Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Department of Mechanics,
Faculty of Engineering,
Islamic Azad University,
Hamedan Branch,
Hamedan 65181-15743, Iran
e-mail: amir.soltani@uwaterloo.ca
Avesta Goodarzi1
Department of Mechanical
and Mechatronics Engineering,
University of Waterloo,
Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada
e-mail: avesta.goodarzi@uwaterloo.ca
Mohamad Hasan
Shojaeefard
Automotive Engineering Department,
Iran University of Science & Technology,
Tehran 16846-13114, Iran
e-mail: mhshf@iust.ac.ir
Khodabakhsh Saeedi
Department of Mechanical
and Mechatronics Engineering,
University of Waterloo,
Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada
e-mail: kb.saeedi@gmail.com
Introduction
The passenger comfort and the driver feeling in a moving vehicle are introduced as ride quality. Ride comfort is defined in terms
(2)
(4)
(5)
(6)
Now, using this new variable, without any change in the inherent of problem, we can represent Eq. (1) in the following form:
s
xf
1
2
Az dx
(7)
RMSAz
xf xi x i
The root mean square value of the Az, which is used for perception of the vehicle ride comfort, is called passenger discomfort
(PD), because lower RMSAz causes a more comfortable ride.
Hence, the ride comfort criterion is introduced as
CR
1
RMSAz
v
8"
u
#2 9
r
u
<
=
xf
u
2
t 1
4n2 x=xs 2 1 = Z12 Z22 ;dx
: x
xf xi
xi
(8)
Figure 2 shows the variation of Az versus the excitation frequency x for different values of tire vertical stiffness. The values
of the main system parameters are listed in Table 2. Note that
Table 1 Quarter-car model parameters and equations
Symbol
Definition
xs
xus
a
Damping ratio
Mass ratio
Relationship
p
xs ks =ms
p
xus kt =mus
a xs =xus
n cs =2ms xs
ms
e
mus
Fig. 2 Acceleration transmissibility versus excitation frequency for different tire stiffness
(9)
where ar0 and ar1 are constant coefficients. The coefficients ar0
and ar1 for our case study vehicle equipped with a 195/65R15 tire
are tabulated in Table 3. Finally, by combining Eqs. (8) and (9),
the ride comfort criterion can be obtained
CR
1
ar0 ar1 kt
Handling Analysis
Parameter
Sprung mass
Unsprung mass
Damping ratio
Suspension stiffness
(10)
Table 2
where a and CFa are the side slip angle and the cornering coefficient of the tire, respectively. Based on Eq. (11), it is clear that a
greater cornering coefficient increases the potential of a tire in
producing the lateral force. So the handling criterion can be
simply defined as
CH CFa
Value
Unit
ms
mu
n
ks
350
35
0.3
27
kg
kg
N/mm
(12)
Symbol
(11)
ar
ar0
ar1
ah0
ah1
ah2
Value
Parameters
Value
255
64.27
2.16 103
16188
0.985
6.622 106
ah3
ah4
ap0
ap1
ap2
1.837 1011
1.895 1017
9216
0.769
2.291 106
Maximizing the presented handling criterion reduces the sideslip angle, which is crucial for improving the stability of vehicles.
To evaluate the effect of tire characteristics on the handling of
a vehicle based on the handling criterion in Eq. (12), we should
develop relationships between tire cornering coefficient and tire
vertical stiffness. Since more than 80% of the total tire stiffness is
due to inflation pressure [6], we can utilize relationships between
lateral stiffness and inflation pressure approximately.
To include the effects of the inflation pressure in the tire cornering coefficient, CFas relationship of magic formula (MF) 6.1 tire
model [1719] is used. Relative to original form of MF, two linear
expressions depending on normalized change in inflation pressure
(dp) are added
Fz
1
CFa PKY1 1 PKY1 dpFZ0 sin 2 tan
PKY2 1 PKY2 dpFZ0
(13)
where the Ps are MF parameters, which for our case study 195/
65R15 tire have been listed in Table 4, Fz and Fz0 are the actual
and the nominal vertical load, respectively, and dp is
dp
p
1
p0
(14)
(15)
where the qFz s are fitting parameters, their typical value for the
case study tire have been listed in Table 4, and q is tire deflection.
Practically, the qFz1 is much bigger than 2qFz3q, and then the second one can be ignored. In other words, it can be assumed that the
relation between the vertical stiffness and the inflation pressure is
approximately linear [15,16]. Hence, by solving Eq. (15) for dp,
the expression for the normalized change in inflation pressure is
derived as follows:
1
kt
1
(16)
dp
qFz3 qFz1
By substituting Eq. (16) in Eq. (13), one can find a relationship
between tire cornering stiffness and tire vertical stiffness. This
relationship is graphically presented for the 195/65R15 tire in
Fig. 4. For this specific tire, the maximum value of cornering
coefficient occurs at kt 140 N/mm. Relative to this point, any
increase/decrease in tire vertical stiffness causes a reduction in the
tire cornering coefficient. Consequently, the potential of the tire
for producing lateral forces decreases. As a physical explanation
of this tire characteristic, one should note that the value of the
Table 4
[1719]
Parameter
P0
Fz0
qFz1
qFz3
PKY1
PKY2
PPY1
4
X
ahi kti
(17)
i0
where the constant coefficients ahi s are tabulated for the 195/
65R15 tire in Table 3.
Accelerating/Braking Analysis
(18)
where CFj is the longitudinal slip stiffness and j is the longitudinal slip of the tire. Similar to the approach in Sec. 3 to decrease
the longitudinal slip as a way to improve the vehicle stability [16]
and to increase the potential of generating longitudinal force, the
following performance criterion is introduced:
CP CFj
(19)
Considering the goal of this research, the introduced accelerating/braking performance criterion should be presented as a function of the tire vertical stiffness. For this purpose, the improved
MF 6.1 tire model [1719] can be used. Based on the MF model
longitudinal slip stiffness CFj relates to inflation pressure of the
tire as
CFj Fz PKX1 PKX2 dfz ePKX3 dfz 1 PPX3 dp PPX4 dp2 (20)
where the Ps are MF parameters, which for the case study tire
have been listed in Table 4, and dfz is the normalized change in
vertical load and is defined based on the actual and nominal vertical loads
Value
Parameter
Value
2.2
4000
200,000
0.9166
19.797
1.7999
0.33
PPY2
PKX1
PKX2
PKX3
PPX3
PPX4
frr0
0.89
18.886
3.988
0.21542
0.38
1.08
0.015966
Fig. 4
dfz
Fz FZ0
FZ0
(21)
As can be seen in Eq. (20), the first part is a function of dfz and
because it is a constant value, the first part is supposed to be constant. Besides, the second part of CFj equation includes a secondorder algebraic form of normalized change in inflation pressure
(dp) which, as aforementioned, is a function of the tire vertical
stiffness. Finally, combining Eqs. (20), (21), and (14), a relationship between the tire longitudinal slip stiffness and the tire vertical
stiffness is formed as follow:
CP ap0 ap1 kt ap2 kt2
(22)
where ap0 , ap1 , and ap2 are constant coefficients which have been
tabulated for the 195/65R15 tire in Table 3.
Figure 5 shows the variation of the longitudinal slip stiffness of
195/65R15 tire versus vertical stiffness. The maximum point
occurs at kt 170 N/mm. It is clear that after or before the maximum point, any change in the tire vertical stiffness causes a reduction in the tire longitudinal slip stiffness. The similar physical
explanation with what was addressed in Sec. 3 for relationship
between the cornering stiffness and the vertical stiffness can be
stated here again.
a b
p
FZ
po
FZ0
(24)
where frr0 coefficient for case study tire has been listed in Table 4
and the following values are applicable for the other coefficients
of Eq. (24) [22]:
For a passenger cars, a 0.4 and b 0.9
For a trucks, a 0.2 and b 0.9
According to Eqs. (14) and (16), the p/p0 term in Eq. (24) can
be replaced by
p
kt
1 qFz3
(25)
p0
qFz3 qFz1
qFz3
By substituting Eq. (25) in Eq. (24), a relationship between the
rolling resistance and the tire vertical stiffness is formed
kt qFz4 a
frr Krr
(26)
qFz1
where the constants Krr and qFz4 are defined as follows:
1
frr
FZ
FZ0
(27)
By combining Eqs. (23) and (26), the final form of fuel consumption criterion is written as follows:
1
kt qFz4 a
CFC
(28)
Krr
qFz1
Figure 6 shows the effect of tire vertical stiffness variation on
the rolling resistance coefficient of the case study 195/65R15 tire.
Based on this figure, it is clear that by increasing the tire vertical
stiffness, the rolling resistance coefficient dramatically decreases,
leads to less fuel consumption. Hence, the optimum value of the
tire stiffness that provides the least fuel consumption is chosen
equal to 300 N/mm. It is the biggest practically possible value.
(23)
Optimization
7
EF kwR ksR CR kwH ksH CH kwP ksP CP kwFC ksFC CFC
(29)
where kwR, kwH, kwP, kwFC and ksR, ksH, ksP, ksFC are the weighting
factors and scaling factors, respectively. Weighting factors determine the relative importance of different terms, which in this
case, the same importance is considered for ride, handling,
accelerating/braking performance, and fuel consumption. Therefore, the entire weighting factors are equal to one. On the other
hand, because the different terms of Eq. (29) do not have the same
order of magnitude, the scaling factor is needed to equalize the
numerical values of them. Considering Eqs. (10), (17), (22), and
(28), for the case study tire, the average values of ride, handling,
accelerating/braking performance, and fuel consumption criteria
in the interval ktmin ; ktmax are 0.003, 64,300, 63,700, and 117,
respectively. The scaling factors of different criteria are selected
in such a manner that can compensate these numerical differences.
In other words, the scaling factors are defined as follows:
1
3
ksi 2
kt:max
C dk 7
6
4 kt:min i t 5
kt:max kt:min
i R; H; P & FC
(30)
which for the 195/65R15 case study tire, coefficients ksR, ksH, ksP,
and ksFC are 321, 0.0000155, 0.0000157, and 0.008, respectively.
Finally, in Eq. (29), the ride, handling, accelerating/braking
performance, and fuel consumption criteria can be substituted
from Eqs. (10), (17), (22), and (28), respectively, and the final
form of the evaluating function is found as follows:
ksR kwR
ksH kwH ah0 ah1 kt ah2 kt2 ah3 kt3 ah4 kt4
ar0 ar1 kt
ksFC kwFC kt qFz4 a
ksp kwp ap0 ap1 kt ap2 kt2
Krr
qFz1
(31)
EF
Simulation
and
d2
EF < 0
d kt 2
(32)
If the evaluation functions value is larger than the function values at each endpoint of ktmin and ktmax , this point is the optimum
tires vertical stiffness. The optimum vertical stiffness of the tire
is found through the solving of Eq. (32) by using numerical techniques. As shown in Fig. 7, the optimum value of the vertical
stiffness for the case study 195/65R15 tire is about 195 N/mm.
A radar chart of the different performances of the generally
optimized tire for all ride, handling, accelerating/braking and fuel
consumption, in comparison with those of the individually
optimized tires (optimized only for one of the above-mentioned
121004-6 / Vol. 137, DECEMBER 2015
Value
Unit
1410
1274
2578
1539
1539
540
kg
kg
mm
mm
mm
mm
u
kR
(33)
The simulation results are shown in Fig. 11. At the low frequency ride test, there is no significant difference between the
vehicles center of gravitys vertical acceleration. However, in the
high frequency test, the softest tire (kt 100 N/mm) contributes
the best ride comfort. The maximum of the vertical acceleration
for the hardest tire is about 0.7 g, while this value for the vehicle
with the softest tire is 50% less. These results confirm the illustrated results of Figs. 2 and 3.
7.2 Handling. To evaluate the handling of the case study
vehicle with different tires, a double lane change (DLC) test is
selected. This test determines the characteristics of vehicles handling in a highly transient situation. DLCs are obstacle avoidance
maneuvers that frequently occur in the real world. The targeted
speed in this maneuver is 33 m/s. (120 km/hr.). The vehicle path
of the five mentioned vehicles during the test has been illustrated
in Fig. 12. As illustrated by this figure, by using the same driver
model, the target path is approximately achieved for all five
vehicles.
Also, Fig. 13 shows the yaw velocity, lateral acceleration, and
slip angle responses of the vehicles versus time. Because the
vehicles follow the same path and speed approximately, the lateral
acceleration and yaw rate responses of vehicles with different tires
are very similar. However, according Fig. 13(c), the slip angle
response of the vehicles are not the same. The maximum value of
slip angle for the vehicle with optimized for handling tire is about
1.5 deg, showing that it is in the safe zone completely. However,
for the vehicle with the hardest tire, this value is more than double
and reaches about 3.5 deg. For the vehicle equipped with generally
optimized tires (kt 195 N/mm), the maximum side slip angle is
about 2 deg. Although this value is a little more than 1.5 deg, it
still is in the safe zone [24,25].
7.3 Braking Performance. A severe straight-line braking
with initial speed of 27.7 m/s. (100 km/hr.) is utilized to evaluate
Table 6 The criterias value of 195/65R15 tire with different vertical stiffness
Criterion
Optimized
tire for ride
kt 100 N/mm
Optimum tire in
general
kt 195 N/mm
Ride
Handling
Performance
Fuel consumption
Evaluation function
0.00657
64,922
63,175
48
3.46
0.00419
67,855
71,927
57
3.52
0.00329
66,706
73,679
63
3.58
0.00171
58,680
33,614
78
3.25
0.00279
65,561
71,989
66
3.61
Fig. 9 Lateral force versus side slip angle for different tires
Conclusion
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