DEVELOPMENT OF A DETERMINISTIC MODEL

FOR AIR POLLUTANT’S CONCENTRATION

BY

AREGBESOLA BENJAMIN OLADAPO

B.ENG (ChE) (MINNA), PGDM (CALABAR)
M.ENG/SEET/605/2000

Thesis submitted to School of Postgraduate Studies,

Federal University of Technology, Minna,
in partial fulfillment for the award of Master of Engineering Degree in
Chemical Engineering in Chemical Engineering Department
School of Engineering and Engineering Technology,
Federal University of Technology, Minna, Niger State.

OCTOBER 2003

1
 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this thesis is an effort made by me and to the best of my

knowledge, it has not been submitted in any form for another degree or diploma at

any University or institution. Information extracted from published and unpublished

materials has been duly acknowledged in the text.

--------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------
AREGBESOLA, B.OLADAPO DATE

2
 CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that this dissertation entitled “Development of a Deterministic

Model for Air Pollutants’ Concentration” was undertaken by AREGBESOLA, B.

OLADAPO in the Chemical Engineering Department, School of Engineering and

Engineering Technology, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Niger State and

was approved for its contribution to knowledge:

--------------------------------------------- --------------------------------
----
DR J.O.ODIGURE DATE
(Supervisor)

----------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------
DR. F.O. ABERUAGBA DATE

 H o eD fa ed p  a r t m e n t
 
 C h E e nm g  i ic n a e l e r i n
---------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------
(External Examiner) DATE

3
--------------------------------------------- --------------------------------
----
PROF. J.A. ABALAKA DATE
(Dean, Postgraduate School)

DEDICATION

To the Lord God Almighty, Source of all knowledge, wisdom and understanding.

To the blessed memory of my dear father, Late Elder Joshua Olatunji Aregbesola

(1934-1999).

4
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My heartfelt appreciation go to the many special people who have helped bring this

research work into existence. While I take full responsibility for any of its imperfection,

I recognise that its merits and findings have been based in large part on contributions

and inspiration of those around me.

Special thanks go to the Lord God Almighty who has granted me all that I need to

have for existence. All Wisdom and Knowledge is His. He is Omniscience and

Omniscient.

Special thanks go to my supervisor, DR. J. O. Odigure. Your patience,

encouragement, criticism, dedication and support have helped me explore and has

been a source of inspiration for me.

Special thanks go to Dr. K. R. Onifade for his assistance and fatherly advice

throughout my undergraduate days and for this master’s programme. I cherish his

support.

Special thanks go to my beloved mother Christiana Aregbesola and sisters Temitope,

Oluwakemi, Oluwafunmike and Oluwatoyosi for their encouragement and support. It

was your unquestioning belief in my abilities that inspired me through time of doubt.

5
Special thanks go to Benedine Akpu for your unselfish dedication and

companionship. Your friendship and support provided the perfect environment for me

in striving to make this work a reality.

Special thanks go to all the academic, non-academic and technical staff of the

Chemical Engineering Department, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Niger

State. Your training, publication and assistance have helped in making this work see

the light of the day.

Special thanks go to the Adeleye Family for their support and meaningful contribution

especially in the use of their computer system for writing the computer program and

typesetting this work. And specially to Oluwadunsin Adeleye, you have proved to be

a faithful companion. I am indeed grateful.

Special thanks go to Engineers Saka Abdulkareem, Fatai Jimoh, Kovo Abdulsalami,

Olalekan Adeniyi and others of Federal university of technology, Minna, for your

confidence and meaningful contributions. You have made the process of this work an

absolute joy. I feel honoured to have had such a talented group of professionals to

work with.

Special thanks go to Pastors David Oladipo and Michael Albert, the Church

Committee and the entire members of Christ Apostolic Church (English Assembly),

6
Kaduna District, Kaduna. Their prayers and generous efforts have helped sustain

me. To Brother Bello for the use of his computer.

Special thanks go to Mallam Hassan Rani and family. Pastor Adediwura and family,

Sisters Wunmi Balogun, Funmi Oguntuase, Victoria Onyemachi and Brother Gbenga

Sobowale. Their companionship has made my life vastly more fulfilling.

Special thanks to my course mates Manasseh Auta, Muhammad Aliyu, Abdul

Adamu, Anthony Okereke, Bishop Fredrik, and Anwal Anwar. Your helpful and

supportive feedback in the early stages of the course is appreciated.

7
 ABSTRACT

A deterministic model for predicting air pollution concentration was derived. Various

established physical laws were used in the model development.

The presence of gaseous pollutants in the atmosphere causes disequilibria in the

prevailing meteorological condition, which is in accordance with the existing gas law.

This project is aimed at developing a deterministic model for predicting gaseous

pollutants concentration.

Parameters such as atmospheric pressure, atmospheric temperature, wind speed

and vapour pressure were obtained from Nigerian Airspace Management Authority,

Minna Airport, Minna, and were used as input while the output will include the

gaseous pollutants’ concentration. All these were put in a computer program format

to simulate the extent of pollution.

Experimental data from research works carried out in Minna and Abuja were

obtained and compared with the simulated results. The use of qualitative analytical

techniques to determine gaseous pollutants’ concentrations though highly accurate

and effective has no ready application in developing countries, because of the cost

implication and lack of necessary manpower.

The presence of gaseous pollutants in the atmosphere causes disequilibria in the

prevailing meteorological condition, which is in accordance with the existing gas law.

viii
This project is aimed at developing a deterministic model for predicting gaseous

pollutants concentration. The developed model is presented as

 − u PPOLLUTANT 
CPOLLUTANT = exp 3 
 KT 2 

The simulation results for concentration of air pollutants and the daily average of

these concentrations were found to be comparable with the experimental results

obtained from the various agencies.

Therefore, the proposed model can serve as a tool for predicting air pollutants’

concentration in projects that require the overall impact of pollution. It is not suitable

in case where the concentration of a particular pollutant is required

ix
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - i

Certification - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -ii

Dedication - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - iii

Declaration - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -iv

Acknowledgment s - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -v

Table Of Contents - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -vii

List Of Figures And Tables - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - x

Abstract - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - xi

CHAPTER ONE: Introduction

1.1 Background Information

1.2 Pollutants And Their Sources In Minna.

1.3 Justification

1.4 Aims And Objectives

1.5 Scope And Limitations of The Study

CHAPTER TWO: Literature Review

2.1 Pollution

2.2 Atmosphere

2.2.1 Location And Capacity

2.2.2 Composition Of The Atmosphere

2.3 Air Pollution

2.3.1 Air Pollutants

2.3.2 Sources Of Air Pollutants

x
2.3.3 Effects Of Air Pollution

2.3.4 Outcome Of Air Pollutants In The Atmosphere

2.4 General Relationships

2.4.1 Gas Laws

2.4.2 Total Pressure

2.4.3 Diffusivity

2.4.4 Vapour Pressure

2.5 Modeling And Simulation

2.5.1 Determination of Air Pollutants concentration by Quantitative

Analysis.

2.5.2 Deduction

2.6 Air Quality Models

2.6.1 Box Models

2.6.2 Proportional Models

2.6.3 Guassian Models

2.6.4 Construction of Guassian Models

CHAPTER THREE: Development of a Deterministic Model for Air Pollutants

Concentration

3.1 Description of the Study Area

3.2 Assumptions for the Model

3.3 Parameters for the Model

3.3.1 Ideal Gas Law

3.3.2 Density

xi
 3.3.3 Total Pressure

3.3.4 Wind and Dispersion

3.3.5 Diffusivity

3.3.6 Mass Transport

3.4 Development of the Model Equations.

3.5 Simulation Procedure

3.5.1 Statement of Problem

3.5.2 Mathematical Description

3.5.3 Algorithm Development

3.5.4 Computer Implementation

CHAPTER FOUR: Meteorological and Experimental Data

4.1 Meteorological Data

4.2 Experimental Data

CHAPTER FIVE: Results, Discussion of Results and Conclusion

Results

5.2 Discussion of Results

5.3 Conclusion

References

Appendix

xii
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 Composition of Clean, Dry Air.

Table 2.2 Global Emission form Natural and Anthropogenic Sources.

Table 2.3 Methods for analysing Air Pollutants.

Table 4.1 Meteorological Data from Nigerian Airspace Management Authority,

Minna.

Table 4.2 Data on Environmental Monitoring of some Air Pollutants and

Particulates concentration of three areas within Minna Municipal.

Table 4.3 Results of the Air Quality Assessment carried out in some selected

Areas in Abuja.

Table 5.1 Pollutants concentrations using the derived Model.

Table 5.2 Monthly Average of Pollutant concentration obtained using the Model.

Table 5.3 Monthly Average Computed from Table 4.3.

Table 5.4 Daily Average Computed from Table 4.2.

 LIST OF FIGURES.

Figure 2.1 Box Model.

Figure 3.1 Flowchart for the computer program.

14
 CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND

The quality of air and water is most vital to the existence of living organisms on earth.

Despite the abundance of these natural resources in the world as a whole, an

alarming proportion of the world’s population lacks access to reasonably safe air to

breathe and water to drink. This increasing deterioration in air quality as a result of

economic and human development activities, poses serious threats to health of the

living organisms in many parts of the world. This is ironical. Economic development

has numerous positive benefits but its by-products could be detrimental. Therefore, in

order to understand the environmental impact of development and better target

human and technological interventions, we must understand and devise fundamental

control measures of pollution. This project is one such attempt.

Air consists mainly of nitrogen and oxygen, with other components (carbon dioxide,

argon e.t.c) in minute quantities. Human activities such as cooking, bush burning,

combustion engines e.t.c, always result in some by-products e.g., carbon monoxide,

nitrogen oxides, sulphur oxides, e.t.c, being emitted into the atmosphere. Presently

the high concentrations of these by-products or pollutants have resulted globally in a

number of irreversible damages in the ecosystem. Thus air pollution can be defined

in a broad context as the introduction into the environment of waste, material, or

energy having no further value, as a result of natural and human activities such as to

cause a stress or unfavourable alteration of individual organism, a community, or an

ecosystem (Miller, 1975).

15
Pollutants can be broadly categorised by their impact on human health, economic

activity, and ecosystem functions and by their short and long run effects. Such

pollutants include carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulphur oxides, insecticidal and

pesticidal dusting, soot and ash. Sources of these pollutants include municipal

activities such as refuse disposal, fuel fired combustion processes, motor vehicles,

domestic heating and cooking activities e.t.c.

Upon emission into the atmosphere, air pollutants are transported through the

atmosphere by wind currents from their points of release to downwind receptors.

They are dispersed and diluted so that an emission, toxic at its release point, may be

harmless at ground level downwind. The dispersion and dilution of pollutants are

controlled by meteorological parameters, atmospheric stability, wind speed and

direction.

Nature has provided several cleansing mechanisms for the removal of pollutants in

the atmosphere. These natural processes include washout, rainout, gravitational

settling and turbulent impaction. It should be noted, however, that at the present level

of development the rate of natural cleansing is indeed slower than the rate of

injection of pollutants into the atmosphere. This then informs the need to closely

monitor and control emission of pollutants into the atmosphere.

1.2 POLLUTANTS AND THEIR SOURCES IN MINNA.

Minna City is the capital of Niger State, one of the 36 States in Nigeria. Minna is

predominantly residential with very few cottage industries, densely populated at the

16
central area (popularly called Mobil) with low density at the outskirt. Due to increasing

economic activities and relatively peaceful environment, there is a remarkable influx

of people into the city and thus increased number of cars.

Several sources of pollutants can be identified in Minna. These include cars and

other internal-combustion engines or generally, fossil fuel driven vehicles. These

have contributed to good standard of living enjoyed by the populace but their

combustion processes have resulted in the production of carbon dioxide, carbon

monoxide, chlorofluorocarbon (CFC), nitrogen oxides that are known as the

Greenhouse Gases (GHG). Domestic cooking and heating is largely carried out with

firewood and kerosene stoves. These also produce various gases as well as soot,

and flying ash that are eventually discharged into the atmosphere. The amount of

pollutants emitted by bush burning, decomposition of agricultural wastes perhaps

may not be significant, but it contributes to the overall contaminant concentration in

the atmosphere.

1.3 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY

The ever-increasing rates of industrialisation and urbanisation with their attending

environmental calamities have brought attention on pollution monitoring and control.

Numerous research work have been undertaken, thus there is adequate information

on the various environmental pollutants, how to identify them, their sources and

environmental impact. However the monitoring and control of these pollutants is quite

expensive.

17
 Several legislations have been passed on the quality of air. To enforce them, the

extent of pollution must be quickly and on the spot ascertained. One of the ways to

undertake this is to measure prevailing atmospheric and meteorological parameters,

process these data and come out with factors that can be used to evaluate the extent

of pollution.

Nnamdi (2002), Atanda (2002), Odoemena (2002), Nwafulugo (2001) all made

independent efforts to present models that can be used to predict the concentration

of pollutants in the atmosphere. They used parameters such as air pressure,

atmospheric temperature, relative humidity, and wind speed. The results obtained

were fairly predictive of the pollutants’ concentration. This work will seek to improve

on these models by considering the effect of the rate of diffusion (diffusivity) of the

pollutants and vapour pressure (water vapour) on the concentration of gaseous

contaminants in the atmosphere.

1.4 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

The aim of this research work is to develop a deterministic model for air pollutants’

concentration. The research project objectives among others include:

• Formulation and development of model equations that link the gases

concentration with meteorological conditions.

1.5 SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS.

The atmospheric and meteorological data for the study will be obtained from the

Nigerian Airspace Management Authority, Minna, Niger State. The model will be

18
developed using parameters from Minna, but it can still be applied to other locations

as long as the necessary variables are accurately measured. The high level

language to be used for the computer programming is FORTRAN.

19
 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 POLLUTION

Life in an ecosystem is supported by interrelationships between among the

organisms. This interrelationship called “food web”, indicates the organisms that are

source of food for other organisms. An ecosystem is more stable when the types of

organism in it are diverse and the food web complex. This is the reason why the

ecologist speaks of pollution as “anything that decreases diversity”(Vesilind, 1979)

and this creates a less stable ecological system. Problems arise, however, when

some pollutants (e.g., heat) can actually increase diversity. Due to these problems,

therefore, there have been various attempts by scientists, commissions, professional

organizations, and others to define the term “pollution". To give meaning to the word

pollution, some of the most widely used or more imaginative attempts will be

mentioned below in order to appreciate the extent of damage that has and will be

done if the trend is not checked and corrected.

A more practical definition might be “the presence of anything in undesirable large

concentrations”, recognizing that some polluting substances are harmless or even

beneficial in small quantities (Hardy, 1975). A government commission, Commission

for Clean Air, based its entire report on the premise that pollution is “anything

discharged into water, air or land". Thus, a cow in a meadow would qualify, as a

source of pollutants (Kardestuncer, 1979).

20
 By defining pollution as anything discharged into the environment, the problem of

definition is neatly solved, but the use of this definition in a practical sense is difficult.

For instance, if a stream is used as an open server, it is beneficial, so it cannot be

distinctly referred to as been polluted.

The definition presented by Miller (1975) is more agreeable, that pollution can be

defined in a broad context as the introduction into the environment of wastes,

materials, or energy having no further value, as a result of natural and human activity

so as to cause a stress or unfavourable alteration of an individual organism, a

community, or an ecosystem.

With this definition, chlorinated-hydrocarbon pesticides can readily be classified as

pollutants. Similarly, fluorocarbons used in spray cans, which in all probability

adversely affect the ozone layer protecting the earth ultraviolet radiations, would be a

pollutant.

However it is important to note as Vesilind (1979) pointed out that no definition is

perfect but nevertheless, it should be emphasized that pollution

• is caused by people;

• is a waste (a residual);

• can be a material or a form of energy;

• represents a loss of value (to health, ecosystem, etc).

21
2.2 ATMOSPHERE

2.2.1 LOCATION AND CAPACITY

To discuss what it meant by “air is polluted or reduction in the quality of air”, it is

necessary to understand what the atmosphere is, its composition and capacity. The

atmosphere is the layer of air that surrounds the earth. It is probably 160 kilometers

thick, but more than half of its total weight is in the 6 kilometers just above the

surface of the earth. The earth’s atmosphere is important to terrestrial life. It is

believed to have developed in its present form for some 350 million years ago when

extensive vegetation cover originated on land. Its presence provides an

indispensable shield from harmful radiation from the sun and its gaseous content

sustains the plant and animal biosphere (Barry et al, 1976; Faith et al, 1972).

The upper portion of the atmosphere is called the stratosphere, and the lower

portion, the troposphere. The stratosphere is an isothermal region (-60oF in Polar

regions and -90oF in the Tropic region) where the clouds of vapour do not form and

where little convection (air movement caused by temperature differences) takes

place.

2.2.2 COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE

Barry et al (1976) defined air as a mechanical mixture of gases, thus it is not a

chemical compound. Table 2.1 illustrates the conventionally acceptable composition

of clean dry air. Four gases- Nitrogen (approx. 78%), Oxygen (approx.21%), Carbon

22
dioxide and Argon (approx. 0.98%) - account for 99.98% of the air by volume. In

addition to these gases, water vapour, which is more variable in its occurrence in

time and space, is a vital atmospheric constituent. Also present in minute amounts

are ozone (O3), sulphur dioxide (SO2), dinitrogen oxide (N2O), nitrogen dioxide

(NO2), nitrogen oxide (NO), formaldehyde (HCHO), iodine (I2), sodium chloride

(NaCl) or salt, ammonia (NH3), carbon monoxide (CO) and methane (CH4). There

are also significant quantities of aerosols in the atmosphere. These are suspended

particles of sea salts, dust (particularly silicates), organic matters and smoke. They

come from natural and man-made sources.

TABLE 2.1 COMPOSITION OF CLEAN, DRY AIR

COMPOSITION
ELEMENT ppm (vol.) μg/m3
Nitrogen 780,900 8.95 x108
Oxygen 209,400 2.74 x108
Water --------- -----------
Argon 9,300 1.52 x107
Carbon dioxide 315 5.67 x105
Neon 18 1.49 x104
Helium 5.2 8.50 x102
Methane 1.0 6.56 - 7.87 x102
Krypton 1.0 3.43 x103
Nitrogen Oxide 0.5 9.00 x102
Hydrogen 0.5 4.13 x101
Xenon 0.08 4.29 x102
Organic Vapour 0.02 --------
Source : Stern et al. (1973)

2.3 AIR POLLUTION

In a simple way, it may be said that air is polluted when its composition deviates from

that of “pure air” (see Table 2.1). Every breath pollutes the air; every corpse or

decaying leaf emits poisonous odours. Man, animals, and vegetation have been

23
joined by cars, ships, aeroplanes, houses and a host of industries as polluters of the

air, and this is causing a lot of worry (Scorer, 1973).

Basically, air pollution is the presence of foreign substances in the air (Faith et al,

1972). This definition addresses only foreign substances, carbon dioxide, for

example, is not foreign to the atmosphere and as it accumulates, it has detrimental

effect on living things and materials. A further survey of the attempts to define the

term “air pollution” is given below. Calaceto (1971) states that air pollution consists of

particulates or impurities that are suspended in or conveyed by a moving stream of

gas or air. This pollutant may exist in liquid form (commonly described as mist), as

gaseous fume, or as a solid particulate matter including dust. He considered air

pollutants only from the particulate (solids) point of view; noxious gases that cannot

be collected mechanically were not considered.

Sell (1981) defined air pollution as the addition to the atmosphere of any material(s)

having a deleterious effect on life. A more specific definition of air pollution has been

developed by the Engineering Joint Council (Bishop, 1957): “air pollution means the

presence in the outdoor atmosphere of one or more contaminants, such as dust,

fumes, gas, mist, odour, smoke, or vapour, in quantities, characteristic and duration

such as to be injurious to human, plant, or animal life or to property, or which

unreasonably interfere with the comfortable enjoyment of life and property”. It has

been observed that indoor human activities affect air quality to a much greater extent

than out doors, particularly in small work areas (Rao, 2001).

24
The World Health Organization (WHO) of the United Nations (UN) defined air

pollution in the following way: air is polluted when one or several pollutants are

present in the atmosphere at such a concentration and for so long a time that they

are harmful to man, animals, plant and material property, cause harm or reduce well-

being or disturb appreciably its application (Brauer, 1981).

2.3.1 AIR POLLUTANTS

The development of technology by man in a bid to ease labour, make travel faster

and convenient, produce more with limited time and space, e.t.c, has resulted in

production of various wastes that are dumped on the earth surface, in water and

emitted into the air. Pollution rate continues to increase faster than the population

growth rate especially as the people have become prosperous. To live we need

technology, and that means pollution!

An air quality standard says, “The concentration of a pollutant in the atmosphere at

the point of measurement shall not be greater than some specified amount.” This

means that certain elements like carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides are

dangerous pollutants when present in air beyond a defined concentration. It is always

the concentration- the dose- that makes a pollutant (Stern, 1971).Air pollutants are

classified into two categories: primary and secondary pollutants. The distinction

between the two pollutant categories is made according to the manner by which the

pollutants are introduced into the atmosphere (Samuelson, 1980)

- “Primary pollutants” originate and are emitted from the sources.

25
 - “Secondary pollutants” are those formed by chemical processes in the

atmosphere i.e. they are formed through the reaction of primary pollutants.

Examples of primary pollutants are carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide, nitrogen

dioxide, sulphur dioxide, particulates and various hydrocarbons. Examples of

secondary pollutants are photochemical oxidants and sulphates. Microorganisms that

are present in the air are pollutants. Pollutant organisms include bacteria, viruses,

spores of lichens and fungi, small algal and protozoan cysts. Their numbers and

types will vary depending on the time of day, season, location and humidity (Dart,

1977).

From the various definitions, it is clear that pollutants are not limited to only gases but

anything in the atmosphere that is injurious to man, flora, fauna and even non-living

things. Air pollutants that pervade the environment are numerous and emanate from

various sources. These various types include:

i. Inorganic gases - SO2, NO, CO2, H2S

ii. Organic vapours - hydrocarbons, mercaptans, alcohols, ketones.

iii. Particulates - smoke, pesticides and aerosol sprays, dust, fumes, mist

iv. Inert substances - pollen grains, fly ash

v. Oxidant - ozone

vi. Odours

Another distinction is made between stable (conservative) and unstable (non-

conservative) pollutants (Rau, 1980). “Stable pollutants” are those that do not

participate in chemical processes in the atmosphere. They include carbon monoxide,

26
sulphur dioxide and particulates. “Unstable pollutants” are those that actively

participate in the formation of secondary pollutants. They include nitrogen oxide,

nitrogen dioxide, ozone and certain hydrocarbons.

2.3.2 SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION

Pollutants of air are produced in several ways and come are various sources. There

are several classifications of these sources. Samuelson (1980) defined air pollutant

source as any vehicle, facility, physical plant, installation, or activity that emits

primary air pollutants into the atmosphere.

When the nature of the source of air pollutants is considered, two major classes

emerge. They are natural and anthropogenic sources.

Natural sources of air pollutants - There are several activities of nature that result in

the emission of gases, odour, particulates, etc. into the atmosphere. Some of the

activities are the natural cycle of some of the elements e.g. carbon cycle, nitrogen

cycle, etc. The pollutants emitted by natural sources consist mainly of carbon

monoxide, carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide.

The activities that result in these pollutants are sandstorms and windstorm dust,

microbial activities (decay of organic matters), volcanoes, oceans and sea spray,

pollen from weeds, water droplets or spray evaporation residue, meteoritic dusts and

surface detritus. On a global basis, emissions from natural sources are with few

exceptions significantly greater than anthropogenic sources.

27
TABLE 2.2 GLOBAL EMISSIONS FROM NATURAL AND ANTHROPOGENIC

SUBSTANCE PERCENTAGE OF EMISSION AND SOURCES

S/N ANNUAL GLOBAL NATURAL SOURCES ANTHROPOGENIC
EMISSION (TONS) SOURCES

1. Sulphur dioxide, SO2 Decomposition of 20 70% energy

44 x 109 90% Organisms (H2S), % 28% industry
Volcanoes, oceans

2. Carbon monoxide, Forest fires 75% traffic cars

CO 90% Oceans 10% 15% industry
3.5 x 109 Forests 10%waste disposal
3. Carbon dioxide, CO2 ----------------- Predominantly from
incineration
processes
4. Nitrogen oxides, NOX 94% Various nitrogen 6% 55% Energy
0.82 x 109 formation, lighting 40% Traffic
5. Ammonia 99% Decomposition 1% Industry Fertilizer
2.5 x 106 processes
6. Hydrocarbons Methane from 65% Traffic,
96% decomposition 4% Refineries.
Terpenes from 25% Industry
coniferous forests.
7. Dust and aerosols 94% Salts from oceans 40% Energy
Dusts caused by 6% 60% Industry
winds Volcanoes
Source : Brauer et al (1981)

Anthropogenic sources of air pollutants - Air pollutants that are due to man’s activities

are referred to as being emitted from anthropogenic sources. According to the data

on emissions (Table 2.2), emissions from anthropogenic sources are almost

negligible when compared with emissions from natural sources. However, the

28
 environment is endangered predominantly by the few percent of global emissions

from anthropogenic sources. Six major types of anthropogenic sources have been

identified. They are:

• Transportation: motor vehicles, rail mounted vehicles, aeroplanes and vessels.

• Domestic/commercial heating and power generation: wood, gas -, oil-, and

coal -fired furnaces used to produce heat or power for individual dwellings,

commercial establishments, utilities, and industry.

• Municipal activity: Refuse disposal, liquid waste disposal, road and street plant

operation, and fuel-fired combustion processes.

• Agricultural activity: compost manuring, insecticidal and pesticidal dusting and

spraying, burning of vegetation and forest fires.

• Industrial and process emission: Ventilation products from local exhaust

systems, process waste disposal by combustion processes

• Fallout: This is the term applied to radioactive pollutant in mass atmosphere

resulting from thermonuclear explosion.

Industrial fuel burning and process emission (industrial sources) contributes about

20% of our total air pollution (Sell, 1981). Samuelson (1980) and Rau (1980) divided

the anthropogenic sources of air pollutants into two categories: mobile emission

sources and stationary emission sources.

Mobile emissions are generated as a result of vehicular movement in the project area

and are functions of such factors as vehicles trips per day, average vehicle speed

29
and vehicle trips lengths. The sources include automobiles, trucks, buses, aircraft,

ships and railroad cars.

Stationary emission are generated as the result of functions such as domestic and

commercial heating, by-products of industrial processes that are vented to the air,

solid waste incineration, power plant emission, and smoke and odours from industrial

activities. The sources include electric power utility boilers, commercial and domestic

boilers and furnaces, refineries and industrial processes.

Some pollutant sources, however, are a combination of mobile and stationary

sources, they are referred to as compound sources. They include airports, and urban

communities. A final category is the indirect sources. These are plant, installations or

activities that have a significant amount of mobile activity associated with its

operation and use. Examples of these sources are roadways, airports and parking

facilities. Parking facilities include shopping centers, sport complexes, large

amusements facilities, etc.

Another categorization introduced by Brauer et al (1981) is based on pollutant

emitted from sources defined by their (a) size (b) strength and (c) species of

pollutants. With certain simplification, the sources of pollutants emission may be

divided into two groups:

i. Independent single sources (or point sources): factories, refineries e.t.c.

ii. Fields of sources (area sources): cooking fumes from residential areas.

2.3.3 EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION

30
All the definitions of air pollution agree with the fact that the pollutants have

deleterious or injurious effect on human, plants, and animal life, and reasonably

interfere with the comfortable enjoyment of life and property. Unfortunately everything

in contact with the atmosphere is exposed to the pollutants contained in the air

pollutants. For instance, air in urban communities may contain more sulphur oxides,

nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, oxidants, particulates and toxic

substances. The combination of particulates and/or gases can result in synergistic

effects making the combination more detrimental.

Various studies have been carried out to determine the health risks associated with

air pollution. The results vary but some important findings have been consisted. Faith

et al (1972) gave five most common effects of air pollution as:

i. Visibility reduction,

ii. Irritation of human sense,

ii. Economic damage to property,

iii. Damage to health, and

iv. Substantive changes in the ecology of the natural environment.

World Development Report (1992) identified suspended particulate matter as a major

threat to human health. The presence of suspended particulates in the indoor

environment, while not obvious, also affects air quality. In the dwellings of the poor

populace in many countries, the combined effects of cooking fires, dusts, and

bacteria have continued to threaten their health and socioeconomic well being far

more seriously than was previously recognised.

31
Acidic gases such as carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide e.t.c, dissolve in rainwater

droplets to form “acid rain”. The depositions of this acidic solution on various

materials such as iron, concrete e.t.c, lead to corrosion, rust and erosion. These

materials lose their lustre, strength and have shorter life span. Particulate settle on

the leaves of plants, blocking their stomata thus interfere with the metabolic

processes of these plants.

Ozone, a gas abundant in the stratosphere has suffered serious depletion due to

reaction with pollutants especially chlorofluorocarbons, CFCs. Its depletion has

caused an increase in the amount of ultraviolet B radiation from the Sun that get to

the earth. Studies have shown that increased ultraviolet B radiation to the earth

surface has caused an increase in various skin cancers. The earth temperature is

also on the increase, an aftermath of greenhouse effect caused by the accumulation

of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. These are evidences that the concentration of

atmospheric carbon dioxide has been increasing slowly since the beginning of the

century because of the combustion of fossil fuels (McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia).

However, via the newly developing process called Carbon Sequestration (Kane,

2001), many nations have begun to take actions to reduce or limit the growth of

emission of greenhouse gases.

2.3.4 OUTCOME OF AIR POLLUTANTS IN THE ATMOSPHERE

Air is an ideal gas at normal ranges of temperature and pressure. It is considered to

be a binary system of non-reacting gases containing about 79% nitrogen and 21%

32
oxygen (Hesketh, 1979). In this study, air would be considered as a multi-component

system consisting of nitrogen, oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide e.t.c., and the

pollutants.

Cheremisinoff et al (1981) stated that the mechanism of air pollution involves

pollutants emission from various sources, transport and diffusion, and effects upon

receptors (man, plants or animals). The definition fails to put the chemical changes

into consideration. The chemical changes that the primary pollutants undergo result

into secondary pollutants e.g. photochemical oxidants and sulphates. When

pollutants are emitted into the atmosphere, they are immediately diluted, transported

and mixed with the surrounding air. The dilution results in a decrease in the

concentration of the pollutants. The transport and diffusion depend on wind speed

and direction. Wind acts to transport the pollutants and promote additional mixing. It

has been observed that the wind speed determines the velocity of the air pollutants

as it transverses the sky and contributes to the pollution dilution rate. That is, the

greater the wind velocity, the greater the pollutant velocity and the greater the volume

of air introduced, thus, increasing the dilution rate.

Wind direction is the direction from which the wind originates. The wind direction is

affected by various meteorological conditions and topographical features such as

hills, high structures etc. This in turn influences the manner in which the pollutants

are dispersed. Rau et al (1980) noted that some pollutants might participate in

chemical reactions while in transport. As a result, the quantity of air at a receptor is

determined by the type and amount of pollutants emitted upwind and the extent of

33
 atmospheric interaction (dispersion and chemical changes) that has occurred during

transport from the source to the receptor.

Dilution and dispersion of pollutants by the wind movement only serve to transport

them from the sources. Nature, however, has its cleansing processes otherwise the

pollutants will remain permanently in the atmosphere. The several ways pollutants

are removed from the atmosphere include (McGrawHill Encyclopedia):

• Washout - in this process, the contaminants are washed out of the

atmosphere by raindrops as they fall through the contaminants. In rainout, the

contaminants unite with cloud droplets that may later grow into precipitation.

• Gravitational settling - large particles, those having a diameter greater than 20

µ m and agglomeration of finer particles settle out by gravitation.

• Turbulent Impaction - fine particles also impact on surfaces by centrifugal

action in very small eddies. Gases may be converted to particulates, as by

photochemical action of sunlight and are removed by settling or impaction.

It has been agreed however, that the rate of natural cleansing is indeed slower than

the rate of injection of pollutants into the atmosphere, in which case pollution process

is on the increase on a global scale. Therefore effort is been made to ensure that the

pollutants are removed from the emission streams or the atmosphere and stored so

that they cannot interact with the climatic system.

2.4 GENERAL RELATIONSHIPS

34
Gases are important fluids not only from the stand point that a gas can be a pollutant

(when in undesirable quantity), but because gases are the media via which

particulate and gaseous pollutants are conveyed. Thus in order to understand the

mechanism of air pollution, properties of both the particulates and gases must be

understood. The presence of particulates in gases can result in the creation of new

conditions. Hesketh (1981) gave examples of several possibilities: chemical reactions

of the various components can produce particulates from gases or a different

particulate matter from the original particles, and particulates can volatize and/or

gases can result and the products having noxious effects on everything they come in

contact with.

The relationships that could be considered in the development of the deterministic

model for air pollution concentration are gas laws, density, vapour pressure,

diffusivity, meteorology and possibly chemical interactions.

2.4.1 GAS LAWS

The familiar form of the Ideal gas law derived from Charles and Boyle’s laws shows

that for one mole of an ideal gas

PV=RT 2.1

Where
P = Total pressure
V = Volume
R = Universal gas constant
T = Absolute temperature

35
The majority of air pollution calculations can be done assuming ideal gas behaviour.

Gaseous pollutant streams are like chemical process streams; the only exception is

that the gaseous pollutant concentrations are usually lower than chemical process

concentration (Hesketh, 1979). These lower concentrations make it possible to

consider gaseous pollutants as ideal gases, though some may consist of large

molecules, which is more concentrated form, are not ideal gases. The carrier gas, air,

is also an ideal gas at the normal ranges of temperature and pressure and usually is

considered to be a binary system of non-reacting gases containing about 79%

nitrogen and 21% oxygen.

2.4.2 TOTAL PRESSURE

The total pressure of a mixture of ideal gases can be determined by Dalton’s law,

which states that the sum of the individual partial pressures equals the total pressure,

PT. For a binary mixture composed of gases A and B, this would be

PAG + PBG = PT 2.2

Where PAG and PBG are partial pressures of A and B respectively in the gas mixture.

Air is highly compressible, such that its lower layer is denser than those above. 50%

of the total mass of air is found below 5 km (Hesketh, 1979). Pressure is measured

as a force per unit area. The units used by meteorologists are called millibar (mb),

1mb being equal to a force of 100 Newton acting on 1m 2. Mean sea level pressure is

1013.25mb. On the average, nitrogen contributes about 760mb, oxygen 240mb and

water vapour 10mb. In other words, each gas exerts a partial pressure independent

of others.

36
2.4.3 DIFFUSIVITY

Graham’s Law of Diffusion states that the rate of diffusion of a gas, at a given

temperature, is inversely proportional to the square root of the molecular mass M. In

other words,

1
r ∝
M 2.3

Where

r = rate of diffusion
M = molecular mass

Gases diffuse completely into one another, this movement of gas molecules through

a gaseous fluid is necessary to initiate mass transfer such as condensation,

absorption and adsorption (Hesketh, 1979). Mass transport may occur if a gas

consists of two different kinds of molecules. This of course depends on the

concentration in the gas phase being non-uniform. A steady flux of gas will move

from the region of higher concentration to the region of lower concentration, if the

difference in the concentration is maintained (Foust et al, 1980).

2.4.4 VAPOUR PRESSURE

Water vapour comprises up to 4% of the atmosphere by volume (about 3% by

weight) near the surface, but is almost absent above 10 to 12 km (Barry et al. 1976).

It is supplied to the atmosphere by evaporation from surface water or by

transportation from plants and is transferred upwards by atmospheric turbulence.

The water vapour content of the atmosphere is closely related to air temperature and

is therefore greatest in summer and in low latitudes. At any given temperature, there

37
is a limit to the density of water vapour in the air; with a consequent upper limit to the

vapour pressure. This is formed the saturation vapour pressure (  s). Following

Dalton’s law of partial pressure, water vapour also exerts its own partial pressure

independent of others.

The vapour pressure is an indication of the moisture content of the atmospheres.

The moisture content of air is a very important factor to be considered when

modeling air pollution. Some of the pollutants are soluble in water, thus there is a

tendency that when the moisture content is high, for example, after a rainfall, soluble

pollutants would have dissolved in the moisture and this will result in lower pollutant

values.

2.5 MODELLING AND SIMULATION

A broad range of relatively new analytical tools is available to the engineer concerned

with the analysis design, or operation of air pollution systems. Included among these

are network analysis, transient response analysis, stochastic processes, stability

analysis, graph theory, mathematical modeling, computer simulation, linear

programming, control simulation have been found to be easily conceived and

applicable to a wide variety of problems (as long as the basic equations and

assumptions are available) coupled with time saving ability on a considerable scale.

Modelling and simulation are techniques frequently (and sometimes abused) in use

in today’s scientific and engineering investigations. Modelling and simulation have

found use in such diverse areas as astronomy (planetarium), hydraulic engineering

(River models), architecture (building models), and chemical engineering (pilot

38
 plants) (James, 1978). Simulation is frequently used to test the validity of the

hypothesis when it is not feasible to test the real system.

A model may be thought as being a representation of a system in a form suitable for

demonstrating the way the system behaves. Mathematical models on the other hand,

consist of one or more equations relating the important inputs, outputs and

characteristics of the systems. In fact, as simple an expression as y = mx+ b can be

considered as a mathematical model where the system output (y) is related to the

system input (x) by the system parameters (m, b) (James, 1978).

The advent of high speed computer has made it possible to determine the

consistency of a given set of postulated governing physical laws, whose

mathematical statement constitute a numerical model, to a set of experimental

values. When the model is found to be consistent, it can be used as a guide in

decision making, determining long-term or short run effects of process variables and

the choice of more rational courses of action.

Modelling and Simulation have several advantages, amongst which are:

• When properly applied, modelling and simulation can result in considerable

savings both in time and money

• They are used to explore the effects of changes on a system when it is

impracticable to experiment with the real system

• They usually involve considerable analysis of the system and can therefore

result in an increase in fundamental knowledge about the system

39
2.5.1 DETERMINATION OF AIR POLLUTANTS CONCENTRATION BY

QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS

The concentration of pollutants in air can be determined by two major methods. In

the first method, namely, quantitative analysis, samples of the polluted air are taken,

analyzed and the atmospheric conditions noted. Adequate quality assurance

measures are employed during the sample collection, handling and analysis.

Sampling equipments used include high volume sampler, a train of impinges fitted

with bubbler devices and digital gas monitor.

A simple way to measure the concentration of carbon dioxide is passing a measured

volume of air into soda lime and obtaining the consequent weight increase of the

soda lime. This will give the concentration of carbon dioxide in the volume of air.

The World Health Organisation (WHO) has selected methods of analysing air

pollutants. These methods are based on those adopted by the United State

Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), EEC etc. (WHO, 1976).

TABLE 2.3 METHODS FOR ANALYSING AIR POLLUTANTS

S/N PARAMETERS METHODS USED

1. Sulphur dioxide Pararosonoline method

2. Nitrogen dioxide Saltzman method

3. Carbon monoxide CO monitor

4. Suspended particulate matter High Volume Samples

40
Quantitative analyses involve the use of a lot of equipment and reagents. Thus it is

very cumbersome and laborious. One can imagine the extent of work that will be

carried out of samples to be taken hourly.

The second method of determining the concentration of pollutants in air is modelling

the environment. Mathematical models are referred to and they involve a

combination of mass, energy and momentum balances, associated rate equations.

Necessary parameters for input are obtained and the output is the concentration of

air pollutants. Although this method is neater and results are obtained faster, the

disadvantages are:

- The accuracy of the result obtained is a function of the equations that have

been put together and the input parameters.

- The accuracy of the input parameters, as provided by the weather station,

depends on the skill, training and judgement of the observer.

The modelling methods have been in use with several attempts made to present

models that are as accurate as possible. However, most models in use focus on the

rate of emission of the pollutants especially from stacks. The dispersion of the

pollutants is also considered from the 3-dimension point of view. The difficulty in

measuring the rate of emission of pollutants especially in densely populated areas

and the constantly changing wind direction has considerably reduced the global

significance of pollutants’ concentration value obtained using earlier models.

41
2.5.2 DEDUCTIONS

From the foregoing, it can be deduced that air pollution is the result of the presence

in air of contaminants having a deleterious effect on the living things (man, animals,

plants) and materials. It is also noted that it is the concentration of the contaminants

and the duration in the atmosphere that cause the discomfort experienced.

Therefore, to reduce the injurious effect of air pollutants, monitoring and control have

to be put in place. Collecting air samples and analysing in the laboratory for the

contents give the instantaneous concentration of pollutants. This method is however,

cumbersome and tedious. Thus a speedy and effective means of obtaining results

have to be devised. Developing mathematical models whose inputs will be the

available meteorological data can considerably simplify the determination of the

concentration of air pollutants. Several models have been considered. The Box,

Proportional and Gaussian Models are best suited for concentration computation

when the amount of emission can be determined. Thus it is useful for calculating the

downwind concentration of point sources e.g. emission from stacks on industry. For

area sources, it is very difficult to estimate the rate of emission of pollutants. In this

project attempt will be made to develop a deterministic model for gaseous pollutants’

concentration based on the ideal gas laws and some other relationships. The input

data are expected to be atmospheric and meteorological parameters readily

obtainable from weather stations.

42
2.6 AIR QUALITY MODELS

The impact of a source or collection of sources on the quality of air is evaluated by

the use of models. An air quality model is a mathematical statement or set of

statements that equate air quality at a point of interest to contributing factors

(Samuelson, 1980). Simply stated, models simulate the relationships between air

pollutant emissions and the resulting impact on air quality. The inputs to the model

include emissions, meteorology and air chemistry.

The application of these models, however, needs continuous review due to advances

in technology, better understanding of the appropriate parameters and changing

government policies. Some modeling methods are listed in Appendix I. Upon

emission into the atmosphere pollutants are immediately diluted, transported, and

mixed with the surrounding air. As accurately as possible, these processes can be

represented mathematically.

2.6.1 BOX MODELS

The simplest model which considers most of the variables essential to air quality

modelling is the Box Model. Consider that pollutants are being emitted into a volume

of air that is bounded by imaginary walls as shown below (Samuelson, 1980).

ū
x

W
43
Figure 2.1 Box Model

The box has a depth D, a width W, and an infinite length. Air is blowing through the

box at a velocity ū. Assuming steady state conditions, and the pollutants mix very

rapidly with the air, then the concentration throughout the box will be uniform and

invariant with time, and the concentration is given by the following expression

Qj
Cj =
u WD

2.4

Where ū = wind velocity assumed constant, m/s

W = width of box normal to the wind direction, m

D = depth of box normal to the wind direction, m

Qj = emission rate of species j, g/s

The Box Model is most appropriate for ground sources that are uniformly distributed

across a small area. Examples include roadways, parking lots and residential tracts.

It graphically demonstrates that pollutants injected into and mixed with a limited

resource of air. A limiting case of the Box Model is the case for which the wind is null

and pollutant concentration allowed to build within the box. The dispersion of

pollutants is now prevented in all directions.

2.6.2 PROPORTIONAL MODELS

44
The proportional model is based on the principle that air quality is directly

proportional to emissions (i.e., air quality will deteriorate in proportion to an increase

in emissions and improve in proportion to a decrease in emissions)(Rau, 1980)

Two different models are considered:

i. A model that does not consider wind speed, and

ii. A model that does consider wind speed

The Box Model equation serves as the basis for the proportional model, which does

not consider speed. Consider, for example, the change in concentration due to an

increase in emissions at a given location between some arbitrarily selected base year

BY and a future year FY. For the base year

Q BY
C BY =
uDW

2.5

For the future year

Q FY
C FY =
uDW

2.6

Where CBY = base-year air quality measurement, g/m3

QBY = box-year emission rate, g/s

CFY = projected future year air quality, g/m3

QFY = projected future e year emission rate, g/s

Dividing Equation 2.6 by Equation 2.5, we obtain an expression for the proportional

model;

45
 Q FY
C FY = C BY 2.7
Q BY

The proportional model is used for estimating primary and secondary pollutant

concentrations or required emission reductions.

However, on a local scale, the wind velocity is an important determinant in predicting

the maximum concentration. The Hanna Clifford model may be applied for estimating

concentrations of non-reactive pollutants. The model is stated as follows;

Q FY
C FY = K 2.8
u

Where CFY = projected future air quality, g/m3

K = calibration constant

QFY = projected future local area emission density, g/(s.m2)

ū = local average wind speed, m/s

And K is determined as follows:

C BY u
K =
qBY

2.9

Where CBY = base-year air quality measurement, g/s

QBY = base-year local area emission density, g/(s.m2)

ū = local average wind speed, m/s

2.6.3 GUASSIAN MODELS

These are also called Dispersion models. They are formulated when it was noted that

the box and proportional models fail to account for dispersion of the pollutants in the

atmosphere. The Guassian Plume models are popular because they account for

46
turbulent dispersion and atmospheric stability. They are more appropriate for the

prediction of air quality because they consider the point-by-point transport,

dispersion, generation, and removal of pollutant species, and provide for spatial and

temporal variation of these processes (Williamson, 1973).

2.6.4 CONSTRUCTION OF GUASSIAN MODELS

Consider for example, a small control volume, if we assume that a change in the

species concentration within the control volume can occur by transport and

dispersion of the pollutant species within the volume, then, the conservation of

species (mass balance for species j) may be expressed in the form (Rau et al, 1980):

δ (VC j ) δ δC j
+ (C judydz )dx + δ (C j vdzdx )dy + dx + δ (C jwdxdy )dz - δ 

Dxdzdy
δy δx dy δz δx  δx
−δ  δC j  δ  δC j 

 Dydzdx 
 + 
 Dzdxdy  - φjdxdydz = 0
δy  δy  δz  δz 
2.10

On application of the following assumptions:

i. V = dxdydz

ii. The mixing coefficients Dx, Dy, Dz are approximately constant at any given

time and location.

δu δv δw
iii. Continuity equation for incompressible fluid: + + =0
δt δy δz

The “basic dispersion equation” is obtained from equation 2.10

δCj δCj δCj δCj δ2Cj δ2Cj δ2Cj

+u +v +w - Dx - Dy - Dz - φj = 0
δt δx δy δz δx 2 δy 2 δz

2.11

47
Solution to equation 2.11 cannot readily be obtained without major assumptions. The

following assumptions were made:

δCj
i. = 0 , Steady state condition, i.e., the pollutant concentration at a given
δt

point in space (x, y, z) is constant.

ii. v, w = 0 , wind speed ū is only in one direction which is x-direction.

u δCj δ 2Cj
iii. >> Dx , transport in windward or x-direction controlled by
δx δx 2

convection.

Application of the above assumption reduces equation 2.11 to the following form.

u δCj δ 2Cj δ 2Cj

= Dz + Dy +φ
δx δz 2 δz 2

2.12

Convection term Dispersion term Source/removal term

Solution to equation 2.12 is possible if the following additional assumptions are

applied:

i. Key assumption. The concentration in the x, z planes follow a Guassian

(Normal) distribution in each of the two dimensions.

ii. The pollutant species j is emitted from the source at a uniform rate, Qj

iii. The generation or removal of species within the flow field is zero (i.e., non-

reacting flow field).

The application of the above assumptions to equation 2.12 results in the so-called

Guassian dispersion model depicted as Equation 2.13 for a point source (Rou et al,

1980)

48
 Qj  1  y2 z 2 
C j ( x, y, z ) = exp - 
δ 2 y + 
2πuσ yσ z  2  δ2z 


2.13

Where, Qj = emission rate of species j emitted by the source, g/s.

δ y = Guassian coefficient of lateral dispersion, m

δ z = Guassian coefficient of vertical dispersion, m

For a source at ground level, with perfect repletion, the Guassian plume equation

becomes

Qj  1  y2 z 2 
C j (x, y, z) = exp - 
 2 + 
πuσ yσ z  2 σ y σ2z 


2.14

49
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 Development of a Deterministic Model for Air Pollutant’s Concentration.

3.1 DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA

Minna city, the capital of Niger State, Nigeria, has an estimated population of 2

million and a land area of about 6.784 square kilometers. Minna lies at a latitude 90,

37’North and longitude 60, 33’ East on a geological base of undifferentiated basement

complex of mainly gneiss and magnetite. To the Northeast of the town, a continuous

graniteous steeply outcrop limits the urbanisation rate.

The town has a main annual rainfall of 53 inches. The mean highest monthly rainfall

occurred in September and is almost 11.7 inches. The rainy season starts on

average between mid-April and lasts for between 190 to 200 days. The mean

monthly temperature is highest in March at 30.5oC and lowest in August at

25.1oC(F.U.T.,1999-2001).

3.2 ASSUMPTIONS FOR THE MODEL

In order to simplify the model, impose limitations and make the process of obtaining

solutions and the predictive nature of the model more accurate, the following

assumptions were made:

1. The pollutants concentration at any point in space (x, y, z) is constant.

50
2. Instantaneous wind speed ū taken is non-uniform in space but is equal to the

prevailing value at the point of measurement.

3. Transport in windward is in x-direction and is controlled by convection

4. The generation and removal of species within the flow field is zero (i.e. Non-

reactive pollutants).

5. The change in the direction of wind is neglected.

6. The gaseous and particulate pollutants exhibit ideal gas behaviour; air is also

considered as an ideal gas.

7. The atmospheric temperature at any given moment is equal to the prevailing

one.

3.3 PARAMETERS FOR THE MODEL

A variety of particulate and gaseous pollutants are emitted from various sources into

the atmosphere. When the pollutants are emitted, the following interactions occur:

i. dilution, with a resultant decrease in concentration.

ii. transport and mixing by the wind.

iii. chemical reaction between pollutants while in transport is assumed to

negligible and limited to physical properties.

Models are designed to quantitatively simulate the atmospheric interactions and

relate the emission of pollutants to the air-quality. Certain parameters and variables

must be considered in order to have a “best fit” model. Parameters that would be

considered in the development of the air-quality model include, gas laws, wind speed

and direction, atmospheric stability, nature of the sources, humidity, density, etc.

51
3.3.1 IDEAL GAS LAW.

Two simple laws specify the main factors governing changes in pressure. The first,

Boyle’s law, states that, at constant temperature, the volume (V) of a mass of gas

varies inversely as its pressure, P, i.e.,

1
P ∝ 3.1
V

Introducing equality, we have,

P = K1
V 3.2

K1is a constant

The second law, Charles’ law, states that, at a constant pressure, volume varies

directly with absolute temperature (T, measured in Kelvin).

i.e., V∝T 3.3

Introducing equality, we have,

V = K 2T 3.4

Combining Boyle’s law and Charles’ laws, the following relationship is obtained

1
Vα and VαT
p
3.5
T
∴Vα or PV =KT
p

Where K is a constant for a fixed mass of one particular gas.

Equation 3.5 may be written as

PV
= nR or PV = nRT 3.6
T

Where,

52
P is the pressure exerted by the gas (KN/m2)
V is the volume occupied by the gas (m3)

T is the absolute temperature (K)

R is the constant of proportionality (called the universal gas constant) (KJ/mol K).

n is the number of moles.

The concentration of a gas, C is given by number of moles in a volume of gas, i.e.,

C = n
V 3.7

Therefore equation 3.6 becomes

n
P = RT or P = CRT
V

Rearranging, we have,

P
C =
RT 3.8

R is a constant; therefore the concentration of a gas varies with pressure and

temperature.

C α P
T

3.3.2 DENSITY

The main physical variations of air are its density and humidity (Faith et al, 1972).

The ideal gas equation may be expressed as

P V = mRoT 3.9

Where m is the mass of air

Ro is specific gas constant for dry air.

53
Since it is convenient to use density, ρ(=mass/volume) rather than volume when

studying the atmosphere, we can re-write equation (3.9) in the form known as the

equation of state.

P = R o ρT

P
or ρ = T
Ro

3.10

Thus density also varies with temperature and pressure.

3.3.3 TOTAL PRESSURE

The total pressure of a mixture of ideal gases according to Dalton’s Law is the sum of

individual partial pressures of constituent gases. For this study, air is considered a

mixture of the basic components of pure dry air (nitrogen, oxygen etc.), vapour

pressure and the pollutants.

From Equation 2.2, the total atmospheric pressure obtained from the weather station

is computed as:

PATM = PPDA + PPOLLUTANTS 3.11a

Where PATM is the totals atmospheric pressure

PPDA is the total partial pressure due to the components of pure dry air

PPOLLUTANTS is the partial pressure due to pollutants.

Therefore the pressure of the pollutants that will be used for calculation in the model

will be

PPOLLUTANTS = PATM - PPDA 3.11b

54
3.3.4 WIND AND DISPERSION

When emitted into the atmosphere, the pollutants are transported away from the

source. The transport and diffusion depend on the wind speed and direction. The

wind speed influences the rate at which the pollutant molecules travel and

consequently the dilution rate. The wind speed and direction determines the area into

which the pollutants are carried and the intensity of mechanical turbulence produced

as the wind flows over and around surface objects, such as trees and buildings. Eddy

diffusion by wind turbulence is the primary mixing agency in the troposphere.

Thermal turbulence and associated intense mixing develop as a result of temperature

difference in different layers of air (McGraw Hill Encyclopaedia). Thus wind speed is

an important parameter to be considered when modelling air quality of an area.

3.3.5 DIFFUSIVITY

Movement of gas molecules through a gaseous fluid is necessary to initiate mass

transfer. Molecular diffusion takes place simultaneously with the eddy diffusion that

is created by temperature and pressure gradient and the earth’s drag force.

Movement of gaseous pollutants, A, through air carrier gas B, can be given as the

diffusivity of A through B,℘AB. This equal diffusivity of gas B through A, ℘BA. In units

of cm2/s, this is given by the modified Gilliland (1934) equation as (Hesketh, 1979).

1 1
T 2
MA  1 1  2
℘AB = 1.8 x 10 -4
 + 
(V ) 1 2 + ( V ) 12 
2
ρA  M A MB 
 A B 

3.12

55
Where

T = absolute temperature, K

M = molecular weight

V = molecular volume of gas when a liquid at the normal boiling

point, cm3/gmole.

The ratio MA/ρAin equation 3.12 can be replaced by RT/P by using the ideal gas law

where R is the universal gas constant 82.05 atm cm3/(gmole K), P is Pressure in

atmosphere.

3.3.6 MASS TRANSPORT

If a gas consists of two different kinds of molecules, mass transport occurs especially

if the concentration of the gas phase is non-uniform. If the difference in concentration

is maintained, a steady flux of gas will move from the region of higher concentration

to the region of lower concentration. It is possible to represent this mass transport in

relationship with the concentration gradient and diffusivity of the gases. For real

gases and liquids, the diffusivity is defined by (Foust et al, 1980)

NA dC
= -℘ A 3.13
A dx

A is the transport area.

Where NA/A is the net flux at steady state. For gas B

NB dC
= -℘ B 3.14
A dx

For real gases, the diffusion coefficients are identical. Therefore, if a gradient exist in

gas A, a gradient exists in gas B. The gradient of gas B is equal but in opposite

direction to that of gas A. Combination of Equation 3.13 and 3.14 gives

56
 NA = - N B 3.15

Equation 3.13 may be written in terms of partial pressure of gas A. From the Perfect

Gas Law, PA = nRT

nA P
CA = = A
V RT

3.16

Substitution of CA from 3.16 into 3.13 gives

NA ℘ dP A
= - 3.17a
A RT dx

Where PA = Partial pressure

T = Absolute temperature

R = Gas constant

In terms of the pollutants, Equation 3.17a may be written as

NPOLLUTANT = dPPOLLUTANTS 3.17b

A RT dx

3.4 DEVELOPMENT OF THE MODEL EQUATIONS

Junge (1972) stated that the concentration of a specific pollutant changes with time:

dC i Turbulent + Advection + Emission + Sink + Reactivity

=
dt Diffusion Rate

Or

dC i Mixing and transport + Input - output and reactions

=
dt Physical removal processes.

57
In the development of this air quality model, however, the assumption is that the

pollutants are no reactive, thus there is no generation within the system. The focus

will be on the effect of wind on the dispersion of the pollutants taking into

consideration the atmospheric pressure and temperature, and also the effect of

vapour pressure on the concentration of the pollutant at a particular point in time.

Air is considered a mixture of the basic components of the air (N2, CO, O2, Ar) and

the pollutants. The basic components of pure air are considered constant and there

is a steady generation of pollutants and emission of same into the atmosphere.

Therefore there will be a concentration gradient with respect to the pollutants.

Immediately a pollutant is emitted into the atmosphere, dilution and transportation of

the molecules occur. This phenomenon is called mass transport. Molecules in gas

phase possess mass, heat, and momentum that are transferred from region of high

concentration to region of lower concentration.

This rate of transfer, as a function of concentration gradient is represented by the

basic mathematical expression,

∂Γ ∂2 Γ
=δ
∂θ ∂x 2

3.18

Where
Γ = concentration of the property to be transferred

θ = time

x = distance measured in direction of transport

δ = Proportionality constant for a system

58
For real gases and liquids, δ , the proportionality constant for mass transport is the

diffusivity, ℘, and is given by (Foust et al, 1980)

NA dC
= -℘ A
A dx 3.19

where

NA/A = the net flux at steady state

NA = rate of mass transport ,Kmol/hr.

A = the area within which mass transport occurs, m2

℘ = mass diffusivity, m2/ hr

CA = concentration of pollutants

For the binary mixture, if a gradient exist in gas A, there also exist another gradient in

gas B (air) which is in opposite direction. This equation 3.18 may be derived for gas

B,

NB dC
= -℘ B 3.20
A dx

The total concentration of the gas mixture of a and b is given by

CT = CA + CB 3.21

The mass diffusivity ℘can be calculated from various formulae depending on the

known parameters. With the assumption that the gases in consideration (air and

pollutants) follow the perfect gas law, it can be shown that (J.C. Maxwell (1860) in

Hirschfelder et al, 1954)

59
 1
℘= lc
6
3.22
1
8RT  2
c = 
Where  Mπ 

3.23
c = Arithmetic mean speed, cm/sec
R = gas constant, 8.314 x107erg/K g mole

T = Absolute temperature, K

M = molecular weight, g/ g mole

The free mean path is

R′ T R ′T
l = =
1 2  7.67 X 10 23 Pπσ2
 + 2  APπσ2
3 3 

3.24

Where Ā =Avogadro’s number, 6.02 x 1023 molecules/g mole

P = Pressure, atm

R ′ = Gas constant, 82.06 atm cu cm / K g mole

T = Absolute temperature, K

σ = Molecular diameter, cm

l = mean free path, cm

Equation 3.24 can be re-written as

RT
ι = 3.25
7.75 x 10 29 Pπσ2

Combining equations 3.23,3.24,3.25 gives

60
 3
8.28 x 10-20 T 2
℘ = 1
Pσ 2 M 2

3.26

Equation 3.26 shows that the transport diffusivities vary with the 3/2 powers of the

temperature and inversely with the total pressure. In order to utilize equation 3.26 to

evaluate transport properties, it is necessary to know the molecular diameter σ.

For calculation of mass diffusivity the following equation has been derived for binary

mixtures (Foust et al, 1980)

1  1 1 
8.42 x 10 - 24 (T ) 3  + 
2 MA M B  3.27
℘AB =
Pσ AB
2
Ω2

Where ℘AB = mass diffusivity, m2/sec

MA = molecular weight of species A, kg/mol

MB = molecular weight of species B, kg/mol

P = total pressure, N/m2

σAB , Ω2 = Lennard-Jones constants

Gilliland has developed an empirical correlation for the mass diffusivities of many

gases (Gilliland, 1934). The Gilliland equation is

 1 1 
1.38 x 10 -7 T 3  + 
M
 A M B  3.28
℘=
(
P VA
1
3 + VB
1
3 ) 2

61
Where V is the molar volume. The constant was evaluated by measuring the

diffusivities of many real gases, including water vapour. Generally, the Gilliland

correlation is used only when the Lennard-Jones model cannot be used.

For the present study, since the molar volume of the pollutant molecule cannot be

determined, the modified Gilliland equation (Hesketh, 1979) will be used. It is given

as
1
1 MA  1 1  2
℘AB = 1.299 x 10 T -6 2
 + 
ρA M A MB 

3.29

Where T = absolute temperature, K

M = molecular weight.

The ratio MA/ρ A in equation 3.29 can be replaced by RT/PA by the use of Ideal Gas

Law where R is the universal gas constant and PA is the pressure of component A.

Therefore, equation 3.29 may be written as

1
1 RT  1 2
℘AB = 1.299 x 10 - 6 (T ) 2
  3.30
PA  M A + M B 

3 1
T 2  1  2
℘AB = 1.0659 x 10 -4
  3.31
PA  M A + M B 
1
 1 
Let K = 1.0659 x 10 4  
M A + M B 

Equation 3.31 becomes

3
T 2
℘AB = K
PA

3.32

62
The above agrees with equation 3.26 which shows that the transport diffusivities vary

with 3/2 power of temperature and inversely with pressure.

Substituting equation 3.32 into 3.19 gives

3
NA T 2 dC A
= -K
AT PA dx

3.33

Collecting like terms, we have

3
− KT 2 dx
dC A =
N A PA AT 3.34

Taking the transport area as a square grid with sides x gives

3
− KT 2 dx
dC A = 2
N A PA x

3.35

From the Box Model of Air Quality Modelling (Rau, 1980),

QA
CA =
uWD

3.36

Where ũ is the mean wind velocity, m/s

D is the length of the transport area, m

W is the width of the transport area, m

QA is the emission rate of species A, g/s

McCare (1980) however concluded that the rate of emission of pollutant species is

equal to the rate at which they are transported downwind, all prevailing

63
meteorological and atmospheric conditions being constant. Thus it can be assumed

that the emission rate QA is equal to mass transport rate, NA.

Therefore,

NA
CA =
uWD

3.37

⇒ N A = C A u WD

Taking the same square transport area with length and width equal to x meter,

N A = C Au x 2
3.38

Substitution of equation 3.38 into equation 3.35 gives

3
− KT 2 dCA dx
=
(
C Au x/ 2 PA) x/ 2

dC A uPA
= 3
dx
PA KT 2
3.39

Integrating equation 3.39 with limit between x1 and x2 and 0 and CA give

CA dCA - uPA x2
∫0 CA
=
KT 2
3 ∫
x1
dx

- uPA ∆x
In CA = 3
3.40
KT 2

The right hand side of equation 3.40 shows the term convection term, the result of

eddy diffusion, due to the presence of wind. Dispersion of gaseous air pollutants is

also possible by thermal diffusion, a situation where there is no wind, and its value is

very negligible. Assumption 3, Section 3.2 states that the transport in the x-direction

64
is by convection; hence the model will neglect the diffusion of pollutants when there

is no wind.

Faith et al (1972) noted that in the absence of wind, diffusion of pollutants is induced

by temperature difference and is very negligible. In most cases, the effect of

horizontal motion of air, or wind is even more important. Eddy diffusion by wind

turbulence is the primary mixing agency in the troposphere; molecular diffusion and

thermal turbulence are negligible.

Therefore, the model equation for air pollution concentration could be represented as

 − uP 
C A = exp 3 A 
 KT 2  3.41

For this study air is regarded as a mixture of the basic components of pure air and

the air pollutants.

 − u PPOLLUTANT 
CPOLLUTANT = exp 3 
 KT 2 

PPOLLUTANT is obtained from section 3.3, subsection 3.3.3

PPOLLUTANT = PATM - PPDA

PATM = Atmospheric pressure, KPa

PPDA = Partial pressure of pure components of air, 100.0 KPa

3.5 SIMULATION PROCEDURE

The computer is an essential tool for engineers because it gives freedom from having

to do tedious, repetitive calculations while time is available to examine alternative

65
solutions to problems. For our study, the elements of problem solving with the

computer given by Jewell (1991) will be adopted. They include:

1. Statement of problem.

2. Mathematical description.

3. Algorithm development.

- Input/Output design

- Numerical Methods

- Computer Implementation.

4. Program Development

5. Program Testing

3.5.1 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

Develop a computer application that will compute the output of an estimate of the

concentration of pollutants in the atmosphere.

3.5.2 MATHEMATICAL DESCRIPTION

The theoretical development of the mathematical model is discussed in section 3.4.

The equation arrived at for determining the concentration of pollutants in the

atmosphere is

 − u PPOLLUTANT 
CPOLLUTANT = exp 3 
 KT 2 

3.5.3 ALGORITHM DEVELOPMENT

66
The atmospheric pressure, temperature, wind speed, and vapour pressure will be

input at the beginning of the program. Output would include the pollutant partial

pressure, temperature, wind speed, vapour pressure, concentration of pollutants.

3.5.4 COMPUTER IMPLEMENTATION

Flowchart for the program identifies 4 program modules as shown in figure 3.1.

START
RPOMPTFOR

ATMPRE

INPUT 1

INPUT

CALL CMPUT 2
NO
LT

YES

CALL EXDATA 3 ERROR

MESSAGE

OUTPUT 4

RE-INPUIUT

VALUE

ST OP

ENTER MODEL
ATMPRE, ABTEMP, VAPOUR,
WINDED, SAPRES, CONSTT

67
 ENTER EXDATA

PROMPT
PPPOLL = ATMPRE – SAPRE
FIRST = PPPOLL*WINDED ENTER EXPERIMENTAL

SECOND = CONSTT*(ABTEMP**1.5) DATA

CONCEN = EXP (FIRST/SECOND)

INPUT
RETURN

RETURN

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 METEOROLOGICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL DATA

4.1 METEOROLOGICAL DATA

68
Table 4.1 shows the meteorological data obtained from the daily logbook of the

Nigerian Airspace Management Authority, Minna Airport, Maikunkele, Minna, Niger

State. The conditions under which the results were obtained are

Latitude 090 39’ N

Longitude 060 28’E

Thermometer Base of Screen 1.17m above ground

Bulb of max 1.33m above ground

Bulb of min 1.27m above ground

Bulb of Dry bulb 1.19m above ground

Bulb of Wet bulb 1.19m above ground

Rain gauge site 281.1m above mean sea level

Barometer cistern 282.0m above mean sea level

Station pressure reference Level (Hp) + 0.4m above mean sea level

Wind vane 4.87m above grounds.

Table 4.1 METEOROLOGICAL DATA FROM N.A.M.A, MINNA.

4.1. a. AREA: MINNA, NIGER STATE, NIGERIA. PERIOD: JANUARY 2002.
TIME
OF ABSOLUTE ATMOSPHERIC VAPOUR POLLUTANT WIND
THE TEMPERATURE PRESSURE PRESSURE PRESSURE SPEED
DAY

69
HR K KPa KPa KPa m/s

0000 298 101.360 0.860 1.360 2.62

0300 296 101.300 0.810 1.300 3.55

0600 296 101.420 0.750 1.420 2.79

0900 299 101.450 0.730 1.450 3.60

1200 304 101.230 0.900 1.230 2.00

1500 306 101.010 0.980 1.010 1.53

1800 303 101.110 0.960 1.110 1.97

2100 300 101.270 0.900 1.270 2.40

4.1.b AREA: MINNA, NIGER STATE, NIGERIA. PERIOD: FEBRUARY 2002.

TIME
ABSOLUTE ATMOSPHERIC VAPOUR POLLUTANT WIND
OF THE
TEMPERATURE PRESSURE PRESSURE PRESSURE SPEED
DAY
HR K KPa KPa KPa m/s

0000 301 101.200 1.170 1.200 2.35

0300 299 101.150 1.100 1.150 2.03

0600 297 101.250 1.030 1.250 2.30

0900 302 101.310 1.070 1.310 3.17

1200 308 101.090 1.270 1.090 1.87

1500 309 100.850 1.270 0.850 1.14

1800 307 100.930 1.290 0.930 1.14

2100 304 101.090 1.250 1.090 1.54

4.1.c AREA: MINNA, NIGER STATE, NIGERIA. PERIOD: MARCH 2002.
TIME
ABSOLUTE ATMOSPHERIC VAPOUR POLLUTANT WIND
OF THE
TEMPERATURE PRESSURE PRESSURE PRESSURE SPEED
DAY
HR K KPa KPa KPa m/s

0000 303 101.050 1.960 1.050 3.32

70
 0300 301 100.980 1.990 0.980 2.90

0600 300 101.090 1.990 1.090 2.48

0900 303 101.180 2.250 1.180 5.36

1200 309 100.960 2.160 0.960 4.16

1500 311 100.660 1.960 0.660 4.67

1800 309 100.760 1.920 0.760 3.44

2100 306 100.930 1.930 0.930 3.77

4.1.d AREA: MINNA, NIGER STATE, NIGERIA. PERIOD: APRIL 2002.

TIME
ABSOLUTE ATMOSPHERIC VAPOUR POLLUTANT WIND
OF THE
TEMPERATURE PRESSURE PRESSURE PRESSURE SPEED
DAY
HR K KPa KPa KPa m/s

0000 302 100.970 2.640 0.970 3.08

0300 300 100.910 2.630 0.910 4.50

0600 299 101.010 2.660 1.010 3.53

0900 303 101.130 2.730 1.130 5.92

1200 306 100.890 2.780 0.890 4.98

1500 308 100.630 2.670 0.630 4.89

1800 306 100.700 2.670 0.700 4.30

2100 304 100.850 2.670 0.850 4.89

4.1.e AREA: MINNA, NIGER STATE, NIGERIA. PERIOD: MAY 2002.

TIME
ABSOLUTE ATMOSPHERIC VAPOUR POLLUTANT WIND
OF THE
TEMPERATURE PRESSURE PRESSURE PRESSURE SPEED
DAY
HR K KPa KPa KPa m/s

0000 302 101.140 2.730 1.140 4.69

71
 0300 300 101.070 2.740 1.070 4.23

0600 299 101.190 2.760 1.190 3.21

0900 303 101.240 2.750 1.240 5.25

1200 306 101.060 2.740 1.060 4.03

1500 308 100.840 2.620 0.840 3.69

1800 306 100.870 2.600 0.870 4.44

2100 303 101.030 2.660 1.030 5.11

4.1.f AREA: MINNA, NIGER STATE, NIGERIA. PERIOD: JUNE 2002.

TIME
ABSOLUTE ATMOSPHERIC VAPOUR POLLUTANT WIND
OF THE
TEMPERATURE PRESSURE PRESSURE PRESSURE SPEED
DAY
HR K KPa KPa KPa m/s

0000 299 101.370 2.240 1.370 3.84

0300 297 101.290 2.220 1.290 2.95

0600 297 101.370 2.230 1.370 2.89

0900 300 101.430 2.250 1.430 4.49

1200 303 101.270 2.270 1.270 4.32

1500 305 101.090 2.260 1.090 4.43

1800 303 101.110 2.270 1.110 3.15

2100 300 101.280 2.250 1.280 5.13

4.1.g AREA: MINNA, NIGER STATE, NIGERIA. PERIOD: JULY 2002.

TIME
ABSOLUTE ATMOSPHERIC VAPOUR POLLUTANT WIND
OF THE
TEMPERATURE PRESSURE PRESSURE PRESSURE SPEED
DAY
HR K KPa KPa KPa m/s
0000 298 101.450 2.800 1.450 1.56

72
 0300 296 101.390 2.770 1.390 1.28
0600 297 101.450 2.770 1.450 1.67
0900 299 101.530 2.830 1.530 4.30
1200 301 101.390 2.860 1.390 3.69
1500 302 101.220 2.890 1.220 3.99
1800 300 101.270 2.880 1.270 2.32
2100 299 101.380 2.850 1.380 2.95
4.1.h AREA: MINNA, NIGER STATE, NIGERIA. PERIOD: AUGUST 2002.
TIME
ABSOLUTE ATMOSPHERIC VAPOUR POLLUTANT WIND
OF THE
TEMPERATURE PRESSURE PRESSURE PRESSURE SPEED
DAY
HR K KPa KPa KPa m/s

0000 297 101.430 2.770 1.430 1.56

0300 296 101.370 2.730 1.370 1.37

0600 296 101.460 2.700 1.460 1.79

0900 298 101.500 2.740 1.500 3.47

1200 301 101.370 2.810 1.370 4.33

1500 302 101.200 2.820 1.200 3.53

1800 300 101.240 2.860 1.240 2.23

2100 298 101.350 2.820 1.350 2.27

4.1.i AREA: MINNA, NIGER STATE, NIGERIA. PERIOD: SEPTEMBER 2002.

TIME OF
ABSOLUTE ATMOSPHERIC VAPOUR POLLUTANT WIND
THE
TEMPERATURE PRESSURE PRESSURE PRESSURE SPEED
DAY
HR K KPa KPa KPa m/s
0000 296 101.410 2.610 1.410 1.00

0300 296 101.340 2.570 1.340 1.13

0600 296 101.410 2.590 1.410 1.29

0900 299 101.470 2.720 1.470 4.07

1200 301 101.320 2.780 1.320 4.14

73
1500 302 101.550 2.780 1.550 3.60

1800 298 101.260 2.720 1.260 2.61

2100 297 101.350 2.670 1.350 1.96

4.1.j AREA: MINNA, NIGER STATE, NIGERIA. PERIOD :OCTOBER 2002.

TIME
OF ABSOLUTE ATMOSPHERIC VAPOUR POLLUTANT WIND
THE TEMPERATURE PRESSURE PRESSURE PRESSURE SPEED
DAY
HR K KPa KPa KPa m/s

0000 297 101.290 2.680 1.290 0.96

0300 296 101.230 2.620 1.230 0.81

0600 296 101.320 2.580 1.320 0.89

0900 300 101.380 2.680 1.380 2.64

1200 303 101.200 2.690 1.200 2.46

1500 304 101.010 2.690 1.010 3.69

1800 301 101.090 2.780 1.090 2.34

2100 299 101.230 2.710 1.230 2.39

4.1.k AREA: MINNA, NIGER STATE, NIGERIA. PERIOD: NOVEMBER 2002.

TIME
OF ABSOLUTE ATMOSPHERIC VAPOUR POLLUTANT WIND
THE TEMPERATURE PRESSURE PRESSURE PRESSURE SPEED
DAY
HR K KPa KPa KPa m/s
0000 297 101.310 1.920 1.310 2.68

0300 295 101.250 1.840 1.250 0.82

0600 295 101.360 1.760 1.360 0.90

0900 302 101.340 1.730 1.340 3.90

1200 307 101.140 1.540 1.140 3.44

74
1500 307 100.990 1.550 0.990 3.05

1800 303 101.090 1.920 1.090 1.36

2100 300 101.240 1.950 1.240 1.88

4.1.l AREA: MINNA, NIGER STATE, NIGERIA. PERIOD: DECEMBER 2002.

TIME
OF ABSOLUTE ATMOSPHERIC VAPOUR POLLUTANT WIND
THE TEMPERATURE PRESSURE PRESSURE PRESSURE SPEED
DAY
HR K KPa KPa KPa m/s

0000 297 101.350 1.350 1.350 4.15

0300 295 101.290 1.260 1.290 3.57

0600 294 101.430 1.200 1.430 3.48

0900 301 101.440 1.210 1.440 6.07

1200 306 101.210 1.290 1.210 5.19

1500 307 101.020 1.320 1.020 3.84

1800 303 101.130 1.460 1.130 2.03

2100 300 101.290 1.420 1.290 4.43

4.2 EXPERIMENTAL DATA

Table 4.2 and 4.3 shows environmental monitoring data of some air pollutants and

the air quality assessment carried out in Minna municipal and selected areas in

Abuja, Nigeria.

TABLE 4.2 DATA ON ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING OF SOME AIR

POLLUTANTS AND PARTICULATES CONCENTRATION OF THREE AREAS

WITHIN MINNA MUNICIPAL

DATE NAME OF AREA PARAMETERS

75
 SO2 CO CH4 DUST
ppm ppm % mg/m2
Mobil Area 1.7 1.03 0.00 0.03
30 MARCH, 2000 0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00
Old Airport Road
(EVENING PERIOD) 0.6 0.06 0.00 0.00
Kuta Road
0.0 0.03 0.00 0.07
Northern By-Pass
09 NOVEMBER, 2000 Mobil Area 3.1 0.03 0.00 0.19
0.0 0.71 0.00 0.03
(AFTERNOON Old Airport Road
0.2 0.54 0.00 0.01
PERIOD) Kuta Road
0.1 0.07 0.00 0.13
Maitumbi
School Of Health 0.1 0.00 0.00 0.12
0.4 0.70 0.00 0.12
Kuta Road
03 JANNUARY, 2001 0.7 6.70 0.00 0.13
Mobil Area
0.0 3.01 0.00 0.02
Keteren Gwari

Source: NISEPA (2001)

76
TABLE 4.3 RESULT OF THE AIR QUALITY ASSESSMENT CARRIED OUT IN
SOME SELECTED AREAS IN ABUJA.

YEAR: 2002 COMPONENT: NITROGEN OXIDE, NO

SITE SITE 1 SITE 2 SITE 3 SITE 4

AVERAGING TIME ppm ppm ppm ppm

5 Minutes 0.62 0.40 0.67 0.81

1 Hour 0.55 0.45 0.65 0.60

8 Hours 0.30 0.20 0.35 0.40

1 Day 0.40 0.19 0.30 0.30

1 Month 0.28 0.15 0.20 0.20

YEAR: 2002 COMPONENT: NITROGEN DIOXIDE, NO2

SITE SITE 1 SITE 2 SITE 3 SITE 4

AVERAGING TIME ppm ppm ppm ppm

5 Minutes 0.46 0.36 0.51 0.40

1 Hour 0.17 0.28 0.43 0.36

8 Hours 0.13 0.24 0.28 0.30

1 Day 0.04 0.15 0.22 0.20

1 Month 0.02 0.10 0.20 0.15

77
 YEAR: 2002 COMPONENT: SULPHUR DIOXIDE, SO2

SITE SITE 1 SITE 2 SITE 3 SITE 4

AVERAGING TIME ppm ppm ppm ppm

5 Minutes 1.50 0.06 0.00 0.00

1 Hour 1.80 0.07 0.00 0.00

8 Hours 0.10 0.08 0.00 0.00

1 Day 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00

1 Month 1.00 0.03 0.04 0.00

CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 RESULTS, DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

5.1 RESULTS

Table 5.1 presents the results of the computer program of the Deterministic Model for

Air Pollutants’ Concentration. Table 5.2 are the monthly averages of pollutants’

concentration computed from the model. Table 5.3 are the monthly averages

computed from Air quality assessment in Abuja, Nigeria. Table 5.4 are the daily

averages computed from Environmental Monitoring of Minna.

TABLE 5.1 POLLUTANTS CONCENTRATION USING THE MODEL EQUATION

5.1.a AREA: MINNA, NIGER STATE, NIGERIA. PERIOD: JANUARY 2002.

78
TIME
OF ABSOLUTE ATMOSPHERIC VAPOUR POLLUTANT WIND POLLUTANTS’
THE TEMPERATURE PRESSURE PRESSURE PRESSURE SPEED CONCENTRATION
DAY
HR K KPa KPa KPa m/s mg/m3
000
298 101.360 0.860 1.360 2.62 0.649
0
030
296 101.300 0.810 1.300 3.55 0.568
0
060
296 101.420 0.750 1.420 2.79 0.615
0
090
299 101.450 0.730 1.450 3.60 0.532
0
120
304 101.230 0.900 1.230 2.00 0.748
0
150
306 101.010 0.980 1.010 1.53 0.835
0
180
303 101.110 0.960 1.110 1.97 0.772
0
210
300 101.270 0.900 1.270 2.40 0.693
0

5.1.b AREA: MINNA, NIGER STATE, NIGERIA. PERIOD: FEBRUARY 2002.

TIME
OF ABSOLUTE ATMOSPHERIC VAPOUR POLLUTANT WIND POLLUTANTS’
THE TEMPERATURE PRESSURE PRESSURE PRESSURE SPEED CONCENTRATION
DAY
HR K KPa KPa KPa m/s mg/m3
000
301 101.200 1.170 1.200 2.35 0.714
0
030
299 101.150 1.100 1.150 2.03 0.754
0
060
297 101.250 1.030 1.250 2.30 0.704
0
090
302 101.310 1.070 1.310 3.17 0.610
0
120
308 101.090 1.270 1.090 1.87 0.790
0
150
309 100.850 1.270 0.850 1.14 0.894
0
180
307 100.930 1.290 0.930 1.14 0.884
0
210
304 101.090 1.250 1.090 1.54 0.820
0

79
 5.1.c AREA: MINNA, NIGER STATE, NIGERIA. PERIOD: MARCH 2002.
TIME
OF ABSOLUTE ATMOSPHERIC VAPOUR POLLUTANT WIND POLLUTANTS’
THE TEMPERATURE PRESSURE PRESSURE PRESSURE SPEED CONCENTRATION
DAY
HR K KPa KPa KPa m/s mg/m3
000
303 101.050 1.960 1.050 3.32 0.662
0
030
301 100.980 1.990 0.980 2.90 0.712
0
060
300 101.090 1.990 1.090 2.48 0.722
0
090
303 101.180 2.250 1.180 5.36 0.473
0
120
309 100.960 2.160 0.960 4.16 0.632
0
150
311 100.660 1.960 0.660 4.67 0.704
0
180
309 100.760 1.920 0.760 3.44 0.740
0
210
306 100.930 1.930 0.930 3.77 0.664
0
5.1.d AREA: MINNA, NIGER STATE, NIGERIA. PERIOD: APRIL 2002.
TIME
OF ABSOLUTE ATMOSPHERIC VAPOUR POLLUTANT WIND POLLUTANTS’
THE TEMPERATURE PRESSURE PRESSURE PRESSURE SPEED CONCENTRATION
DAY
HR K KPa KPa KPa m/s mg/m3
000
302 100.970 2.640 0.970 3.08 0.701
0
030
300 100.910 2.630 0.910 4.50 0.611
0
060
299 101.010 2.660 1.010 3.53 0.650
0
090
303 101.130 2.730 1.130 5.92 0.453
0
120
306 100.890 2.780 0.890 4.98 0.596
0
150
308 100.630 2.670 0.630 4.89 0.700
0
180
306 100.700 2.670 0.700 4.30 0.704
0
210
304 100.850 2.670 0.850 4.89 0.613
0

80
 5.1.e AREA: MINNA, NIGER STATE, NIGERIA. PERIOD: MAY 2002.
TIME
OF ABSOLUTE ATMOSPHERIC VAPOUR POLLUTANT WIND POLLUTANTS’
THE TEMPERATURE PRESSURE PRESSURE PRESSURE SPEED CONCENTRATION
DAY
HR K KPa KPa KPa m/s mg/m3
000
302 101.140 2.730 1.140 4.69 0.529
0
030
300 101.070 2.740 1.070 4.23 0.580
0
060
299 101.190 2.760 1.190 3.21 0.630
0
090
303 101.240 2.750 1.240 5.25 0.462
0
120
306 101.060 2.740 1.060 4.03 0.607
0
150
308 100.840 2.620 0.840 3.69 0.699
0
180
306 100.870 2.600 0.870 4.44 0.637
0
210
303 101.030 2.660 1.030 5.11 0.536
0
5.1.f AREA: MINNA, NIGER STATE, NIGERIA. PERIOD: JUNE 2002.
TIME
OF ABSOLUTE ATMOSPHERIC VAPOUR POLLUTANT WIND POLLUTANTS’
THE TEMPERATURE PRESSURE PRESSURE PRESSURE SPEED CONCENTRATION
DAY
HR K KPa KPa KPa m/s mg/m3
000
299 101.370 2.240 1.370 3.84 0.529
0
030
297 101.290 2.220 1.290 2.95 0.628
0
060
297 101.370 2.230 1.370 2.89 0.617
0
090
300 101.430 2.250 1.430 4.49 0.462
0
120
303 101.270 2.270 1.270 4.32 0.522
0
150
305 101.090 2.260 1.090 4.43 0.567
0
180
303 101.110 2.270 1.110 3.15 0.661
0
210
300 101.280 2.250 1.280 5.13 0.454
0

5.1.g AREA: MINNA, NIGER STATE, NIGERIA. PERIOD: JULY 2002.

81
TIME
OF ABSOLUTE ATMOSPHERIC VAPOUR POLLUTANT WIND POLLUTANTS’
THE TEMPERATURE PRESSURE PRESSURE PRESSURE SPEED CONCENTRATION
DAY
HR K KPa KPa KPa m/s mg/m3
000
298 101.450 2.800 1.450 1.56 0.760
0
030
296 101.390 2.770 1.390 1.28 0.804
0
060
297 101.450 2.770 1.450 1.67 0.744
0
090
299 101.530 2.830 1.530 4.30 0.451
0
120
301 101.390 2.860 1.390 3.69 0.541
0
150
302 101.220 2.890 1.220 3.99 0.560
0
180
300 101.270 2.880 1.270 2.32 0.702
0
210
299 101.380 2.850 1.380 2.95 0.611
0
5.1.h AREA: MINNA, NIGER STATE, NIGERIA. PERIOD: AUGUST 2002.
TIME
OF ABSOLUTE ATMOSPHERIC VAPOUR POLLUTANT WIND POLLUTANTS’
THE TEMPERATURE PRESSURE PRESSURE PRESSURE SPEED CONCENTRATION
DAY
HR K KPa KPa KPa m/s mg/m3

0000 297 101.430 2.770 1.430 1.56 0.762

0300 296 101.370 2.730 1.370 1.37 0.794

0600 296 101.460 2.700 1.460 1.79 0.726

0900 298 101.500 2.740 1.500 3.47 0.531

1200 301 101.370 2.810 1.370 4.33 0.492

1500 302 101.200 2.820 1.200 3.53 0.604

82
1800 300 101.240 2.860 1.240 2.23 0.717

2100 298 101.350 2.820 1.350 2.27 0.689

5.1.i AREA: MINNA, NIGER STATE, NIGERIA. PERIOD: SEPTEMBER 2002.

TIME
OF ABSOLUTE ATMOSPHERIC VAPOUR POLLUTANT WIND POLLUTANTS’
THE TEMPERATURE PRESSURE PRESSURE PRESSURE SPEED CONCENTRATION
DAY
HR K KPa KPa KPa m/s mg/m3
0000 296 101.410 2.610 1.410 1.00 0.841

0300 296 101.340 2.570 1.340 1.13 0.830

0600 296 101.410 2.590 1.410 1.29 0.800

0900 299 101.470 2.720 1.470 4.07 0.485

1200 301 101.320 2.780 1.320 4.14 0.520

1500 302 101.550 2.780 1.550 3.60 0.515

1800 298 101.260 2.720 1.260 2.61 0.671

2100 297 101.350 2.670 1.350 1.96 0.724

5.1.j AREA: MINNA, NIGER STATE, NIGERIA. PERIOD OCTOBER 2002.

TIM
E
ABSOLUTE ATMOSPHERIC VAPOUR POLLUTANT WIND POLLUTANTS’
OF
TEMPERATURE PRESSURE PRESSURE PRESSURE SPEED CONCENTRATION
THE
DAY
HR K KPa KPa KPa m/s mg/m3
0000 297 101.290 2.680 1.290 0.96 0.860

0300 296 101.230 2.620 1.230 0.81 0.885

0600 296 101.320 2.580 1.320 0.89 0.866

0900 300 101.380 2.680 1.380 2.64 0.645

1200 303 101.200 2.690 1.200 2.46 0.705

1500 304 101.010 2.690 1.010 3.69 0.644

1800 301 101.090 2.780 1.090 2.34 0.737

2100 299 101.230 2.710 1.230 2.39 0.701

83
 5.1.k AREA: MINNA, NIGER STATE, NIGERIA. PERIOD: NOVEMBER 2002.
TIM ABSOLUTE ATMOSPHERIC VAPOUR POLLUTANT WIND POLLUTANTS’
E TEMPERATURE PRESSURE PRESSURE PRESSURE SPEED CONCENTRATION
OF
THE
DAY
HR K KPa KPa KPa m/s mg/m3
0000 297 101.310 1.920 1.310 2.68 0.651

0300 295 101.250 1.840 1.250 0.82 0.881

0600 295 101.360 1.760 1.360 0.90 0.860

0900 302 101.340 1.730 1.340 3.90 0.537

1200 307 101.140 1.540 1.140 3.44 0.634

1500 307 100.990 1.550 0.990 3.05 0.704

1800 303 101.090 1.920 1.090 1.36 0.839

2100 300 101.240 1.950 1.240 1.88 0.755

5.1.l AREA: MINNA, NIGER STATE, NIGERIA. PERIOD: DECEMBER 2002.

TIM ABSOLUTE ATMOSPHERIC VAPOUR POLLUTANT WIND POLLUTANTS’

E TEMPERATURE PRESSURE PRESSURE PRESSURE SPEED CONCENTRATION
OF
THE
DAY
HR K KPa KPa KPa m/s mg/m3

0000 297 101.350 1.350 1.350 4.15 0.505

0300 295 101.290 1.260 1.290 3.57 0.567

0600 294 101.430 1.200 1.430 3.48 0.540

0900 301 101.440 1.210 1.440 6.07 0.351

1200 306 101.210 1.290 1.210 5.19 0.480

1500 307 101.020 1.320 1.020 3.84 0.634

1800 303 101.130 1.460 1.130 2.03 0.762

84
 2100 300 101.290 1.420 1.290 4.43 0.503

TABLE 5.2 MONTHLY AVERAGE OF POLLUTANTS’ CONCENTRATION

OBTAINED USING THE MODEL

MEAN MONTHLY CONCENTRATION (mg/m3)

MONTHLY AVERAGE
PERIOD 0000 0300 0600 0900 1200 1500 1800 2100
TOTAL (mg/m3)
JANUARY 0.649 0.568 0.615 0.532 0.748 0.835 0.772 0.693 5.412 0.677

FEBRUARY 0.714 0.754 0.704 0.610 0.790 0.894 0.884 0.820 6.170 0.771

MARCH 0.662 0.712 0.722 0.473 0.632 0.704 0.740 0.664 5.309 0.664

APRIL 0.701 0.611 0.650 0.453 0.596 0.700 0.704 0.613 5.028 0.629

MAY 0.529 0.580 0.630 0.462 0.607 0.699 0.637 0.536 4.680 0.585

JUNE 0.529 0.638 0.617 0.462 0.522 0.567 0.661 0454 4.540 0.568

JULY 0.760 0.804 0.744 0.451 0.541 0.560 0.702 0.611 5.173 0.647

AUGUST 0.762 0.794 0.726 0.531 0.492 0.604 0.717 0.689 5.315 0.664

SEPTEMBER 0.841 0.830 0.800 0.425 0.520 0.515 0.671 0.724 5.326 0.666

OCTOBER 0.860 0.885 0.866 0.645 0.705 0.644 0.737 0.701 6.043 0.715

NOVEMBER 0.651 0.881 0.860 0.537 0.634 0.704 0.839 0.755 5.861 0.733

DECEMBER 0.505 0.567 0.540 0.351 0.480 0.634 0.762 0.503 4.342 0.543

TABLE 5.3 MONTHLY AVERAGES COMPUTED FROM AIR QUALITY

ASSESSMENT IN ABUJA (TABLE 4.3)

85
 SITE CONCENTRATION OF COMPONENTS (mg/m3) AVERAGE
(mg/m3)
1. 0.28 0.02 1.00 1.300
2. 0.15 0.10 0.03 0.280
3. 0.20 0.20 0.04 0.440
4. 0.20 0.15 0.00 0.350

TABLE 5.4 DAILY AVERAGES COMPUTED FROM DATA ON ENVIRONMENTAL

MONITORING IN MINNA (TABLE 4.2)

DATE AREA CONCENTRATION (mg/m3) AVERAGE

SO2 CO (mg/m3

OF

CO

30/03/00 Mobil (Central Area) 1.889 1.144 3.033

Old Airport Road
Kuta Road 0.667 0.667 0.733
Northern By-pass 0.000 0.033 0.033

09/11/00 Mobil (central Area) 3.444 0.033 3.478

Old Airport Road 0.000 0.789 0.789
Kuta Road 0.222 0.600 0.822
Maitumbi 0.111 0.078 0.189
03/01/01 School of Health 0.111 0.000 0.111
Kuta Road 0.444 0.778 1.222
School of Mobil (Central Area) 0.778 7.444 8.222
Keteren Gwari 0.000 3.344 3.344
Health

0.111

0.000

86
0.111

0.444

0.778

1.222

5.2 DISCUSSION OF RESULT

The main aim of this research work, as stated earlier, is the development of a

deterministic model for air pollutants’ concentration. A model was arrived at in section

3.4, with the pollutants’ partial pressure, atmospheric temperature and wind speed as

the variable parameters. Meteorological data were collected from the Nigerian

Airspace Management Authority, Minna Airport, Niger State. The data were used to

compute the air pollutants’ concentration using the derived model.

The data extracted from the daily logbook of NAMA are for eight different time

periods:

0000 hrs - midnight

0300 hrs - early morning

0600 hrs - early morning

0900 hrs- early morning rush hour.

1200 hrs - afternoon

87
1500 hrs- late afternoon

1800 hrs - evening rush hour

2100 hrs - late night.

The readings at these various periods were taken in order to account for the diurnal

variation in pollutants concentration. Vapour pressure readings were also taken in

order to account for the effect of water vapour on pollutants. The presence of water in

the atmosphere cannot be regarded as a pollutant. However, water will dissolve

some of the components of air pollution (depending on their solubilities) and settle

down on the earth surface, thus reducing the concentration of pollutants in the

atmosphere.

Analysis of the data in Tables 4.1 and 5.1 indicates that the temperature, for the

period within which the data were collected, varied between 294K and 311K. The

wind speed varied (with no definite or predictive pattern) between 0.81 m/s and 6.07

m/s. It is noticeably high in the morning periods. Wind is the result of movement of

large masses of air brought about by differences in temperature and pressure and

the rotation of the earth, thus its speed and direction are not really predictive.

The amount of moisture in the atmosphere, which subsequently affects the vapour

pressure, is also not predictive. Generally, it is highest after a heavy rainfall and

lowest during the dry season. July has humid days while the months of

December/January are relatively dry. From the data obtained, the values for vapour

pressure are highest in the afternoon, this can be attributed to the fact that in the

88
evening, more water from the various water bodies and surfaces would have been

evaporated into the atmosphere. Consequently this would reduce the concentration

of pollutants present in the air (Barry et al, 1976).

It was noted that the atmospheric pressure is highest in the mornings (0900hrs). This

period of the day is just after the so-called “rush hour”, a period when commercial

activities, vehicular movement and cooking activities are at their peak. This results in

more pollutants emission into the atmosphere. However, it is expected that the higher

the atmospheric pressure, the higher the concentration of pollutants. The computed

pollutants concentration showed that it depends on the amount of water vapour (i.e.

vapour pressure) in the atmosphere, as well as the wind speed. Wind serves as a

dispersion agent, thus at higher speed, more dispersion and dilution occur and the

concentration of pollutants in the atmosphere is expectedly low (Cheremisinoff,

1981).

Water serves as a dissolution agent to some of the air pollutants, thus the presence

of more water (especially as droplets) in the atmosphere means that more of the

soluble air pollutants components will dissolve and thus there will be a reduction in

their concentration.

Further analysis of Table 5.1 indicates that during the day, the concentration of

pollutants is reduced. This is attributable to the fact that dispersion of pollutants is

influenced by temperature change. The quantity of heat in the environment is

proportional to the mass of air. That is, the more pollutants released to the

89
environment the greater the heat content and consequently the higher the

temperature. As the rising sun heats up the environment, the change in temperature

of various layers of air results in the atmospheric heating and thus increased dilution

of the content of air. This results in low pollutants concentration.

It should be noted that for Table 5.3 and 5.4, the accuracy of the computed daily

average depends on the accuracy of the data obtained from the various sources.

Table 5.3 consist of results for concentration of 3 major air pollutants. NO, NO 2, SO2

(in some cases the SO2 components have very negligible values). This component,

SO2, is mainly produced from fuel oils, thus if sampling is taken in the open country,

the level of SO2 will be very low, conversely in the urban areas where vehicles

abound and cooking is done with kerosene, the sulphur content will be significant.

Sulphur dioxide is also soluble in water and will attack paint, metals, stonework when

water is present, thus it is easily removed from the atmosphere.

The three major oxides of nitrogen known collectively as NOx are produced from

oxidation of nitrogen present in fossil fuels and more commonly from nitrogen in the

air used in the combustion process. They will be emitted more in areas that have

high concentration of vehicles.

These observations were also noted for the data obtained from the Environmental

Monitoring Laboratory, Minna. The SO2 in the air is relatively high in the Mobil area.

This area is central in Minna city where the bulk of vehicles and commercial activities

are concentrated. Carbon monoxide, which is a by-product of incomplete combustion

90
of fossil fuel and firewood, is expectedly high in areas that have a mixture of

residential and commercial occupants.

In all cases of model application, it is necessary to perform a validation or calibration

analysis to verify the extent to which the model can reproduce certain conditions.

Experimental data available for the verification of the model under consideration are

the Air quality assessment carried out in some selected areas in Abuja (Table 4.3)

and Environmental Monitoring of Air Pollutants and particulates concentration of

three areas in Minna, Niger State (Table 4.2).

Carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide values are not included in the result from Abuja

while that of Minna has sulphur dioxide and carbon dioxide and nitrogen oxide. The

values of nitrogen dioxide and carbon dioxide are however not included. The

atmospheric and meteorological conditions for the experiments are not given, thus

the results for the monthly average would be used to compare the monthly average

obtained using the model. The readings from the model are for the total atmospheric

pollutants, thus it is for all the components put together. The comparison will thus be

relative.

It is important to note that the experimental data are obtained from highly populated

commercial areas. These data while they represent the actual values, they cannot be

presented as the mean for Minna environs. The Minna Airport from where the

meteorological data used for the simulation were obtained is about 11km from the

experimental area. The values represent a homogenised meteorological condition.

91
Table 5.2 shows the monthly average obtained using the derived model. These

values compared favourably with some sites, and the monthly average (Tables 5.3

and 5.4). The difference can be attributed to the absence of the values of some

components like carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide, which are relatively

substantial. Comparing Table 5.2 with Tables 5.3 and 5.4 is also very relative due to

the reason earlier stated. However the model clearly gives an indication of the

enormous possibility in determining pollutants’ concentration from meteorological

data.

5.3 CONCLUSIONS

There are various methods by which the concentration of pollutants in the

atmosphere can be obtained. One of the methods is qualitative analytical technique

which involves the use of various chemical reagents and apparatus; there is no

single apparatus for the analysis. The other method, which is quicker, is by modelling

using known parameters and standard equations. This method although is quicker,

cleaner and less laborious, it is, however, just an estimate which is suitable for

decision-making.

A deterministic model was developed using gas laws: Charles’, Boyle’s, Ideal and

Dalton’s law and taking into account diffusion of the gaseous pollutants in the

atmosphere. The variables include the atmospheric pressure from which the

pollutants partial pressure was obtained, temperature, vapour pressure and

prevailing wind speed.

92
Experimental data from research works carried out in Minna and Abuja were

obtained and compared with the simulated results. The use of qualitative analytical

techniques to determine gaseous pollutants’ concentrations though highly accurate

and effective has no ready application in developing countries, because of the cost

implication and lack of necessary manpower.

The simulation results for concentration of air pollutants and the daily average of

these concentrations were found to be comparable with the experimental results

obtained from the various agencies. Therefore, the proposed model can serve as a

tool for predicting air pollutants’ concentration in projects that require the overall

impact of pollution provided the atmospheric pressure and temperature, vapour

pressure and wind speed are known.

93
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