Energy Cont~ers. Mgmt Vol. 36, No. 5, pp.

365-374, 1995

Pergamon

Copyright 1995 ElsevierScienceLtd

Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved
0196-8904/95 $9.50+0.00

0196-8904(94)00063-8

PERFORMANCE

ANALYSIS

SOLAR

OF A HIGH

DISTILLATION

TEMPERATURE

SYSTEM

Y. P. YADAVand A. S. PRASADt
Department of Physics, L. N. Mithila University, Kameshwaranagar, Darbhanga-846 004, Bihar, India

(Received 16 September 1993; received for publication 23 November 1994)

Abstract--A solar still integrated with a parallel fiat plate solar collector is employed to perform
distillation at a relatively high temperature and is, therefore, referred to as a high temperature solar
distillation system. The performance analysis of this system is reported, and closed form solutions are
obtained for the temperatures of various components of the system, the distillate output and the efficiency
as a function of the still and collector parameters apart from the meteorological and heat and mass transfer
parameters. For appreciation of the analytical results, numerical calculations have been carried o u t
incorporating the meteorological parameters of a typical day in Delhi.

Solar energy

High temperature

Solar distillation

1. I N T R O D U C T I O N
The output of a solar still depends mainly on the water-to-cover temperature difference of the still.
An increased output can, therefore, be achieved when the distillation is performed at a relatively
high temperature. The high temperature solar distillation could be performed either by feeding
waste hot water in the basin or connecting a solar energy collector to the still. The case of feeding
waste hot water has been studied by Sodha et aL [l], Proctor [2], Madhuri and Tiwari [3], Rai and
Tiwari [4] and Yadav and Tiwari [5]. The operation of a solar still connected to a solar energy
collector is carried out under two kinds of modes, namely, the forced circulation mode and the
thermosiphon mode. The solar still coupled to a flat plate solar energy collector and operating in
the forced circulation mode has been studied by Rai and Tiwari [6]. These authors have made
investigations upon the effects of heat exchanger length, mass flow rate of fluid in the heat
exchanger loop and water depth in the basin on the performance of the solar still. However, they
have suggested that such a system, i.e. high temperature solar distillation system, is also useful for
extracting the essence from flowers which are usually used for ceremonial purposes. The major
limitation of the solar still operated in the forced circulation mode is the requirement of electrical
power to run the pump for circulation of the water in the basin. The electrical power is frequently
unavailable, unreliable and too expensive in rural areas. Thermosiphon systems, which do not
require a pump nor the associated control systems, are not subject to this drawback. Hence,
performance analysis of the solar still coupled to a fiat plate solar energy collector and operating
in the thermosiphon mode appeared to be worthwhile and was studied by Yadav et al. [7], Yadav
and Jha [8] and Yadav [9, 10].
Like fiat plate solar energy collectors, the parallel flat plate solar energy collector, built-in-storage
solar water heater/collection-cum-storage solar water heater/shallow solar pond water heater could
also be integrated with the solar still to achieve solar distillation at a high temperature. Owing to
the simple design of these collectors, the systems have viability of fabrication in rural regions with
no loss in productivity as compared to that obtained from the still coupled with a flat plate solar
energy collector. However, no work is reported on these, potentially viable, configurations of the
high temperature solar distillation system.
tLecturer in Physics, RBJ College, Darbhanga, India.
365

366

Y A D A V and PRASAD:

ANALYSIS OF A S O L A R D I S T I L L A T I O N SYSTEM

This paper aims at analysing the performance of such a high temperature solar distillation
system, i.e. a solar still integrated with a parallel flat plate solar energy collector. Based on the
energy balance mechanism, explicit expressions are obtained for the temperatures of various
components, the distillate output and the efficiency o f the proposed system as a function of the
still and collector parameters and the meteorological and associated heat transfer parameters.
For quantitative assessment of the analytical results, numerical calculations were also made
employing the meteorological parameters of a typical day in Delhi. The results are presented
graphically.
2. I L L U S T R A T I O N OF T H E P R O P O S E D S Y S T E M
The schematic diagram of a solar still integrated with a parallel fiat plate solar energy collector
is shown in Fig. l(a). Figure l(b) shows the cross-sectional view over which water flows. The
collector essentially consists of a parallel fiat plate placed over the insulation with an air gap
through which the water will flow below the absorber. There is a glass sheet over the absorber and
the whole assembly is enclosed in a wooden box. The top of the plate (absorber) is blackened by
black board paint before the glass cover is placed over the absorber. The collector outlet is
connected to the still by a pipe covered with insulation. The circulation of water between the
collector and the still can be made either via a pump (forced circulation system) or by placing the
collector over a supporting structure at such a height as to provide adequate head for natural
circulation of water (thermosiphon system) in the system.
3. P E R F O R M A N C E ANALYSIS
In order to write down the energy balances at the various components of the system, the
following assumptions were made:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

the glass cover and water surface are parallel,

the system is air and vapour tight,
the heat capacity of the glass cover is negligible,
the surface areas of the glass cover, water mass and the basin liner of the still are the same,
the parallel flat plate collector is uncoupled from the still during low intensity/off-sunshine
hours.
(a)
Glasscover
Water
Absorber
Insulation

Inlet---.~

D, Outlet

Lc

* -,a- L p

L s,

x=O

/:

/ ~/-- X ---~/
dx

Fig. 1. (a) Schematic diagram of a solar still integrated with a parallel flat-plate water collector: (b) the
cross-sectional view o'ver which water flows.

YADAV and PRASAD: ANALYSISOF A SOLAR DISTILLATIONSYSTEM

367

Now, the energy balance at the various components of the proposed system may be expressed as
follows:
3.1. Energy Balance for Collector
Glazing
h,(T, - T,) = h,(T, - r.).

(1)

= p , H , = h , ( T , - T,) + h,( G - T.).

(2)

Absorber plate

Elemental water mass

aT.

07:.

bdxd.p.Cw--~i- + mwCw-~x dX = bdx[h3(Tp -

Tw)- hb(T.- T~)].

(3)

3.2. Energy Balance for Still

Glazing

h'~(T~-- T'g)= h~(T'g-- Ta)

(4)

where
h ~ = hcw~ + h,~g +

h.~

and
h ~ = hc~a + hrga.
Elemental water mass
,
.
aT"
aT;,
b dxdwPwC,. ~
+ rh;'Cw -~x dx = b'dx[h'3(Tp - T;') - h, (T;' -

T'g)].

(5)

Basin liner
G H ; = h ; ( G - T') + h;(T'p -- T,).

(6)

Equations (1) and (2) can be solved as

\h~ + h d

(7)

"

and

r, = h3<h,c,+

r,,. +

/'ht + h2'~

hi hz

(8)

where
ct = hlh2 + hlh3 + h2h3.
Assuming the rise in temperature of an elemental water mass wrt the time coordinate is negligibly
small as compared to that w.r.t, the space coordinate during flow from inlet to outlet, the key
differential equation (3) can be solved as
r . l x = ~ = T~oexp(b~
--~-L~ ) + (~cR~+d ~ f ~

I -exp

( b~L'~l-m--~.
~]_]

(9)

368

Y A D A V and PRASAD:

ANALYSIS OF A SOLAR DISTILLATION SYSTEM

where
~ =-- I

Cw

I h3 -t- h b
C=

hi(hi+hE) 1
Cl

h3(ht + h2)
C I Cw

d= 1 hb+

Cw

Cl

_J

L~ and Two in equation (9) are the length and the inlet temperature of the collector, respectively.
Equations (4) and (6) yield the temperatures of the glass cover and the basin liner of the still,
respectively, as
,

-P

Tg =

(~

/H'q-

7". = kh; + hU

h2

Tw +

w q-

+ hU

T~

(10)
,

+ hU

(11)

a"

The key differential equation (5), subject to the same assumption as employed for solving equations
(3), can be solved as
f b~
b tat
-- cH~ +
Ta
Tw = Twoe x p [ - - 7 - L + --7-7-,L~ + 1 - exp _ - _ _ L
\ mw
mw
\ m~ /AL ~
x e x p [ - ~ 7 L,I +

/7~ +

\mwiL~'

T~

1 - e x p / - - - v ; '- L,

(12)

\mw

where
~ - -

Cw

h~2
hi+h2
#

h'32 ]
h3 + hb
#

c'
,

I t / h~h~
cw

h~
,,

cw(h3 + h~)

h~h~ "~

The water temperature of the still can also be obtained for the following cases:

Case 1: The still discoupledfrom the collector. In this situation, putting Lc = 0 in equation (12),
the water temperature of the still is

/ b'~' \ F
d'-IF
T~, : Twoe x P t - - ~ w Lc) + l~ ~c'/7~ + ~7 T"]L I

b'~"

\-I

(I 2.1)

Case 2: During off-sunshine hours. This case pertains to the nocturnal operation of the still, and
the temperature of the still water is obtained by putting H~ = H i = 0 and Lc = 0 in equation (12),

T;=|TwoexPl----:-;-,L,II+ T, l--exp/--:-7-, Ls
L
t rhw 11 ~
\mw
"

(12.2)

The water-to-cover temperature difference of the still, used to obtain the expression for the distillate
output, may be expressed as

wg hT +h'~ T w o e x p - ~ , ,

+--~Ls)I+

1-exp\

lhw

mw

Subject to the above noted cases, the water-to-cover temperature difference can also be expressed
for "the still discoupled from the collector" and "during off-sunshine hours", respectively, as

h2+h2
~ , L~ + ~ p, ~C -H~
, + ~ T~
'
' T w o e x\p / - -mw

1-exp

- ~ w L~

--

(13.1)

YADAV and PRASAD: ANALYSISOF A SOLAR DISTILLATION SYSTEM

369

and

r
[ b "or' )
Ar;,=h; h+h2' [_rwoeXp
- TL

d'(

b'ct'

\)-]

(,3.2)

The distillate output of the system measured over an interval At can be expressed as
me = hewgA T~,gAt
L
where L is the latent heat of vaporisation of water. Substituting the value of AT~g from equation
(12), the distillate output may also be expressed in terms of still and collector parameters as

Ath~wgh2
rh~=L(h;+h~)

( b~

b' ~ '

"X)

T,,,oexp--~L+---~Ls)~+

--~

l-exp

C'c'

x expl -- .-'-77-L~ + ~- p" /7' +

L~

c/7~+

d' Ta}{ 1 - exp/--7-7-, L~

T~

- T.~ .

(14)

For the cases "the still discoupled from the collector" and "during off-sunshine hours", the
distillate output can also be expressed, respectively, as
rh~

Ath~wg 2 I-T,
L - ~ + h-~) ,.o expl\-- __--:-7-,rhw
L~ +

H~ +

Ta

b'~'

thw

"X)

)J

(14.1)

and

Ath~wg

the - L ~ - ~ - - ~ )2 LI-T w0eXp/---7-;-, Ls - Ta 1

\
rh~

I - exp k - .-zT;-Ls

(14.2)

The efficiency of the still can be expressed as

rh~L
r h - [rhwcw(Tw1,-=tc - Two)+ AbH~]At"

(15)

The first term in the denominator of equation (15) stands for the heat gained to the still via the
collector while the second term signifies the direct solar gain.
When the direct solar gain to the still is negligibly small as compared to that gained via the
collector, the efficiency of the still will be determined by
rhoL
rh = rhwc.(Twl,=Lc

- Tw0)At'

(15.1)

For the "collector discoupled from the still" case, the efficiency of the still is expressed as
rheL

rls= AbH~At"

(15.2)

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The temperatures of various components of the collector, e.g. glazing and absorber plate, are
expressed by equations (7) and (8), respectively. The collector's outlet temperature has been
depicted by equation (9), and at this temperature, the hot water from the collector is fed to the
basin of the still. Equations (I0), (I I) and (12) are the explicit expressions for the temperatures
of the glass cover, basin liner and water mass of the still, respectively. The water temperature of
the still equation (12) has been derived as a function of the collector's and still's parameters.
Equations (12.1) and (12.2) stand for the water temperature when the still is discoupled from
the collector, and during off-sunshine hours, respectively. The water-to-cover temperature difference required to evaluate the distillate output of the system has been expressed by equation (I 3).
This expression, when subjected to the cases, "still discoupled for the collector" and "during
off-sunshine hours" assumes the forms expressed by equations (13.1) and (13.2), respectively. The
system output has also been derived, explicitly, as a function of the collector's and the still's
parameters and is presented by equation (14). This can be determined for the cases, namely '~still

370

YADAV

and P R A S A D :

ANALYSIS

OF A SOLAR DISTILLATION

lO00 F
&" 800 ~

"

-,X\

SYSTEM

Solar intensity

--]50

Ambienttemperature

~ 40 o~

6oo

400

20

200

10 <

6 a.m.

12

6 p.m.

12

6 a.m.

Time of the day (h)

Fig. 2. Hourly variation of the solar intensity and ambient temperature.

discoupled for the collector" and "during off-sunshine hours," employing equations (14.1) and
(14.2), respectively. Equation (15) is an explicit expression for the efficiency of the system as a
function of direct solar gain and the heat gain via the collector. The efficiency of the system will
be determined by equation (15.1) when the direct solar gain is negligibly small compared to the
heat gain via the collector; when the heat gain via the collector is insignificant comparison to the
direct solar gain, equation (15.2) will be used to evaluate the system efficiency.
For appreciation and quantitative assessment of the above analytical results, numerical
calculations were made employing the meteorological parameters of a typical day in Delhi, depicted
in Fig. 2, and the still's and collector's parameter presented in Table 1. The solar flux at the collector
and still surfaces were evaluated using the expressions given in Appendix A. Various heat transfer
coefficients associated with the collector and the still were evaluated using the correlations presented
in Appendix B.
Water temperature
when the collector is

70
Table

coupled

- -

/'-N

I. Values o f relevant parameters used' in the

calculation

~
60

c . = 4190.0 J/kg C
hi = 9.81 W/m2 C

h2 =
h3 =
h b = h~, =
h~ =

18.54 W/m2C
316.89 W/m z C
0.719 W/m 2 C
16.76 W/m EC

h l = 40.88 W / m 2 C

_ ~

Water temperature
when the collector is

g
~ 4o

h~ = 135.04 W/m 2 C
hc.s = 8.55 W/m 2 C

L=
Li=
K~ =
K, =
Kw =
L, =
Prw =

2,297,000.0 J/kg
0.05 m
0.04 W/m C
0.03003 W/m "C
0.651 W/m ~C
0.08 m
3.02

% = % = 0.80
% = 0.90

~p =
Pw =
#w =
a =
L~ = L =

0.95
1000 kg/m 3
0.000471 kg/ms
5.6697 x 10 -~ W/m" k 4
I m.

30
/

~:~ 20 --

J
~

Water to cover temperature

difference when the

collector is coupled

10 --

~
Water to cover
,," - ~ ~.-'~
temperature difference
/ .,"
"x ~ when the collector is
/ . . , ,'"
.
"" xkdiscoapled
/

0 ~"

6 a.m.

12

I'~
6 p.m.

12

6 a.m.

Time of the day (h)

Fig. 3. Hourly variation o f w a t e r temperature and water-tocover temperature difference.

YADAV and PRASAD: ANALYSIS OF A SOLAR DISTILLATION SYSTEM

0.300

Coupled with collector

- - -

0.250

371

Discoupled

with collector

0.200

e~

0.150

l/"
,,'

0.100
O

0.050

",\

I
6 l.m.

12

6 p.m.

12

6a.m.

Time of the day (h)

Fig. 4. Hourly variation of the distillate output.
In Fig. 3, the hourly variations o f the water temperature and the water-to-cover temperature
difference are shown for "the still coupled to collector" and "still discoupled from the collector".
It follows from the results o f this figure that the water temperature and the water-to-cover
temperature difference rise significantly when the still is coupled with the collector. The hourly
variation o f the distillate output is depicted in Fig. 4. A significant rise in the distillate o u t p u t is
found when the still is coupled with the collector. These are expected results, and this happens
owing to the heat gain to the still via the collector.
5. CONCLUSIONS
Because o f the simple design o f the parallel flat plate collector as c o m p a r e d to the flat plate
collector, the proposed system can be preferred to a solar still integrated with a flat plate collector
to achieve distillation o f brackish water at high temperature. The water temperature obtained by
the proposed system lies well within the temperature range (T~, > 50C) usually required for high
temperature solar distillation. The water temperature can further be increased by decreasing the
water mass/water depth in the basin of the still. In addition to this, the distillate output obtained
from the proposed system is also comparable to that obtained from the solar still integrated with
a flat plate collector (Refs [6-10]). Consequently, it is envisaged that the proposed system, for high
temperature solar distillation, would also be cost effective as c o m p a r e d to that employing a flat
plate collector. The explicit analytical expressions are useful for investigating the effects o f the still's
and collector's parameters on the performance o f the system; they can also be used for evolving
the optimal design of the system.
REFERENCES

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.

M. S. Sodha, A. Kumar and G. N. Tiwari, Desalination 37, 325 (1981).

D. Proctor, Sol. Energy 14, 433 (1973).
Madhuri and G. N. Tiwari, Desalination 52, 345 (19853.
S. N. Rai and G. N. Tiwari, Energy Res. 8, 281 (19843.
T. P. Yadav and G. N. Tiwari, Energy Com,ers. Mgmt 26, 159 (19863.
S. N. Rai and G. N. Tiwari, Energy Com,ers. Mgmt 23, 145 (19833.
Y. P. Yadav, Ashok Kumar and G. N. Tiwari, Reg. J. Energy Heat Mass Tran.~/'er 19, 191 (19883.
Y. P. Yadav and L. K. Jha, Energy 14, 653 (19893.
Y. P. Yadav, Energy Cont,ers. Mgmt 31, 255 (1991).
Y. P. Yadav, Transient performance of a high temperature solar distillation system, Desalination. In press.
M. A. S. Malik, G. N. Tiwari, A. Kumar and M. S. Sodha, Solar Distillation. Pergaman Press, Oxford (19823.
R. V. Dunkle, International Dez,elopments in Heat Tran.s.'/~,r, Part V, p. 895. ASME, Univ. of Colorado (19613.

372

Y A D A V and P R A S A D :

ANALYSIS OF A SOLAR DISTILLATION SYSTEM

APPENDIX A

The Solar Radiation Available on Collector and Solar Still

The total solar radiation available on the collector and solar still will be expressed as

(A I )

H r = RbH b + RaH d + R~(H. + lid)

where
R. =

cos 0

(A2)

COS 0 z

COS 0 = (COS q~ COS fl + sin ~b sin fl cos y)cos 6 cos to + sin 6(sin ~b cos fl - cos q~ sin fl cos y) + cos 6 sin oJ sin fl sin y
(A3)
c o s 0 ~ = cos ~b cos co + s i n 6 s i n ~ b
R

(0=0~

ify=0,

fl=0)

[l+cosF'x

d = ~ )

/' 1 -- cos fl\

Rr=prL~

).

(A4)
(A5)
(A6)

APPENDIX B

Correlations Employed for Evaluating Heat Transfer Coefficients

Collector
The G r a s h o f n u m b e r s for air and water are, respectively.
Grai r = 6.51 x I07(Lair)3(Tg -- Ta)

(BI)

Grw,ter = 2.061 x 101(dw)3 (T~ - Tg).

(B2)

Heat transfer coefficient from absorber plate to glass cover

The total heat transfer coefficient from the absorber plate to the glass cover (h 0 is equal to the sum of the convective
and radiative heat transfer coefficients from the absorber plate to the glass cover. That is, one may express
h i = her + hrp

(B3)

where
hcp --

N u Kai r
Lair

N u = C(Grai r Prair)"K
C = 0.27
n = 0.25

(B4)

K=I.
The radiative heat transfer coefficient from the absorber plate to the glass cover can be expressed as
a[(Tp + 273) 4 -- (T s + 273) 4]
hrp : ~eff

( T . - T,)

(B5)

where
[1

1"~ - t

t~..= / - - + - - )
\% (~/

Heat tran.~/br coefficient .#am glass cover to ambient air

The total heat transfer coefficient from the glass cover to ambient air (h_,) is equal to the sum of the convective and
radiative heat transfer coefficients from the glass cover to ambient. Thus,

h 2 = h~,,+ h~

(B6)

where

/%=

5.7 + 3.8 V

(B7)

a[(Tg + 273) 4 - (T,k , + 273) 4]

% = %

.............................

(B8)

( T ~ - Z, ky)
T,k.~ = T , - 12.

(B9)

Y A D A V and P R A S A D :

ANALYSIS OF A SOLAR DISTILLATION SYSTEM

373

Convective heat transfer co(~l~cientfrom absorber plate to water

This is expressed as
Nu

gwale r

(BI0)

d~
where
Nu=CR~

Pr~w.te~K

C = 4.86
m=0
n=0
K=I
Re(Reynold's n u m b e r ) = -

pwuwd~

Solar still
h~g

= 0.884[T~ - T'g + (P~ - Pg)(T~, + 273)11.'3

I_

26~.~7i~ = ~ /

h~g = 16.07 x 10 -3 x h~ R 1 (Malik et al. [11], Dunkle [12])

61 ]

h,~g= - --

I[{(T'~+273)2+(T'g+273)2}{(T'~+273)+(T~+273)}l

+1Eg
h~g. and h~, will be calculated using expressions (B4) and (B8), respectively.
APPENDIX

Nomenclature
Ab = Surface area of basin liner of solar still (m 2)
b = Breadth of collector (m)
b ' = Breadth of solar still (m)
c w = Specific heat of water (J/kg C)
dair = Air depth (m)
d W= Water depth (m)
dx = Elemental length along flow direction (m)
Grai r = G r a s h o f n u m b e r of air
Grw~ter = G r a s h o f n u m b e r of water
h~ = Total heat transfer coefficient from absorber plate to glass cover of collector ( W / m 2 C )
h: = Total heat transfer coefficient from glass cover of collector to ambient (W/m-' ~C)
h s = Convective heat transfer coefficient from absorber plate to water of collector (W/m-' C )
h b = Overall heat transfer coefficient from water of collector to ambient ( W / m 2 'C)
hca = Convective heat transfer coefficient from glass cover of collector to ambient ( W / m -~ C)
hr, = Radiative heat transfer coefficient from glass cover of collector to ambient ( W / m 2 C )
hq, = Radiative heat transfer coefficient from absorber plate to glass cover of collector (W/m-' C)
hoga = Convective heat transfer coefficient from glass cover of solar still to ambient (W/m-" C )
he~g = Evaporative heat transfer coefficient from water surface to glass cover of solar still (W/m-' C)
h , ~ = Convective heat transfer coefficient from water surface to glass cover of solar still (W/m-" C)
hrga = Radiative heat transfer coefficient from glass cover of solar still to ambient (W/m-' C )
h~g = Radiative heat transfer coefficient from water surface to glass cover of solar still (W/m-' C)
h'l = Total heat transfer coefficient from water surface to glass cover of solar still ( W / m -~ C)
h'2 = Total heat transfer coefficient from glass cover of still to ambient (W/m: C )
hl = Convective heat transfer coefficient from basin liner to water of solar still (W/m-' C)
h~, = Overall heat loss coefficient from water surface of solar still to ambient (W/m-' C)
H~ = Solar radiation available on collector (W/m 2)
H r = Total solar radiation available on collector/solar still
H b = Intensity of beam radiation (W/m 2)
H a = Intensity of diffuse radiation (W/m-')
K i = Thermal conductivity of insulation ( W / m C)
L = Latent heat of vaporisation of water (J/kg)
K,,i~ = Thermal conductivity of air (W/m C)
L~ = Collector length (m)
L~ = Thickness of insulation (m)
L~ = Length of solar still (m)
L~i~= Thickness of air gap between absorber plate and glass cover of collector (m)
the = Hourly distillate o u t p u t of solar still (kg/m 2 h)
~hW= Mass flow rate of water within collector (kg/m 2 s)
rh~. = Mass flow rate of water within solar still (kg/m: s)
N u = Nusselt n u m b e r

(BII)
(BI2)
(BI3)

374

Y A D A V and P R A S A D :
Pr~, =
Rb =
Rd =
Rr =
t=
Td =
Ts =
Tp =
Tw =
Twt.,.=~ =
Tsky =
T~ =
Tp =
T" =
AT~s =
V=
x =

ANALYSIS OF A SOLAR DISTILLATION SYSTEM

Prandtl n u m b e r of air
Conversion factor for beam radiation
Conversion factor for diffuse radiation
Conversion factor for radiation reflected from ground
Time coordinate (s)
Ambient temperature ("C)
Glass cover temperature of collector ('~C)
A b s o r b e r plate temperature of collector ('~C)
Water temperature of collector (~C)
Outlet temperature of collector (C)
Sky temperature (C)
Glass cover temperature of solar still (C)
Basin liner temperature of solar still (C)
Water temperature of solar still (C)
Water-to-cover temperature difference of solar still ("C)
Wind velocity (m/s)
Space coordinate (m)

Greek symbols
~p =
a~, =
~s =
%=
#w =
Pw =
o =
Pr =
/~ =
~b =
~o =
6=
0=
0 Z=
y=

Absorptivity of absorber plate of collector

Absorptivity of basin liner of solar still
Emissivity of glass cover
Emissivity of absorber plate
Dynamic viscosity o f water (kg/ms)
Density of water (kg/m 3)
Stefan-Boltzmann constant ( W / m 2 K 4)
Reflectivity o f ground
Tilt from horizontal surface
Latitude
H o u r angle
Declination angle
Angle of incidence
Zenith angle
Surface azimuth angle