Note 1 Temperature & Thermometers

Heat and Temperature
Eng.A.A.Hafeel Ahamed
BSc(Eng)(1st Class honor)
Design Engineer
What is Heat??
Heat = Thermal Energy!!

Thermal Energy = the total energy of all of the particles in a
material or object.
Throughout the ages people have invented a variety of

devices to help create and capture heat for use.
Using Energy from Heat

What are some ways that we use heat?
Cook food
Warm buildings
Dry clothes
Sources of Thermal Energy

Energy appears in many forms
Potential Energy: Stored energy

E.g. elastic pulled back and ready to be shot.
Kinetic Energy: Energy of motion
Chemical Energy
Stored chemical energy is released in the form of
thermal energy when it is burned.
6
Electrical
Energy
Electricity
Example: hydro-electric dams falling water is
changed to electrical energy
7
Geothermal
Energy
Energy that we get from the Earths

interior
8
Solar
Energy
Energy from the sun
9
Passive
Solar Heating
Uses materials in the

structure to absorb,
store, and release
solar energy.
Example: a wall of
windows
10
Active
Solar Energy
Uses mechanical
devices to distribute
stored thermal energy
Example: fans
Solar Collectors use
stored water or air on
the roof, heats it, and
then pumps it through
the building
11
Wind
Energy
Moving air
Is a result of solar
energy as the sun
heats the air, the
warmer air rises and
cools off. Cooler air
falls, creating a
convection current
this forms wind
12
Fossil Fuels
Chemicals made from plants and animals that died and
decomposed millions of years ago and have preserved
deep underground.
13
Energy Converters
Energy can be converted into another form.
For example a candle can convert chemical

energy into heat and light energy.
Candles are energy converters (devices which
convert or change energy from one form to
another.)
Other examples????
14
Renewable Resources
Definition:
Renewable
resources are a
natural resource
that grow at about
the same rate they
are used up.
15
Non-Renewable Resource
Definition:
A resource which is
limited in supply and
cannot be replaced
once it is used.
16
Renewable Resources in Alberta

Examples:
Trees (Forestry)
Wind (Wind Farms)
Agriculture ( One of the biggest crop producers in Canada)
Water (Dams and water conservation)
Solar ( Solar Panels and Solariums)
17
Non-Renewable Resources in
Alberta
Examples:
Oil (Oil Wells)
Natural Gas (Pipelines across the
Coal (Mining in Alberta)
province)
18
Temperature & it s Measurement
LORD KELVIN
19
Temperature
Temperature is a measure of hotness or coldness of a body.
S.I. unit: Kelvin (K)
Celsius scale
(Practical Scale)
The current working temperature scale is the International Temperature

Scale of 1990 (ITS-90) and is measured in degrees Celsius (C)
Temperature (in degree Celsius) =
Temperature in Kelvin 273.15
Note:
0o C
= 273.15 K
100o C = 373.15 K
20
Temperature
Temperature
is a measure of how hot or cold

an object is compared to
another object.
indicates that heat flows from the

object with a higher temperature
to the object with a lower
temperature.
is measured using a thermometer.

21
Measuring Temperature.
Thermometer: Mechanical or electrical device for measuring
temperature. Early thermometer was invented by Galileo.
Scale: A series of equally measured sections that are marked
and numbered for use in measurement.
22
Measuring Temperature
1. The length is taken at 0o C (in

melting ice) = l0
2. The length is taken at 100o C
(in boiling water) = l100
3. A graph of temperature versus
length is plotted
4. Any temperature can then be
read from the graph = l
23
Temperature
Scales
Temperature
Scales
are Fahrenheit,
Celsius, and
Kelvin.
have reference
points for the
boiling and
freezing points
of water.
Copyright 2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Publishing as Benjamin Cummings
24
Fahrenheit Formula
On the Fahrenheit scale, there are 180F between
the freezing and boiling points and on the Celsius
scale, there are 100C.
180F
100C
9F
5C
= 1.8F
1C
In the formula for the Fahrenheit temperature,
adding 32 adjusts the zero point of water from 0C

to 32F.
TF
TF
= 9/5 TC + 32
or
= 1.8 TC + 32
25
Kelvin Temperature Scale

The Kelvin temperature scale
has 100 units between the freezing and boiling points

of water.
100 K = 100C
or 1 K = 1C
is obtained by adding 273 to the Celsius temperature.

TK
= TC + 273
contains the lowest possible temperature, absolute

zero (0 K).
0K
= 273C
26
THERMO METERS
Thermometers
27
Thermometers measure temperature.
Note:
1. Temperature is a number which gives the degree of hotness
of a body on a chosen scale. (degree at which heating has
occurred).
2. When we measure temperature we measure a thermometric
property.
3. Two different thermometers do not necessarily give the same
reading at the same temperature. Different Thermometric
properties vary differently with temperature
Thermometric properties
28
Any physical property that changes measurably with

temperature.
Examples
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Length of column of Liquid.

Electrical resistance.
EMF of a Thermocouple Thermometer.
Colour.
Pressure of a gas at constant volume
Volume of gas at constant pressure
Standard Thermometer
29
Celsius Scale for given thermometric property

A temperature scale is needed with two fixed points (normally
the freezing and boiling point of water)
A thermometric property is needed, such as the length of a
column of liquid in a glass tube
Measuring Temperature
(Hg-in-glass thermometer
As School standard)
Use un-graduated thermometer.
Place in pure melting ice, mark position = l0 (0 on celsius scale)

Place in steam above pure boiling water, mark position = l100 (100 on celsius
scale)
30
CALIBRATION CURVE OF A THERMOMETER USING THE LABORATORY

MERCURY THERMOMETER AS A STANDARD
31
Celsius Scale
Celsius Scale: Most commonly used in Canada. Unit of
temperature is called a degree. Based on the boiling
and freezing points of water.
Boiling Point: The temperature at which water boils. 100o
C at sea level.
Freezing Point: The temperature at which water freezes.
0o C at sea level.
Glass Thermo meters

32
33
The Liquid in Glass Thermometer.

The Liquid in Glass thermometer utilizes the variation in volume of a liquid in
temperature.
They use the fact that most fluids expand on heating. The fluid is contained in a
sealed glass bulb, and its expansion is measured using a scale etched in the
stem of the thermometer If we consider that the thermometer does not
expand then as physical property it utilizes the variation of length of liquid with
temperature.
Liquid in Glass thermometers have been used in science, medicine, metrology
and industry for almost 300 years.
Ahamed
LiquidsEng.A.A.Hafeel
commonly
used include Mercury and Alcohol.
Structure
34
Two basic parts:

a. The bulb:
Acting as a reservoir holding the liquid whose
volume changes with temperature. The Bulb
also acts as a sensor or gauge which is
inserted in the body whose temperature is to
be measured
b. The Stem:
containing the scale that is measuring the
temperature and a capillary through which
the liquid can accordingly expand and
contract
General Properties
35
Advantages:
They are cheap to manufacture
Easy to carry and handle.
Disadvantages
They tend to have high heat capacities. They are not sensitive
enough, that is they cannot measure rapid temperature changes.
36
The mercury in glass thermometer

Invented by German physicist Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit, is a
thermometer consisting of mercury in a glass tube.
Calibrated marks on the tube allow the temperature to be read by the
length of the mercury within the tube, which varies according to the
temperature.
To increase the sensitivity, there is usually a bulb of mercury at the end of
the thermometer which contains most of the mercury; expansion and
contraction of this volume of mercury is then amplified in the much
narrower bore of the tube. The space above the mercury may be filled
with nitrogen or it may be a vacuum.
Range: Covering a wide temperature range from -38 C to 356 C,

although the introduction of a instrument can increase the range to 600
CEng.A.A.Hafeel
or beyond.
Ahamed
37
Advantages:
1. Mercury is a naturally opaque liquid (Silver). This means that it can be
directly utilized in its pure form
2. Mercury does not wet glass. When it moves up and down in the
capillary strong cohesive properties of mercury do not allow it to leave
any traces on the inside of the capillary.
3. Mercury is a liquid metal. As a metal it has high conductive properties
that allow it to be more sensitive than the alcohol in glass thermometer
Disadvantages:
1. Mercury poses a potential toxic hazard if the glass container is
ruptured.
Alcohol in glass thermometer
38
As a liquid it utilises ethyl alcohol, toluene and technical

pentane, which can be used down to -200 C.
Range c. -200C to 80C, though range tends to be highly
dependent on the type of alcohol used.
39
Advantages:
1. It can measure very low temperatures.
Disadvantages:
1. Alcohol is transparent therefore it requires a dye to make it
visible. Dyes tend to add impurities that may not have the same
temperature range as the alcohol making reading difficult
especially at the limits of each liquid.
2. Alcohol wets glass.
40
Gas thermometers
41
The gas thermometers can be classified into two based on the

method by which the gas can be heated. They are,
Constant Pressure Gas Thermometer
Constant Volume Gas Thermometer.
The constant pressure gas thermometer is not used in practice

because of the errors which arise due to the non uniformity of tube
bore.
The constant volume gas thermometer is the most accurate
laboratory thermometer and is used for the calibration of other
thermometers.
42
CONSTANT VOLUME GAS THERMOMETER

When we heat a gas keeping the volume constant,
its
pressure increases and when we cool the gas its pressure
decreases.
The relationship between pressure and temperature at
constant volume is given by the law of pressure. According

to this law, the pressure of a gas changes by of its original
pressure at 0oC for each degree centigrade (or Celsius) rise in
temperature at constant volume.
43
If Po is the pressure of a given volume of a gas at 0oC and Pt is

the pressure of the same volume of the gas (i.e., at constant
volume) at toC, then
Pt
Pt
i.e., (or)
Po
Po
t
273
t
Po (1
)
273
Pt
Po (1 v
t)
(1)
Where v 273 is constant and is known as coefficient of

increase of pressure
It consists of a glass bulb B connected to a tube A, through a

44
capillary glass tube C.

The tube A is connected to a mercury reservoir R which is
clamped on the board and can be lowered or raised whenever
required to keep the volume of the air constant.
The capillary tube C is provided with a three way stopper S and
can be used to connect capillary and bulb as well as to disconnect
tube from bulb B.
A pointer is provided such that the end P is projecting inside from
the upper part of A.
A scale calibrated in 0oC is provided between A and R.
45
46
The whole apparatus is levelled by adjusting the levelling screws.

By adjusting the stopper, the bulb B is filled with air or some gas
and the pointer is adjusted so that tip of the pointer just touches the
level of mercury in the tube A. After filling the bulb, it is kept in an
ice bath for some time till the air inside the bulb attains the
temperature of ice at which the mercury level becomes stationary.
Now the reservoir R is adjusted so that the level of mercury in the
tube A just touches the tip of the pointer P.
47
The difference between the mercury levels in the two tubes is noted
and let it be ho. If Po is the pressure exerted by the air in the bulb,
then
Po P h0
Now ice bath is removed and the bulb B is surrounded with steam.
Again when the mercury level in both the tubes becomes stationary,
tube R is adjusted so that the mercury column in this position in tube
A touches the tip of the pointer.
48
Let the difference between the mercury column levels in A and R be h100.
The pressure of the enclosed gas in B will be given by,
P100 Po h100
If
have
v is
the pressure coefficient of the air, then from equation (1), we
P100 Po
(1 v 100)
P100 Po P0 v 100
49

Finally the bulb is brought in contact of the body whose temperature is to
be found out.
After the mercury level becomes stationary, the tube R is adjusted so that
the mercury level touches the tip of the pointer again.
Let ht be the difference between the heights of mercury levels and if Pt is

the pressure of the air inside the bulb B, then we have,
Pt Po ht
50
and
(or)
Pt Po
(1 v t )
(6)
Dividing equation (6) by equation (4), we get
Pt Po P0 v t
Pt Po
P0 v t
P100 P0 P0 v 100
Pt P0
t
100
P100 P0
51
Substituting Pt P0 ht and P100 P0 h100 in
equation (7), we get,

(P0 ht ) (P0 h0 )
t
100
(P0 h100) (P0 h0 )
ht h0
t
100 (8)
h100 h0
52
MERITS
Gas thermometers are more sensitive when compared to other thermometers.
They work uniformly and regularly over a wide range of temperature.
They can be used to measure low and high temperatures and have a wide
range of operation. (200oC to 1600oC)

Since the expansion of glass is negligible when compared to the expansion of
the gas the error due to expansion of glass is negligible.
53
DEMERITS
It takes time to measure the temperature and is not a quick
thermometer.
These thermometers can be used only in some cases where the bodies
can be brought in contact with the bulb.
They are not easily portable.
54
Pt resistance thermometer
55
The resistance thermometer

Makes use of the change of resistance in a metal wire with temperature.
As electrons move through a metal, they are impeded by the thermal

vibrations of the atoms in the crystal lattice.
The higher the temperature the greater the impediment to flow thus the
higher the resistance.

This effect is very marked in pure metals, and for a well-behaved material
enables measurements of temperature to be made to better than 0.001 C.
56
Usually platinum wire is used in the construction of the

thermometer, since it is a noble metal which is un-reactive
over a wide range of temperatures.
But copper, nickel and rhodium alloy may also be used in

various temperature ranges.
Usually a coil of the pure wire is wound onto an alumina former
or placed in the bores of an alumina tube, and this assembly is
mounted in a steel tube.
57
Resistance thermometers are slowly replacing thermocouples
in many lower temperature industrial applications (below

600C).
Resistance thermometers come in a number of construction
forms and offer greater stability, accuracy and repeatability.
The resistance tends to be almost linear with temperature.
A small power source is required.
No special extension cables or cold junction compensations are required.
58
The resistance of a conductor is related to its temperature.
Platinum is usually used due to its stability with temperature.

The Platinum detecting wire needs to be kept free of contamination to remain
stable.
A Platinum wire or film is created and supported on a former in such a way that it
gets minimal differential expansion or other strains from its former, yet is
reasonably resistant to vibration.
Advantages
59
1. Depending on the metal being used resistance thermometers are

able to cover extensive temperature ranges. Maximum values are
generally related to the melting points of the metal used.
2. Variation of resistance with temperature is stable over an
extensive temperature range.
3. Very accurate
Disadvantages
1. Compared to liquid in glass thermometers, they tend to be
expensive.
2. Require other equipment to measure temperature.
3. They exhibit high heat capacities thus they are not sensitive to
temperature change meaning that they cannot be used to
measure rapid temperature changes.
Thermo couple
60
The Thermocouple
61
Wires made up of two different metals are

twisted together.
When the wire tips are heated, a small
electric current is generated
The amount of current depends on the
temperature.
They can measure higher temperatures than
thermometers.
The electric current can be used to turn
switches on or off if the temperature
changes.
Used in kilns, diesel engines and industrial
furnaces
62
As a Thermometric property thermocouples
utilize the variation of EMF generated at a
bimetallic junction with temperature.
In 1821, the German-Estonian physicist
Thomas Johann Seebeck discovered that
when any conductor (such as a metal) is
subjected to a thermal gradient, it will
generate a voltage. This is now known as
the thermoelectric effect or Seebeck
effect.
Thermocouples
63
Many different thermocouple combinations have been used, but only 8

are standardized.
These include 3 noble metal thermocouples using platinum and platinumrhodium alloys, widely used for temperature measurement up to 1600 C.
The remaining 5 mainly use nickel-based alloys, which are cheaper and
more suitable for industrial use up to about 1200 C.
Other refractory alloys can be used up to and beyond 2000 C.
64
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
1. Cheap to manufacture.
1. Sensitivity reduces accuracy.
2. The simplicity, ruggedness, low cost, small

size and wide temperature range of
thermocouples make them the most
common type of temperature sensor in
industrial use.
3. Low heat capacities making it capable
of measuring rapid temperature changes.
Bimetallic Strip
65
Made of two different metals

joined together
When the strip is heated one
metal expands more than the
other
Thus the strip coils more tightly
Movement of the strip can
operate a switch that can
control furnacescommonly
used in thermostats in homes
66
Another Scale
Kelvin is another way of measuring temperature.
Scientists use Kelvin to explain the behaviour of gases.
Absolute Zero is measured in Kelvin which is the coldest possible
temperature
0 Kelvin = -273 C
67
Right Device for the Job

Each thermometer has a sensor a material which is affected by changes
in the environment (such as temperature)
The sensor produces a signal (information about temperature, such as an
electrical current) which affects a responder (a pointer, light or other
mechanism that uses the signal in some way)
68
Continued
Recording Thermometer: A bimetallic strip connected to a writing device
and paper which records temperature fluctuations over time.
Infrared Thermogram: Records infrared radiation, (heat sensor) as different

colors according to their temperature.
69
Temperature vs. Thermal Energy

Temperature = A measure of the average energy of the particles in a
material.
Thermal Energy = The total energy of all the particles in a material.

What is the difference??
Bimetalic
70
71
Filled System/Distant Reading
72
Radiation and optical

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Heat and Temperature

Heat = Thermal Energy!!

Throughout the ages people have invented a variety of

Using Energy from Heat

Sources of Thermal Energy

Potential Energy: Stored energy

Energy that we get from the Earths

Energy from the sun

Uses materials in the

For example a candle can convert chemical

Renewable Resources in Alberta

Temperature & it s Measurement

The current working temperature scale is the International Temperature

is a measure of how hot or cold

indicates that heat flows from the

is measured using a thermometer.

1. The length is taken at 0o C (in

In the formula for the Fahrenheit temperature,

adding 32 adjusts the zero point of water from 0C

Kelvin Temperature Scale

has 100 units between the freezing and boiling points

is obtained by adding 273 to the Celsius temperature.

contains the lowest possible temperature, absolute

Any physical property that changes measurably with

Length of column of Liquid.

Celsius Scale for given thermometric property

Use un-graduated thermometer.

Place in pure melting ice, mark position = l0 (0 on celsius scale)

CALIBRATION CURVE OF A THERMOMETER USING THE LABORATORY

Glass Thermo meters

The Liquid in Glass Thermometer.

Two basic parts:

The mercury in glass thermometer

Range: Covering a wide temperature range from -38 C to 356 C,

Alcohol in glass thermometer

As a liquid it utilises ethyl alcohol, toluene and technical

The gas thermometers can be classified into two based on the

The constant pressure gas thermometer is not used in practice

CONSTANT VOLUME GAS THERMOMETER

pressure increases and when we cool the gas its pressure

constant volume is given by the law of pressure. According

CONSTANT VOLUME GAS THERMOMETER

If Po is the pressure of a given volume of a gas at 0oC and Pt is

Where v 273 is constant and is known as coefficient of

It consists of a glass bulb B connected to a tube A, through a

capillary glass tube C.

A scale calibrated in 0oC is provided between A and R.

CONSTANT VOLUME GAS THERMOMETER

CONSTANT VOLUME GAS THERMOMETER

The whole apparatus is levelled by adjusting the levelling screws.

CONSTANT VOLUME GAS THERMOMETER

CONSTANT VOLUME GAS THERMOMETER

the pressure coefficient of the air, then from equation (1), we

CONSTANT VOLUME GAS THERMOMETER

Let ht be the difference between the heights of mercury levels and if Pt is

CONSTANT VOLUME GAS THERMOMETER

Dividing equation (6) by equation (4), we get

CONSTANT VOLUME GAS THERMOMETER

Substituting Pt P0 ht and P100 P0 h100 in

equation (7), we get,

range of operation. (200oC to 1600oC)

It takes time to measure the temperature and is not a quick

They are not easily portable.

The resistance thermometer

Note 1 Temperature & Thermometers

Note 1 Temperature & Thermometers