF
shields
$0
$0
$50,000
$0
$0
$0
$0
$50,000
$0
$0
($1,000,000)
$60,000
$60,600
$11,206
$61,818
$62,436
$63,061
$63,691
$14,328
$64,971
$1,170,243
6.04%
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
80.00%
27.5 years
0.00%
0.00%
(6)
(7)
(4)-(5)+(6)
DTS
PATCF
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
Loan= $750,000
Int=
5.50%
Amort/yr
$2,000
(8)
(9)
Loan
DS
($1,104,714)
$60,000
$60,600
$11,206
$61,818
$62,436
$63,061
$63,691
$14,328
$64,971
$1,170,243
LoanBal
$750,000
($750,000)
$748,000
$43,250
$746,000
$43,140
$744,000
$43,030
$742,000
$42,920
$740,000
$42,810
$738,000
$42,700
$736,000
$42,590
$734,000
$42,480
$732,000
$42,370
$730,000 $772,260
4.76%
5.50%
PV @ 4.76% = $1,104,714
(10)
ITS
(11)
(4)-(9)
EBTCF
($250,000)
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$16,750
$17,460
($31,824)
$18,898
$19,626
$20,361
$21,101
($28,152)
$22,601
$397,983
7.40%
(12)
(13)
(7)-(9)+(10)
(9)-(10)
EATCF LoanATCF&Val
($270,548)
($832,202)
$16,750
$43,250
$17,460
$43,140
($31,824)
$43,030
$18,898
$42,920
$19,626
$42,810
$20,361
$42,700
$21,101
$42,590
($28,152)
$42,480
$22,601
$42,370
$397,983
$772,260
6.44%
PV @ 4.13% = $832,202
Value Additivity:
E=V-D
IV(equity) = $1,104,714 - $832,202 = $272,512 $270,548*.
*In principle this equation should be exactly equal, otherwise there is some sort of arbitrage
opportunity between the markets. But in reality valuations are not that precise.
62
4.13%
From loan
P.F. has:
Positive NPV (+104,714) in property investment as intra-marginal
buyer,
Negative NPV (-82,202) in loan borrowing transaction as its tax-exempt
status makes it an intra-marginal lender (not borrower).
Net is still slightly positive (APV).
63
Q0
Q*
Q
Quantity of Trading
Q0
Q*
Q
Quantity of Trading