IGCSE Chemistry

IGCSE Chemistry
From the Edexcel IGCSE 2009 Syllabus including triple science
statements

CGPwned

Unit 1: The Periodic Table

The
Period
ic
Table!

The periodic table contains about a hundred or so elements that have been currently discovered. The
rows are known as
periods and
elements of the
For
the period
PDF, gohave
to
same
the same number of
http://chemistry.a
electron shells. The
bout.com/library/P
columns are known
as groups and
eriodicTableallcolor
elements of the
.pdf
same group have the
same number of
electrons on their
outer shell. Group
one has one outer
electron,
An element is a
substance that
cannot be broken
down into anything
simpler. KCl for
example (potassium
chloride) is NOT an
element because it
can be broken down
into K (potassium)
and Cl (chlorine).
The potassium and
chlorine are the
elements.
A compound is two
or more elements
chemically bonded
together. An
example would be
KCl (potassium
chloride), which
consists of the
elements potassium
and chloride
chemically bonded
together.
Atoms are the
building blocks of
substances.
Molecules are two or
more atoms bonded

together. It doesnt have to be a compound. Elements such as O 2 and Br2 are diatomic molecules they
exist in pairs.

Atomic Structure
Atoms are made up of protons, neutrons and
electrons.Protons are positively charged. Electrons are
negatively charged. Neutrons dont have a charge.
An atom consists of a nucleus, which contains protons
and neutrons; and someelectron shells which surround
the nucleus and contain electrons. The neutrons
however, are different. The number of protons and the
number of neutrons add up to make the mass number
an element.

of

Understanding the Lack of Reactivity in Noble Gases

(Group 0)
Noble gases have eight electrons on their outer shell, therefore, there is no need for them to gain or
lose electrons. Basically they have a full outer shell so they dont need to react. This is what makes
them so unreactive.
How to Read Each Square on The Periodic Table
You probably already know that the periodic table is made
up of lots and lots of squares, each containing an element
and information about it.
Anyways we already know what the atomic mass number
is (the number of protons + neutrons). It says 12.011 here
but this is probably because this picture came from some super complicated periodic table. In IGCSE
level however, the atomic mass should read 12. Anyways, the atomic number is the number of protons
(and electrons), so to find the number of neutrons, if asked to, simply subtract the atomic mass by the
atomic number.
Example: Calculate the number of neutrons Carbon has.
The answer: 12 6 = 6 neutrons

The Arrangement of Electrons

Atoms are surrounded by electron shells which contain

electrons. But the arrangement is the same for ALL the
elements, not matter how different they are.

Each shell can only hold a certain number of electrons. The very first shell can hold only two electrons.
The second shell can hold eight. The third sometimes appear full with eight but can expand to a total
of eighteen. However, this is beyond GCSE level, and for now, the shells only hold eight.
So how do you find the electron configuration? Well lets use potassium (K) as an example.
Look up the atomic number of potassium. It should say 19. This tells you the number of protons, which
is equal to the number of electrons so we can use that.
Arrange the electrons in shells, always filling up the inner shell before you go to the outer one.
Remember the first, innermost shell can only take 2 electrons, the second one can take 8, and the third
one, 8. You will find that you have one electron left. That goes on the fourth shell.
Your electron configuration should look like this: 2, 8, 8, 1.
Example: Work out the electron configuration of chlorine.
Chlorine has an atomic number of 17 so 17 electrons.
17 2 (as the innermost shell only holds two electrons) = 15
15 8 (as the second shell only holds eight electrons) = 7 (This number is the number of
electrons Chlorine has on its outer shell).
7 electrons does not fill up the third shell so we are left with the configuration: 2, 8, 7.

Isotopes
The number of neutrons in an atom can vary slightly. For example, there are three kinds of carbon
atom, called carbon-12, carbon-13 and carbon-14. They all have the same number of protons, but the
number of neutrons vary. These different atoms of carbon are called isotopes. Isotopes are atoms that
have the same atomic number, but different mass numbers. They have the same number of protons,
but different numbers of neutrons. The fact that they have varying numbers of neutrons makes no

difference whatsoever to their chemical reactions. The chemical properties are governed by the
number and arrangement of the electrons.

Calculating Relative Atomic Mass (R.A.M.)

Lets start this off with an example!
Example: Naturally occurring silver is 51.84% silver-107 and 48.16% silver-109. Calculate the relative
atomic mass of silver.
r.a.m. (Ag) = (51.84/100 x 107) + (48.16/100 x 109)
= 55.469 + 52.494
=107.96
Now what did we do there? Well I simply calculated 51.84% of 107 (of silver) and 48.16% of 109 (of
silver), and added the two answers! What we end up with is 107.96. Round that up to a whole number
and the average relative atomic mass of silver is 108.

Calculating the Abundance (percentage) of an Isotope

Example: Copper consists of two isotopes, copper-63 and copper-65. Its relative atomic mass is 63.62.
Find the abundance of each isotope.
Let y/100 = abundance of copper-63
Let (100-y)/100 = abundance of copper-65
63.62 = (y/100 x 63) + [(100-y)/100 x 65]
63.62 = 63y +6500 65y
-2y = -135
y = 69
Abundance of copper-63 = 69%
Abundance of copper-65 = 100 69 = 31%

About Metals and Non-Metals

The IGCSE spec. states you have to recall the positions of metals
and non-metals on the periodic table. Thats easy! Its on page two.
Have a look. Its colour-coded.
Anyways, this section covers 2.2, 2.3 and 2.5.

Metals
Metals tend to be shiny. They tend to have high melting and boiling points because of powerful
attractions. Metals conduct heat and electricity because delocalized electrons are free to move
throughout the structure. Metals are usually easy to shape due to their regular packed molecules.
Metals react with water to form bases, and their oxides are also bases. They are good reducing agents
because they lose electron.

Non-Metals

Non-metals tend to be brittle. They are poor conductors of heat and electricity. They form acidic oxides
and are good oxydising agents because they gain electrons.

Aluminium Oxide
Aluminium oxide is amphoteric. It can neutralize both an acid and a base.

Reaction with acids

Aluminium oxide contains oxide ions and so reacts with acids in the same way as sodium or
magnesium oxides. That means, for example, that aluminium oxide will react with hot dilute
hydrochloric acid to give aluminium chloride solution.

In this (and similar reactions with other acids), aluminium oxide is showing the basic side of its
amphoteric nature.

Reaction with bases

Aluminium oxide has also got an acidic side to its nature, and it shows this by reacting with bases such
as sodium hydroxide solution.Various aluminates are formed - compounds where the aluminium is
found in the negative ion. This is possible because aluminium has the ability to form covalent bonds
with oxygen.

Group 1: The Alkali Metals

Alkali metals are metals that are part of group one. They are extremely reactive metals, and
reactivity increases DOWNWARDS in other words, lithium is the least reactive and francium.
Some Basic Physical Properties
Metal
Lithium
Sodium
Potassium
Rubidium
Francium

Melting Point
(0C)
181
98
63
39
29

Boiling Point (0C)

1342
883
760
686
669

Density
(g/cm3)
0.53
0.97
0.86
1.53
1.88

You can see that as reactivity increases, the melting and boiling points decreases; however,
density increases. These points are very low for metals. Remember that potassium, sodium
and lithium would float on water due to their densities. But why are they so reactive? Well they only
have one electron to lose!
The metals are also very soft and easy to cut, becoming softer as you go down the group. They are
shiny and silver when cut, but tarnish within seconds on exposure to air.

Storage and Handling

All these metals are extremely reactive. Anyways the metals will quickly react with air to form oxides,
and react between rapidly and violently with water to form strongly alkaline solutionsof metal
hydroxides.

To stop them reacting with oxygen or water vapour in the air, lithium, sodium and potassium are stored
under oil. Rubidium and caesium are so reactive that they have to be stored in sealed glass tubes to
stop any possibility of oxygen getting at them.
Great care must be taken not to touch any of these metals with bare fingers. There could be enough
sweat on your skin to give a reaction producing lots of heat and a very corrosive metal hydroxide.

Reactions with Water

All these metals react with water to produce a metal hydroxide and hydrogen.
Metal + Water Metal Hydroxide + Hydrogen
All the hydroxides are bases and turn pH paper purple.
With Sodium
The sodium floats because it is less dense than water. It melts because its melting point is low and a
lot of heat is produced by the reaction. Observations would be that the sodium would turn into a ball
and whiz around the surface of the water. It may form a white trail which is sodium hydroxide. This
dissolves to make a strongly alkaline solution with the water. When lit, it produces a yellow flame.
With Lithium
The reaction is very similar to sodiums reaction, except it is slower. The lithium does not melt due to
its higher melting point. When lit, it produces a red flame.
With Potassium
Potassiums reaction is faster than sodiums. Enough heat is produced to ignite the hydrogen, which
burns with a lilac flame. The reaction often ends with the potassium spitting around.
With Rubidium and Caesium The Two Baddies
The reaction is so violent it can be explosive. When lit, Rubidium forms a red flame and Caesium forms
a blue flame.
Explaining the Increase in Reactivity
The differences between reactions depend in part on how easily
the outer electron of the metal is lost in each case. That depends
on how strongly it is attracted to the nucleus. The more electron
shells an atom has, the less powerful the attraction forces are. For
example, Lithium is a lot less reactive than Potassium. This is
because there are less shells which shield the full attraction of the nucleus from the This makes the
electron harder to lose. However, potassium has a lot more electron shells which shield the outer
electron from the nucleus. This weakens the attraction in compared to lithium, and therefore, the
electron is easier to lose.
Compounds of Alkali Metals
All group one metal ions are colourless. That means that their compounds will be colourless or white
unless they are combined with a coloured negative ion (remember metals would become positive ions
because they lose electrons, whereas, most non-metals gain electrons). Potassium dichromate is
orange, for example, because the dichromate ion is orange. Group one compounds are typical ionic
solids and are mostly soluble in water.
Alkali Metals: Quick Notes

Group One so +1 charge

One electron on outer shell

Reactivity increases downwards

Density increases downwards
Melting and Boiling points both decrease downwards
Very soft and tarnish quickly in air
Li, Na and K are stored under oil, whilst Rb and Cs are stored
in sealed glass tubes
Reacts with air to form oxides
Reacts with water to form alkaline hydroxides, which turns
pH paper purple
Positive ions are formed and they are colourless
Flame Colours: lithium, red; sodium, yellow; potassium, lilac;
rubidium, red; caesium, blue.
Forget about Francium you dont need to know much about
it.

Group 2: Alkali Earth Metals

Alkali earth metals belong to Group two. They are beryllium,
magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium and radium. These
metals are harder than those in group one. They are silvery grey
in colour. They tarnish quickly, however they dont just disappear
into thin air because the oxides the metals form when reacting
with air would form an outer coat that protects the metal from
the air. They are good conductors of heat and electricity. They burn in oxygen to form white oxides.
They react with water to form hydroxides and hydrogen, but the reaction is a lot less than that of group
one. Also, reactivity increases down the group.
Flame Colours
-Calcium
-Strontium
-Barium

brick red
-crimson
-apple-green

Well thats it for Group two!

Alkali Earth Metals: Quick Notes

Harder than group one metals

Two electrons on outer shell (2+ charge)
Form white oxides
Forms hydroxides and hydrogen when reacting with water. Reaction is less vigorous than that of
group one
Reaction increases downwards
Silvery-Grey
Flame Colours: calcium, brick red; strontium, crimson; barium, apple-green.

Group 7: The Halogens

Halogens are group seven elements. Their
elements are diatomic molecules. They exist in
pairs, such as F2 and Cl2. These two elements
are gases, bromine is a liquid and iodine is a
solid. Astatine is radioactive.

Element

State

Colours

Flourine

Gas

Yellow

Chlorine

Gas

Green

Bromine

Liquid

Orange Brown vapour

Iodine

Solid

Dark Grey Purple

vapour

These vapours and gases are poisonous. All

these elements need to be handled in a fume cupboard.

Halogen
Flourine
Chlorine
Bromine

Iodine

Reaction with Hydrogen

Violent explosion, even in the cold and dark
Violent explosion if exposed to a flame or
sunlight
Mild explosion if a bromine
vapour/hydrogen mixture is exposed to a
flame
Partial reaction to from hydrogen iodide if
vapour is heated continuously with
hydrogen

Reactions with Hydrogen

The halogens react with hydrogen to form
hydrogen halides such as hydrogen
fluoride and hydrogen chloride. These are
all steamy, acidic and poisonous gases.
They are very soluble in water, reacting
with it to produce solutions of acids.
However as a gas, it is NOT an acid.

Reaction Between Sodium and

Chloride
Sodium burns in chlorine to produce the white solid sodium chloride or salt!
2Na(s) + Cl2(g) 2NaCl(s)
In this reaction, sodium has been oxidized since it has lost electrons. Chlorine has been reduced.

Displacement
Reactions with
Halogens

Observation
s
Chlorine

Finding the reactivity of

Bromine
halogens are done by
reacting the elements with
Iodine
potassium halides. Colour
change will indicate a reaction.

Potassium
Chloride

Potassium
Bromide
Yellow to
Brown

Brown
Brown

Potassium Iodide
Yellow to Brown
Brown to Dark
Brown

Brown

Note: Colour changes are due to the element being displaced. For example, the colour
change from yellow to brown when chlorine reacted with potassium bromide was due to the
fact that the bromine was displace. It was the brown of the Bromine that turned the solution
brown.
Potassium is only a spectator ion. It does not change.
But now we have a problem. To distinguish whether bromine or iodine has been displaced is
difficult, as both elements produce very similar shades of brown. What do we do? We add an
organic solvent such as Volasil. When Volasil is added, the iodine turns pink while the
bromine stays brown. Pretty neat huh?
These reactions are known as redox reactions, where oxidation and reduction are occurring
(not just one of them).
Explaining the Trend in Reactivity of Halogens
As you go down the group, the oxidizing ability of the halogens falls due to the decreasing
reactivity. When a halogen oxidizes something, it does so by removing electrons from it.
Chlorine is a strong oxidizing agent because its atoms readily attract an extra electron to
make chloride ions. Bromine is less successful. Why? This relates to electron shells again. In
Chlorine, there are three shells which shield the nucleus attraction force from attracting another
electron to gain a full outer electron shell. Bromine however, has a lot more shells to shield the
attraction, therefore, the force is much weaker.
Halogens: Quick Notes

Diatomic molecules
Seven electrons on outer shell

Highly reactive only need one electron to fill outer shell

Form hydrogen halides when reacting with hydrogen
Reaction increases as you go up the group
Halogens can displace each other
Volasil turns iodine pink

The Difference Between Hydrogen Chloride and Hydrochloric Acid

Hydrochloric acid is basically a solution of hydrogen chloride gas in water.
The Bronsted-Lowry Theory
Bronsted and Lowry defined acids and bases as the following:
-An acid donates a proton.
-A base accepts a proton.
How is this related? Well, when hydrogen loses its only electron, it becomes a hydrogen ion (H +). In
other words, it is also a proton, because it has lost all of its electrons (it only has one remember?).
When hydrogen chloride dissolves in water, a proton (the hydrogen ion) is transferred to the water.
This gives us the equation:
H2O(l) + HCl(g) H3O+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
The H3O+ ion is called a hydroxonium ion.
We normally write it as H+(aq). You can think
of it as a hydrogen ion riding on a water
molecule.
So in this example, HCl is an acid because it donates a proton (the hydrogen ion) to water.
So the real differences? Hydrogen chloride is NOT an acid and is a gas. Hydrochloric acid is an aqueous
solution of hydrogen chloride.
Hydrogen Chloride and Methylbenzene
Explaining Water Being a Polar Molecule
Water is a polar molecule.
Electrons in water are attracted
towards the oxygen end of the
bond, which leaves it slightly
negative. This leaves hydrogen
slightly short of electrons, and
therefore, making it slightly positive, just like
the picture to the left. Because of this
electrical distortion, water is described as a
polar molecule.
When something such as sodium chloride is being dissolved in water, the slightly positive hydrogens
cluster around the chlorine, whereas, the slightly negative oxygen cluster around the sodium. The
water molecules then literally pull the sodium chloride crystal apart.
This pull doesnt work on every molecule. Magnesium oxide isnt soluble in water because the water
molecules arent strong enough to break the magnesium-oxygen attractions.
Whats so special about methylbenzene?

Well, methylbenzene is not a polar molecule. It is unable to pull the hydrogen and chlorine apart and
therefore, hydrochloric acid wont be formed.

Oxygen and Oxides

(2.15) Composition of Air
This is the approximate composition of air. Memorize it.
There are also very small amounts of noble gases in the
air.

Gas
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Argon
Carbon Dioxide

Amount in Air (%)

78.1
21.0
0.9
0.04

(2.16)Showing That Air Contains About 1/5 Oxygen

Using Copper
The apparatus originally contains
100cm3 of air. This is pushed
backwards and forwards of the
heated copper, which turns black
as copper(II) oxide is formed. This
uses up the oxygen. On cooling,
around 79cm3 of gas is left in the
syringes 21% has been used up.
Therefore, the air contains 21% of oxygen.
Using the Rusting of Iron
Iron rusts in damp air, using oxygen up as it does so. The experiment shows some damp iron wool in a
test tube containing air. The tube is inverted in a beaker of water and the level of the water in the tube
is marked by a rubber band. The tube is left for a week or so for the iron to use up the oxygen to
makeguessiron oxide!
The water level rises in the tube as the oxygen is used up, and the new level can be marked using a
second rubber band. You can find the actual volumes of the gases at the end of the experiment by
filling the tube with water to each of the rubber bands in turn, and pouring it into a measuring cylinder.
If the original volume was, say, 15cm3, and the final volume was 12cm3, then the oxygen used up
measures 3cm3.
The percentage of oxygen in air was 3/15 x 100 = 20%.
Burning Phosphorus
This can be done by putting a bell jar into a beaker filled with water. Phosphorus
on an evaporating dish is placed onto the water (the jar has no bottom). It is
then touched with a hot metal rod, which starts the reaction between
phosphorus and oxygen. Phosphorus uses up the oxygen to form phosphorus
oxide, lowering pressure in the jar and therefore, making water levels rise in the
jar. The water should rise up by 20%.

Equation:
(2.17)Making Oxygen in the Lab

Oxygen is most easily made in the lab from hydrogen peroxide solution using manganese(IV) oxide as
a catalyst. The reaction is known as the catalytic decomposition (splitting up using a catalyst) of
hydrogen peroxide.
2H2O2(aq) 2H2O(l) + O2(g)

Reaction of Oxygen with Magnesium, Carbon and Sulfur

Magnesium

With Sulfur

With Carbon

Magnesium reacts with oxygen to produced

white, powdery magnesium oxide. It produces
a bright white flame during the reaction. It is a
base.
Sulfur burns in oxygen with a tiny blue flame.
Poisonous, colourless sulfur dioxide is
produced. It is an acidic oxide.
Carbon burns in oxygen if heated strongly to
give colourless carbon dioxide. Depending on
the purity of the carbon, a small yellow-orange
flame may be produced.

2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s)

S(s) + O2(g) SO2(g)

C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)

Carbon Dioxide
Preparing It in the Lab
Carbon dioxide is made by the reaction between dilute
hydrochloric acid and calcium carbonate in the form of
marble chips.
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

Formation of Carbon Dioxide from Thermal Decomposition of Metal Carbonates

Key thing here: When heating metal carbonate, you get:
Metal Carbonate Metal Oxide + Carbon Dioxide
Here is the picture of the experiment setup:
Properties of Carbon Dioxide

Colourless gas, denser than air, slightly soluble in

water
Used in carbonated (fizzy) drinks because it
dissolves in water under pressure. When bottle is
opened, pressure falls and gas bubbles out of the
solution.
Used in fire extinguishers to put out electrical fires,
or those caused by burning liquids, where using
water could cause problems. The carbon dioxide sinks onto the flames and prevents any more
oxygen from reaching them.
Turns limewater cloudy white (limewater is calcium hydroxide work out the equation yourself
water is one of the products).

Carbon Dioxide and Sulfur Dioxide Their Reactions With Water

Carbon Dioxide

Carbonic acid is produced when

carbon dioxide reacts with water. It

CO2(aq) + H2O(l) H+(aq) + HCO3

(aq)

Sulphur Dioxide

is a weak acid. This reaction can

be reversed by simply heating or
boiling the acid.
Sulfur dioxide reacts with water to
form a weak acid known as
sulfurous acid,

H2O(l) + SO2(g) H2SO3(aq)

Sulfur Dioxide, Nitrogen Oxide and the Environment

Acid rain is caused when oxygen and water in the atmosphere react with sulfur dioxide to produce
sulfuric acid (ouch), or with various oxides of nitrogen to give nitric acid. These mainly come from
power stations, burning fossil fuels, motor vehicles etc.
Acid rain can kill trees and make lakes so acidic it cannot
support life. Limestone and some metals such as iron are
also attacked by acid rain.
The solution to acid rain involves removing sulfur from fuels,
using catalytic converters in cars and scrubbing the gases
from power stations to remove the oxides. The catalyst
helps convert nitrogen oxidesinto harmless nitrogen gas but
has no effect on sulfur dioxide.

Methods of Separation

Filtration:For separating an insoluble solid from a

liquid, or a soluble solid from an insoluble one.
Sand can be separated from water by pouring the
mixture down a funnel with filter paper. The sand will
collect at the filter paper.
It can also be used to separate sand from something
like salt by dissolving salt in water (which leaves you
with sand mixed with salt water). The mixture can
then be poured down a funnel. The sand that collects
at the top should can be rinsed and dried. The water
can be evaporated from the salt by heating with a
Bunsen burner. Back

Chromatography: For separating liquids by

dissolving them in a solvent. The dyes that
make up the ink differ in two important ways:

How strongly they stick to the paper

How soluble they are with the solvent

An example would be separating ink colours or

plant dyes. A dot of the ink/dye would be drawn
onto a piece of paper. It would then be left in
water, which acts as a solvent. Because
different colours have different solubility levels,
some colours would travel up further on the paper.

Crystallization: Mainly used for purifying substances by forming crystals from a precipitating
solution. Crystallization refers to the forming of solid crystals from a homogenous (solution) mixture.
An example would be forming pure salt crystals. This is done by dissolving the impure salt into a
solvent such as water. The salt solution is then allowed to cool. As it does, pure salt crystals would form

at the bottom of the water, whereas, the impure substances would be left in the water. The crystals
can then be rinsed with a chilled solution and dried.

Distillation: Distillation is good from

separating a liquid from a solution.
An example would be separating water from
a salt solution. The solution would be heated
at the liquids boiling point, in this case
1000C, so it will leave the solution as a
vapour. The vapour would then condense
into a liquid with the help of the cooling
water. The vapour, now as a liquid, would fall
into the beaker.

Fractional Distillation: Fractional

Distillation is used to separate two liquids
based on their boiling points.
An example would be separating ethanol
from water. Ethanol has a lower boiling water
than water (at about 780C), therefore, the
heating is monitored (using the thermometer) to
ensure that the temperature does not reach
1000C (the boiling point of water). Anyways, the
ethanol would turn into a vapour and travel out
of the flask. It would then condense into its
liquid form with the help of the cooling water
and fall into the beaker.

Unit 2: Structure and Bonding

Ionic Bonding
Ionic bonding is the bonding in which there has been a transfer of electrons from one atom to another
to produce ions. The substance is held together by strong electrostatic attractions between positive
and negative ions. Ions are formed when it gains or loses electrons. Ones that gain forms negative
ions, and ones that lose form positive ions.

A positive ion is called a cation.

A negative ion is called an anion.

You can find the charge of an ion by looking at the group it belongs to. If it belongs to groups 1-4, it has
a charge of 1-4+ (they are positive), whereas, if it belongs to groups 5-0, it has a charge of 3 0. Below
is a table containing charges of common ionic compounds and transition metals.
Ion
Silver
Copper (I)
Ammonium
Copper (II)
Cobalt
Nickel
Zinc
Iron (II)
Chromium
Iron (III)

Symbol
Ag
Cu
NH4
Cu
Co
Ni
Zn
Fe
Cr
Fe

Charg
e
1+
1+
1+
2+
2+
2+
2+
2+
3+
3+

Ion
Hydroxide
Nitrate
Hydrogen
Carbonate
Carbonate
Sulphate
Phosphide
Phosphate
Nitride

Symbol
OH
NO3
HCO3
CO3
SO4
P
PO4
N

Charge
11122333-

This is an example of a dot and cross diagram. The crosses

represent the electrons on the sodium (anion) and the dots
represent the electrons on the chlorine (cation). In a dot and cross
diagram, you must use arrows to show which electrons are moved
from the anion to the cation. On the final diagram, you mark the
new electron(s) on the cation as a cross.

Boiling and Melting Points of Ionic Compounds

Ionic compounds have high boiling and melting points due to
strong intermolecular forces between the atoms. This is because
when the ions are formed during an ionic reaction, one of them
would be positive, and one would be negative. Positive and
negative attract and therefore, you get something like a strong
magnet.
As ionic charge increases, so does the melting/boiling
points. Ions with 2+ and 2- would have stronger attraction
because their charges a stronger, whereas, ions with 1 + and 1- would still have a strong
attraction, but less stronger than 2+- compounds.

Structure of Ionic Compounds

An ionic crystal consists of giant three-dimensional lattices held together by strong electrostatic
attractions between the positive and negative ions.
Structure of Sodium Chloride
This is the basic structure of a sodium chloride crystal. The
green is the chloride and the blue is the sodium. Remember
that each sodium is touched by six chlorides and each chloride
is touched by six sodiums. Look at the middle atoms if unclear.
Remember, this structure repeats itself over and over.
Ionic bonds always produce giant structures.
Ions form closely packed regular lattice arrangement.
They have high melting/boiling points.
The crystals tend to be brittle.
Compounds tend to be soluble in water and insoluble in
organic solvents.

Covalent Bonding

Covalent bonding is formed by sharing a pair of electrons between two atoms. This is so that both
atoms can achieve a full outer shell. It is a strong attraction between the bonding pair of electrons and
the nuclei of the atoms involved. Covalent compounds are only formed when the reactants are nonmetals.

Diagrams YOU Need to Know

Elemen
t

Diagram

Elem
ent

Diagram

Elemen
t

Diagram

H2

CH4

CO2

Cl2

NH3

Ethane

HCl(g)

O2

H2O

N2

Ethene

Simple Molecular Structures

These are gases, liquids or solids with low melting points. Examples
include water, chlorine, oxygenetc
The covalent bonds between the atoms in a molecule are strong.
However, the forces of attraction between these molecules (intermolecular forces) are weak.
They have low melting points, since not a lot of heat is needed to
provide the energy for the molecules to move away from each other, hence, overcome the
intermolecular forces between them.
They tend to be insoluble in water.
They are often soluble in organic solvents.
They do not conduct electricity because the molecules have no overall charge and there are no
electrons mobile enough to move from molecule to molecule.

Giant Covalent Structures

There are no charged ions.

ALL the atoms are joined up to their adjacent atom by extremely strong covalent bonds and
packed into giant regular lattices.
They have very high melting points, since a lot of heat is needed to provide the energy to
break apart the many strong covalent bonds.
They tend to be insoluble in water.
They do not conduct electricity.

Diamond
The diamond is the hardest natural substance. It is a form of pure carbon. Each carbon atom forms four
covalent bonds to the other carbon atoms. They are arranged in a tetrahedral arrangement. Diamond
has a very high melting point, obviously due to very strong carbon-carbon bonds. It does not conduct
electricity because all the electrons in the outer levels of the carbon atoms are tightly bonded between
the atoms. None of them are free to move around. Diamond is insoluble like, to both water and other
solvents.

Use of Diamond

Saw blades can be tipped with diamonds in high-speed cutting tools

used on stone and concrete. The strong tetrahedral structure makes the
diamond hard, making it suitable for this purpose.

Graphite
Graphite is arranged differently it has a layer structure. Each graphite layer
is strong, but it is easy to separate individual graphite layers. Each carbon
atom only forms three covalent bonds. Graphite conducts electricity because
the fourth electron is free to move around.
Use of Graphite

Because of the layered structure, graphite can be used as a dry

lubricant to lubricate locks.

Metallic Crystals

Metals are giant structures which consist of a regular array of

positive ions in a sea of delocalized electrons. When metal atoms
bond together to form solid, visible metal, their outer electrons are
no longer attached to particular electrons and are free to move
around the whole structure.
Metals are able to conduct electricity because the delocalized
electrons are free to move throughout the structure. The energy is
picked up by the electrons and moved around the metals,
transferring the electricity throughout the whole structure. The
same goes to heat energy.
Metals are easy to shape because their regular packing makes it
simple for atoms to slide over each other. Metals are said to be
malleable.

Introduction to Electrolysis
In metals and carbon, electricity and electric current is simply a flow of electrons or ions. Electrolysis is
the chemical change caused by passing an electric current through a compound which is either molten
or in a solution. An electrolyte is a substance that undergoes electrolysis. It contains ions. It is the
movement of the ions, which are responsible for both the conduction of electricity and the chemical
changes that take place. Covalent compounds are not electrolytes and dont conduct electricity
because they have no free moving electrons. Ionic compounds only conduct electricity when molten or
in a solution because the ions separate and are free to move. These particles can then carry the
electric current.

Experiment to distinguish between electrolytes and non-electrolytes

i.
ii.
iii.

Dissolve substance in water, or if possible, melt it.

Put a conductivity tester into the substance.
If the light bulb lights up, it is an electrolyte.

Explain: When dissolved in water, free moving electrons are

able to carry the electric current across from the cathode to
the anode, completing the circuit and lighting the bulb. If
the light bulb does not light up, the substance is obviously
not an electrolyte.
But sugar dissolves, why does the bulb not light up? Sugar
is a covalent structure.

Diffusion

Diffusion happens when particles spread from higher to lower concentration. It requires a
concentration gradient).
Potassium Manganate (VII) Experiment
Diffusion through liquids is very slow if the liquid is totally still. This can be shown but dropping a piece
of potassium manganate (VII) into water. It can take days for the colour to spread because the gap
between each particle is small.
The Bromine Experiment
Showing diffusion in gases can be done by filling a lower gas jar
with bromine gas and topping it with a gas jar filled with air.
The bromine particles and air particles will eventually bounce
around to give an even mixture.
The Ammonium Chloride Experiment
This experiment is used to show that particles in different gases
travel at different speeds. It relies on the reaction between
ammonia and hydrogen chloride gases to give white solid
ammonium chloride.

A white ring of ammonium chloride would form near the hydrochloric acid. This shows that ammonia
particles have travelled further to reach the hydrogen chloride gas, showing that it travels faster.

Dilution

Dilution is the reduction of concentration in a

solution.
Showing Dilution and Leading to the Idea of Small
Sized Particles
Suppose you dissolve 0.1g of potassium
manganate (VII) in 10cm3 of water to give a deep
purple solution. Assume the smallest drop you can
see is 1/1000cm3. The whole solution will be made
up of 10000 drops, each drop containing 0.00001g
of potassium manganate (VII).
Suppose you dilute this down 10 times by taking
1cm3 of the solution and making it up to 10cm3 with more water. Continue doing this until the colour is
too faint to see. By the time of the fifth dilution, each drop will only contain a billionth of a gram of
potassium manganate (VII). If you only needed one particle of potassium manganate (VII) per drop in
order to see the colour, the particle cant weigh more than a billionth of a gram.
IS this a good answer? Nowhere near it! A potassium manganate (VII) particle actually weighs about
0.00000000000000000000026g! In reality, you need huge numbers of particles in each drop in order
to see the colour.
Dont worry I dont get this either

Unit 3: Organic Chemistry

Organic chemistry is mainly based around hydrocarbons compounds made only up of hydrogen and
carbon. It is drawn with lines joining carbons and hydrogen. All carbon bonds have to be bonded to
hydrogen if not something else. The left picture below shows carbons with all bonds taken up
(ethane). The right picture below shows an incorrect picture of a hydrocarbon because one of the
carbons has a free bond.

Hydrocarbon compounds that contain carbon and

hydrogen only.

Homologous series family of compounds with similar

properties because they have similar bonding. They show a
graduation in physical properties (mpt/bpt) and similar chemical
properties such as the general formula.Alkanes are the simplest.

Saturated when carbon cannot take anymore bonds

single carbon-carbon bonds.
Unsaturated presence of a carbon-carbon double bond.
General formula The formula of different homologous series of carbons.
Isomers molecules with the same molecular formula but different structural formulae.

Learning the Code

Do you have to remember the formula for propane,
butane, ethane? No! You can work it out yourself! The
first part of the name tells you how many carbons there
are in the longest chain (not necessarily in total). By the
way you have to learn these at least the first five. It
helps.
For example: propane (left) has three carbons. Butane
(right) has four carbons.

Code
Meth
Eth
Prop
But
Pent
Hex
Hept
Oct
Non
Dec

Number of
Carbons
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Alkanes and

Alkenes

Alkanes and Alkenes are two homologous series.

Pentene has a five carbon chain with a double bond.

Ending
ane

Meaning?
All carbon bonds
are filled with
hydrogen i.e.
they are saturated
hydrocarbons.
There is a double
carbon-carbon
bond they are
unsaturated
hydrocarbons.

ene

Isomers
We know what isomers are.

Coding for Double Bonds

For things like pentene and butene, there are many places you can put the
double bonds in.
Pent-1-ene means pentene with the double bond on the first carbon-carbon
bond (right).
Pent-2-ene means pentene with the double bond on the second carbon-carbon
bond and so on
But wait! What about pent-4-ene and pent-5-ene? Those dont exist. Why? Because pent-4-ene is pent2-ene flipped over, and pent-5-ene is pent-1-ene flipped over!
Flip: C-C-C=C-C and you get C-C=C-C-C!

Methyl and Ethyl Groups

If the hydrocarbon has a
two come first, before the
carbons in the chain. But
the ethyl there is a
which carbon has the
For example, this is 2-

Code
Methyl
Ethyl

Meaning
Has a branch of
CH3 coming off
one of the bonds.
Has a branch of
CH3CH2 coming
off.

methyl or ethyl group, these

coding for the number of
before even the methyl or
number and hyphen to show
methyl or ethyl branch.
methylbutane

As you can see, there is a methyl group branching off the second carbon. The rules are similar to
double bonds though, there is no such thing as 3-methylbutane because that is basically 2methylbutane flipped over.

But wait! There are five carbons! Why isnt it 2-methylpentane? Because
remember, these names are based on the longest carbon chain in the
hydrocarbon and the longest carbon chain there is 4, hence, butane. This
means that 2-methylbutane is an isomer of pentane C5H12.

Some Isomers of Butane C4H10

Some Isomers of Pentane C5H12

Alkanes
Alkanes are a homologous series of saturated hydrocarbons. The first five are methane, ethane,
propane, butane and pentane.
The general formula for alkanes is: CnH2n + 2
For example, ethane:
Ethane has two carbons, so n=2.
The formula of ethane must be C2H2(2) +

= C2H6.

Complete Combustion of Alkanes

If there is enough oxygen, alkanes will burn in oxygen completely to give carbon dioxide and water.
The general equation for combustion:
Hydrocarbon + Oxygen Carbon dioxide + Water
The combustion of methane would be: CH4(g) + 202(g) C02(g) + 2H20(l)
Note: Balancing combustion equations can be annoying. An easy way would be to balance them in the
order of carbon, hydrogen then oxygen.

Incomplete Combustion
If there isnt enough oxygen, you get incomplete combustion, in which carbon monoxide and water are
produced instead. Carbon monoxide is a colourless, odourless and poisonous gas. It is dangerous
because it can combine to our haemoglobin and stop it from carrying oxygen. As a result, you get ill or
even die because oxygen cannot travel to all parts of your body.

Reaction with Bromine

Alkanes react with bromine under the presence of ultra-violet light. One hydrogen from the
hydrocarbon would be replaced by a bromine atom. This is known as a substitution reaction. Bromine
can be used as an indicator for alkanes and alkenes without UV light. Adding bromine water to alkanes
produces no colour change. Reacting bromine water to alkenes make it turn from brown to colourless.
However, if the mixture of bromine and methane is reacted under UV light, it loses its colour, a mixture
of bromomethane and hydrogen bromide gases is formed.
CH4(g) + Br2(g) CH3Br (g) + HBr(g)

Alkenes
Alkenes have double bonds, making them unsaturated hydrocarbons.
Alkenes have the general formula of CnH2n the first four being ethene, propene, butene and pentene.

Combustion
Like alkanes, alkenes burn in oxygen or air to give carbon dioxide and water.

Reaction with Bromine

Alkenes undergo addition reactions, in which part of the double
bond breaks and is used to join other atoms onto the two carbon
atoms. When added to alkenes, and the test tube is shook, the
brown of the bromine would be decolourised, making it suitable as
test for alkenes.

The product of reacting ethene to bromine gives 1, 2dibromoethane and is a colourless liquid.
CH2=CH2(g) + Br2(aq) CH2BrCH2Br(l)

Ethanol
All alcohols contain an OH group attached to a carbon chain. Ethanol is
C2H5OH.

What is Needed:

Production of Ethanol

Hydration of Ethene
Ethanol can be made by reacting ethene with steam (because it contains
more energy) a process known as hydration.
CH2=CH2(g) + H2O(g) CH3CH2OH(g)

Ethene and steam

3000C
60-70
atmospheres
Phosphoric acid
catalyst

Only a small portion of ethene reacts. The ethanol is condensed as a liquid and the unreacted ethene
is recycled.
Explaining the Choice of Temperature
Reversible reactions happen in two ways while ethene is being converted into ethanol, ethanol is also
being converted back into ethene. Reversible reactions can also shift the equilibrium or alter the
reaction. Since the reaction is exothermic the reaction produces lots of heat. If you increase the
temperature, the reaction wont like it because it is already producing heat, therefore, it would adapt
to the conditions by making more ethene so less heat will be produced. On the contrary, if you
decrease the temperature, the reaction would adapt to this by increasing back the temperature; by
producing more ethanol in other words, push the equilibrium to the favourable/forward reaction.
However, making the temperature too low would mean super slow reaction, although more ethanol
would be produced. 300 degrees is therefore, a compromise temperature producing an acceptable
yield of ethanol in a short time.
Explaining High Pressure
In the equation, you have two moles (one mole of ethene and one mole of water) on the left, and one
mole (of ethanol) on the right. Increasing the pressure would mean the equilibrium would be shifted
forwards. Why? The reaction would adapt to the conditions by producing more ethanol because you
only get one mole of ethanol which takes less space than two moles of ethene and water.
Also, theres the collision theory. Increasing the pressure means that thered be less space for the
atoms to move. The atoms would also move with more force. This increases the frequency of collisions.
The problem: its expensive and ethene might polymerise and turn into polyethene.
Fermentation
Yeast is added to a sugar or starch solution at 300C for several days in the absence of air for anaerobic
respiration. Enzymes in the yeast lower the activation energy, increasing the rate ofconversion of the
sugar into ethanol and carbon dioxide. However, they first have to break the sugars into smaller sugars
like glucose. In fact, ethanoic acid is produced and then converted into ethanol.
For example, sucrose:
C12H22O11(aq) + H20 C6H12O6(aq) + C6H12O6(aq)

sucrose + water glucose + fructose

C6H12O6(aq) 2C2H5OH (aq) + 2CO2(g)

glucose/fructose ethanol + carbon dioxide

The yeast then gets killed in the mixture, which means that the ethanol produced is impure. To purify
it, the alcohol must undergo fractional distillation.

Comparing the two methods

Use of Resources
Type of Process

Fermentation
Uses renewable resources sugar
beet or sugar cane, corn and other
starchy materials.
A batch process everything is mixed
and left for several days. It is then

Hydration
Uses non-renewable resources once
oil gets used up, theyre screwed.
A continuous flow process a stream
of reactants is constantly passed over

Rate of Reaction
Quality of Product
Reaction Conditions

removed and a new reaction is set up

quite inefficient.
Slow, takes several days.
Produces impure ethanol that needs
further processing.
Uses gentle temperatures and
ordinary pressure relying on
anaerobic respiration of yeast.

the catalyst more efficient.

Rapid
Produces much purer ethanol.
Uses high temperatures and
pressures, needing a high input of
energy expensive.

Common Question: Which method would poorer places like Brazil use and why? [3 marks]
Answer: Fermentation, because Brazil has the weather conditions to grow large yields of sugar cane
and they dont have access to crude oil.

Dehydration of Ethanol into Ethene

Dehydration of ethanol produces ethene and water, using hot aluminium oxide as a catalyst.
CH3CH2OH(g) CH2=CH2(g) + H2O(l)

Crude Oil
Crude oil is a mixture of hydrocarbons. These chains can be super long or super short.

The Trend in Boiling Point and Viscosity

Viscosity means how runny something is

Volatile means how easy it turns into vapour at room temperature

As the number of carbon atoms in molecules increases and gets bigger, intermolecular attractions also
increase, making it more difficult to pull one molecule away from neighbouring ones. As they get
bigger, these changes occur:

Boiling point increases the larger the molecule, the higher the boiling point due to stronger
intermolecular attractions.
Liquids become less volatile the bigger the hydrocarbon, the more slowly it evaporates in
room temperature. This is again, due to strong intermolecular attractions.
Liquids become more viscous (flow less easily) Small hydrocarbons are runny, but large ones
are much stickier and gooey (and viscous) because of intermolecular attractions.
Bigger hydrocarbons do not burn as easily, meaning they are less useful.

The Fractionating Column

Crude oil is separated in fractionating column. This process is fractional distillation, and splits crude oil
into various fractions depending on their boiling points and size.

Note: forget about Naphtha

Fraction
Refinery gases
Gasoline
Kerosene

Diesel oil
Fuel oil
Bitumen

Uses

A mixture of methane, ethane, propane and butane.

Commonly used for domestic heating and cooking.
Cars
Used as fuel for jet aircraft.
As domestic heating oil.
As paraffin for small heaters and lamps.
For buses, lorries, some cars and railway engines.
Some is cracked to produce more petrol.
For ships
Industrial heating
Residue from the bottom which can be used for roads.

Combustion and Incomplete

Combustion

Combustion of hydrocarbons
produces carbon dioxide and water exothermic.
Incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons produces carbon monoxide and water in which
carbon monoxide is dangerous because it can bind to haemoglobin and prevent it from
carrying oxygen.

In car engines, the temperature reached is high enough to allow nitrogen and oxygen from the air to
react, forming nitrogen oxides. This contributes to smog and causes irritation to human mucus
membranes. As well as that, nitrogen oxides can react with water in the atmosphere and from nitric
acid or acid rain.

Cracking
The Crude Oil Problem
Amounts of each fraction you get depend on the proportions of various hydrocarbons in the original
crude oil. Far more petrol is needed, than something like bitumen. In other words, fractional distillation
of crude oil produces more long-chain hydrocarbons than can be used directly, and fewer short-chain
hydrocarbons than required.
The solution? Cracking! Cracking is a useful process in which large hydrocarbon molecules are broken
into smaller ones. Most of the hydrocarbons found in crude oil are long-chain alkanes. Cracking can
convert these into alkenes and shorter alkanes. It is an example of thermal decomposition.

How it Works
The fraction is heated to give a gas and is passed over a catalyst of silica or
alumina with a temperature of 600-700oC.
Long alkane alkene + alkane

Sometimes you may get more than one type of alkene/alkane.

Make sure the numbers of carbon and hydrogen are balanced.

What is Needed:

Alumina/Silica as
catalyst
600-7000C

In an equation, this would read:

hexane butane + ethene

C6H14 C4H10 + C2H4

Polymers
Alkenes can be used to make polymers. Polymers are big long molecules of single units called
monomers. Molecules containing carbon-carbon double bonds can be joined together. Part of the
double bond is broken and used to join to other monomers. Joining up lots of monomers to make a
polymer is called addition polymerisation.

How to Draw a Polymer

Its like drawing a hydrocarbon, except the ends are left blank (so it can join
more).
As for the repeating unit (which is the unit that keeps repeating itself), you show the
alkene (or the monomer) with its double bond opened up. You then enclose it with
brackets and put an n to its right.

Polymers to Know
Polymer
Polyethene

Repeating Unit

How it looks together

Uses

Plastic bags

Plastic bottles

Polypropene

Ropes
Crates

Polychloroethen
e

PVC for
drainpipes or
windows
Electrical
insulation

Nylon Condensation Polymer

In condensation polymerisation, when two monomers combine, a small molecule such as water or
hydrogen chloride is lost. Nylon is made through condensation polymerisation.
The two monomers that make up nylon:
Hexanedioic acid
From a family of compounds called dicarboxylic
acids.
1,6-Diaminohexane
From a family known as diamines.

Joining them togetherThe lost of a Water Molecule

As a block diagram (where the (CH2)6 and (CH2)4 become blocks to make it look easier)

End Note:
Sometimes you may be
given ClOCCH2CH2CH2CH2COCl instead of hexanedioic acid. In this case, just do the same thing, with
the lost of hydrogen chloride HCl.

Unit 4: Analytical Chemistry and Kinestics

Tests for Ions and Gases
Flame Tests: Taking a piece of nichrome, make loop at the end and dip into salts containing
ions
Ion

Colour

Li

Crimson red

Na+

Yellow orange

K
Ca2+

Lilac
Brick red/orange red

Using Sodium Hydroxide solution

Ion

Colour of Precipitate

Cu2+

Blue

Fe

Sludgy Green (or just green)

Fe3+

Orange Brown (rust)

2+

For Ammonium Ions (NH4+)

Heat gently and add sodium hydroxide solution. It will give off a distinctive smell of ammonia (NH3).
Ammonia can be tested by holding a damp red litmus paper. Since it is alkaline, it will turn damp red
litmus paper from red to blue.

Using Dilute Nitric Acid and Silver Nitrate Solution

Ion

Colour of Precipitate

Cl

White

Br-

Pale Cream

Yellow

For Sulphate Ions (SO42-)

Using dilute hydrochloric acid solution and then adding barium chloride solution to form a white
precipitate of barium sulphate.

For Carbonate Ions (CO32-)

Using dilute hydrochloric acidto react with the carbonate, to produce carbon dioxide gas which can be
tested by bubbling through limewater, turning it from colourless to cloudy, milky white.

Tests for Gases

Gas

Test

Result

Hydrogen

Hold a lit splint in presence of hydrogen

gas.
Hold a glowing splint in presence of
oxygen gas.
Bubble through limewater.

Produces a squeaky pop.

Oxygen
Carbon
Dioxide
Ammonia
Chlorine

Hold damp red litmus paper in ammonia

gas.
Hold damp blue litmus paper in chlorine
gas.

Glowing splint relights.

Turns limewater from colourless to
cloudy, milky white.
Turns damp red litmus paper blue.
Bleaches or turns blue litmus paper
white.

Solubility Patterns

All nitrates are soluble.

All sodium, potassium and ammonium compounds are soluble.
Most carbonates and hydroxides are insoluble except for sodium, potassium and ammonium.
All sulphates are soluble except barium and lead(II) sulphate.
All chlorides are soluble except lead(II) and silver chloride.

Reactions of Metals to Acids

Metals react very similarly to dilute hydrochloric acid and dilute sulphuric acid.
Metals
Magnesium
Aluminium

Zinc
Iron

Reaction to Acid
Rapid fizzing, mixture gets very hot, colourless magnesium sulphate/chloride
solution forms.
Is slow due to its coat of aluminium oxide which prevents aluminium from
contacting the acid. On heating, this layer is removed, aluminium will start fizzing
rapidly abit like Mg.
Zinc reacts slowly with cold dilute acid and may produce some effervescence. On
heating however, it fizzes more.
Iron also reacts slowly with cold dilute acid and will produce abit of effervescence
when heated.

Combustion of Hydrogen
Bonds are broken in the hydrogen and oxygen molecules. These form new bonds of water molecules.
This reaction is exothermic, and gives out water in the form of steam, before it condenses into a liquid.
The reaction is:
2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(l)

Testing for Water

Water turns white anhydrous copper(II) sulphate blue. Its reaction is
CuSO4(s) + 5H2O(l) CuSO45H2O
Or you can use cobalt chloride paper which turns pink in the presence of water.
You can check the purity of water by showing that it freezes at exactly 0C and boils at exactly 100C.

Rates of Reactions
Experiment Setup
To measure the effects of changes in surface area, concentration of solutions, temperature and use of
catalyst, you can react calcium carbonate marble chips with dilute hydrochloric acid and measure the
mass of CO2 produced by weighing the difference in mass of the reactants and the mass of the
products (there wont be any change in mass produced, because the initial mass of reaction will equal
the final mass, however, since carbon dioxide gas is formed, this will
escape from the flask, and therefore, the amount of mass lost will be
the mass of carbon dioxide produced. Plot the results on a graph with
mass against time and youll get an upward curve.
For the reaction to occur, acid particles must collide with the surface
of the marble chips. As the acid particles get used up, the collision
rate decreases, so the reaction slows down.

Changes in Surface Area of Solid

You can repeat the above experiment by
keeping the same mass of marble chips, just
using smaller ones to increase the surface area.
The reaction happens faster. You have to
remember the graphs. Notice however, that in
the end, the amount of carbon dioxide produced
is still the same just that the small chips
experiment happens faster.
Why does it happen
faster? Because the
surface area in contact
with the gas or liquid is
much greater. Less marble chip particles are hidden away from the acid
particles.

Changes in the Concentration of Solutions

Repeat the original experiment but using hydrochloric acid
only half as concentrated as before. The graph should look
something like this (ignore the 80% line) in which the
reaction happens slower and produces half as much carbon
dioxide gas:
In terms of collision theory, if you increase the concentration
of reactants, the reaction becomes faster because it
increases the frequency of collisions per second.

Changes in the Temperature of the Reaction

Do the original experiment again, but this time, at a

higher temperature. Your graph will look like this
(ignore the concentration label cause its WRONG
unless the lower concentration solution is still in
excess).
Increasing the temperature means more kinetic energy
for the particles, which make them move faster,
therefore, making them collide more frequently.
Also, not all collisions make new bonds. Some particles
just bounce off each other. In order for a reaction to
happen, particles have to collide with a minimum
amount of energy called activation energy. Increasing
the temperature produces a very large increase in the
number of collisions that have enough energy for a reaction to occur.
In the following diagram, a) shows a fail collision and b) shows a successful one.

Changing the Pressure

Changing the pressure of a reaction where the reactants are
only solids or liquids makes virtually no difference, so the
graphs remain unchanged. Increasing the pressure in a
reaction where the reactants are gases does speed the
reaction up. This is because it forces the particles closer
together, so they hit each other more frequently.

Catalysts and How They Work

Catalysts speed up the rate of reactions but arent used up in the process. You can show that
manganese (VI) oxide is a catalyst by simply having two conical fasks containing hydrogen peroxide.
Hydrogen peroxide decomposes to give oxygen and water. Put the manganese (VI) oxide in one of the
flasks. Oxygen would be given off quickly. To check that the
manganese (VI) oxide hasnt been used up, simply filter it
out from the solution and weigh it (remember to weigh it
before the experiment too!). The graph should look like the
pressure graph in which the rate of reaction increases, but
the amount you get at the end is still the same.
So how does it work?
Adding a catalyst gives the reaction an alternative route for
reactions with a lower activation energy.

Unit 5: Quantitative Chemistry and

Energetics
A mole is a measure of the amount of substance. One mole contains 6 x 1023 (also known as the
Avogadro Number) particles (atoms, molecules or formulae) of the substance. For example, 1 mol of
sodium contains 6 x 1023 atoms of sodium.

Calculating Relative Atomic Mass

Chlorine has two isotopes: chlorine-35 and chlorine-37. A typical sample will be 75% chlorine-35 and
25% chlorine-37.
The RAM = (0.75 x 35) + (0.25 x 37) = 35.5g

Calculating Relative Formula Mass

Straightforward stuff.

H2
Ca(OH)2

Hx2
(1 x Ca) + (2 x O) + (2 x
H)

Amount in moles = Mass of

Substance (g) /RFM of Element or Compound (g)

2x1=2
40 + (2 x 16) + (2 x 1) =
74

Calculations using moles:

The equation for sodium chloride is:

2Na + Cl2 2NaCl

If 2.3g of Na was used:

a) Find out how many moles of Chlorine was used
b) Find out the volume of Chlorine used in the reaction
c) Find out the mass of sodium chloride produced
a) Firstly, convert the grams of Na into moles:
2.3 / 23g = 0.1 mol
The equation says that 2 moles of Na and 1 mole of Cl (1 mole of a diatomic molecule is always X 2) is
needed to produce 2 moles of NaCl, so if 0.1 mol of Na is used, then half of that is the amount of
chlorine used in the reaction in moles.
So moles of Cl used = 0.1 / 2 = 0.05 mol
b) One mole of any gas has a volume of 24 dm3 (24000cm3) at room temperature and pressure.
This is also called the molar volume.
Cl2 is a gas and the moles used in the reaction = 0.05 mol
So the volume of Cl2 gas used = 0.05 x 24000 = 1200cm3
c)

The moles of NaCl produced is 0.1 mol (if 2 moles of Na gives 2 moles of NaCl, then 0.1 mole of
Na will give 0.1 mole of NaCl). So all you do is:
i)
Find the RFM of NaCl (58.5)
ii)
Multiply that by 0.1 (5.85g)

Molar Concentrations The Hard Part

Remember that:

Mol/dm3 means moles per litre (e.g. a salt solution of 0.5 mol/dm 3 means 0.5 moles (or 58.5/2
= 29.25g) of salt was dissolved in a litre of water
Its all about proportion

20 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm3 sodium hydroxide solution was dissolved with 25cm 3 of hydrochloric acid to form
a sodium chloride solution. Calculate the concentration of HCl needed to react with the NaOH
NaOH + HCl H2O + NaCl
RFM of NaOH = 40g = 1 mole of NaOH
0.5 mol dm3 of NaOH means (40 x 0.5) 20g of NaOH was dissolved in 1000cm 3 of water
The amount of moles in 20cm3 of NaOH solution:

20cm3/1000cm3 x 0.5 moles = 1/50 x 0.5 = 0.01 moles of NaOH

The equation says that 1 mole of NaOH + 1 mole of HCl gives 1 mole of NaCl
So 0.01 moles of NaOH + 0.01 moles of HCl gives 0.01 moles of NaCl
So 0.01 moles of HCl was present in 25cm3 of HCl solution! However, concentration is measured in mol
dm3 so:
1000cm3/25cm3 x 0.01 mol = 0.4 mol dm3 of HCl used.

Calculating the Empirical Formula and

Molecular Formula
The empirical formula is the simplest formula and only
tells you the ratio of the various atoms. Suppose 2.4g of
magnesium combined with 1.6g of oxygen, you can use
a table to work out the empirical formula. (Mg = 24 O =
16)

Percentage
Combining
Masses
Number of moles
=
Ratio of Moles
Empirical
Formula

C
87.5
87.5
85.7/12
7.14

H
14.3
14.3
14.3/1
14.3
1:2
CH2

Combining
Masses
Number of moles
=
Ratio of Moles
Empirical
Formula

Mg
2.4
2.4/24
0.10

O
1.6
1.6/16
0.10
1:1
MgO

What about with percentage figures?

Suppose you had a compound containing 85.7% C, 14.3% H
and you were asked to calculate the empirical formula.
Firstly, you assume that 100% = 100g! (C = 12 H = 1)
However, you know that CH2 does not exist. Remember this
is only the ratio. To find the molecular formulae, you need to
know the relative formula mass of the compound. Suppose

it was 56g for the above question.

Firstly, find out the RFM of CH2 = 12 + 2 = 14g
Find out how many times 14 goes into 56, so 56/14 = 4 times
Which means the molecular formula is C4H8!

Obtaining Formulae Experimentally

Metal Oxides
Hydrogen can be passed over metal oxides to reduce it to
the metal. To find the formula of copper oxide, the
experimental steps are as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Measure the mass of the empty combustion tube.

Use a spatula to put copper oxide into the tube.
Weigh the tube.
Set up the apparatus as shown. Turn the gas at
the jet to light the excess gas.
Heat the copper oxide until it has all turned into
red copper.
Stop heating but leave gas passing through until everything has cooled.
Weigh the combustion tube.
Put masses in a table and calculate empirical formula from there.

In theofCase
ofTube
Water of Crystallisation
Mass
Empty
52.2g
Mass of tube + Copper Oxide
66.6g
(Before)
Mass of tube + Copper
65.0
Mass of Oxygen
66.6 65.0 = 1.6g
Mass of Copper
65.0 52.2 =
12.8g

Cu
Combining
Masses
Number of moles
=
Ratio of Moles
Empirical
Formula

O
12.8

1.6

12.8/64
0.20

1.6/16
0.10
2:1
Cu2O

When substances crystallise from a solution, water becomes chemically bounded with the salt. This is
called water of crystallisation and the salt is said to be hydrated.
Suppose you had to find the formula of a BaCl2nH2O (a barium chloride crystal), to find n:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Weight the mass of an empty crucible.

Add barium chloride crystals and reweigh.
Heat the crucible gently (so the barium chloride wont decompose), and reweigh.
Put masses into a table and calculate the formula from there.

Mass of Empty Crucible

30.00g
Mass of tube + Crystals (Before)
32.44g
Mass of tube + Anhydrous
32.08g
Crystals (After)
Calculating
Mass
of BaCl2 Percentage Yield
2.08g
Mass of Water
0.36g
Most of the time, when you do carry out a chemical
reaction, you get less than you expect. The rest of it has
been lost in some way perhaps due to spillages or losses
when chemicals are transferred.

BaCl2
H2O
Combining
2.08
0.36
Masses
Number of moles 2.08/20
0.36/18
8
=
0.01
0.02
Ratio of Moles
1:2
Empirical
BaCl22H2O
Formula

Suppose you work out that 10g of A will give 500g of the product, but you only get 400g?
The percentage yield is (400/500) x 100 = 80%
A general formula would be: (mass produced/expected mass to be produced) x 100

Endothermic and Exothermic

Reactions

H represents the molar enthalpy

change for exothermic and
endothermic reactions

Endothermic

Exothermic

Heat energy is
taken in
Breaking of
bonds
Heat energy is
given out
Making of
bonds

H = + N kJ mol-1

H = - N kJ mol-1

Energy Calculations
The general formula:
Bonds of all the reactants Bonds of all the products = Energy change

Example: Methane reacts with chlorine to produce chloromethane and hydrogen chloride. The
equation:
CH4 + Cl2 CH3Cl + HCl
You would be given a table with the bonds and
the energy required to break/bond them:

Bond

C-H

C - Cl

H - Cl

Reactants:

Energy (kJ mol

-1
)

413

346

432

Cl Cl
243

4 C H bonds (CH4) = 4 x 413 = 1652kJ

1 Cl Cl bond (Cl2) = 1 x 243 = 243 kJ Total: 1652 + 243 = 1895 kJ
Products:
3 C H bonds = 3 x 413 = 1236 kJ
1 C Cl bond = 1 x 346 = 346 kJ
1 H Cl (HCl) = 1 x 432 = 432 kJ

Total: 2017 kJ

(Carbon can form 4 bonds. In this case, 3 of them bonds with 3 hydrogen and the last one bonds with
chlorine)
Energy Change = 1895 2017 = -122 kJ

the reaction is exothermic

Describing Simple Calorimetry Experiments

All these involve measuring a temperature change during the reaction.

Specific heat is the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1g of a substance by
10C. For water, the value is 4.18 J g-10C-1 (joules per gram per degree Celsius).
Heat Given Out = Mass x Specific Heat x Temperature Rise

For Neutralisation, Displacement Reactions and Dissolving

They all follow the same method. This example involves measuring the heat evolved (or energy) when
magnesium reacts with dilute sulphuric acid.
1.

2.
3.
4.

Pour an excess of sulphuric acid

into a polystyrene cup and
measure the temperature of the
acid.
Pour some magnesium powder
into a weighing bottle and weight
it.
Pour the powder into the acid and
record the highest temperature.
Weigh the empty weighing bottle.

Mass of Weighing Bottle + Mg (g)

Mass of Weighing Bottle Afterwards (empty)
(g)
Mass of Mg used (g)
Initial Temp. (0C)
Final Temp. (0C)
Temperature Rise (0C)

10.810
10.687
0.123
17.4
27.5
10.1

Lets say the total mass of the solution and Mg is 50g

Heat evolved when 0.123g of Mg reacts = 50 x 4.18 x 10.1J = 2111J = 2.111kJ
To find out the heat evolved when 1 mole of Mg reacts (Mg = 24g):
(2.111/0.123g) x 24 = 412 kJ
The temperature rose, meaning the reaction is exothermic so:
Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)

H = -412 kJ mol-1

This is actually smaller than the accepted value, which is around -417 kJ mol -1. A reason for this could
be that heat was lost too quickly. Using a mercury thermometer may give better results.

Combustion
1.
2.
3.
4.

Put 100cm3 of water into a conical flask and record the

temperature.
Fill the spirit burner with alcohol (lets say ethanol) and
weight.
Light the spirit burner and record the temperature of
water until there is say, a 400C increase.
Reweigh the spirit burner.

Volume of water (cm3)

Mass of water being heated (g)
Mass of burner before (g)
Mass of burner after (g)
Mass of ethanol burnt (g)
Original temp. of water (0C)
Final temp. of water (0C)
Water temperature increase (0C)

100
100
37.355
36.575
0.780
21.5
62.8
41.3

Heat gained = 100 x 4.18 x 41.3 = 17260 J = 17.26 kJ

Ethanol is C2H5OH
One mole of ethanol = 46g
Amount of heat produced from 1 mole of ethanol = (17.26/0.780) x 46 = 1020 kJ

KEY POINTS FOR THIS UNIT

1 mole is the Avogadro constant number of particles

The molar volume is 24 dm3 or 24 000 cm3
Number of moles = mass / RFM
1 dm3 = 1000 cm3
Mol dm-3 = mol per 1000 cm3
G dm-3 = grams per 1000 cm3
Energy/Heat = mass x specific heat x temperature rise

Unit 6: Chemistry in Society

Electrolysis

RECAP! Electrolysis is a chemical change caused by passing an electric current through a compound
which is either molten or in solution. An electric current (in chemistry terms), is a flow of electrons or
ions. An electrolyte is a substance that undergoes electrolysis. Electrolytes all contain ions. Ionic
compounds, for example, are electrolytes. Electrolytes can only undergo electrolysis when molten or in
a solution, where the ions are free to move. Covalent compounds are not electrolytes because they
dont contain ions.
Electrolysis can form new substances when ionic compounds
conduct electricity. It is set up as so:

The electrodes are usually made of carbon because it

is fairly un-reactive.
The positive electrode is called the anode.
The negative electrode is called the cathode.

A simple example of electrolysis involves molten (melted)

lead (II) bromide:

So what happens?
Molten lead is found at the bottom of the
cathode.
Bromine gas comes out of the anode.
When the power supply is switched off, no
more bubbles are produced and
everything else stops.
What the hell happened?

Since the lead (II) bromide (PbBr2) is

molten, its ions are free to move around.

The bromide ions are attracted to the

positive electrode. The extra electron
which makes the bromide ion negatively
charged is deposited into the anode, thus,
turning them back into neutral bromine
atoms. These then covalently bond to join
bromine atoms (i.e. bromine gas).

On the other hand, the lead ions gain back

to electrons (it has a 2+ charge) and
become normal lead atoms. These fall to
the bottom of the container as molten
lead.

The half-equation at the anode would be:

2Br- Br2 + 2eWhat it basically means is that, two bromine ions are formed
when one bromine molecule receives two electrons (to fill its
shell). This is the format for all anions (ions that are
negatively charged).

The half equation

at the cathode
would be:
Pb2+ + 2e- Pb
All cation half-equations are of this form. Half-equations
basically show the gaining and losing of electrons. This
basically means that the lead (II) ions get two electrons to
become a neutral lead atom.
With molten substances, the metal will be produced at the cathode and whatever its bonded to will be
produced at the anode.
When you electrolyse aqueous solutions (not molten salts), things are much different because you
have to consider the water molecules too. Water is a weak electrolyte but it can ionise to form
hydrogen and hydroxide ions.

If the metal is more reactive than hydrogen, then

hydrogen ions from water is discharged instead.
These pair up to form hydrogen gas that escapes
as bubbles.

If the metal is below hydrogen, you get the metal

produced.

If you have solutions of halides (chlorides,

bromides or iodides), you get the halogen
(chlorine, bromine or iodine) produced.

With other negative ions such as sulphates,

oxygen would be produced.

The electrolysis of sodium chloride

solution (brine) does not give sodium and
chlorine! Heres the electrolysis:

Sodium is higher than hydrogen in the reactivity

series, so hydrogen ions from the water in the
sodium chloride solution is discharged instead at the
cathode.
2H+ + 2e- H2

Chloride ions give up one electron each (chloride ion

= 1- charge) and become chlorine atoms. These
covalently bond to form chlorine gas and bubbles out
of the solution at the anode.
2Cl- Cl2 + 2e-

When all the chlorine has been removed from the

solution, only hydroxide (OH-) ions and sodium (Na+)
ions are left, as well as some water. These combine
to form sodium hydroxide solution (NaOH).

The electrolysis of sodium chloride solution is used to manufacture sodium hydroxide solution. The
process is slightly different it is electrolysed in a diaphragm cell:
The products are kept separated by the diaphragm. If
the chlorine produced were to react to hydrogen, it
would cause an explosion on exposure to sunlight or
heat to give hydrogen chloride. Furthermore, if the
chlorine were to react with the sodium hydroxide
solution formed, it would form bleach. Uses of sodium
hydroxide include:

Making bleach
Making soap
Making paper NaOH breaks the wood down
Uses of chlorine include:

Sterilising water

Making hydrochloric acid

Making bleach
And the electrolysis of copper sulphate solution:

Copper is lower than hydrogen and therefore, a coat of it

forms at the cathode.
Cu2+ + 2e- Cu

Oxygen gas is discharged from the hydroxide ions in the water

because the sulphate ions are more stable.

4OH- 2H2O + O2 + 4eIf you electrolyse the solution for longer, something else happens. The
hydrogen ions are being discharged and remains in the solution.
Similarly, sulphate ions are being discharged either. As a result, the
solution turns into sulphuric acid (H2SO4) and it begins electrolysing:

Sulphate ions are being discharged from

the acid so oxygen is discharged from the
hydroxide ions instead.
4OH- 2H2O + O2 + 4e-

There are only hydrogen ions arriving at

the cathode so they discharge as hydrogen
gas.
2H++ 2e- H2

Common Exam Question: Why is twice as much

hydrogen produced than oxygen? For every four
electrons that flow around the circuit, one molecule of oxygen and two molecules of hydrogen are
produced.

Electrolysis Calculations
Back to moles! Here are some things to know:

One faraday means one mole of electrons passing around the circuit.
One faraday = 96000 coulombs.
Charge (coulombs) = Current (amps) x Time (seconds)

Example: What mass of copper is deposited on the cathode during the electrolysis of copper (II)
sulphate solution if 0.15A flows for 10mins?
The electrode equation is:
Cu2+ + 2e- Cu
Calculate the coulombs involved:
10mins x 60 = 600 seconds
Charge = 0.15 x 600 = 90 coulombs
The equation says that 1 mole of copper ions + 2 moles of electrons give 1 mole of copper atoms
1 mole of electrons = 96000 coulombs
2 moles of electrons = 192 000 coulombs
2 moles of electrons (192 000 coulombs) give 1 mole of copper (RFM = 64g), so 90 coulombs give:
(90/192 000)

x 64g = 0.03g

(Coulombs worked out/coulombs of electrons) x RFM of element = Mass of element deposited

When involving gases
Example: During the electrolysis of dilute sulphuric acid, hydrogen is released at the cathode and
oxygen at the anode. Calculate the volumes of hydrogen and oxygen produced if 1.0A flows for 20mins
The electrode equations are:
2H++ 2e- H2
4OH- 2H2O + O2 + 4eAssume the molar volume of gas to be 24000cm3

For hydrogen:
2H++ 2e- H2
2 hydrogen ions + 2 moles of electrons give 1 mole of hydrogen molecule
20mins x 60 = 1200 seconds
1200 x 1A = 1200 coulombs
2 x 96 000 coulombs (2 moles of electrons) = 192 000 coulombs
1 mole of hydrogen gas = 24000 cm3
192 000 coulombs give 1 mole of hydrogen gas (or 24000 cm 3 of hydrogen gas)
So 1200 coulombs give: (1200/192 000)
x 24000 = 150 cm3 of hydrogen produced
For oxygen:
4OH- 2H2O + O2 + 4e20mins x 60 = 1200 seconds
1200 x 1A = 1200 coulombs
4 moles of hydroxide ions give 2 moles of water + 1 mole of oxygen gas + 4 moles of electrons (4 x
96000 = 384 000 coulombs)
1 mole of oxygen gas = 24000 cm3
384 000 coulombs give 1 mole of oxygen gas (or 24000 cm 3 of oxygen gas)
So 1200 coulombs give: (1200/384 000)
x 24000 = 75 cm3 of oxygen produced
The equation:
(Calculated coulombs/moles of electrons) x (mole of gas x 24000) = amount of gas produced in cm 3

Reversible Reactions and Dynamic Equilibria

Some reactions are reversible. Reversible reactions are indicated by the symbol
Some examples of reversible reactions include:

Copper (II) Sulphate Crystals

Heating the blue hydrated copper (II) sulphate

crystals causes them to lose their water of
crystallisation, making them turn from blue to
white the white copper (II) sulphate crystals are
described as anhydrous meaning without water:
CuSO45H2O CuSO4 + 5H2O
However, this reaction can be reversed by simply adding water to
the crystals. The crystals will become hydrated again:
CuSO4 + 5H2O CuSO45H2O

Heating Ammonium Chloride

When ammonium chloride is heated in a test tube, the white

crystals decompose into hydrogen chloride gas and ammonia
gas. These flow upwards and recombine again further up the
test tube:
NH4Cl HCl + NH3
This later recombines:
HCl + NH3 NH4Cl

Introducing Dynamic Equilibria

Things change when reversible reactions are carried out under closed conditions meaning no
substances are added to the reaction mixture and no substances can escape from it. Heat however,
can be given off or absorbed.
In a reversible reaction, you have the forward reaction (the reaction going from left to right) and the
back reaction (the opposite of the forward reaction) happening at the same time. Both rates of
reactions will become equal and this point is the dynamic equilibrium. It is dynamic in a sense that the
reactions are still continuing, and equilibrium in a sense that the total amounts of the various things
present are now constant. In other words:
A + 2B

C+D

When you have a reaction like the above, A + 2B (forward reaction) is reacting to produce C + D (back
reaction). At the same time, C + D is reacting to produce A +2B. In the end, you have equal amounts
of products and reactants.Another way to think of is, is to imagining walking down an elevator that
goes up, making sure youre walking at the same speed as the elevator. You would be going down, but
everytime you take one step down, the elevator goes one step up. In the end, you remain where you
are.
So how would you produce more of substance C in a reversible reaction such as the above? You can do
this by altering the position of the equilibrium by either:

Changing the pressure

Changing the temperature
Increasing/Decreasing the concentrations of substances present
Adding a catalyst

If a dynamic equilibrium is disturbed by changing the conditions, the reaction moves to counteract the
change.
In other words, the reaction will either go more towards the forward direction or the back direction in
an attempt to adapt to the conditions.
A + 2B

C+D

Changing the Concentration

What happens when more of A is added? If you add more A, the reaction will want to remove it. This
can only be done by reacting more A to 2B, and in the end, this gives us more C and D.The conditions,
in this case,favour the forward reaction.

Changing the Pressure

When you increase the pressure, you bring molecules closer together. Increasing the pressure will
always help the reaction go in the direction which produces the smaller number of molecules. In this
case, we have 3 molecules on the left (one A and 2 Bs), whereas, we only have 2 molecules on the

right (one C and one D). The reaction can only reduce the pressure by producing few molecules. This
can only be done by producing more C and D.

Changing the Temperature

Suppose the forward reaction was exothermic
A + 2B

C+D

H = -100 kJ mol -1

This would mean that the back reaction would be endothermic by the same amount (-100 kJ mol -1).
Suppose the temperature was decreased, the reaction would respond by increasing the temperature
back up again. This can only be done by producing more C and D because the forward reaction is
exothermic. Increasing the temperature will of course, have the opposite effect.

Adding a Catalyst
Adding a catalyst speeds up the forward and back reactions by the same proportion. This means that
there is no change in the position of the equilibrium.

Methods of Extraction
The extraction of metals depend alot on its position in the reactivity series. Costs are also factors to
take into account. For metals up to zinc, the cheapest method is usually heating the ore with carbon or
carbon monoxide to reduce it. For metals more reactive than zinc, electrolysis is usually used.

The Extraction of Aluminium

Aluminium is extracted from an ore called bauxite, which is impure aluminium oxide. Aluminium ions
are attracted to the cathode and are reduced to aluminium:
Al3+ + 3e- Al
Oxide ions are attracted to the anode and lose electrons to form oxygen gas:
2O2- O2 + 4e-

There are a few

keep in mind:

things to

Melting aluminium oxide requires extremely high temperatures. Instead, it is dissolved in an

aluminium compound called cryolite.

Because of high temperatures, the carbon anodes will burn with oxygen to form carbon
dioxide. This means the anodes have to be replaced regularly.

The cost of electricity is also a major factor the cell has currents up to 100 000A so it is
expensive.

Uses of aluminium include:

Use
To make aircraft carriers

Property of Aluminium That Makes This Useful

Resists corrosion due to its aluminium oxide coat

Has low density

Strong

Aluminium has a shiny appearance

It is a good conductor of heat

It resists corrosion

It has a low density

Saucepans

The Iron Blast Furnace

Iron is extracted from an ore that contains iron (III) oxide called haematite.
Coke is impure carbon. It burns to form carbon
dioxide. This is a strongly exothermic reaction.
C + O2 CO2
At high temperatures, the carbon dioxide is reduced
by more carbon to give carbon monoxide.
C + CO2 2CO
Carbon monoxide is the main reducing agent:
Fe2O3 + 3CO 2Fe + 3CO2
Carbon may also reduce the iron (III) oxide:
Fe2O3 + 3C 2Fe + 3CO
The heat of the furnace causes the limestone to
thermally decompose to form calcium oxide and
carbon dioxide:
CaCO3 CaO + CO2
The calcium oxide reacts with silicon dioxide (one of
the impurities found in haematite) to form calcium
silicate, which melts and trickles to the bottom of the
furnace as molten slag:
SiO2 + CaO CaSiO3

Types of Iron
Wrought Iron
Mild Steel
High Carbon Steel

Uses of Iron (you dont really need to learn this)

Iron Mixed With
Some Uses
Pure Iron
Decorative work such as gates and
railings
0.25% Carbon
Nails, car bodies, ship building
0.25 1.5% Carbon
Cutting tools

Cast Iron

About 4% Carbon

Stainless Steel

Chromium and Nickel

Preventing
Using Barriers
Alloying the Iron
Using Sacrificial
Anodes

Manhole covers, guttering, engine

blocks
Cutlery, cooking utensils

the Rusting of Iron (in which iron oxidises into iron oxide Fe2O3)
Keep water/oxygen away from the iron by painting, coating with oiletc.
Such as allowing it with chromium and nickel to produce stainless steel
Galvanising iron by coating it with a layer of zinc. Zinc is more reactive than
iron and will corrode instead. During the process it loses electrons to form
ions. These electrons flow into the iron so any iron atom which has lost
electrons immediately regains them. These means even if the zinc is
scratched, the iron wont rust.

The Haber Process

The Haber process is used to
make ammonia NH3
Uses of ammonia include:

Making fertilisers
Making nitric acid
Making nylon

The equation for the reaction is:

N2 + 3H2

2NH3

The forward reaction would be favoured by a low temperature because the forward reaction is
exothermic (so lowering the temperature would cause the reaction to make more NH 3 to heat
things up abit more). 450C isnt a low temperature. It is however, a compromise temperature,
because if the temperature was made to be low, the reaction would be so slow that it would
take a very long time to produce much ammonia.
Pressure is also another compromised. Because the forward reaction has less molecules than
the back reaction (2 molecules of NH3 as opposed to 1 N2 and 3 H2 molecules), the forward
reaction would be favoured by a high pressure. 200 atm is high, but anything higher would be
extremely expensive.
The iron catalyst speeds the reaction up but has no effect on the equilibrium. However, if the
catalyst wasnt used, the reaction would be too slow.

The Contact Process

1.

H = -92 kJ mol-1

Burn sulphur in air to form sulphur dioxide SO2

S + O2 SO2
2.

Use an excess of air to react sulphur dioxide to more oxygen to

form sulphur trioxide
2SO2 + O2

3.

2SO3

H = -196 kJ mol-1

Reacting sulphur trioxide with water will give an uncontrollable

fog of concentrated sulphuric acid. Instead, sulphur trioxide is
absorbed in concentrated sulphuric acid to give fuming sulphuric
acid (oleum):
SO3 + H2SO4H2S2O7

4.

This is converted into twice as much concentrated sulphuric acid

by careful addition of water:
H2S2O7 + H2O 2H2SO4

The reversible reaction here is:

2SO2 + O2

2SO3

H = -196 kJ mol-1

Because the forward reaction is exothermic, a low temperature has to be used. Again, if a low
temperature is used, the rate of reaction would be too slow, so 450C is a compromise.

As for the pressure, a low pressure is needed because the forward reaction contains fewer
molecules than the back reaction.

The catalyst, vanadium (V) oxide (V2O5) speeds up the rate of reaction but has no effect on the
equilibrium. Again, without a catalyst, the rate of reaction would be extremely slow.

Uses of sulphuric acid include:

Making fertilisers including ammonium sulphate and other substances

Detergents including hand soaps and shampoos

Paint Manufacture used to extract titanium dioxide from titanium ores

A Few Extra Bits and Pieces

Indicator Solutions
Phenolphthalein
colourless in
pink in alkali
Note: Methyl orange is orange in neutral
acid
solutions, however, these two indicator
Methyl orange
red in acid
yellow in alkali
solutions are both yes no indicators
meaning, if there is a reaction, the methyl orange (for example) would turn from red to yellow (or vice
versa depending on whether the solution it has been dropped into is acidic or alkaline). It will not turn
orange.

The acidity or
alkalinity of
something is measured in pH. Universal indicator cam be used to measure the approximate pH of a
solution.

Acids are sources of H+ ions

Alkalis are sources of OH- ions

for more info, go to page 10

Reactions Between Metals, Metal Compounds and Acids

Basic things to know:

Hydrochloric acid reacts with metals and metal compounds to form a metal chloride
Sulphuric acid reacts with metals and metal compounds to form a metal sulphate

And some equations:

Metal + Acid Salt + Hydrogen
Mg + 2HCl MgCl2 + H2
Mg + H2SO4 MgSO4 + H2
Metal Oxide + Acid Salt + Water
MgO + 2HCl MgCl2 + H2O
MgO + H2SO4 MgSO4 + H2O
Metal Carbonate + Acid Salt + Water + Carbon Dioxide
MgCO3 + 2HCl MgCl2 + H2O + CO2
MgCO3 + H2SO4 MgSO4 + H2O + CO2

Preparing Soluble Salts Using Titration

The exact amount of acid needed to neutralise an alkali can be

found
by titration. This technique can be used to make
pure crystals of a soluble salt (one that dissolves in water).
In the example below, an acid and an alkali react to
make sodium chloride.
1.

The burette is filled with hydrochloric acid.

2.

A known quantity of alkali (say 50

cm3 sodium hydroxide) is released from a pipette into
the conical flask. The tap on the burette is turned open
to allow the acid to be added drop by drop into
the alkali.

3.

The alkali contains anindicator (phenolphthalein).

4.

When enough acid has been added

to neutralise the alkali,
theindicator changes from pink to colourless. This is
the end point of the titration.

5.

The titration can be repeated using the same

amounts of acid and alkalibut without the indicator.

6.

Pure salt crystals which are free from indicator can then be crystallised from
the neutral solution.

Precipitation Reactions
The process of making a solid come from a solution is called precipitation. The solid itself is called
a precipitate. An insoluble salt (one that doesn't dissolve) can be made by reacting the
appropriate soluble salt with an acid or alkali or another salt.
You are normally asked to prepare a solid from two soluble solutions so know your solubility rules:

All nitrates are soluble.

All sodium, potassium and ammonium compounds are
(s)
soluble.
(l)
Most carbonates and hydroxides are insoluble except
(g)
for sodium, potassium and ammonium.
(aq)
All sulphates are soluble except barium and lead(II)
sulphate.
All chlorides are soluble except lead(II) and silver chloride.

STATE SYMBOLS

Example: Prepare Silver Chloride

Youll need:

A soluble silver salt what about silver nitrate?

A soluble chloride like magnesium chloride?

You can make it up really. So the equation:

AgNO3 (aq) + MgCl2(aq) AgCl(s) + Mg(NO3)2(aq)

The Reactivity Series

solid
liquid
gas
aqueous solution
(dissolved in water)

Metals are arranged based on their reactions in the reactivity

series.
They can be deduced by using displacement reactions, in which a
less reactive metal is pushed out of its compound by a more
reactive metal. For example, the reaction between magnesium
and copper (II) oxide:
Mg + CuO MgO + Cu
Displacement reactions are examples of redox reactions, in which
oxidation and reduction occurs in the same reaction.
The reducing agent is a substance that reduces something else. In
this case, its magnesium. The oxidising agent is a substance that
oxidises something else. In this case, its copper.
Remember OILRIG: Oxidation is gain (of electrons); Reductionis
loss (of electrons)
Lets look at this in terms of an ionic equation:
Mg + Cu2+ + O2- Mg2+ + O2- + Cu
This basically looks at what turns into ions and what does not. The magnesium turns into a positive ion
because it loses two electrons to bond with oxygen. The copper ion, because its displaced, regains the
two electrons it lost to the oxygen.
Notice in this equation, the oxygen ion does not change? It remains an ion. In this case, the oxygen ion
is the spectator ion. Spectator ions arent included in the ionic equation, so the proper ionic equation of
this displacement reaction should be:
Mg + Cu2+ Mg2+ + Cu
As mentioned earlier, the magnesium loses two electrons to bond with oxygen and copper gains two
electrons. This can be written as half-equations:
Mg Mg2+ + 2eCu2+ + 2e- Cu
Reactions with substances are different depending on its reactivity:
Metals
Potassium,
Sodium, Lithium
Calcium
Magnesium
Zinc or Iron
Anything Below

Rusting of Iron

Reaction with Water

Very vigorous, produces hydroxides and
hydrogen gas
Reacts gently and produces the same
products as above
Reacts with steam to produce magnesium
oxide and hydrogen
Reacts slowly and forms an oxide and
hydrogen
No reaction

Reaction with Dilute Acids

Too reactive to add safely to acids
Can be added to very dilute acids
but its going to be violent!
Reacts vigorously strongly
exothermic forms a salt and
hydrogen
Reacts slowly
No reaction

This requires two things:

Oxygen
Water

Preventing
Using Barriers
Alloying the Iron
Using Sacrificial
Anodes

the Rusting of Iron (in which iron oxidises into iron oxide Fe2O3)
Keep water/oxygen away from the iron by painting, coating with oiletc.
Such as allowing it with chromium and nickel to produce stainless steel
Galvanising iron by coating it with a layer of zinc. Zinc is more reactive than
iron and will corrode instead. During the process it loses electrons to form
ions. These electrons flow into the iron so any iron atom which has lost
electrons immediately regains them. These means even if the zinc is
scratched, the iron wont rust.

More on sacrificial anodes if the iron has already rusted, it can still be displaced by the more reactive
zinc:
Fe2O3 + 3Zn 2Fe + 3ZnO
And this is the end.
Good luck!