Roman Civilization:

Culture, Architecture and

Planning
Physical Planning Report.

By,
Bhavana Brindavan
Sahithi Datla
Nandita Maalige
Abhina vBellam

CONTENT

TOPIC

PAGE NOS.

ROMAN GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE

REPUBLIC GOVERNMENT OF ROME

ROMAN SOCIETY

ART , MUSIC, LITERATURE OF ROME

ENTERTAINMENT

THE RELIGION OF ROME

10

FESTIVALS OF ROME

12

SOCIAL ECONOMIC AND PLANNING FACTORS

13

ROMAN TECHNOLOGY

15

ARCHITECTURE OF ROME

18

ROMAN CIVILISATION
ROMAN GEOGRAPHY
The Roman Empire dominated most of Europe and much of Africa and the Middle
East for centuries. So great was the empire that it influences geopolitics even
today. Often overlooked is the role that geography played in the great city's rise to
power. Several geographic advantages helped Rome to grow and ultimately
dominate the known world. The geography is characterized by the Seven Hills and
The Tiber River. Rome city situated on the eastern banks of river Tiber has a
geographical position of 41 54' N and 12 29' E. Rome lies to the west of the
Apennine Mountains that forms the backbone of peninsular Italy. Being close to the
Tyrrhenian Sea, Rome experiences a Mediterranean climate.
Rome is popularly called 'the city of seven hills'. These seven hills namely, Viminal,
Quirinal, Palatine, Esquiline, Capitoline, Caelian, and Aventine were separated by
marshy land and the River Tiber. Of these seven hills, the Caelian, Esquiline,
Quirinal and Viminal hills were portions of a volcanic ridge. The Aventine,
Capitoline, and Palatine hills formed the western group of hills. In ancient Rome
each of the seven hills had separate walled cities.
The Tiber River flows from the Apennine Mountains south-westwards to the
Tyrrhenian Sea after passing by Rome. This river of length 405 km has played a
significant role in shaping Rome's history and culture.

Protection From Invasion

Two mountain ranges, the Alps and the Apennines, helped to protect Rome from
invasion. The Apennines divide the Italian peninsula in half and, allowed the
Romans to mass forces for counter-attack whenever they were threatened. Any
army attempting to attack Rome would be at risk of attack from the other side of
the mountains. The Alps, located on the northern border of modern-day Italy, seal
off the peninsula from the rest of Europe during winter. This natural roadblock
protected Rome from outside invasions by forcing attackers to move slowly through
narrow passes, giving the Romans time to respond.

Fertile Land
Rich volcanic soil makes the Po and Tiber river valleys ideally suited for agriculture.
The volcanic ash made the soil near Rome some of the best in all of Europe. Rome
attracted new settlers during its rise to power due to its agricultural potential, The
Roman population grew quickly, thanks to surplus production of grains, olives and
other crops. The extra population later helped Rome's military expansion by
providing a large supply of troops. The surplus also helped Rome to establish trade
ties with other Mediterranean powers, enhancing the city's economic might. The
marshes meant that the first inhabitants tended to congregate on the steep hills

which had been cut out by erosion Being an area of volcanic origins the soil is
naturally rich in water springs and minerals. The hills themselves were (are) largely
made up of tufa rock - a sort of hardened rocky sponge. This type of stone was
widely used for ancient Roman building and construction for example to build
foundations, the earliestwalls of the city or even as part of wall construction - opus
reticulatum. It is still widely used in modern day construction.

Centre for trade

Rome further benefited from its position at the center of the Mediterranean Sea. the
Italian Peninsula is only 50 miles from Greece, while Sicily is less than 100 miles
from Africa. Rome is also a short voyage by boat from Spain and only a few days'
journey to France on horseback. Its central location made Rome a desirable trading
post even before the city's rise to power. This centrality later helped the Romans
administer their empire effectively by reducing communication times. Perhaps
Rome's location has relied on their access to the sea for international trade. It is
Rome's proximity to the sea which explains the relatively low height above sea
level.

Diversity of Population
Rome's central location attracted immigrants and traders from all parts of the
ancient Mediterranean world. According to The Flow of History, the diversity of the
early Roman state helped it expand its influence. The Romans were unusually
adaptable and willing to change their strategy when compared to the rest of the
ancient world. That flexibility enabled the Romans to overcome new challenges as
the centuries passed. It also made the Roman Empire more accepting of outsiders,
which encouraged foreign powers to cooperate with rather than oppose Roman
forces.

Rome Climate
Rome climate very broadly is of the 'Mediterranean' variety. The summer months
are warm to mild, and the winters are cold. The rainfall occurs during the winter
months between October to January. The summer season lasts from June to
September with temperatures ranging between a maximum of 30 C to a minimum
of 14 C. The daily range of temperature averages at 14 C. The winter season
extends from December to March with temperatures varying between 3 C to 16C.
The months of April, May, October and November are very pleasant with
temperatures varying between 7 C and 23 C.

Resources Available
Wheat, grape and olive production, Limestone, Marble, Concrete (mixed volcanic
dust with water), Copper, Imported tin to mix with it to make bronze, Iron and
Timber from the Apennine Mountains

ROMAN GOVERNMENT
The Romans established a form of government a republic that was copied by
countries for centuries In fact, the government of the United States is base. It all
began when the Romans overthrew their Etruscan conquerors in 509 B.C.E.
Centered north of Rome, the Etruscans had ruled over the Romans for hundreds of
years. Once free, the Romans established a republic, a government in which
citizens elected representatives to rule on their behalf. A republic is quite different
from a democracy, in which every citizen is expected to play an active role in
governing the state.
The aristocracy (wealthy class) dominated the early Roman Republic. In Roman
society, the aristocrats were known as patricians. The highest positions in the
government were held by two consuls, or leaders, who ruled the Roman Republic. A
senate composed of patricians elected these consuls. At this time, lower-class
citizens, or plebeians, had virtually no say in the government. Both men and
women were citizens in the Roman Republic, but only men could vote.
Tradition dictated that patricians and plebeians should be strictly separated;
marriage between the two classes was even prohibited. Over time, the plebeians
elected their own representatives, called tribunes,
who gained the power to veto measures passed by the senate.
Gradually, the plebeians obtained even more power
and eventually could hold the position of consul. Despite these changes, though,
the patricians were still able to use their wealth to buy control and influence over
elected leaders.

Magistrates :2 consulschief magistrates who convened and presided over the Senate and
assemblies, initiated and administered legislation, served as generals in military
campaigns, and represented Rome in foreign affairs. Consuls could appoint and/or
serve as
Dictator- For up to 6 months in times of emergency when the constitution was
suspended. When their term of office was completed, consuls usually governed a
province as proconsul.
8 praetorsserved primarily as judges in law courts, but could convene the Senate
and assemblies; they assumed administrative duties of consuls when these were
absent from Rome. When their term of office was completed, praetors might govern
a province as proprietor.
2 censorselected every 5 years for terms of 1 years; revised lists of senators
and equestrians; conducted census of citizens and property assessments for tax
purposes; granted state contracts.

4 aedilessupervised public places, public games, and the grain supply in the city
of Rome; 2 were required to be plebeians, and the other two (who had more
status) could come from either order; the latter 2 were called curule aediles.
10 tribuneshad to be plebeian, because the office was established to protect the
plebeians from arbitrary actions of magistrates. Hence the primary power of
tribunes was negative; they could veto the act of any magistrate and stop any
official act of administration. They were by law sacrosanct, meaning that anyone
who attacked them physically could be immediately and summarily killed; they
could convene the Senate and assemblies and initiate legislation.
20 quaestorsadministered finances of state treasury and served in various
capacities in the provinces; when elected quaestor, a man automatically became
eligible for membership in the Senate, though censors had to appoint him to fill a
vacancy

Senate:
composed of 600 magistrates and ex-magistrates (minimum qualification was
election as quaestor) who served for life unless expelled by the censors normally
met in a building called the Curia located in the Roman Forum although technically
an advisory body, in effect the Senate was the chief governmental body because it
controlled public finances and foreign affairs, assigned military Commands and
provinces, and debated and passed decrees that would be Submitted to the

assemblies for final ratification the Republican government was symbolized by the
letters SPQR (senatus populusque Romanus), meaning the Senate and the Roman
people

Assemblies:
These were theoretically composed of all males who were full Roman citizens,
though individuals had to attend in person in order to vote. No debate from the
floor was possible, and votes were counted in groups, not individually (the vote of
each group was determined by the vote of the majority of individuals in that
group).
Assembly of the Curiae (comitia curiata): oldest assembly; by the late Republic had
mostly ceremonial and clan functions.
Assembly of the Centuries (comitia centuriata): elected consuls, praetors, censors;
declared war; served as court of appeal for citizens sentenced to death. The 193
centuries were determined by wealth, and the richest centuries were also the
smallest, so individual votes in these counted more heavily (when a majority of the
193 votes was reached, voting was stopped, so some of the largest centuries rarely
got to cast votes).
Assembly of the Tribes (comitia tributa): elected all other magistrates; voted yes or
no on laws; the 35 tribes were originally determined geographically and then
passed on by birth. A subgroup of this assembly, the Concilium Plebis, was open
only to plebeians. This plebeian assembly elected the magistrates open only to
plebeians (tribunes and plebeian aediles). After 287 BCE, the measures passed by
the Concilium Plebis (plebiscita) had the force of laws binding on the whole state.

Occasionally, an emergency situation (such as a war) arose that required the

decisive leadership of one individual. Under these circumstances, the Senate and
the consuls could appoint a temporary dictator to rule for a limited time until the
crisis was resolved. The position of dictator was very undemocratic in nature.
Indeed, a dictator had all the power, made decisions without any approval, and had
full control over the military.
The best example of an ideal dictator was a Roman citizen named Cincinnatus.
During a severe military emergency, the Roman Senate called Cincinnatus from his
farm to serve as dictator and to lead the Roman army. When Cincinnatus stepped
down from the dictatorship and returned to his farm only 15 days after he
successfully defeated Rome's enemies, the republican leaders resumed control over
Rome.

The Twelve Tables

One of the innovations of the Roman Republic was the notion of equality under the
law. In 449 B.C.E., government leaders carved some of Rome's most important
laws into 12 great tablets. The Twelve Tables, as they came to be known, were the
first Roman laws put in writing. Although the laws were rather harsh by today's
standards, they did guarantee every citizen equal treatment under the law.With
respect to the law and citizenship, the Romans took a unique approach to the lands
that they conquered. Rather than rule those people as conquered subjects, the
Romans invited them to become citizens. These people then became a part of
Rome, rather than enemies fighting against it. Naturally, these new citizens
received the same legal rights as everyone else.

THE ROMAN SOCIETY

The roman society originally broadly consisted of Patricians and Plebeians.
Patricians were aristocratic landlords(Power and social status inherited).plebians
were the common farmers, artisan, merchants who were majority of the people.
They have limited power in the government, yet had tribunes represent them at
the senate to protect their rights from the unfair law of the patrician officials. All
free citizens had a right to the protection of their right under the law.

Senators----Eq ue strians(knights)---- Proliterii (citizens without any property land---Slaves

A class division originally based on military service became more important.
Membership of these classes was determined periodically by the Censors, according to
property. Women shared some basic rights with their male counterparts, but were not
fully regarded as citizens and were thus not allowed to vote or take part in politics. At the
same time the limited rights of women gradually were expanded (due to emancipation)
and women reached freedom from paterfamilias, gained property rights and even had
more juridical rights than their husbands, but still they had no voting rights and were
absent from politics.
Voting and CitizenshipVoting was done in class order and stopped as soon as most of the tribes had been
reached, so the poorer classes were often unable even to cast their votes. Allied foreign
cities were often given the Latin Right, an intermediary level between full citizens and
foreigners (peregrini), which gave their citizens rights under Roman law and allowed their
leading magistrates to become full Roman citizens. While there were varying degrees of
Latin rights, the main division was between those cum suffragio ("with vote"; enrolled in
a Roman tribe and able to take part in the comitia tributa) and sine suffragio ("without
vote"; could not take part in Roman politics). Some of Rome's Italian allies were given full
citizenship after the Social War of 9188 BC, and full Roman citizenship was extended to
all free-born men in the Empire by Caracalla in 212.

Households
Households included the head (usually the father) of the household, pater
familias (father of the family), his wife, children, and other relatives. In the upper
classes, slaves and servants were also part of the household. The power of the
head of the household was supreme (patria potestas, "father's power")
over those living with him: He could force marriage (usually for money) and
divorce, sell his children into slavery, claim his dependents' property as his own,
and even had the right to punish or kill family members (though this last right
apparently ceased to be exercised after the 1st century BC).

Art, music and literature

The graffiti, brothels, paintings, and sculptures found in Pompeii and Herculaneum suggest
that the Romans had a sex-saturated culture.
Latin literature was, from its start, influenced heavily by Greek authors. Some of the
earliest extant works are of historical epics telling the early military history of Rome. As
the Republic expanded, authors began to produce poetry, comedy, history, and tragedy.
Roman music was largely based on Greek music, and played an important part in many
aspects of Roman life. Most religious rituals featured musical performances, with double
pipes at sacrifices, cymbals and Tambourines at orgiastic cults,
and rattles and hymns across the spectrum.

Entertainment
Athletic play and exercise, such as jumping, wrestling, boxing, and racing were popular
among the common people in the city while in the countryside, pastimes for the wealthy
also included fishing and hunting. Children entertained themselves with toys and such
games as leapfrog. For the wealthy, dinner parties presented an opportunity for
entertainment, sometimes featuring music, dancing, and poetry
readings. Plebeians sometimes enjoyed similar parties through clubs or associations, but
for most Romans, recreational dining usually meant patronizing taverns. Thus their villas
had paved, ornamented courtyard with pools or greenery for conducting parties. . Public
games were sponsored by leading Romans who wished to advertise their generosity and
court popular approval; in the Imperial era, this usually meant the emperor. Several
venues were developed specifically for public games that formed epicentre of activity and
trade in many roman cities. The Colosseum was built in the Imperial era to host, among
other events, gladiatorial combats. These combats had begun as funeral games around
the 4th century BC, and became popular spectator events in the late Republic and Empire.
Gladiators had an exotic and inventive variety of arms and armour. They sometimes
fought to the death, but more often to an adjudicated victory, dependent on a referee's

decision. The outcome was usually in keeping with the mood of the watching crowd.
Shows of exotic animals were popular in their own right; but sometimes animals were
pitted against human beings, either armed professionals or unarmed criminals who had
been condemned to a spectacular and theatrical public death in the arena. Some of these
encounters were based on episodes from Roman or Greek mythology. Chariot racing was
extremely popular among all classes.

Distribution of population with respect to occupation --Some

economists like Peter Temin consider the Roman Empire a market economy, Ancient
Rome commanded a vast area of land, with tremendous natural and human
resourcesRome's economy remained focused on farming and trade.The economy of the
early Republic was largely based on smallholding and paid labor. However, foreign wars
and conquests made slaves increasingly cheap and plentiful, and by the late Republic, the
economy was largely dependent on slave labor for both skilled and unskilled work.Slaves
are estimated to have constituted around 20% of the Roman Empire's population at this
time and 40% in the city of Rome.
Life in ancient Rome revolved around the city of Rome, located on seven hills. The city had
a vast number of monumental structures like the Colosseum, the Forum of Trajan and
the Pantheon. It had theatres, gymnasiums, marketplaces, functional sewers, bath
complexes complete with libraries and shops, and fountains with fresh drinking water
supplied by hundreds of miles of aqueducts. Throughout the territory under the control of
ancient Rome, residential architecture ranged from modest houses to country villas.
In the capital city of Rome, there were imperial residences on the elegant Palatine Hill,
from which the word palace derives. The low Plebeian and middle Equestrian classes lived
in the city center, packed into apartments, or Insulae, which were almost like
modern ghettos. These areas, often built by upper class property owners to rent, were
often centred upon collegia or taberna. These people, provided with a free supply of grain,
and entertained by gladatorial games, were enrolled as clients of patrons among the
upper class Patricians, whose assistance they sought and whose interests they upheld.

THE RELIGION OF ROME

Roman Paganism
If anything, the Romans had a practical attitude to religion, as to most things,
which perhaps explains why they themselves had difficulty in taking to the idea of a
single, all-seeing, all-powerful god.
In so far as the Romans had a religion of their own, it was not based on any central
belief, but on a mixture of fragmented rituals, taboos, superstitions, and traditions
which they collected over the years from a number of sources.

To the Romans, religion was less a spiritual experience than a contractual

relationship between mankind and the forces which were believed to control
people's existence and well-being.
The result of such religious attitudes were two things: a state cult, the significant
influence on political and military events of which outlasted the republic, and a
private concern, in which the head of the family oversaw the domestic rituals and
prayers in the same way as the representatives of the people performed the public
ceremonials.
However, as circumstances and people's view of the world changed, individuals
whose personal religious needs remained unsatisfied turned increasingly during the
first century AD to the mysteries, which were of Greek origin, and to the cults of
the east.
The origins of Roman Religion
Most of the Roman gods and goddesses were a blend of several religious influences.
Many were introduced via the Greek colonies of southern Italy. Many also had their
roots in old religions of the Etruscans or Latin tribes.
Often the the old Etruscan or Latin name survived but the deity over time became
to be seen as the Greek god of equivalent or similar nature. And so it is that the
Greek and Roman pantheon look very similar, but for different names.
An example of such mixed origins is the goddess Diana to whom the Roman king
ServiusTullius built the temple on the Aventine Hill. Essentially she was an old Latin
goddess from the earliest of times.
Before ServiusTullius moved the center of her worship to Rome, it was based at
Aricia.
There in Aricia it was always a runaway slave who would act as her priest. He would
win the right to hold office by killing his predecessor. To challenge him to a fight he
would though first have to manage to break off a branch of a particular sacred tree;
a tree on which the current priest naturally would keep a close eye. From such
obscure beginnings Diana was moved to Rome, where she then gradually became
identified with the Greek goddess Artemis.
It could even occur that a deity was worshipped, for reasons no-one really could
remember. An example for such a deity is Furrina. A festival was held every year in
her honour on 25 July. But by the middle of the first century BC there was no-one
left who actually remember what she was actually goddess of.
Prayer and Sacrifice
Most form of religious activity required some kind of sacrifice. And prayer could be
a confusing matter due to some gods having multiple names or their sex even
being unknown. The practice of Roman religion was a confusing thing.

THE FESTIVALS
There was not a month in the Roman calendar which did not have its religious
festivals.
And the very earliest festivals of the Roman state were already celebrated with
games.
The consualia (celebrating the festival of Consus and the famous 'rape of the
Sabine women'), which was held on 21 August, also was the main event of the
chariot racing year. It can hence hardly be a coincidence that the underground
granary and shrine of Consus, where the opening ceremonies of the festival were
held, was accessed from the very center isle of the Circus Maximus.
But apart from the consualia August, the sixth month of the old calendar, also had
festivals in honour of the gods Hercules, Portunus, Vulcan, Volturnus and Diana.
Festivals could be somber, dignified occasions, as well as joyful events.

Economic Factors

Trade with nearby colonies was vital to the development of Rome. At the height of
the Roman Empire the population of Rome was estimated to be around 1 million
people. In order to sustain the population, trade and commerce became a
necessity.
The Roman Empire traded by land and by sea
o Their sea routes spanned throughout the Mediterranean and the Black Sea.
o The two main reasons for building roads was to facilitate trade and movement of
the Roman Army.
Romes main trading partners were Spain, France, the Middle East, and North Africa
Trade in the Roman Empire was encouraged by many years of peace
Rome imported a variety of goods such as: beef, corn, iron, leather, marble, silk,
silver, spices, tin and wine.

Social Factors

Ancient Rome set the premiere example of a modern city; one that would be copied
and improved countless times. The information outlined below represents some of
the crucial data influencing the urban design of the city as well as the daily lives of
the inhabitants.
The forum was a central meeting place located in the heart of the city where
citizens and politicians would gather to discuss pertinent issues, broker business
deals, and generally congregate. As time went by, and the Roman Empire grew in
splendor and size, more and more emphasis was placed on the Forum (in addition
to more forums being constructed).
Like many modern cities, traffic posed a huge problem, so in an effort to reduce
congestion any vehicle with wheels was outlawed except for the 2 hours around
sunrise and sunset.
In one of the earliest examples of internal spatial structures of cities, ancient Rome
can be represented by the sector model in the early years, that is, clear residential
patterns based on affluence are present. The citys poor were concentrated to the
east of the original forum in an area known as the subura. As the city grew
progressively larger and more advanced, more and more forums were constructed
under different emperors. As these additional forums were built, business districts
and markets would spring up in the immediate area, thus creating multiple centers
of commerce in the city. During the height of its power in antiquity, the city of
Rome had made a spatial shift away from the sector model and resembled more
closely the multiple nuclei model, despite the fact that these multiple nuclei were all
in close proximity.

Public Housing in Ancient Rome:

The affluent of Rome lived in multi-roomed houses called domus. Despite the fact
the vast majority of the city wasnt wealthy enough to live in domus, they made up
a disproportionately high percentage of the city landscape, upwards of 30%.
Most citizens of Rome lived in what many would describe as an ancient apartment;
multi-leveled buildings called insulas. These buildings were fairly simplistic in
nature, without indoor plumbing and with little insulation from the weather. As a
result, the inhabitants of insulas would have to venture to public wells for a steady
water supply.
Education in Ancient Rome
While Rome in antiquity featured few if any schools, education still played a
crucial role in the upbringing of children in society.
The majority of the basic knowledge was taught through the medium of family life.
Many of the rudimentary skills for farming, craftsmanship, and warfare were passed
down generation by generation.
The children of Romes affluent were often schooled by private tutors in the fields
of the classics and philosophy, as well as many of the prominent Greek works, such
as the Homeric and Hesiodic epics.
Slavery in Ancient Rome
Slaves played a crucial role in not only the construction of ancient Rome but also
the everyday lives of Romes many citizens. Many menial or lesser tasks were
assigned to slaves, such as woodworking, beauticians, and messengers; however, it
was not uncommon for slaves to also hold more prominent positions in business
and to some extent, government.
The wealth and prestige of a man in Rome was often based on the sheer
number of slaves owned.
Ironically, the fact that slaves were employed in such great numbers during the
construction and rise of Rome probably aided its downfall. Through a relatively
simple process called manumission, it was possible for a slave to receive full
citizenship and freedom. Over time, when enough slaves went through this
process, Rome experienced a massive lack of manpower which served as a
contributing factor in the eventual downfall of Rome.

Planning Factors

The city plan of Timgad clearly shows the rationality of Roman town planning. The organic medieval cities that were
eventually to house the successor populations of the former territories of the Roman Empire represent a very different
approach to urbanism.

Modern Rome has been shaped by its past dating back centuries. Planning factors
were decided long ago, beginning with Romes establishment near the Tiber River
and Alban Hills around 753 BC. This site offered many benefits as the river was a
natural border, it flowed through the city offering water, transport, and sewage
disposal, and the hills gave a safe defensive position. The site was also located on
an intersection between two principal roads leading to the sea coming from
Sabinum in the Northeast and Etruria in the Northwest.
The Ancient Romans used a specific scheme for city planning that centered around
military defense and civil convenience.
The basic city plan consisted of a central forum with city services, surrounded by a
compact grid of streets and wrapped in a wall for defense. The wall was also used
to mark the city limits and was covered by a Portcullis, or fortified gate at the front
of the city.
They would lay out the streets at right angles, in the form of a square grid. All
roads were equal in width and length, except for two diagonal ones that intersected
in the middle to form the center of the grid.
Each square marked by four roads was called an insula, the Roman equivalent of a
modern city block. Each main road held a gateway with watchtowers.
The collapse of Roman civilization saw the end of Roman urban planning. The
Ancient Roman city planning style is still very clear in Modern Rome and it has
influenced many towns across Europe and the world.

Roman technology
Roman technology is the engineering practice which supported Roman civilization
and made the expansion of Roman commerce and Roman military possible for
almost three quarters of a millennium (753 BC476 AD).
The greatest areas of roman technology were those where roman civilization
excelled the most. Technology for civil engineering, building and warfare were some
of the areas they explored. Roman roads , roman bridges, roman defensive walls
are some of the prominent examples.

Roads
The Romans primarily built roads for their military. Their economic importance was
probably also significant, although wagon traffic was often banned from the roads
to preserve their military value. At its largest extent the total length of the Roman
road network was 85,000 kilometres.Way stations providing refreshments were
maintained by the government at regular intervals along the roads. A separate
system of changing stations for official and private couriers was also
maintained.Paved roads were needed to reach to any point of the empire. They
facilitated both communication and political control.

The roads were made with strong foundations; different materials were put into
different layers. The roads were constructed by digging a pit along the length of the
intended course, often to bedrock. The pit was first filled with rocks, gravel or sand
and then a layer of concrete. Finally they were paved with polygonal rock slabs. The
roads were not completely flat, they consisted of several parts. The central and
highest was the most important; it was convex to conduct the water to the Ditches
that were built in the sides.Roman roads are considered the most advanced roads
built until the early 19th century. The roads were resistant to floods and other
environmental hazards. To measure the distance they created the Milliarium or
stones located in the sides. Bridges were constructed over waterways.After the fall
of the Roman Empire the roads were still usable and used for more than 1000
years.
Most Roman cities were shaped like a square. There were 4 main roads leading the
centre of the city, or forum. They formed a cross shape, and each point on the
edge of the cross was a gateway into the city. Connecting to these main roads were
smaller roads, the streets where people lived.

Bridges
Roman engineers were true masters building them, since constructions were
essential elements for reaching places and cities often situated at the bank of
rivers. This location was due to defensive and infrastructural reasons -supply and
drainage.
They are characterised by:
Not pointed arches.
Constructions of ashlars masonry often with pad shape.
Route of more than 5 m. wide.
Route of horizontal or slightly combed surface "few curved".
Rectangular pillars from their basis with lateral triangular or circular
cutwaters that end before the railings.

Source: wikipedia

Aqueducts
The Romans constructed numerous aqueducts to supply water. The city of Rome
itself was supplied by eleven aqueducts made of limestone that provided the city
with over 1 million cubic metres of water each day. Water inside the aqueducts
depended entirely on gravity. The raised stone channels in which the water
travelled were slightly slanted. The water was carried directly from mountain
springs. After it had gone through the aqueduct, the water was collected in tanks
and fed through pipes to fountains, toilets, etc. The main aqueducts in Ancient
Rome were the Aqua Claudia and the Aqua Marcia.Most aqueducts were constructed
below the surface with only small portions above ground supported by arches.The
longest Roman aqueduct, 178 kilometres in length, was traditionally assumed to be
that which supplied the city of Carthage.
Roman aqueducts were built to remarkably fine tolerances, and to a technological
standard that was not to be equalled until modern times. Powered entirely by
gravity, they transported very large amounts of water very efficiently. Sometimes,
where depressions deeper than 50 metres had to be crossed, inverted siphons were
used to force water uphill.

Walls
Defence of cities has been one of the capital problems that civilizations had to solve
in order to project thefuture of their citizens,goods, culture and waysof life.Romans

were the firstin the technique of improving different kinds of defence, using walls.
The entire Roman Empire was surrounded by an outer wall which protected the city
from foreign attacks and acted as a boundary in itself.

Roman architecture
Ancient Roman architecture developed different aspects of Ancient Greek
architecture and newer technologies such as the arch and the dome to make a new
architectural style. Roman architecture flourished throughout the Empire during the
PaxRomana. Its use of new materials, particularly concrete, was a very important
feature.Roman Architecture covers the period from the establishment of the Roman
Republic in 509 BC to about the 4th century AD, after which it becomes reclassified
as Byzantine architecture. Most of the many surviving examples are from the later
period. Roman architectural style continued to influence building in the former
empire for many centuries, and the style used in Western Europe beginning about
1000 is called Romanesque architecture to reflect this dependence on basic Roman
forms.
The Ancient Romans were responsible for significant developments in housing and
public hygiene, for example their public and private baths and latrines, under-floor
heating in the form of the hypocaust, mica glazing and piped hot and cold water.
Roman architecture is the result of different influences:
Primitive cultures of the area Rome was founded in.
Etrurian civilization: urban, offering cult to the ancestors.
Greek and Hellenistic: this was the model the aimed at imitating.

Roman town planning

Cities were the centre of Roman life. The plan of the city was based on the camp. It
had two main axes
Cardus E-W
Decumanus N-S
Where the two converged was the forum. The rest of the space was divided into
squares in which insulae or blocks of flats were built. There was a need of linking
them through paved roads.
The most important part of the city was the forum, where political, economic,
administrative, social and religious activity were centred. In big cities there were
theatres, circuses, stadiums.

Typology
Roman Architecture has a rich typology that includes:
Religious building: temple
Civil buildings:
Public: basilicas, baths
Spectacles: theatre, amphitheatre, circus
Domestic: house, village, palace
Funerary: tombs

Religious
1. Temple
It copied the Greek model.It has only one portico and a main faade. It tends to be
pseudoperiptero. The cella is totally closed. It is built on a podium. Instead of
having stairs all around, it only has them in the main faade. There were other
kindsof temples:
Circular: similar to the Greek tholos
Pantheon: combined squared and circular structures and was in honour of all
gods.

Source: google and wikipedia

roman temples
Source: wikipedia

Civil Buildings
1. Basilica:
It was the residence of the tribunal. It is rectangular andhas different naves.The
central nave is higher and receives light from the sides. The building ends in an
apse. It is covered with vaults
Barrel over the central nave
Edged over the lateral naves

Source: google
2. Baths:
There were spaces for public life. They consisted of different rooms. Changing
rooms:
Different temperature rooms: Frigidarium (cold),Tepidarium (warm),Caldarium
(hot).
Swimming pool
Gymnasium
Library
Caracallas bath house
Source: google

Spectacle
1.Theatre:
It is similar to the Greekbut it is not located in amountain but it iscompletely built.
It has a semicircularscenery. The doors to facilitatepeoples movement arecalled
vomitoria. It does not have theorchestra because inRoman plays was not achorus.
The rest of the parts aresimilar to those of theGreek theatre.

Meridas Roman Theatre

Source: wikipedia
2.Amphitheatre:
It comes from the fusion of two theatres. It was the place for spectacles with
animals and fights (gladiators). There could be filled with water for naval battles.

Source: wikipedia

3.Circus:
It was a building for horse races and cuadriga competitions. It has the cavea, the
areaand a central element toturn around, thespina.

Houses
1.Insulae:
There are urban houses. In order to take advantagefrom the room in
cities,buildings up to four floors were constructed.The ground floor was forshops
tabernae- and theothers for apartments of different sizes.Every room
wascommunicated through acentral communitarian patiodecorated with flowers
orgardens.

2.Domus:
It was the usual housing for important people ineach city. It was endowed with a
structure based ondistribution through porticated patios:
the entry -fauces- gives access to
a small corridor -vestibule-.
It leads to a porticated patio -atrium-.
Its centre, the impluvium, is a bank for the water falling from the compluvium.
At both sides -alae- there are many chambers used as rooms for service slaves,
kitchens and latrines.
At the bottom, the tablinum or living-room can be found, and close to it, the
tricliniumor dining-room.
This atrium gave also light enough to next
rooms.
At both sides of the tablinum, little corridors led to the noble part of the domus.

 Second porticated patio peristylium, was bigger and endowed with a central
garden.
It was surrounded by rooms cubiculumand marked by an exedra used as a
chamber for banquets or social meetings.

3.Villa:
Houses far from cities,were thought forrealizing agriculturalexploitations
villaerustica-, or else asplaces for the rest ofimportant persons -villae
urbana.Entertaining villa wasendowed with everycomfortable element in its age as
well asgardens and splendid views. Country villa got stables, cellars, storesand
orchards apart fromthe noble rooms.

4.Palaces:
There were the residences of the emperor. They consisted of a numerous series of
rooms. Their plan tended to be regular.

Dioclecianos Palace at Splitz