Cellular Mobile

Communications
Cell concept

Wireless Comm. Systems

Goals
provide coverage over a large area
provide coverage to a large number of
users
maintain an acceptable level of quality

Wireless Systems

A single tower at the center called a

base station.
Powerful transmitter attached to top
of base station.
Coverage area increased by making
tower taller and/or increasing
transmission power.

Wireless Systems

Does this model satisfy our goals?

Large coverage area
High call quality
Limited number of users

Cellular System

Cellular Concept

Base stations (BS): implement space

division multiple access
Each BS covers a certain transmission area
(cell)
Each BS is allocated a portion of the total
number of channels available
Cluster: group of nearby BSs that together use
all available channels

Mobile stations communicate only via the

base station, using FDMA, TDMA, CDMA

Frequency Reuse

The total number of channels are

divided into K groups.
K is called reuse factor or cluster size.

Each cell is assigned one of the

groups.
The same group can be reused by
two different cells provided that
they are sufficiently far apart.

Frequency Reuse

Extensive frequency reuse allows for many

users to be supported at the same time.
Total spectrum allocated to the service
provider is broken up into smaller bands.
A cell is assigned one of these bands. This
means all communications (transmissions
to and from users) in this cell occur over
these frequencies only.

Frequency Reuse

Neighboring cells are assigned a different

frequency band.

This ensures that nearby transmissions do

not interfere with each other.

The same frequency band is reused in

another cell that is far away. This large
distance limits the interference caused by
this co-frequency cell.

Example of Frequency Reuse

Cells using the same frequencies

Example:
K=7

The factor K is called the cluster size and is given

K=i2+ij+j2

A
D

C
A

E
B

C
A

C
F

A
E

The Cellular Concept

Cluster of 7 cells

Cells

Cellular network
Segmentation of the area into cells
Possible radio coverage

cell

Idealized shape of the cell

use of several carrier frequencies

not the same frequency in adjoining cells
cell sizes vary from some 100 m up to 35 km depending on
user density, geography, transceiver power etc.
hexagonal shape of cells is idealized (cells overlap, shapes
depend on geography)
if a mobile user changes cells
handover of the connection to the neighbor cell

Cellular Concept

Cell size:
100 m in cities to 35 km on the
country side (GSM)
even less for higher frequencies
Umbrella cell: large cell that includes
several smaller cells

Avoid frequent handoffs for fast moving

traffic

Cellular Concept

Cell shape:
Hexagonal is useful for theoretical analysis
Practical footprint (radio coverage area) is
amorphous

BS placement:
Center-excited cell: BS near center of cell

omni-directional antenna

Edge-excited cell: BSs on three of the six cell

vertices

sectored directional antennas

Cellular Concept

Advantages:
higher capacity, higher number of
users
less transmission power needed
more robust, decentralized
base station deals with interference,
transmission area etc. locally

Cellular Concept

Problems:

fixed network needed for the base stations

handover necessary
interference with co-channel, adjacent-channel

Important Issues:

Cell sizing; Frequency reuse planning

Channel allocation strategies

Bottom line: Attempt to maximize

availability of channels in an area

Geometric Representation

Cells are commonly represented by

hexagons.
Why hexagon?
How about circle?
How about square, or triangle?

Hexagonal Cells

To find the nearest co-channel neighbor of a

particular cell, one must do the following:

move i cells along any chain of hexagons

and then
turn 60 degrees counter-clockwise and
move j cells.

19-cell reuse example (K=19)

Method of locating co-channel cells in a cellular system. In

this example, K = 19 (i.e., i = 3, j = 2).

i=1, j=2 , K=1+2+4=7

A
A
j

i
A
A
A

A
A

Distance Formula
D 3(i ij j ) R
2

3K R
where
R

K i ij j
2

Reuse factor

Note: i and j are integers

Channel Assignment Strategies:

Fixed Channel Assignments

Each cell is allocated a predetermined

set of voice channels.
If all the channels in that cell are
occupied, the call is blocked, and the
subscriber does not receive service.
Variation includes a borrowing strategy:
a cell is allowed to borrow channels
from a neighboring cell if all its own
channels are occupied. This is
supervised by the MSC.

Channel Assignment Strategies:

Dynamic Channel Assignments

Voice channels are not allocated to different cells

permanently.
Each time a call request is made, the serving
base station requests a channel from the MSC.
The switch then allocates a channel to the
requested call based on a decision algorithm
taking into account different factors: frequency
re-use of candidate channel and cost factors.
Dynamic channel assignment is more complex
(real time), but reduces likelihood of blocking.

Interference and System Capacity

sources of interference:

other mobiles in same cell

a call in progress in a neighboring cell
other base stations operating in the same frequency
band
Non-cellular system leaking energy into the cellular
frequency band

effect of interference:

voice channel: cross talk

control channel: missed or blocked calls

two main types:

co-channel interference
adjacent channel interference

Co-Channel Interference

cells that use the same set of frequencies are

called co-channel cells.
Interference between the cells is called cochannel interference.
Co-channel reuse ratio: Q = D/R
R: radius of cell
D: distance between nearest co-channel cells

Small Q small cluster size N large capacity

large Q good transmission quality
tradeoff must be made in actual cellular design

Adjacent Channel Interference

Interference resulting from signals which

are adjacent in frequency to the desired
signal.
Due to imperfect receiver filters that allow
nearby frequencies to leak into pass band.
Can be minimized by careful filtering and
assignments, and by keeping frequency
separation between channel in a given cell
as large as possible, the adjacent channel
interference may be reduced considerably.

Approaches to Increase Capacity

Frequency borrowing
frequencies are taken from adjacent cells by
congested cells

Cell splitting
cells in areas of high usage can be split into
smaller cells

Cell sectoring
cells are divided into a number of wedgeshaped sectors, each with their own set of
channels

Cell Splitting

subdivide a congested cell into

smaller cells
each with its own base station,
reduction in antenna and transmitter
power
more cells more clusters higher
capacity
achieves capacity improvement by
essentially rescaling the system.

Cell Splitting from radius R to R/2

Sectoring

In basic form, antennas are

omnidirectional

Replacing a single omni-directional

antenna at base station with several
directional antennas, each radiating
within a specified sector.

Sectoring

achieves capacity improvement by

essentially rescaling the system.
less co-channel interference, number
of cells in a cluster can be reduced
Larger frequency reuse factor, larger
capacity

Sectoring improves S/I

Handover/ Handoff

Handoff

Handoffs must be:

performed quickly
performed infrequently
imperceptible to users
performed successfully

Handoff

Cell, BSC (base station controller), MSC

(mobile switching center) are responsible
for Handoff
Handoff scenarios
Intra-cell handover (e.g., change frequency due
to narrowband interference)
Inter-cell, intra-BSC handover (e.g., movement
across cells)
Inter-BSC, intra-MSC handover (e.g.,
movement across BSC)
Inter MSC handover (e.g., movement across
MSC)

4 types of Handoff
1
MS

BTS

MS

MS

MS

BTS

BTS

BTS

BSC

BSC

BSC

MSC

MSC

Styles of Handoff

Network Controlled Handoff (NCHO)

in first generation cellular system, each
base station constantly monitors signal
strength from mobiles in its cell
based on the measures, MSC decides if
handoff necessary
mobile plays passive role in process
burden on MSC

NCHO
Mobile moves from one BS to another

BS initiated:
BS monitors the signal level of the mobile
Handoff occurs if signal level falls below threshold
Increases load on BS

Monitor signal level of each mobile

Determine target BS for handoff

Styles of Handoff

Mobile Assisted Handoff (MAHO)

present in second generation systems
mobile measures received power from surrounding base
stations and report to serving base station
handoff initiated when power received from a
neighboring cell exceeds current value by a certain level
or for a certain period of time
faster since measurements made by mobiles, MSC dont
need monitor signal strength

MAHO

Mobile assisted:
Each BS periodically transmits beacon
Mobile, on hearing stronger beacon from
a new BS, sends it a greeting

changes routing tables to make new BS its

default gateway
sends new BS identity of the old BS

New BS acknowledges the greeting and

begins to route mobiles call

Hand-Offs

Intersystem: (Roaming)
Mobile moves across areas controlled by
different MSCs
Handled similar to mobile assisted case
with additional HLR/VLR effort
Local call may become long-distance

Types of Handoff

Hard handoff - (break before make)

FDMA, TDMA
mobile has radio link with only one BS
at anytime
old BS connection is terminated before
new BS connection is made.

Types of Handoff

Soft handoff (make before break)

CDMA systems
mobile has simultaneous radio link with
more than one BS at any time
new BS connection is made before old
BS connection is broken
mobile unit remains in this state until
one base station clearly predominates