THE TRANSFORMATION OF AURA THROUGH RESTORATION:

CASE STUDIES IN THAILAND AND ITALY

by

ALEXANDRA DEBORAH SHARMA

A thesis submitted to the Department of Art

in conformity with the requirements for

the degree of Master of Arts

Queen's University
Kingston, Ontario, Canada
November, 1999

copyright O Alexandra Deborah Shana, 1999

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ABSTRACT
This thesis applies Walter Benjamin's ideas on aura as outlined in his text, "The
Work of Ait in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction' to art restoration. In this
study, I treat restoration as a form of what Benjamin calls "manual" reproduction.
1 examine how Benjamin's views on the decay of aura relate to specific

restoration practices in Thailand and Italy. I argue that Benjamin's ideas on aura
do not apply universally, but rather that social and cuitural factors corne into play.
To illustrate this point, I discuss two projects from the 1980s: the

restoration of the vihan in the Buddhist temple Wat Suthat in Bangkok and the
restoration of the Camera degli Sposiin the Castello San Giorgio in Mantua.
I argue, with reference to social and cultural contexts, that Benjamin's

ideas on aura seern more applicable to the project at the Camera degli Sposi
than at Wat Suthaf in Thailand. Whereas in the Camera, restoration diffuses the

aura of the original, at Wat Suihat, restoration takes on a form of ritualistic

renewal, tied into th8 veiy mythologies and cultural foundations of Buddhism.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This thesis has been an adventurous and a rewarding enterprise in many ways.
In the process of writing it, I confronted rny Gennan hentage through Benjamin.
ventured into new territory with my discussion on the ethics of restoration, and
widened my intellectual and spiritual horizons tremendously through my research
in Buddhist Thailand.
The diverse topics of my thesis made this joumey quite stimulating and I
thank Dr. Cathleen Hoenigei for her bright suggestions. amicable conversations,
and patience. I am indebted to Dr. Bhesham Shanna for his insurnountable
support in discussing stumbling blocks along the way and for fighting with,

editing, and clarifying my sornetimes confusing sentence structure.

During my research in Thailand, I was ovemihelmed by the unseMish help I
received. My thanks go to my aunt and uncle, Heidrun and Roland Schmid,
Khun Jarunee, Curator of the National Gallery in Bangkok, Khun Yod, Restorer at
the Fine Arts Department, the Gennan Ernbassy in Bangkok, and Chuo Khun
Suntom, Deputy Abbot of Wat Suthat, who provided me with extraordinary
insights into Buddhist principles.
Special thanks go to rny loyal friends, Stephie Beniveger and Claudi
Koranda of Stuttgart as well as my colleagues and friends at Queen's, Hillary.
Kiystina, Andrea and Annabel, and the very helpful librarians in the art library.
Finally, I thank my wonderful parents, Horst Schmid and Ursula SchmidWeigold. who encouraged my career change, and supported me in fulfilling my
dream to study ait.

To Bish, my 'Russian Coach"

TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Illustrations............................................................ .v
Introduction.................................................................... - 1
Chapter One
Walter Benjamin and the concept of 'auran as
outlined in his essay "The Wor of Art in the Age
of Mechanical Reproductionn.....-............................
-.-5
.
Chapter Two
The murals in the vihan of Wat Suthat, Bangkok,
Thailand and their restorations..................................A2
Chapter Three
Andrea Mantegna's murals in the Camera de@
Sposi, Mantua, ltaly and their restorations.....................27

Conclusion.. ....................................................................-48
Bibliography.................................................................... -52
Appendices.. ..................................................................- 5 8
Illustrations...................................................................... -63
Vita.. ..............................................................................
-92

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Fig. 1:

Wat Sufhat vihan: Example of birdvs-eye-viewand painting style Buddhavamsa (author)

Fig. 2:

Wat Sufhat vihan, detail of mural: Buddhavamsa - from the

legend of the 10" Buddha Padumuttara (author)

Fig. 3:

Wat Suthat - vihan, detail of mural: wonder of the fivefold apparition

of the Buddha example of mudras (taken from Wat Suthat - Ein
Beispieldeutscher Kulturhilfe, title page)

Fig. 4:

Major sites of attraction in Bangkok (taken from Visif Wat

Suthat, lntelectual Services Ltd., Bangkok no date, pp. 1-2)

Fig. 5:

Wat Suthat vihan : Phra Sisakayamuni, the giant bronze Buddha

(author)

Fig. 6:

Plan of Wat Suthat (taken f rom Visit Wat Suthat,

lntelectual Seivices Ltd., Bangkok no date, pp. 11-1 2 )

Fig. 7:

Wat Suthat - vihan: exterior (author)

Fig. 8:

Wat Suthat - vihan: date inscriptions underneath the murals

Fig. 9:

Wat Suthat vihan: painted columns (author)

(author)
Fig. 10:

Wat Suhat - vihan: protector deities on a door (author)

Fig. 11:

Wat Suthat vihan: framed murals atop a door (author)

Fig. 12:

Wat Suthat viham bats hanging from the ceiling (before

restoration) (taken from Wat Suthat in Beispieldeutscher
Kultuhilfe, p. 168)

Fig. 13:

Wat Pho restoration project (June 1998); application of protective

layer (author)

Fig. 14:

Wat Suthat restoration project; fixation, cleaning, consolidation,

and in-painting (taken from Wat Suthat in Beispiel deutscher
KuItuhiIfe, pp. 156-157)

Fig. 15:

Wat Suthat restoration project; reconstniction of missing pieces

(taken from Wat Suthat Ein Beispiel deutscher Kultumilfe, p. 152)

Fig. 16:

Wat Phu restoration project (June 1998); reconstruction of

missing pieces (author)

Fig. 17:

Plan of the Palazzo Ducale in Mantua (taken from Giovanni

Paccagnini, Mantegna, La Camera degli Sposi (Milan: Fratelli
Fabri, 1968). p.4.

Fig. 18:

Camera degli Sposk splay of northwest window: the date of

commencement painted in mock graffita (taken from Cordaro, p.13)

Fig. 19:

Camera degli Sposi view of the north and west walls (taken from
Cordaro, p.70)

Fig. 20:

Camera degli Sposk view of the east and south walls with rnock
drapes (taken from Cordaro, p.15)

Fig. 21 :

Camera degli Sposi, part of west wall: the painted tablet with the
dedicatory inscription to Ludovico and Barbara, Mantegna's
signature and the date 1474 (taken from Cordaro, p.l5O)

Fig. 22:

Camera degli Sposi: view of the norh and west walls and various
elements of the ceiling (taken from Cordaro, p.14)

Fig. 23:

Camera de@ Sposi. Octavian Augustus (taken from Cordaro, p.

60)

Fig. 24:

Camera degli Sposi: Arion on the Dolphin (taken from Cordaro, p.

68)

Fig. 25:

Camera degli Sposi: the vault with the oculus (taken from Cordaro,
P*56)

Fig. 26:

Camera degli Sposi. view of the north wall with the "court" scene
(taken from Cordaro, p.73)

Fig. 27:

Camera degli Sposi: view of the west wall with the "meeting" scene
(taken from Camesasca, p.47)

Fig. 28:

Camera degli Sposi: example of applied trateggio in the "meeting"

scene (taken from Cordaro, p. 161)

Fig. 29

Camera degli Sposi "disappearingnMagi in the "meeting* scene

(taken from Lightbown, p.89)

INTRODUCTION

Walter Benjamin's essay, T h e Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical

Reproduction," has been discussed extensively. His daim that reproduction
withen away original artworks' aura has often been evaluated in political and
literary studies as well as in art history.' No one,however, has yet explored how
Benjamin's views on reproduction might relate to art restoration.
In this thesis, I treat restoration as a fonn of what Benjamin calls "manual"
*

reproduction.'

I examine how Benjamin's views on the decline of aura relate to

specific restoration practices in Thailand and Italy. As I argue, Benjamin's ideas

do not apply to these Eastern and Western contexts in the same manner

because of diverse social and cultural factors.

In my paper, I focus on two mural restoration projects from the 1980s. the

vihan (chape1and Buddha's dwelling place) of the Buddhist temple Wat Suthat in
Bangkok, Thailand (restored in the years 1982-85), and Andrea Mantegna's
Camera degli Sposi in the Ducal Palace in Mantua, ltaly (restored in the years
1984-87). My thesis shows how differences of culture and function corne into

play.

In this study I agree with Benjamin-that mural restorations diffuse the

original's aura. On the other hand, against Benjamin, I argue that "reproduction"

in the form of restoration can also add other layen of aura.

See for example Susan Buck-Morss, "Aesthetics and Anaesthetics: Walter Benjamin's
Artwork Essay Reconsidered," October, 62 (1992), 3-41;Wolfgang Kemp, "Fembilder Benjamin und die Kunstwissenschaft," in Walter Benjamin im Kontexf, ed. Burkhardt
Lindner, Konigstein: Athenaeum, 1985, pp.224-257.
David Freedberg, The Power of Images (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989),
pp.230-235, applied Benjamin's ideas on reproduction and the decline of aura to wax
works arguing that wax woiks have the same potentiality as photographs of living
beings. Perhaps Benjamin's views a n be applied to other forms of art reproduction.

The fimt chapter discusses Benjamin's concept of aura and explains his
unique use of ternis such as: manual reproduction, mechanical reproduction,
authenticity, and authority. Benjamin's ideas are considered in relation to the
mural restorations in the vihan of Wat Suthat in Chapter Two.

I explain the

murals' subject matter and the murals' use in a Buddhist environment, and in the
process. I discuss Thai restoration practices, and how they relate to Buddhism,

and to Benjamin's ideas on aura. The next chapter focuses on the latest
restoration of the Camera degli Sposi. IIt includes a discussion of the history of
restoration, as well as the ethical, cultural, and economic factors underlying the
restoration and thair relation to Benjamin's ideas on manual reproduction. The
conclusion examines the applicability and value of Benjamin's thoughts with
regards to the contrasting restoration projects.
The amount of secondary literature on these topics varies. The literature
on Benjamin is extensive and, at times, contradictory. This is certainly the case

with Benjamin's notion of aura as presented in "The Wor of Art in the Age of
Mechanical Reproduction." As Howard Caygill and Alex Coles rightly daim: "'The
Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction' is perhaps Benjamin's bestknown but often misunderstood ~ o r k . " ~

lan Knizik. for instance, accuses Benjamin of using blurred and unclear
~oncepts.~
Yet, Benjamin's very intention in wnting as a whole was to reclairn the

- -

Howard Caygill, Alex Coles, and Andrzej Kiimowski, Walter Benjamin for Beginners
(Duxford. UK: lcon Books. 1998), p.132.
lan Knizik, Walter Benjamin and the Mechanical Reproducibility of Art W ork Revisited."
British Journal of Aesthetia, Vo1.33,4 (October 1993), 358.

subtleties of language and the opacity in nature that elude rational and empirical
writing. As Benjamin States in The Ongin of the Geman Tragic Drama:
Just as mosaics presewe their majesty despite their fragmentation into
capricious particles, so philosophical contemplation is not lacking in
momentum. Both are made up of the distinct and the disparate. and
nothing could be more testirnony to the transcendent force of the sacred
image of truth itseL . . . For by pursuing different levels of meaning in 1s
examination of one single object, it receives . . . the incentive to begin
again . . .. 5
There are other discrepancies. Caygill and Coles daim that Benjamin's
ideas regarding aura are incorrect. They state that: "mass reproduced availability

has in fact multiplied the aura of [the work of art's] cash-value and has
Caygill and Coles
redistanced it to the remote region of the uniquely price~ess."~
fail to recognize that Benjamin makes a distinction between "false" aura and
'Yrue" aura. False aura is the attribution of greatness to a work of art that does

not desewe it of its own merit. Sometimes woks can be charged up with the

artist's name

- like a brand name. The artist's name suffices in creating an aura.

A false aura is also created by concealing the handiwork of restoren under the

guise of the original artist. ften, a restored work is presented as authentic. True
aura emerges from the knowledge of past restorations and also from the work
itself. The name of its creator is of secondary importance.
5

Walter Benjamin, The O w n of the Geman Tragic Drarna. trans. John Cummings
(London: New Left Books, 1977), p.29. Fellow colleague of the Frankfurt School.
Theodor W. Adomo, summarizes Benjamin's writing style: "His statements appealed not
to revelation but to a type of experience that was distinguished from ordinary experience
in failing to respect the restrictions and prohibitions to which ready-made consciousness
Benjamin does not derive the relationship to the Absolute from
norrnally submits
concepts but instead s8eks it in bodily contact with the materials." T. W. Adomo, Notes
to Literature, vo1.2, trans. Shieny Weber Nicholsen (New York: Columbia University
Press, 1991), p.221.
CaygiII, et. al., p.140.

....

Dealing with translations is also problematic. I have relied on Benjamin's

original Geman text, and I have retransfated the mot pertinent passages in
order to clarify discrepancies. "Das Kunstwerk im Zeitaker seiner technischen
ReproduUerbarkel," will be the primary source from which I will define
Benjamin's ideas on aura.

My discussion of Benjamin's concept of aura in

Chapter One will function as a point of departure for later discussions in Chapters
Two (Thai case study) and Three (Italian case study).
Much has been wntten on Mantegna and his Camera degli Sposi. My
primary source on the restoration of the Camera will be the 1993 Electa book,

edited by Michele Cordaro, which documents the recent restoration and also
outlines the history of restoration.
Unlike the Camera restoration, there is no authoritative work on Wat
Suthat. Perhaps the closest to such a text is Wat Suthat

- Ein

Beitrag zur

Kultufiilfe, published in 1985.* It documents the restoration but does not provide
any historical or related insights necessary to satisfactorily evaluate Benjamin's

ideas. Along with pamphlets gathered at the temple. I will rely on information
obtained from "field work" done in Bangkok and at Wat Suthat. Chapter Two
includes cornmentaries and sumrnaries from interviews conducted with several
individuals whose knowledge of the murals exceeds mine. My intewiew with the
deputy abbot of Wat Suthat regarding the murals provides an insider's view on
the perception of the murals and their restoration. This forms the basis from

which to evaluate Benjamin's ideas on aura.

'Michele Cordaro, ed. Mantegna's Camera degli Sposi (Milan: Electa. 1993).
Wat Suthat

- Ein Beispiel deutscher Kulhrmlfe (Bangkok: Thai Visuel Co. Ltd. 1985).

CHAPTER ONE
Walter Beniamin and the conceDt of "aura" as outiined in his essw "The Work of
Art in the Aae of Mechanical Re~roduction"

In 1936. three years before the outbreak of World War II, the Gemian
literary critic Walter Benjamin (1892-1940) published the essay "The Work of Art

in the Age of Mechanical ~eproduction." This essay discusses historical, social,

and aesthetic processes that are intertwined with the mechanical reproduction of
artworks.
In the essay, Benjamin argues that fine art initially found its expression in

the seMce of cult rituals

- first in magic then in religious practices.

Before the

photograph, art maintained its authonty and authenticity. Each work of fine art
existed as the original and authoritative woik in one specific place. The ritual of
viewing this particular work added to its aura. The Aual of experiencing the ait
object continued until the photograph.1

Reproductions, like photos, dissolve the aura of the original. An original.

however, can only exist with the presence of reproductions. To Benjamin. an
original work is defined by the natural history it has endured, "its presence in time
and space, its unique existence at the place where it happens to be."" Should

The essay 'The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproductionnwas originally
published in French in the Frankfurt lnstitute Journal (by then operating in exile in the
United States), Zeitschrift fr Sozhiforschung, vo1.5, 1 (New York: 1936). The English
version is taken from Hannah Arendt (ed.), Walter Benjamin, Illuminations (London:
1973), pp.219-253. This version is slightly modified. The original Gerrnan version used
in the footnotes is taken from Walter Benjamin. Das Kunstwerk im Zeitalter seiner
technischen Reproduarbarkeit (Frankfurt/Main: Edition Suhrkarnp, 1977), pp.7-44.
'O Benjamin, Kunsiwerk im Zeitdter, p. 16.
'' Ibid., p. 11:'Noch bei der hbhstvollendeten Reproduktion fMt eines aus: das Hier
und Jem des Kunstwarks - sein einmaliges Dasein an dem Orte, an dem es sich
befindet."

natural damages occur, the work is still an original, albeit in impeifect condition.
In contrast, reproductions diffuse the aura of the original through their availability.
According to Benjamin: "that which withers in the age of mechanical
reproducibility is the aura of the work of artnt2 Although he focuses on
photography and film, his discussion is meant to apply to two general types of art
reproduction: manual and mechanical.

ancient mes.

Manual reproduction goes back to

Another could reproduce whatever one human made.

As

Benjamin explains: "replicas were made by pupils in practice of their craft, by

rnasters for diffusing their works, and, finally, by third parties in the pursuit of
gain."13

Mechanical reproduction also has its roots in the ancient world,

specifically Ancient Greece with the mass production of coins and bronzes.
Later, in the Middle Ages and Renaissance, artwoiks were reproduced in the
form of woodcuts, engravings, and etchings.I4 In the lgm century, mechanical

reproduction recurred with the invention of photography (ca. 1860s).

While mechanical reproduction involves technology or machines, manual
reproduction requires handiwork. Therefore, in the figurative sense, the
restoration of paintings is a f o m of rnanual reproduction.

In restoration,

however, the reproduction of the original does not take place on a separate
ground but on top of the original. In the following passage, Benjamin deems

manual reproduction a "forgery": "The original usually branded manual

reproduction as a forgery. While the original maintains its full authority, the
--

l2

lbid., p.13: %as im Zeitalter der technischen Repmduzierbarkeit des Kunstwerks

verkmmert, das ist seine Aura."

l3Ibid., p.10: "Solche Nachbildung wurde auch ausgebt von Schlem zur bung in der
Kunst. von Meistern zur Verbreitung der Werke, endlich von gewinnlstemen Dritten."

mechanical reproduction does n ~ t . " ' ~

But, in Benjarninian ternis, a restored work
would be an original and a forgery in one. In short, a restored original would
seem to be an oxyrnoron.
Mechanical reproduction differs from manual reproduction because it is
done mechanically as in photography, or film. Benjamin highlights the difference

between mechanical reproduction and manual reproduction in the following way.

Whereas the prerniere of Goethe's Faust in Weimar is the original, a

performance in, for instance, a provincial theater is a manual reproduction, and

the film Faust is the mechanical reproduction. Further, whereas the film has lost
al1 tradition, the manual reproduction still cames some traditional substance?
The premiere has the original's aura. Tradition supplants the kaleidoscope
of aura now diffused through repetition. As Benjamin explains: "The uniqueness

of the work of art is identical with its being embedded in the context of tradition.""
A Shakespearean play, for instance, cardes some aura. The same, however.

cannot be said of a mechanical reproduction. Mechanical reproduction tums

three-dimensional objects into two dimensions as in the photograph and the film.
It displaces choirs from the context of the church and places them in a
~ivingroom.'~60th manual and mechanical reproduction engender an alteration,

l4

Ibid.

'' Ibid., p.12: Wahrend das Echte aber der manueflen Reproduktiongegenber als

Fiilschung abgestempelt wurde, seine volfe Autoritat bewahrt, ist das der technischen
Reproduktion gegenber nicht der Fall."
l6 Ibid., p.13.
17
lbid., p.16: "Die Einzigartigkeitdes Kunstwerks ist identisch mit seinem
Eingebettetsein in den Zusammenhang der Tradition."
'* Ibid., p.13.

a decline of authority and authenticity, finally resulting in the diffusion of the

original's aura. In Benjamin's concise phrase: "authenticity is not reproducib~e."'~
To understand Benjamin's meaning of aura, it is necessary to explore his
use of the ternis authenticity and authority that define aura?'

Authenticity is the

original artwork's "most sensitive nuc~eus."~'It is the original artwork's

genuineness and uniqueness. Benjamin further describes authenticity as "te
essence of al1 that is transmissible from its origin. ranging from its material
duration to its testimony to the history which it has e ~ ~ e r i e n c e dEven
. " ~ ~cracks in
a painting tell something of its history. Were someone to paint over or repair an

original, the work would not be genuine; it would no longer be authentic. Hence,
in relation to the wall paintings, Benjamin's ideas seem to imply that restoration.
i.e. cleaning, in-painting, displacement from its initial context, etc., alters the
original and its aura for it is an intrusion onto the very sphere of the artwork's
uniqueness.
Authority is another term often used by Benjamin to explain aura. Authority
is the respect given to a work or artist. This respect for the artist can influence the
reception of a work positively and negatively. A glance at an artwork's label in a
museum might make the beholder stand in awe in front of a "masterpiece" by
Ibid., p. 12: "Gerade weil die Echtheit nicht reproduzierbar ist. ..."
Marleen Stoessel in her book Aura - das vergessene Menschliche (Mnchen: Carl
Hanser Verlag, 1983. p.12). points out further definitions of aura. She notes that the
Greek cal1 aura "air," the Romans "breath," mile in medicine aura is regarded as the
harbinger of an epileptic ffi. The anthroposophist Rudotf Steiner (1861-1925) describes it
as a gleam of light surrounding the human body. Conternporary PSI-researchers
sometimes even successfully ban this phenornenon on celluloid.
21
Benjamin, "Kunstweik im Zeitalter," p.13: "eh empfindlichster Kem berhrt, den so
verletzbar kein natiirlicher hat. Das ist seine Echtheit."
lbid. "Die Echtheit einer Sache ist der Inbegriff alles von Ursprung an ihr Tradierbaren.
von ihrer materiellen Dauer bis ui ihrer geschichtlichen Zeugenschaft."
l9

20

Picasso, Renoir, or Matisse even if the painting itself is uninspired. Sometimes.

the actual impact of the painting can be distorted by the artist's name.

If one overiooks the essence of a work, focusing instead on the name of a

famous artist, there is the possibility of misconstniing mediocre art for great art.
As Benjamin explains: 'ln the viewer's imagination, the onginality of the work of
art's appearance is increasingly forced out by the empirical originality of the artist

or his or her artistic a~hievernent."~

Even the word "masterpiece" refers back to
the artist, not to the arhvork and its effect on the beholder. Sometimes, authority
can be falsely attributed to artists through the canon and art museurns and

galleries whose survival depend on reworked pieces of "great masters" by

anonymous but highly skilled restorers. This attribution creates a 'Valsenaura.
In a 1930 essay entitled "ber Haschischn (About Hashish), Benjamin
contrasts "conventional and banal" theosophical ideas with the concept of "true"

aura. "Truen aura diffen from "similatedHor "false" aura in three ways.

"te"

aura occurs in al1 objects.

First,

Second, ?ruen aura changes with every

[temporal or spatial] movement of the object. Third, ?rue" aura impacts on the
individual in a unique way. It diffen from the spruced up spiritual magic of "light"
often described and represented in vulgar and mystical books.24 Benjamin
Ibid., p.17: 'lmmer mehr wird die Einmaligkeit der irn Kultbilde waltenden Erscheinung
von der empirischen Einmaligkeit des Bildners oder seiner bildenden Leistung in der
Vorstellung des Aufnehmenden verdrangt."
24
An extract of Benjamin's essay "ber Haschischn is published in Stoessel. p.12:
"Und ich stellte wenn auch gewiss nicht schernatisch in dreierfei Hinsicht die echte
Aura in Gegensatz zu den konventionellen banalen Vorstellungen der Theosophen.
Erstens encheint die echte Aura an allen Dingen. Nicht nur an bestimmten, wie die
Leute sich einbilden. Zweitens andert sich die Aura durchaus und von Grund auf mit
jeder Bewegung, die das Ding macht, dessen Aura sie ist. Drittens kann die echte Aura
auf keine Weise als der geleckte spiritualistische Strahlenzauber gedacht werden, als
den die vulgaren und mystischen Bcher sie abbilden und beschreiben."

alludes here to popular f o m s of Western and Eastem mysticism such as

horoscopes, faithhealen, and mystical societies, such as Madame Blavatsky's
Theosophists, as well as the Freemasons that had gained notoriety dunng the

1920s and 1930s.~

'Tnie" aura distinguishes itseif as an "ornament,' to use Benjamin's words,
"an omamental encirclement in which the object or being Iies fimly sunk as

within a case.'26 To further highlight the concept of aura, Benjamin writes:

We define the aura of [natural objects] as the unique phenomenon of a
distance, however close it may be. If, while resting on a summer
aftemoon, you follow with your eyes a mountain range on the horizon or a
branch, which casts its shadow over the resting penon, you breathe the
aura of those mountains, of that branch?

25 The Theosophist de Purucker. for instance, descnbes aura as an 'invisible essence or

fluid that ernanates from and surrounds not only beings and beasts but also plants and
minerals... Sensitives have frequently described it in more or less vague terms as a light
f Iowing from the eyes or the heart.. ."Excerpt from G. de Purucker, Occult Glossary,
http~/~~~.theosociety.orglpasadena/~~~los/ag-a.htm.
26 Benjamin as cited in Stoessel. p.12: Wielmehr ist das Auszeichnende der echten
Aura: das Ornament, eine ornamentale Umzirkung in der das Ding oder Wesen fest wie
in einem Futteral eingesenkt liegt."
The idea of object' cases refers back to Charles Baudelaire who 'hurnanized' products
by giving them a house in f o m of a case. See Benjamin's theory of the enchantment of
products cited in Reiner Dieckhoff, M'ho$ undModerne - ber die verborgene Mystk in
den Schriften Walter Benjamins, (K6ln: Janus Presse), p. 118.
z7
Benjamin, "Kunstwerk im Zeitalter," p.15. "Es empfiehlt sich, den oben fr
geschichtliche Gegenstande vorgeschlagenen Begriff der Aura an dem Begriff einer
Aura von natrlichen Gegenstanden t u illustrieren. Oiese letztere definieren wir als
einmalige Erscheinung einer Feme, so nah sie sein mag. An einem Sommernachmittag
ruhend einem Gebirgszug am Horizont oder einem Zweig folgen, der seinen Schatten
auf den Ruhenden wirft das heiBt die Aura dieser Berge, dieses Zweiges atmen."
The dialectics of closeness and distance occur earlier in Benjamin's writing. In
"EinbahnstraBe,' for example, he writes about a glance, so incomparably and so
unregainably that distance resonates in its strictest bond with closeness. Cited in
Dieckhoff, p.107. Dieckhoff ties this ethereal idea to the influence of Ludwig Klages
"Vom kosmogonischen Erosw(1922). PP. 105-109.
Benjamin, "Kunstwerk im Zeitalter," pp.18/19.

"

True aura versus false aura, and manual reproduction versus mechanical

reproduction become important polemics when we examine the Thai and ltalian
restorations. As I will show, the Thai practice of restoration is part of a traditional
ritual associated with Buddhism. Issues of authenticity and authority seem less
applicable; the paintings and their creaton take a secondary role to the
messages they present. The Italian restoration, although ritualistic in a very
different sense, is based on the repairing and preservation of Mantegna's work

for aesthetic and economic reasons. Audiences consider Mantegna, rightfully o r

wrongfully, as the authority. The work

is presented as authentic. Restoration in

this case superficially conserves traditional works for those who overiook or are
led to believe in the authenticity and authority of the work.

Now that Benjamin's use of the terni aura has been highlighted, I will take
a closer look at the two restoration projects. First, I will examine Buddhist murals
at Wat Suthat, then Mantegna's murals in the Camera degli Sposi. ln each case,

I will use the restoration project to evaluate Benjamin's claims conceming aura.

CHAPTER TWO
The murals in the vihan of Wat Suthat. Banakok. Thailand and their restorations
This chapter htroduces restoration practices in Thailand and focuses on
the restoration of the vihan's wall paintings at Wat Suthat. To understand the
Thai restorers' transformation of the murals in Wat Suthat as it relates to
Benjamin's ideas on authority and authenticity, it is necessary to outline the
historical changes that affected the murals.
A national style of Thai Buddhist mural painting can be detected in the first

Thai kingdom of Sukhothai (13 k 15m centuty). The Ayutthaya period (14m-1 8m
century) and the Rattanakosin or Bangkok period (lgm century to present)
fo~lowed?~
After 1925, however, there was vely little interest in creating
traditional rnura~s.~' Arphorn Na Songkhla States that traditional Thai painting
was "an idealistic art fom much [sic] derived from other styles of oriental
painting.& Traditional Thai painting emerged from the influences of the arts of
lndia, China, Buma, Sri Lanka, Cambodia, and Persia. From about 1870 to
1925, Thai mural painting was influenced by Westem painting styles. This was

largely the result of King Rama IV (1851-1868) who took a great interest in
Westem art. The temples he commissioned employed certain Western elements
such as perspective, inclusion of Western buildings, and pigments enhanced by

See a list of art periods in Thaiknd in the appendix. p.58.

*'sonia Krug, The Development of Thai Mural Painting," in The Altistic Heritage of
Thailand (Bangkok: Craftsman Press, 1979), p. 184.
1925 marked the date of a new Thai niler. Rama VI1 ascended the thrown. See a k t of
the dates of the Chakri dynasty in the appendix, p.57.
Arphom Na Songkhla. n i e Standard of Conservation of Mural Painting and Sculpture
in Thailand," in final Report - SPAFA-ICCROMSeminar on Conservation Standards in
Southeast Asia, Bangkok, Thailand. December 11-16, 1989. pp.77-79.
28

synthetic materials. Many of the paintings frorn the Bangkok and earlier periods
have since vanished, Most of those that survive can be found on the walls of

ordination halls, pagodas, palaces, and temples.

In the temples, wall paintings maintain their strong religious and
educational function. Sombat Plainoi outlines six categories of murals' subject
matter one can find in Thailand.

''

Murals depict:

or the lives of his 24 predecessors;

The Lord Buddha's
The Jataka, stories of the past lives of the Lord Buddha comprising
547 texts;
customs and ceremonies;
histoncal records;
stories, proverbs, and old sayings;
literary works, such as the ~ a m a y a n a ? ~

K. 1. Matics points out that although not al1 the visual aids were Buddhist in

nature, each story assisted the monks in explaining the Buddhist doctrine to the

The subjects portrayed tend to be easily identifiable due to the "simple" yet

"omaten style in which the paintings are executed.

Matics assumes that this

"simplen style also enabled the layperson to recognize farniliar themes when a
monk was not present? Perhaps as a retention of lndian art, one can find two-

dimensionafity, the use of perspective without a single fixed vanishing point,

'' Sombat Plainloi, Mural Paintings (Bangkok: Office of the National Culture
Commission, 1985), pp.1-9.
The Ramayana is an epic of lndian origin written by Valmiki over 2000 years ago. In
Thailand the Ramayana is called Ramakien. The most complet8 Thai version is the one
of King Rama 1 (1782-1809) and is at the very cote of Thai culture. See one of the many
written venions of the Ramayana, such as J. C. Shaw. The Ramayana Through
Western Eyes (Bangkok: Craftsman Press Ltd., 1988). or others.
K. 1. Matics. Introduction to the Thai Mua1 (Bangkok: White Lotus, 1992). p.2.
34 Ibid.

"

linear outlines, and an overall flatness in the Thai style. [fig. Il3' The images
depicted also have a Ylar quality which anses from the omission of light and
shadow as well as from a brownish linewoik that shapes the outlines of figures.

The Buddhas' and deities' garments and their horses and carts are skillfully and
deftly decorated with gold and rich colorful omamentation. [fig. 21 The figures
also include several mudras (gestures) which have different meanings such as
rneditating and t e a ~ h i n g .[fi~
g. 31
These images add to the overall sanctity and place of womhip at the
temple. Within the confines of today's chaotic and polluted cities such as
Bangkok or Chiang Mai, temples are places of meditation and sanctity.
Bangkok is the city in which Wat Suthat is located. Commissioned by King
Rama 1 (1782-1809) in 1807, the groundbreaking for Wat Suthat began at a site
called Sao Ching Cha in the center of the river slope Bangkok is built on. [fig. 41
As the temple's centerpiece, King Rama I had a 6.25 x 8 m bronze Buddha
image (Phra Sisakayamuni) brought down from Sukothai, the former capital of

Thailand."

It was the main Buddha of the old capital? The vihan or main

sanctuary of Wat Suthat was built around the gigantic Buddha. [fig. 51 This
image remains the most signlicant figure in the temple.
-

" See, for example, J.C. Harle. The Art and Architecure of the lndian Subcontinent
(New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994), chapter 25.
'Matics, 95.

37

Sukothai -as mentioned earlier was the first independent Thai kingdom. founded at
the expense of the Angkorian power that had occupied the country since approximately
the beginning of the tweifth century. Towards the late 13* century, Sukothai became
independent and fonned a center of Buddhist culture and a h In 1438. the kingdom was
incorporatecl into the kingdorn of Ayutthaya. See Jean Boisselier, Thai Painting, trans.
Janet Seligman (Tokyo: Kodansha International, 1976). p.244.

The monastery covers an area of 44,980 square meten. [fig. 61 The

temple grounds are divided into two main zones: the buddhavas (seats of
Buddha images) such as the vihan and the ubosot, and the monks' quarters?'
The vihan is a large structure of five sections, having an overall length of 126.25

m and a width of 25.84 m. [fig. 7] There are two levels of pediments and three
doors each for both front and back entrantes for the main vihan with five

windows on each side of the building. Sunounding the main chape1 are 32 outer
and 8 inner columns supporting the chapel's roof. The inner columns are large
and four-comered in forrn. Each face and wall are adomed with murals. [fig. 81
The second part of the temple grounds, the monks' quarters, consist of the kuti
(monks' dwelling places. beds, and seats), sermon hall, bel1 tower, monk's

school, and libraries.

The vihan's murals were initially painted during the reign of King Rama III
(1824-1851). An exact date is not known and the murals' origin is not

documented. The subject matter consists of the lives of 24 Buddhas, also called
the ~uddhavarnsa? The Buddhavamsa contains the names and the legends of

38

lt is older and larger than any other bronze cast Buddha image in Thailand. According
to the Dynastic Chronicles, the Buddha was created in 1361. Benton Pandito, Wat
Suthat-Thepwaramm - The Palace of Indra (Bangkok: Liang Chiang Press, 1997), p. 18.
39 The ubosot is the sanctified area for fomal acts of the order of monks. It functions as
the ordination hall and is considered the most hallowed place in any wai (temple).
40
The Buddhavamsa mentions only 24 predecessors, other texts give larger numbers.
See Boisselier, p. 198.
The vihan's walls in Wat Suthat depict 27 Buddhas. This number is unique. Wat Suthat
is the only temple in Bangkok that has this text in murals. Kongdej Praphathong even
clairns that it is the only depiction of this kind in any Thai temple. "Wandmafereien im
Wat Suthat," in Wat Suthet - in BerSpel deulscher Ku/turhi/fe(Bangkok: Thai Visuel Co.
Ltd, 1985), p.86.

the Buddhas who preceded Buddha

au ta ma.^'

Their life-stories strongly

resemble each other, since al1 attained Enlightenment through meditation, and
later taught. Slate inscriptions installed beneath the scenes help to identify the
~ u d d h a s[fig.
. ~ ~91 These slates also include short descriptions of the paintings.

Early to mid-19mcentury Thai script is used?

Higher on the walls of the vihan are the various vimam or celestial

mansions. In these rnurals, contemporaiy chamcten of the nineteenth century

including Chinese or Malaysian marchants are depicted. The columns are
adomed with scenes from TSPhum or Traibhumikatha (lhree Worlds - Heaven,
Earth, and Hells). an ancient Buddhist cosmology. The doors and window panels
are painted with protector deities. [fig. 101 Above these doors, framed murals

can be found which were popular from the early to the mid-lgmcentury. [fig. 111
Generally, monks used al1 the vihan's murals to outline history for the illiterate

and to teach Theravada Buddhism. the Thai fonn of ~uddhisrn."

Siddhartha Gautama (ca. 563-483 BC), a native of southem Nepal, was the last of a
long lineage of Buddhas. Following a p e n d of asceticism, penance, and meditation in
the Indian jungle, Gautama claimed he had found peace in the tnith of Me's unreality and
in the necessity of causing the cessation of the desire to Iive. Gautama asserted that he
became the Buddha, the Fully EnlightenedOne. For 45 years he taught and preached
as he traveled and developed an order of monks among his followers. See May Kyi Win
and Harold E. Smith, HistonCal Dictionary of mailand (Lmham:Scarecrow Press,
f 9%), p.18.
42
Praphathong, pp.84-85.
Kongkaew Veeraprachak. 'Die Steininschriften." in Wat Suthet, p.108.
Theravada the oldest school of Buddhism. which exists today - is a devotional. gentle
form of Buddhism with emphasis on generosity. Its teachings are based upon tolerance,
mindfulness, morality, and insight, which lead to ~isdorn.compassion, and libration
from suffering. See Diana and Richard St. Ruth. Simple Guide to Theravada Buddhism
(Folkstone, UK: Global Books, 1998), p.9.
41

"

For the Thais, such murals were pnmarily a medium to gain knowledge
about the life and the teachings of Buddha, a visual support to enhance the
knowledge of the texts. Wenk writes about how in the past:
[Murals] were a substitut8 for the illiterate believer's study of the canonical
scripts. In this respect, murals looked upon as an artwork were left out of
consideration and a mural was not held in a higher regard than palm leaf
rnanuscripts. Both were seen as Buddhist equipment, and replaceable."
Today, such wall murals in a temple context still function as a means to explain
and reinforce Buddhist beliefs. Through illustrations, not only do Thais leam of
Buddha, but also of their ancestors' sacred and secular history. As Jean
Boisselier explains:
If we bear in mind, too, that religious inspiration is always paramount and
that works designed to be educative and formative must be easily
intelligible to anyone with an elementary knowledge of Buddhisrn and of
the worfd as seen through Tha eyes then we have in a nutshell the main
features we need to define the originality of Thai painting?

Although the murals are old, they continue to function as a means to inspire,
guide, and instruct devotees by portraying scenes derived f rom religious history
and well-known texts.

Thus, rather than being the central focus of the temple, they are but part of
the setting. Rather than being revered as aitworks in themselves, the messages

they convey are more important than the aesthetics. Unlike the Camera degli
Sposi, where the focus is on Mantegna's 'masterpiece," the wall paintings in the

vihan are but part of the educational apparatus. The focus on the illustrations and
the meaning in relation to the paintings imbue these objects with aura. The

'*

Klaus Wenk, Wandmalerei in Thailand," in Wat Suthat, p.58. Translation by the

author.
46 Boisselier, p.71.

individuals who pahted these works

- in Benjamin's text, the authorities - are of

little importance. As Matics confins: 'ln general. the rnuralist was an anonymous
monk or a dedicated layman with religious sentimentsd7
Thus, significantly, the first pahters of the murals in the vihan are not
known. Later, anonymous artists simply painted over the murals, or they were
left to deteriorate. Throughout time, some of the paintings in Wat Suthat were

lost due to factors such as the rainy season (June through Septernber) which
brings an enonnous amount of rain to the ground, dampness, and floods. In

addition, humidity (which is high year round in Thailand), pollution, dust, srnoke
from incense bumen, soot, greasy accretions, insect nests, human vandalism.
and bats have destroyed parts of the paintings." Throughout the various periods,
rnonks decided which paintings to conserve. Artists from various generations
"restorednthe paintings.

At Wat Suthat, the murals of the vihan and the ubosot were first restored
in the Fouith Reign (1851-1 868). Most parts were painted over. In the Fifth Reign
(1868-1910) an extensive architectural restoration was needed to fix several
47

Matics, p.3.

"Wannipa Na Songkhla, "Conservation of Mural Paintings," in Wall Paintings of lndia -

A HistonCal Perspective, O.P.Agrawal, ed. (no place and date).

a Ibid., p.120.
At Wat Suthat, bats were responsible for most of the damage to the murals. Hundreds of
sheath-tailed bats took up residence in the temple hall prior to restoration. Throughout
the day, these bats hung from the ceiling, by night they moved to the walls. The act of
hanging with their sharp claws damaged the paintings and gouged the walls. The bats'
excreta also affected the paintings. As a result, the bats had to be removed without
killing or harming them. Naphtalene, an odorous substance better known as moth
powder, was sprayed in the early 1980's at the affected wall area. The bats vanished to
avoid the srnell. Cracks and wall openings were insulated to block the re-entrance of the
bats. [fig. 121

For a detailed description of bats and their removal in Wat Suthat, see Heinz Felten
"ber Fledennause,' in Wat Suthat, pp. 1 68-176.

parts of the temple. The vihan's top omaments had deteriorated. Roof tiles,
pieces of timber, as well as the ornaments on the edging and rafter had to be

replaced. In the book, Wat Suthat Dhepwararam, No Na Paknam cites an old

report on the status of the restoration, which recounts:
the roof has been tiled, but plaster work for the ridge has not yet begun....
Plastering for the intenor and exterior wall was completed. However, at the
supporting post of the gallery, the rain has washed out the slaked lime and
the plastering work will have to be executed again?
Combined with this architectural restoration, the murals were also repaired
(which involved overpainting), resulting in a f o n of "manual" reproduction.

Because of Thailand's limited financial resources, support fram other

countnes was often the means through which conservation was made possible.
At Wat Suthat, in light of Bangkok's 200-year celebration of the Chakri dynasty in
1982, the Geman govemment partially sponsored a restoration project for the

murals in the vihan.'' This restoration took place in the yean 1983-85.
The relatively good exterior condition of the temple hall made such a
difficult and large-scale project possible. During the course of the restoration,
existing paintings were cleaned, damages were repaired, and the deteriorated
parts were renewed. Initially, the flaking and loose paint layers had to be mended

before cleaning. Small pieces of hand-made paper were fixed ont0 the surface
with water and pressed with a brush or cotton wool. The papered sections were
Na Paknam, 'Mural Paintings in the Ubosot of Wat Suthat Dhepwararam," in Wat
Suthat Dhepwararam(Bangkok: Muang Boran Publishing House, 1996), pp.181-183.
There is inconsistency among scholars conceming the documentation of this restoration.
Winfried Schlote, for instance. daims that this first big restoration projed executed
during the reign of Rama V (1868-1910) was not documented at all. See
"Kulturhilfeprajekt Wat Suthat," in Wat Suolat, p.24.
'NO

then sponged with sponges soaked in solvents, usually aicohol or ammonia. in

order to clean the murals through the paper. After the removal of the paper, a
cotton swab was used to clean off the remaining diit. For the application of
mortar on the lost parts, a mixture of slaked lime, glue, and sugarcane juice was

used. Third, the lacunae were cleaned and filled with rnortar and a new ground
layer (e.g. lime or white clay mixed with glue of tamarind seed) was applied.
Then, reintegration or in-painting was made only in the lacunae. The last step

involved the application of a protective coating to stop further deterioration and to

seal the restored area. A thin transparent film was applied to the surface of the

painting. Effort was taken to chose a vamish which would not tum brownish or
yellowish with time or alter the underlying pigments. It was also important that the
process be revenible and, therefore, a removable vamish was chosen." [figs.

Junior restorers, students of the Academy of Fine Arts and Design

Colleges in Bangkok, carried out the restoration. The Thai project leader,
Wannipa Na Songkhla, assigned 70-1 50 students to their task.
Conservaton and students could have used the unobtrusive trateggio
method that would have allowed the reconstruction of the murals' lost partsu
Before restoration. however, the abbot and the monks of Wat Suthat requested

51

Recent Thai kings have had strong ties ta Germany. King Rama Vlll was, in fact, born
in Heidelberg.
'* W. Na Songhkla, "Conservation of Mural Paintings," p.122.
a Using the trateggio method, the loss of original color is filled with thin parallel lines of
a pure hue. Under the best of circumstances, the lines resolve at a distance into a
neutral color or a color that blends in with the original. See Cathleen Hoeniger, Wall
Painting, I. Survey of Techniques, II. Conservation," in The Dictionary of Arf (London:
MacMillan, 1W6), vol. 32, pp.802-810.

that the lost paintings be replaced. Without any previous photographic

documentation, restorers reconstructed the losses following similar depictions in

other parts of the decorative program that were still complete." [figs. 158161
The abbot's decision for full reconstruction was based on Buddhist principles.

They include the belief that everything is impermanent and replaceable. Although
in a Western context a decision like the abbot's may have proved highly
controvetsial, in this instance the abbot's judgment was totally acceptable.
Furthemore, the decision to renovate the paintings reveals much about how
these images are perceived.

Indeed, presetvation of the briginal" handiwork of the artist is of little

concem in Thai devotional contexts. Among the legacy of artists and restorers
the paintings are meaningful because of religious beliefs. The paintings
crystallize their devotion to Buddhism. The distinction between artist and restorer
becomes bluned. In this case, the painting and its educational value. not the

creator, is of paramount importance.

It is important to realize that unlike

European artists, the original Thai painters did not seek explicit recognition for
their work. In the past, the Thai painter was called chang khien (a craftsman who
The act of painting was an act of devotion and most painters dedicated
paint~).'~

their work to the service of ~uddhism." As Boisselier writes: "the Thai painter

54

W. Na Songkhla, "Konservieren, Restaurieren, Dokumentieren,"in Wat Suthat, p.154.

Na Songhkla notes that many Thai people prefer to have their damaged paintings
repainted. Although there is no need for consewators to do so, many owners will find
painters to do the repainting in a non-professional rnanner. Therefore, to prevent the
original frorn being destroyed or overpainted, most consewators do in-painting.
"Conservation of Mural Paintings," p. 122.
55

Wenk, p.60.

56

Kmg, pp.171-184.

was never concemed to assert his personality by resoiting to an original

technique or even establishing a personal style."5T The original handiwork and
the restorations of the murals at Wat Suthat took place collectively and over time.
Today, Buddhist principles continue to play a major role in the life of Thais.
Along with the monarchy and state. Buddhism foms one of the three official
"pillarsnof the nation. The major characteristic of Theravada Buddhism is its large
body of rnonks (Sangha). AI1 Thai males generally assume the role of a monk for

at least 14 days." Thus, because of fervent religious belief and education, one
can assume that most. if not all, of the painters of the academy would have been
familiar with the Buddhist stories depicted in the murals. As Boisselier contends:
"where a Western observer would see only the fruits of a strange imagination and
fantasies inspired by a somewhat academic sunealism, every Thai, and more
generally speaking, every Buddhist, would be able to identify scenes and
characters at a g~ance."~'
Judging from the communal, devotional, and anonymous way in which
such murals were painted, we can see that Benjamin's concept of authority is

somewhat inapplicable in this context. Whereas at the Camera degli Sposi,

authority is attributed to Mantegna, at Wat Suthat, authority is attributed to no
one.
The anonyrnous approach to the authonhip of mural paintings in Thai
temples such as Wat Suthat, together with the context of Buddhist beliefs, may
also help to explain the evidenty relaxed approach to preseivation. The
Boisselier, p.71.

" Kyi Win and Smith, p.19.

restorations that are performed are often loosely controlled and often
preservation is neglected and murals left to deteriorate. Boisselier explains that:
"in a Buddhist context every thing is 'imperrnanent' and subject to destruction for
the very reason that it is 'made' or 'put together,' and. since detachment is a
virtue, there is really no reason to trouble about the preservation of works of
art."60 What restoration work is done has the rational of keeping murals "alive"

for their spintual and educaonal purposes, rather than for aesthetic reasons,

even though the exotic paintings tend to be attractive to Westem viewers.

In an interview with the deputy abbot

of

Wat

Suthat,

Phra

Pipitthammasuntom (Chuo Khun Suntom), I discussed Thai Buddhist restoration

practice and its difference from Westem practice?

Chuo Khun Suntom

explained that although one loses the "original" through restoration, one
nevertheless has a responsibility to the originally painted images. He regards the
deteriorated paintings in Wat Suthat as sick family mernbers. One must help
them to avoid death through repainting. In Chuo Khun Suntom's own words: "The
wall painting is like a beloved person. You have to take care of them. We have to
restore the wall painting and then we try everything to maintain the wall
painting."62The abbot sees the conservator/painter who restores as a doctor who
has a duty to cure the murals. The abbot insists, however, in not overpainting a
lost face. The monk identifies the face as the one factor of the painting that
" Boisselier, p.139.

Ibid.. p.217.
The i n t e ~ e w
was conducted on June 30,1998 in Wat Suthat. Although Chuo Khun
Suntom spoke English, he requested the support of twa school teachers from a nearby
school who acted as translators. See the interview's unabridged version in the appendix,
p.59.

maintains the greatest authority. It is possible that the abbot desires to exhibit
elements of the murals' age and history through a lost face.
The cote of the interview with Chuo Khun Suntom reveals how he feels
about restoration. To hirn. and perhaps to other monks, restoration is a

necessary part of the life of the mural. To Buddhist monks, the murals develop
an aura through time and through their devotional meaning. They are for

contemplation and becorne like parents or grandparents. As Chuo Khun Suntorn

explains: "1 love the paintings in my temple like grandmother and grandfather." In
Thai society, parents are nurtured and respected for their wisdom. As Hema
Goonatilake states:
Looking after parents, particulary during their old age continues to date
and is considered an important duty of children in the Buddhist tradition. If
a daughter or son fails to do so, it is considered a shame. Parents are
considered to be Brahmas and are said to be first teached4
Therefore, the ritual of over-painting becomes an affirmation of caring,
similar to the canng of children for their revered eldedy parents. The process of
restoration is one of renewal, of taking on a new life. Restoration is an essential
means to keep these paintings functional. and, thus, alive.

The Buddhist beholder, who contemplates the images of Buddha

Gautama and his predecessors is reminded of the Buddhas' stniggle for

enlightenment, including their virtues, teachings, and ideals. The spiritual

See interview. p.60.
a This stands in contradiction to the abbot of Wat Suthafs decision in 1983 to fully
restore lost pieces including faces. It is possible that a flawless result was preferred in
Iight of the restoration's publicity.

quallies of the images help to stimulate in the viewer a %am heait" and a "pure
mind?

Additionally, the viewer perceives the power in the images. Thus, the

subject matter of the paintings infuses the viewer with an internalized, deflected
aura

- to

religion and not to a Yetish" over the mural or its painter. In other

words, the images serve to rernind the viewer of their own religious and social
beliefs. Tharavada Buddhists believe that the image of Buddha holds power.

Haivey explains that those images used in devotion for centuries are believed tu
be "charged upn with spiritual ~ o w e r From
.~
a Benjarninian perspective, the
beliefs of the Thais provide the work with its magical power. it is almost inelevant
whether the work is authoritative or authentic. Such elements are secondary. Of
primary importance are the signs that elicit appropriate social and religious
reactions among the Thais.
Although the restored murals in the vihan of Wat Suthat have not
maintained their initial authenticity and onginality, they have preserved their initial
purpose as a means to facilitate the Buddhist beholder to proceed one step
closer to nimna. Several painten produced these murals. They are painted for

the people by a collective and historical legacy of aitists. Wntten in the very ethos
of these works is that they will always be repainted. Thus, they are never
finished. Each restorer is a Buddhist and their handiwork is as valid as the
previous.

64

Hema Goonatilake, Women and Family in Buddhism," in Buddhist Perception for

Desirable Societies in the Fuiure, ed. Sulak Sivaraska (Bangkok: Thai I nter-Religious
Community for Development. 1993), p.227.
65
Peter Harvey, A n Introduction to Buddhism Teachings,
Histoty and Practices, (New
York: Cambridge University Press. 1993). pp.179-180.
Ibid., 179.

Considering the crucial issue of spirituality taking precedence over

physicality, and communality over individualisrn, one cannot apply Benjamin's
principles to evaluate the works. It is not the woiks themselves that are the focus
but rather the meaning of the subjects and the viewers' knowledge of Buddhism
that fiIl the images with aura. Furthenore, it is almost certain, that a new aura
emerges from the restored work. Restoration in the Buddhist world keeps the
murals in a cycle of renewa. Restorations of Buddhist murals help the faithful
beholder in prayer and meditation. Restoration becomes in one sense a form of
reincarnation.
Thus, the process of manual reproduction is not considered a "violation" of
the original but rather a necessary ethos in the space within the temple. Painting
over a "masterpiece" never comes into question.

The essence of a work is

renewed by the handiwork of devotees through time. New artistic input is a part
of the process of renewal.
Thus, aura cornes from the authority of a different source, a religion that is

highly personal. Art becomes a means through which the essence of Buddhisrn

is relayed. Authority comes from the monk's teachings. Paintings, despite their
respect, act as illustrations of the Buddhist Me, not as symbols of greatness or
artistic mastery in themselves.

Authenticity comes from the legacy of the

religion, the setting within the temple and its dcor, and the knowledge and
affirmation of personal beliefs that the murals provide.
But while Benjamin's ideas seem largely inapplicable in the case of the
murals in Wat Suthat, they seem more appropriate for the Camera degli Sposi.

CHAPTER THREE
Andrea Manteana's murais in the Camera dedi SDOS~.
Mantua. ltalv and their
restorations
This chapter will focus on the history of the restoration of Mantegna's

Camera degli Sposi in Mantua's Palazzo San ~ i o r g i o TO

.~~
provide context. I will
also briefly discuss the Camera's history and its subject matter. As in the case of
the previous chapter on mural paintings in Thailand and their restoration, these
examinations of restoration history and approach will serve as a basis from which
to evaluate the applicability of Benjamin's ideas on aura. Although Benjamin's

thcughts do not seem to work well with the restoration of anonymous sacred wall
paintings in a Thai Wat, they may prove more convincing in the case of attributed
secular murals in an ltalian Palauo. Indeed, sociat context and purpose
markedly influence the aura and reception of this famous room.
Many art historians including Ronald Lightbown and Ettore Camesasca
regard the mural paintings in the Camera degli Sposi as Mantegna's
masterpiece?

Fritz Knapp aven claims that it is the most monumental

achievement of quattrocento fresco painting?' And yet, because of the long

restoration history of the murals

- including extensive repainting by a sequence

of restorers supposedly to "preserven the frescoes

- how

much remains of

Andrea Mantegna's onginals is subject to debate.

-

"The name of the famous painted chamber varies. According to Ronald Lightbown. the

room's earliest name was Camera Picta or Camera Depinta. Only in the 17 century the
more specific name of Camera degli Sposi, due to one of its functions as a wedding
chamber, was established. Ronald Lightbown. Mantegna (Oxford: Phaidon - Christie's.
1986). p.99.
* Ettore Camesasca, Mantegna, (Firenze: Harper and Row, 1981)' p.33; and Lightbown.

p.117.

The originals were executed in a combination of fresco and secco

techniques?' Mantegna was well versed in both. In previous woiks, for example
the frescoes in the Ovetari Chapel in the church of the Erernitani in Padua (1448-

1457), Mantegna already demonstrated the use of both techniques. Thus, he was
well prepared for the task in Mantua, where he was commissioned by Ludovico

Gonzaga to decorate the Camera degli Sposi. Mantegna painted al1 the
Camerab walls and the ceiling a fmsco except the 'court" scene on the north
wall, which was executed entirely a secco. For the frescoed areas, finishing
Using these skillfully executed
touches were also added on the dry p~aster.~'
painting techniques, Mantegna succeeded in creating a symbol of the Gonzagas'
sovereignity.

To evaluate the elements in Mantegna's painting through

Benjamin's ideas, it is first necessary to provide a brief history of the characters

depicted in the paintings.

69

Fritz Knapp, Andrea Mantegna Des Meisters Gemalde und Kupferstiche (Stuttgart:
Deutsche Veriags-Anstalt, n.d.), p.X.
'O The technique of buon fresco requires wet plaster. First, the wall is brushed and
dampened; then, a layer of coarse plaster (arkcio) is spread on; next, the composition
is sketched in charcoal on the anfccio and then gone over in sinopia (red pigment) with a
brush; next, fresh, wet lime plaster (intonam)is applied in pieces of a size which the
artist can finish before night (giomate);finally, pigments are dissolved in water and
applied ont0 the wet intonaco. The paint penetrates the surface and solidifies while
drying. The result is a fine and transparent surface layer. Conversely, the a secco
technique requires dry plaster. First, the surface of a wall is covered with hard plaster;
then, the wall is rubbed and smwthed down until it loses almost al1 its porousness;
finally, colors are applied ont0 the dry surface. Unlike buon fresco, the pigments do not
submerge into the plaster but adhere to it as a separate layer.
For a more detailled description of the execution of fresw paintings. see Gianluigi
Colalucci, "Fresco." in The Dictionary of AH, ed. Jane Turner, v.11, pp.761-764; and
Cathleen Hoeniger, Wall Painting, 1. Survey of Techniques. II. Consenration,' v.32,
.802-81O.

"Michele Cordaro, "The Most Beautiful Roam in the Worfd: in Mantegna's Camera
degli Sposi91 6.

From the eariy 1 4 century,

~
the House of Gonzaga had mled successfully

in Mantua? Besides establishing their political strength, Guido Gonzaga (niled

1360-69) had started the Gonzagas' promotion of scholamhip and art. As a lover

of poetry and literature, he founded the extensive family library. Furthemore, he

welcomed scholars including Francesco Petrarca (1304-1374). Advised by the
poet, Guido's son Ludovico I (ruled 1370-82) extended the libraiy. From then on,
the literary treasure chamber attracted many scholars and humanists. Because

Mantua had no university at that time, the court functioned as the cultural

enter.'^
Marchese Ludovico II, who niled from 1444-1478, followed in the legacy of
his predecessors. Perhaps kindled by his tutor, the famous humanist educator
Vittorino da Feltre, the marchese's interests were diverse. Ludovico Il's success

as both politician and wamor complernented his humanist achievementd4 David

Chambers descnbes him as a model patron "whose profound respect for

humanist values led him to collect books, employ scribes and scholars as well as
architects and a r t i s t ~ . ' ~ ~Indeed, Ludovico sponsored several artists of
paramount importance. In the years 144748, Pisanello was commissioned to
decorate the main reception hall of the Castello di San Giorgio for ~udovico.'~

" For a detailled description of the Gonzaga family see Kate Simon. A Renaissance

Tapestry The Gonzaga of Mantua (New York: Harper 8 Row, 1988).

David Chambers, Jane Martineau, and Rodolfo Signorini, "Mantegna and the Men of
Letters," in Andrea Mantegna,
ed. Jane Martineau (London: Tharnes and Hudson, 1992),
~ 1 5 .
Ludovico's marriage to Barbara of Brandenburg established politically beneficial links
73

to the Geman Empire.

75
Chambers, et. al., p.16.
76
For an extensive discussion of Pisanello's paintings see Joanna Woods-Marsden, The
Gonzaga of Mantua and Pisanello3 ARhudan Frescoes, ((Princeton, NJ: Princeton
~niversityPress, 1988).

After Pisanello's death in 1455, the marchese sought a substitute as court painter
and decided upon Mantegna. Ludovico II also employed Leon Battista Alberti as
his architectural consultant and designer for his most important commissions."
A close tie to a flourishing court guaranteed Mantegna's financial stability. From
May 1460, Mantegna was a permanent resident of Mantua working exclusively
for the Gonzaga court?

In the second half of the 15'" centuiy. the Gonzaga's Castello di San
Giorgio, onginally a fortified castle used for military purposes, was restructured
and convertad into a city residence. [fig. 17 The remodeling included

architectural alterations to an existing chamber, which was later to be painted by

Mantegna.79While the Camera, located on the first floor or piano nobile of the
north-east tower of the Castello, was kept in its cubic fonn (ca. 8.05 x 8.05 m), its
ceiling was raised (to 6.93 m) and its windows relocated. In 1459, the Gonzagas
moved into their new palace."

The restructured and unpainted Camera was then used to store

govemment and farnily documents. In 1462, it acted as the cerernonial place for
the wedding of Ludovico's eldest son Federico to Margherita of

avaria.''

Later,

77

Jack M. Greenstein, Mantegna and Paintingas HistoricalNarrative (Chicago and

London: University of Chicago Press, 1992), p.60.
Giovanni Rodella, "Notes on the Castello di San Giorgio and the Architecture of the
Camera Picta," in Mantegna's Camera degli Spsi, p.224.
79
The decoration of rooms and spaces in public buildings or noble residences was a
common enterprise in ftaly from the 1 4 century
~
on. Cordaro also mentions two other
exarnples of courtly murals around that time: the Camera picta in the Ducal Palace of
Urbino painted by Boccati around 1458-60 and the Salone dei Mesiin the Palazzo di
Schifanoia in Fenara, painted between 1469 and 1470. Cordaro, "Beautiful Room,"

''

.23-24.

biodella, p.224.
81
Ludovico and Barbara of Brandenburg had 10 children: Federico (1441-84),
Francesca (144-4-83},Gianfrancesco (1446-96). Susanna (1447-61), Dorotea (1449-67).

after being painted, the chamber functioned as Ludovico's bedroom, sitting room,
storage room. and audience-charnber simultaneously. Cordaro assumes that the
room was also equipped with a headboard, carpets, chairs, and a chandelier?'
Completely furnished, therefore, the decorated room assumed a dual role as
both a pnvate and 'public" space: a resting place as well as a ruling place.*
Mantegna cornmenced his mural decoration in the Camera in 1465.~
It is
almost certain that Ludovico LI and other rnernbers of the court chose the
decorative scheme, leaving sorne room for Mantegna's artistic creativity and
freedom. Lightbown believes that Mantegna had to "invent scenes" according to
thernes suggested by Ludovico 1 1 . Opinions on the iconographical programme,
as a whole, Vary. Claudia Cien Via sees the unifying theme in the architectural

structure of the room. In her view, the Camera resembles a Roman atrium. The
atrium combines intimate, domestic functions of the house, with ceremonial and

social ones. Cieri Via claims that Mantegna applied this classical concept - with

Alberti's help to the ~arnera? According to Camesasca, other unifying themes

include friendship between the Sfonas and the Gonzagas as well as a general
celebration of domestic peacd7 Similarly, Lightbown claims that the
Cecilia (1451-78), Rodolfo (1452-QS),Barbara (1455-1SOS), Ludovico (1460-1511) and
Paofa (1463-97). See a Gonzaga family tree in the appendix, p.61.
Cordaro, 'Beautiful Roorn," pp.1-19.
83 Ibid., p.19.
84
This date is substantiated by Ludovico II's request for a consignment of "lime in flakes,
that should be fresh and good... as we wish to use it to paint our chamber in the castle"
and Mantegna's completion of the CastelIo's chape1 in the same year. A scratched date
in a windowcomer saying '1465,d. 16. /unir which Lightbown and Camesasca believe
to be by the artist, acts as the most convincing argument for this date. Lightbown, p.100;
and Camesasca, p.37. [fig. 181
85
Lightbown, p.111.
86 Claudia Cieri Via as stated in Cordaro, 'Beautiful Room," p.21.
87
Camesasca, p.42.

"

iconographical programme focuses on the depiction of the Gonzaga family with

their intimate household perse.88 Daniel Arasse, on the other hand. advocates a
matrimonial therne:
By consecrating the room to the Gonzaga husband and wife, it [the
dedicatory tablet] makes clear the matrimonial theme that underlies the
decoration... From the keystone of the decorative structure to the painter's
signature, Ludovico's mamage with Barbara is proclaimed as one of the
cycle's main themes, as one of the wonden of the political glory of the
Gonzaga farni~y.'~
All themes, however, refer back to the Gonzaga and their unique position in
Mantua. Ludovico's commission aimed to immortalize himself and his family. It
took nine years to transfomi a simple, unadomed square room into a
breathtakingly decorated charnber. In 1474, Mantegna completed the adomment
of the Camera degli Sposi, a magnificent symbol of the Gonzagas' status.

[fig.

The murals on the north and west walls of the Camera degli Sposi depict
scenes of the Gonzaga family. Painted architectural components such as pillars.
vault, and oculus accompany these scenes. The remaining walls to the east and
south are elaborately decorated with patterns rendering a heavy velvet wallhanging. Those walls were restored prior to the eariy 2om century. then left to
Lightbown. p.102.
Daniel Arasse as stated in Cordaro. "Beautiful Rwm," p.23.
The Latin text on the plate held by puni reads as follows: "ILL(USTRISSiM0)
LODOViCO II MM PRINCIPI OPnMO AC FIDE INVECTlSSIMO ET ILL(USTRIMAE)
BARBARAE JUS COhVUOl MULlERUM GLOR(I0SAE) INCOMPARABILI SUUS
ANDREAS MANTUVIA PATAVUS OPUS HOC TENUEAD EORUM DECUS ABSOLVIT
ANNO M C C C C ~ I I I I . "See Knapp, p.XXVI. For the English translation see Lightbown.
p.104: "For the most illustrious Lodovico, second Marquis of Mantua, a prince most
excellent and of a faith most unbroken, and for the most illustrioos Barbara, his spouse,
glory beyond compare of women, their Andrea Mantegna of Padua completed this poor
work to do thern honour in the year 1474." flig. 211

deteriorate. [fig. 201 The ceiling consists of painted ribs simulating a vautlike
structure. [fig. 221 In the lacunars, one can identify bust portraits of the fint eight
Roman ernperor~.~'[fig. 231 Twelve vault cells between the emperors' heads
contain mythological scenes. They depict the glonous deeds of Orpheus, Arion.
and Hercules. [fig. 241 The chosen scenes act as subtle reminders of the
Gonzaga's viitues. The oculus fakes a trompe l'oeil opening into the blue sky,
depicting putti and women wha gaze d o m on the beholder. [fig. 251

The two family portraits, the "court" and the "meeting," are. however.
clearly the most important. The "court" scene features Ludovico Gonzaga and
his wife Barbara surrounded by several of their children, servants. messengen.
and other court members. [fig. 261 Painted on the north wall, the picture skiflfully
integrates the fireplace, one of the room's dominant immovable architectural
features. As portrayed, the Gonzaga seem to sit on an elevated stage and gaze
down on the beholder. The viewer's personal reality blends with the simulated
iy
reality. This effect is achieved by a virtual
and idealized l ~ ~ c e n t uGonzaga
experience of the beholder standing in the room, almost like an "intruder." While
the beholder looks at the Gonzaga, she is simultaneously viewed by the putfi
and women painted on the ceiling's oculus.
Tracing the "court" scene back to historical events is difficult and scholars'
interpretations Vary. Whereas Lightbown suggests that the "court" "portrays the
everyday life that flowed through the marchese's chambef including "the arriva1
91

The diagonal ribs across the surface of the ceiling divide the vault into irregular
lacunars. In the rhomboid-shapedlacunars we find representations of Julius Caesar,
Octavian Augustus, Tiberius. Caligula. Claudius, Nero, Galba, and Otho. See Cordaro.
ed., Mantegna's Camera degli Sposi, p.57.

and despatch of messengers," Camesasca daims that no event painted in 15&

century ltaly was "ever without ~ i ~ n i f i c a n c eIt. "is
~ likely that the compositions
display a hybn'd mixture of idealized, artificial scenes cornbined with glimpses of
actual historical occurrences.

The 'meeting" scene, located at the west wall of the chamber, best reveals
such a combination of myth and historical tmth. The scene is set outdoon in an
enchanthg landscape. [fig. 271 Ludovico LI greets his son Francesco who is
dressed in a cardinal's robe. Francesco is surrounded by three children:
Ludovico III (the Marchese's youngest son), Sigismondo, and the younger
Francesco (the two sons of Ludovico Il's eldest son Federico). Some scholars
daim that this scene is associated with a historical meeting between the
marchese and Francesco at Bonolo in 1462. At that time, however, Sigismondo
and Francesco were not yet bom, and the young Ludovico III was only two years
old. These historical inconsistencies, as Cordaro explains, may have been
"intended to represent the political succession of the Gonzaga family and the
continuity of the positions that it held in the c h u r ~ h . " ~Al
~1 the children
represented were destined for a church career. In 1483, young Ludovico became
Bishop of Mantua. Later, in 1506, Sigismondo assurned the position of cardinal.
Another incongruity is shown in the "meeting." The presence of Frederick
III is anachronistic. The Holy Roman Emperor, Frederick III, never visited

Mantua. Therefore, it seems obvious that the murals in the Camera degli Sposi

92
93

Lightbown, pp.107-108; and Camesasca. p.36.

Cordaro, ed., Mantegna3 Camera degli Sposi, p.128.

were primarily created to illustrate both the political and the clerical power of the
Gonzaga family. Certainly, they were meant to impact upon the beholder.
The primary concem was not the accurate portrayal of historical events.

As Jack M. Graenstein explains:

Renaissance historians were conmed with the personal as well as the
public dimensions of political and cultural events. Consequently, they often
placed the same event within several different temporally ordered or
durationally defined sequen~es.~
Depicting multiple time frames within one painting, however, can lead to the
mythologization of history. But despite their historical distortions, the murals
recal! the past for some. Maud Cnitwell, for instance, imagined romantically:
Seated in the rush-bottomed chair, amidst the dust and cobwebs of today,
the frescoed walls so play on the imagination that the past reconstructs
itself without effort, and we are back among these grave lords. hearing the
rustle of their gold brocade and the murmur of their voices?=
Subsequent scholars have agreed with this phenornenon of a visual
"resunection" of a glorious past. Camesasca, for instance, daims that the viewer
emerges into the painting and thus into the Gonzagas' reality. In his view, the
events shown are "not recalled or evoked but lived through in the very instant of
its taking p ~ a c e . " ~
We should not forget, however, that this fusion between
subject and object may not represent exactly the original artist's intentions. The
paintings have been restored numerous times over the centuries.

Indeed.

Camesasca and CnmNell overiook and underestimate the input of artists and
restorers that have intemiittently retouched the woik for the past 500 years.

Greenstein, p.70.
Maud Cnrtwell, Andrea Mantegna (London: George Bell and Sons, 1908), p.72.
96
Camesasca, p.@.

95

From research into the present condition of the Camera, one can gather
that originally Mantegna's work dispfayed a refined painting style and superb
illusionistic techniques. Mantegna used perspective and foreshortening, and he
simulated both architecture and textiles, but also individual portrait-like features
in order to portray the Gonzaga family in an illuminating manner. Initially, a
balanced color scheme and skillful use of light and shadow complemented his
work." However, after so many restorations there is the difficult question of how
much remains of Mantegna's original paint layers. Doubtlessly, both the passage

of time with its deteriorating factors such as vandalism, humidity, and pollution as
well as the impact of many restorations have together altered the Koriginal"
frescoes. To tum to Benjamin's conceptual ideas, over the centuries, manual
reproductions in fonn of restorations have undermined several aspects of the
painting, including its authenticity, its history, and its authority.

Thus, the

following section of the thesis examines the historical restorations executed in

the Camera degli Sposi in relation to Benjamin's thoughts on aura.

By the mid-1970s' the deterioration of Mantegna's frescoes in the

Camera had begun to cause much concem. In the vault, tiny fragments of paint
were flaking off. After centuries, the plaster had lost its cohesion and areas of
whitish efflorescence were becoming visible. Consequently, during the 1980s the
most recent conseivation project was undertaken, coordinated by Michele
Cordaro of the lstituto Centrale del Resfauro with the guidance of the very

97

- . -

Cordaro States that not only did Mantegna paint light to infuse and enhance the colors
but also used natural light coming from the windows. Cordaro, "Beautiful Room," p.26.

experienced wall-painting restorers Paolo and Laura ~ o r a ?But

~ before
ernbarking on the project, Cordaro and his team camed out a detailed ultraviolet
and infrared photogrephic investigation. In addition, Vasco Fassina conducted a

thorough climatic examination. The present state of the paintings had to be

precisely and carefully documented to establish fked reference points for
evaluating the deterioration's progress or stabilization in the future. Then. the

cause of decay had to be investigated. Cordaro's conservation tearn had to

assess the presence of polluting agents on the painted surfaces as well as
moisture caued by condensation of water vapor. Another important task before
actual work was camed out involved the research and study of al1 available
documents that dealt with the Camera's past restorations. Archival documents
from Mantua and Milan facilitated the tracing back of restoration work undertaken
in the last 500 years and helped to reconstruct the histoiy of restoration of

Mantegna's frescoes.
Cordaro and Fassina fint documented their findings in 1986."

Among

their conclusions was that from 1877 on, restoration work had been carried out
regulariy because of the susceptibility of the murals to environmental factors.
However, restoration had already been camed out centuries eadier.'" In 1506.
Mantegna's son, Francesco, executed the first restoration at the request of
lsabella d'Este. This renovation was rnotivated by a visit of Pope Julius II who
-

--

Cordaro's team also included about 15 students.

Michele Cordaro and Vasco Fassina, "Rie Wall Paintings by Andrea Mantegna in the
'Camera degli Spwl: First Results of the Cleaning and the Preliminary Scientific
Investigation." in Case Studies in the Conservation of Stone and Wall Paintings
(Preprints of the Contributions to the Bologna Congress. Sept. 1986)' pp.80-85.

98

99

stayed in the ~amera.'''

Throughout the 1 6 century,

~
the Camera often

accornrnodated illustrious guests.lm For this reason, restoration work continued

in order to maintain the chamber's unique glorification of the Gonzaga family.
In 1630, Mantua was occupied by Gennan mercenary soldiers whose
vandalism severely damaged the Camera pinta. According to Camesasca, a
"clumsy" restoration followed this major damage? Graffiti and damages caused
by gunshots were overpainted and repaired* Cordaro chirns that this moment

marked the beginning of a period of decline and neglect from which the Camera
suffered continuo~sly.'~
Whife the chamber was used as a storehouse and
repository for public records during the 17* and 18m century, the paintings
remained u n t o ~ c h e d . 'Cordaro
~~
quotes an eyewitness, Cadioli, who describes
the vault as in very bad shape and tremendously disfigured in 1763. In addition,
the condition of the paintings is documented in two drawings from 1787, both of
which, however, lack detail?

For the late 18m and early l g m century.

information on restorations remains sparse. Giovan Battista lntra, a Mantuan

historian, claims that the Austnan painter Martino Knoller restored the paintings
around 1790. In contrast, Cordaro assigns a later date

- 25-30 years Iter - to

this major restoration. Cordaro claims the restoration work was done either by

'*See also a J.A. Crowe and G.B. Cavalcaselle, A History of Paniting in North ltaly
(London: John Murray, 1a i l ) ,p.391.
'O' Unfortunately, although documents surrounding the nature of this restoration exist.
they do not indicate the extent of the repairs. Cordaro, "History of the Conservation of
the MuralslUin Mantegna's Camera degli Sposi, 232.
l M In 1574. for example, Henry III,King of France, dined in the chamber. Ibid.
l m Camesasca, p.33.
'04 Cordaro, "History of Consetvation," p. 232.
'O5 Ibid., p.233.
'" Guiseppe Bongiovanni and Luigi Gamba both drew the 'meeting' for a cornpetition
held by the Accademia di Belle Arti in Mantua in 1787. Ibid.

Luigi Sabatelli or by Guiseppe Knoller, Martino's son.'07 In 1819, Giovanni Viviani

engraved the oculus without refemng to the Roman portraits and the vaulting
cells perse. This suggests that !hey were either still in a vefy poor condition or
that some parts were whitewashed.lm
During the 19" century, documentation of the Camera's restorations
increased. In 1875, for example, Giovan Battista Cavalcaselle, then inspecter
general of the ltalian Ministry of Education, and Giovanni Morelli initiated a
restoration featuring Luigi Cavenaghi as the chief restorer. Morelli lamented that
previous restorers had painted over Mantegna's work and expressed the desire
to free them "from the disagreeable mask that prevents them [the 'originals'] from
being ~ e e n . " 'Nevertheless,
~~
opposing opinions conceming the restoration's
ethos aggravated the work. Whereas Cavalcaselle was almost excfusively

concerned with matters of preservation such as stabilization and prevention of

further damage, Morelli was predominantly interested in "unmasking" the
paintings to reveal the uonginal" Mantegna once again. Cavenaghi started on the
project in 1876, and Antonio Bertolli completed the work in 18;r7.110
An article of 1 March 1877 in the Gazzetta di Mantova describes what had
been done dunng Bertolli's restoration:

... secunng the plaster to the walls, that by chance had become detached.
Detaching and reattaching those pieces on the ceiling and the walls of the
room that threatened to fall, filling the cracks in the walls with new cernent.

Ibid., p.234.
Ibid.
'O9 As cited in Cordaro. 'History of Conservation. p.235.
110
For a detailled description of the complicated nature of this restoration at the end of
the 1gmcentury. see "History of Conservation," pp.234-238.
'O7

'O8

fixing the colors and cleaning the paintings of dust and grime, and giving a
neutral tint to the white parts so that the pictures can be seen better."'
The article further states that Bertolli found a new system of restoration, applying
watercolors to the white parts, 'leaving the pictures untouched, without even a
brush stroke of paint. In this way, as if by the wave of a magic wand, he made
the whole of Mantegna's composition appear clear, sharp, and distinct.m l 1 2 , 1

actuality, however, Bertolli's new 'system" caused tremendous damages to the

paintings.

Cordaro cites from another Mantuan document stating that the

paintings had been cleaned badly and treated with a vamish that tumed them
yellow. In retrospect, the restoration was deemed disastrous: "[bothl the lunettes
and the vault lost their previous very fine tone as a result of improvident alkaline
washings, and in the former especially [sic] many parts have totally vanished. m l 1 3
Bertolli's changes were irremovable, having already penetrated the plaster. In a
letter, Morelli commented on Bertolli's "system," "imbecile as you are [!] is it a
matter of system or of an art when it cornes to restoring and cleaning a work by
~antegna?"'
l4
Even though the murais sutvived the First World War, steps taken to
protect the paintings from further damage tumed out to be even more damaging.
Seaweed that had been placed on the floor above the Camera rotted and seeped
into the vault below. Hoping to thwart fuither h a n and cracking, the walls of the
room above the Camera were demolished. In 1929, storm windows were
1 11

l2
l4

As cited in Cordaro, "History of Conservation." p.236.

lbid.
Ibid., p.237.
Ibid.

installed for it was clear by then that the main cause of damage was the
excessive fluctuation in levels of humidity.' l5
In 1933, a report was published documenting the rnurals' restoration
history. The report also proposed that Mure restorers should stabilize the
environment, and that they should use the most suitable intervention techniques.
In addition, the document suggested a reconstruction of the rnurals in
trateggio?

In 193841, the restoration was canied out by the restorer Mauro

Pelliccioli. The restoration followed some of the suggestions set forth in the 1933
report: Unsuitable materials used by restorers in the past, such as fixatives and
bnghteners were removed. Missing pieces were newly integrated using minerai
and vegetable paint. Holes, abrasions, and chips were fixed using trateggio.
Larger gaps filled in by old restorations were also removed and replaced with
neutral tints. Most of these tasks, however. were not carried out as precisely and
thoroughly as had been planned in the report."7
Due to a major exhibition of Mantegna's paintings in Mantua in 1961, yet
another intervention took place, this time camed out by Aldo and Nerina Angelini
of the Istituto Centrale del Restaura The restorers reinforced both plaster and

paint by injecting caseinate of lime. A new pictorial integration was carned out in
some parts but following closely the previous restoration.ll

Nevertheless.

because controlling humidity remahed a major concem, an environmental survey

was planned and then camed out in 1973-75.

'15

Ibid., p.238.

' lbid.
'l7 Ibid., pp.239-240.
l6

Md., p.240.

Through chemical tests used to determine the binding medium, Cordaro's

restoration team concluded in the 1980s that past repairs were often executed
with inappropriate materials including gesso.'

l9

Moreover, niappropriate

reintegration methods, such as the previously described "systemn of Bertolli,

were used in reworking missing pieces.

Cordaro's team also conducted an

analysis of the surface to distinguish between the matenals used by Mantegna

and those used by later respective restorers. And they found that restorers used
different pigments and binding media from those of ~antegna.'~'
In addition, Cordaro's team investigated the extent of the deterioration and
its cause. They reestablished that environmental factors. moisture. dampness,
and temperature differences greatly affected the paintings. The nomerous visitors
to the room also influenced the exchange of heat and water vapor between the
indoor atmosphere and the walls. Visitors exhale carbon dioxide which
contributes to the deterioration of the paintings. When Cordaro's team examined
the emissions in 1981-82, they found a concentration of carbon dioxide on

average about four or five times higher than that of a normal environment.
Another factor had to be taken into consideration to ensure the
appropriate conservation of Mantegna's "original." Restoration work could not be
camed out in the same fashion throughout the whole painting for there were
parts executed in both buon fresco and secco. The pigments in buon fresco
penetrate the plaster deeply whereas the pigments in a secco adhere to the wall

Cordaro and Fassina. p.80.

By using different matenals. restorers often strive to differentiate their work from the
original and previous repairs. Present-&y restorers typically use materals that can be
removed without damaging the original.
l l9

'O

surface in a separate layer. Therefore, the buon fresco parts were cleaned with
ammonium carbonate and the parts done in secm were cleaned with a mixture
of solvents such as ethyl alcohol, water, ammonia, and acetone.'"

Wlh the

support of the Olivetti Corporation, the Istituto Centrale del Restauro started the
restoration in 1984 and completed it in 1987. The restoren cleaned the paintings
in the described fashion and integrated the losses in trateggio. [fig. 281
After completion of Cordaro's project, two articles were published on the
finished restoration.

In some respects, they represent polemical views

sunounding restoration. Whereas Patricia Collins examines the issue of

authenticity, Patricia Corbett ignores it. Corbett focuses strongly on traditional art
historical views.lPCorbett highlights iconography, biographical incidents and
Mantegna's character traits. Although she daims that Cordaro himself saw the

Camera degli Sposi as a "conservation victim," she fails to discuss the history of
restoration executed in previous centuries, which shaped and altered the
frescoes and, thus, tumed them into hybrid artworks. She neglects the art
conservation and art historical dialedics involved in such an undertaking.
Moreover, Corbett does not question the decision of retouching the work per se:
"The prime consideration was to enhance the unity and overall visual effect of the
frescoes; thus cracks and color loss were camouflaged whenever this was
po~sible."'~~
Patricia Collins's article, on the other hand, seems somewhat more

12'

Ibid.

'" "The World According to Andrea," Connaisseur, 217 (Dec. 1987). 1 10-115.
Ibid., p.110.

cognizant of issues of authenticity and its experien~e.'~~

She claims that the
cleaning was successful because the affect of three-dimensionality was
increased and the paintings' outlines were strenghtened. In her view, this added
more depth and brightened the colors, and in a sense. made the works more
"authentic" and eye-catching. Yet, according to Benjamin, restorations do not
have the power to create an increased authenticity. In fact, they result in the
contrary.
Collins further claims that conservation and restoration are not solely
connected with the physical condition or appearance of the paintings, but can
also affect our reading of the work's meaning and context. She argues that the

"Magi," who appear on the Camera's west wall, were clearly visible before the
restoration, but are now almost invisib~e.'~~
[fig. 291 Each piece of "evidence."
such as the "Magi," helps to unravel the mysteries sunoundhg the work. The
presence of the "Magin in the "meetingnscene, for instance, helps to substantiate
the date of 1 January 1462, when Ludovico II met his son Francesco at Bouolo.
Removing the alleged 'Magin would obscure this event. In this particular instance,
restoration alters the contents and thus, the meaning of the painting.
Collins also questions the means suggested to maintain the frescoes in a
stable condition. To solve this problern it has been recornrnended that certain
visitors, especially schoolchildren, be shown only a full-size photographic
reproduction of the Mantegna f~escoes.'*~ Showing a reproduction to

'" "Problemsof Consenhg

267-269.
lZ5

Collins, p.268.
Ibid.

Mantua's Artistic Heritage," Apollo, l26/3O8(Oct. 1987).

schoolchildren would, indeed, minimite the number of visitors and hence reduce
deterioration effectively. However, as Collins herseif realizes, it also 'raises
ethical points regarding the children's ngMs to see their artistic heritage in al1 its
glory, not just as a reproduction.n i 27
Reproducing the original (if it is the original at all) leads us back to
Benjamin's concept of aura. While mechanical reproduction destroys an original
artwork's aura. manual reproduction such as restoraon arguably hams or alters
it. In the case of the Camera deg/i Sposi, the aura's aiteration has been caused
by a long sequence of restorations. According to Benjamin, intervention of any

kind affects the aitwork's authonty. For instance, the in-painting of missing pieces
impacts on the artwork's authority. Mantegna's original has, of course, been
overpainted and therefore altered by many restorers' hands. Thus. the original
artist's essence and his individual creativity - the core of the a m o k - has been
tampered with by repainting. After so rnany alterations, it would indeed be
difficult to argue that the Camera is ruthentic" and a Mantegna "original."
Authenticity does not encompass retouching. Being an "originaln means being
created by an authority at a given point in time, in other words, "pristine." In the
case of the Camera degli Sposi, one cannot daim that it hast any longer, the full
"authority" or "authenticity" of Mantegna's hand. Today, the aura of the Camera
degli Sposi emerges from the combined efforts of centuries of restoren, rather

than from the artist himseif. Indeed, even the original technical flourishes. such
as brush strokes, as well as the yean of deterioration add to the aura of the

'27

lbid.

work. Benjamin argued that the authenticity stems from the history the artwork
has e~perienced.'~'

In contrast to the Thai murals, the Camera's wall paintings do not serve
an educational purpose. At the time of their creation, Ludovico Gonzaga
commissioned the paintings to show off his power. One may clah that today one
can leam from these paintings and understand ltalian Renaissance histoiy more
thoroughly. The initial purpose, however, was pnmarily propaganda, a means to

exhibl the power of a rich man.

The recent project in Mantua also raised issues of restoration made

possible through corporate advertising. Sponsored by the Olivetti corporation,

the restoration of the Camera degli Sposi increased the company's image and
boosted its corporate identity. In most cases, restorations cannot take place
without corporate support. Fuilher, corporate sponsors tend to support works that
will attract the largest audiences. This in tum has a reciprocal effect on what
works are presenred. In her article, "Mass Toursm and the Conservators," Anna
Somers Cocks claims that mass tourism makes conservation noticeable to those
in charge of famous monuments and bui~dings.'~~
Marty people in ltaly live off
the income generated by the rnany visitors that over-run the country's galleries.

churches and historical buildings each year.

Recently restored, 'rejuvenated"

artworks typically attract a large audience.

Yet despite the financial gain, restoration in ltaly remains controversial.
Paul Phillippot's famous comment is worth reiterating: 'No restoration could ever

'" Benjamin. "Kunstwerk im Zeitalter," p.13.

Apollo, 126/31O (Dec. 1987). 390-391.

la

hope to reestablish the original state of a painting.n130 Hence, a restorer today

can only perfonn tasks such as cleaning, removing layers of other restoren, and

canying out in-painting in lost parts. They can never recapture the very essence
or aura of Mantegna's original work.

'"

Paul Phillippot, "The ldea of Patina and the Cleaning of Paintings," in Histotiml and
Philosophical Issues in the Conservabon of Cultural Hentege, Nicholas Stanley Price M.
Kirby Talley Jr., Alessandra Melucco Vaccaro, eds. (Los Angeles: The Getty
Conservation Institute. 1996), p.373.

CONCLUSION
In this thesis, I have tried to dernonstrate that Benjamin's thoughts on aura
do not apply in the same rnanner to the two previous case studies. Benjamin
claimed that reproductions wlher away or dissolve the aura of the original. The
case of a manual reproduction such as restoration, however. diffen.

The

examination of the two case studies showed that the restored murals are still
empowered with aura. This aura, however, is altered through restoration. Against
Benjamin. I believe that restoration creates a new, hyrid aura, one that captures
the combined efforts of the original artist and the restorers. At Wat Suthat, 1 is
primarily the audiences' intemafized religious and historical beliefs, which infuse

the wors with aura. In the case of Mantegna's Camera, the new aura stems
from restorers revitalking and repairing Mantegna's original.

At Wat Suthat, the murals function as a means to explain and reinforce

Buddhist beliefs. They are also a means to inspire, guide, and instruct devotees

in order to gain spiritual growth. The stories depicted are part of an educational
apparatus. The murals in the Camera degli Sposi, on the other hand, functioned
mostly as a glorification of the Gonzaga family's power. Their initial purpose was
to impress high-profile guests, such as popes and kings, and to celebrate
Ludovico's refined taste in art. Today, the murals in the Camera rnay be seen as
part of an educational aid, part of Italy's cultural hertage, and as a tourist
attraction.
The importance of the rnurals within their given settings helps us in
understanding their aura. While the paintings at Wat Suthat are set in a sacred

space, a temple, the paintings in the Camera are located in a secular palace.
Wat Suthafs paintings have never been the central focus of the temple but a

mere part of the setting. Worshippers do not Rock to the temple to see the
paintings; they corne for spintual growth and solace.

The paintings in the

Camera degli Sposi, however, seem to have becorne the focal point of the
Palazzo San Giorgio in Mantua. In Gonzagas' time, the palazzo and even its
residents were the symols of power and wealth. Today, most visit the Castello
for its main attraction, the little painted room. The wall paintings are admired as
masterpieces of superb quattrocento fresco painting. If in the past, the figures in
the paintings were the subjects of interest, today, no longer do they gamer such
attention. Arguably, Andrea Mantegna remains the greatest feature of the work,
not the subjects portrayed. The contrary occurs at Wat Suthat. Here, the murals'

messages are far more important than aesthetics. The murals are not revered as
amivorks in themselves or because they were painted by particular artists.
When one compares the two woiks in terrns of their authority, authenticity,
restoration, and aura, several polernics emerge. For instance, the respect given
to a work or aitist, what Benjamin calls the authority, differs greatly in the two
case studies.

restorers.

In Thailand, there is little distinction between painters and

60th are anonymous, hence the issue of authority and originality

becomes unimportant. The historical and religious messages conveyed take on

primary significance.
In contrast, many have worked on the Camera although it is attributed
solely to Mantegna.

As early as 1506, Francesca Mantegna renovated the

Camera. Throughout the 16* century it is believed that restorations were camed
out by anonyrnous restorers. in the 176 and 18h century, the Camera was left to
deteriorate. In the eary lgmcenhiry, either Luigi Sabatelli or Guiseppe Knoller

restored the murals. In 1876, Luigi Cavenaghi started a thorough restoration

completed in 1877 by Antonio Bertolli. In l93&4l, Mauro Pelliccioli camed out a

major repair. Twenty years later, in 1961, Aldo and Nerina Angelini of the lstituto

Centrale dei Restauro restored the murals yet again. ln 1987, Paolo and Laura
Mora cornpleted a three-year restoration. which Cordaro coordinated.
After so many restorations, it is indeed, questionable how much is left of
the original Mantegna. Certainly, one may argue that Mantegna's initial ideas of
composition and design are still visible and therefore kuthentic." But to claim that
the present Camera belongs to Mantegna alone rernains problematic. The list of
restorers shows that this is simply untnie.
From a Benjarninian perspective then, those that seIl Mantegna's work as
an original create a 'Valsenaura; fmm an ethical perspective, one cannot attribute
the Camera degli Sposi to Mantegna alone. It is also the work of restorers that
audiences enjoy, not only the work of the master himself. Its shadowy layer was
over-painted several times, and replaced by the vibrant handiwork of restorers.
Issues of attribution are less complex in the murals of Wat Suthat. The
authority cannot be said to have been lost because anonymous painters created
and restored the works.

The subjects that they portray are of paramount

importance and not the artists that created the worlts.

Because the paintings are in a constant state of renewal, like reincarnation

itself, the notion of an original woric's aura as an untouched, historical piece in

itself becomes inelevant. Even if it does, the layen of the various paintings are
but testaments of reincarnation. Such is not the case with the Camera. For

despite their careful efforts, restorers run the risk of contributing to the Yalse"

aura that Benjamin questioned.

It seems to me that the names of restorers shouId be placed on works

such as "Mantegna'sn Camera degli Sposi so that the restorers would deserve
their share of the works praise. This approach to an increased level of honesty

would also serve the viewing and interested public to gain new insights into socalled masterpieces: Audiences would no longer be deceived into thinking that a
restored work is an untouched original. This would, ideally, help the viewer to
experience the ?me"aura of today's Camera degli Sposi.

Chapter One -Walter Beniamin

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Nicholsen (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991).
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IIluminations. Ed. Hannah Arendt. London: 1973.

. Illuminationen. Ausgewahlte Schriften. Franlduit: Suhrkarnp

Taschenbuch Verlag, 1977.
. The Origin of the Gennan Tragic Drama. Trans. John Cummings.
London: New Left Books, 1977.
Bloch, Ernst, et. al. Aesthetjcs and Politics. Ed. Ronald Taylor. London: NLB,
1977.
Buck-Mons, Susan. 'Aesthetics and Anaesthetics: Walter Benjamin's Artwork
Essay Reconsidered." In October, no. 62, fall 1992, pp.3-41.
Caygill, Howard, Alex Coles, and Andrzej Klirnowski. Walter Benjamin for
Beginners. Duxford, UK: lcon Books, 1998.
de Purucker, G. Occult Glossa~y.Available at
http://www.theosociety .org/pasadena/-ocglodog-a.htm.

Dieckhoff, Reiner. Mythos undModerne ber die verborgene Mystik in den

Schrifien Walter Benjamins. Koeln: Janus Presse, 1987.
Fischer, Ernst. "Kunstwerk und Reproduktion," in ber Walter Benjamin.
Frankfurt: Suhrkamp Verlag, 1968.

Freedberg, David. The Power of Images Studies in the Histoty and Theory of
Response. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press. 1989.
Garber, Klaus. Zum Bilde Walter Benjamins. Mnchen: Wilhelrn Fink Verlag,
1992.

Harth, Dietrich. "Auraund AMualMt als iisthetische Begriffe," in Waffer Benjamin

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Kambas, Chryssoula. Walter Benjamin im Exil. Zum Verhiiltnis von

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Kemp, Wolfgang. 'Fembilder Benjamin und die Kunstwissenschaft." In Walter

Benjamin im Kontext. Burkhardt Lindner, ad. Koenigstein: Athenaeum. 1985.
pp.224-257.
Knizik, lan. Walter Benjamin and the Mechanical Reproducibility of Art Work
Revisited," British Journal of Aesthetics, Vo1.33, No. 4, October 1993. pp.
357-66.
Shatma, Bhesham R. Music and Culture in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction.
New York: Peter Lang, 1999. (forthcoming)
Stoessel, Madeen. Aura - des vergessene Menschliche. Mnchen: Carf Hanser
Veriag, 1983.
Wolin, Richard. Walter Benjamin - An Aesthefic of Redemption. New York:
Columbia University Press, 1982.
Cha~ter
Two - Wat Suthat
Bhirasri, S. The Ongin and Evolution of Thai Murals. Bangkok: The Fine Arts
Department, 1959.
Boisselier, Jean. Thai Painting. Trans. Janet Seligman. Tokyo: Kodansha
International, 1976.
Feiten. Heinz. "ber Fledemause." In Wat Suthat- in Beispiel deutscher
Kulturf~ilfe.Bangkok: Thai Visuel Co. Ltd, 1985. 168-176.

Goodman, Jim. Cultures of the World

International, 1991.

- Thailand. Singapore: Times Books

Goonatilake, Hema. Women and Family in Buddhism." In Buddhist Perception

for Desirable Societies in the Future. EEd. Sulak Sivaraska. Bangkok: Thai
Inter-Religious Community for Development, 1993.224-246.
Harle, J.C. The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent. New Haven:
Yale University Press, 1994.
Harvey, Peter. An Introduction to Buddhism - Teachings, History and Practices.
New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993.
Janposn, Kulpanthada. "The Present Condition of the Conservation of Cultural
Property in Thailand." In Final Repoit Wotkshop for ASEAN Conservation
Laboratories. Bangkok, Thailand, January 28 - February 1,1991. 113-129.

Krug, Sonia. "The Development of Thai Mural Painting. In nie Artistic Hentage
of Thailand. Bangkok: Craftsman Press, 1979.
Matics, K.I. Introduction to the Thai Mural. Bangkok: White Lotus, 1992.
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Wat Suthat Dhepwararam. Bangkok: Muang Boran Publishing House, 1996.

Na Songkhla, Arphom. "The Standard of Consewation of Mural Painting and

Sculpture in Thailand." In Final Report SPAFA-ICCROM Seminar on
Conservation Standards in Soufheast Asia. Bangkok, Thailand, December
11-16, 1989, 77-79.

Na Songkhla, Wannipa. The Conservation of Mural Paintings in Thailand." In

Wall Paintings From lndia
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. "Konservieren, Restaurieren, Dokumentieren." In Wat Suthat Ein

Beispiel deutscher Ku/turhiIfe. Bangkok: Thai Visuel Co. Ltd, 1985. 150-157.

Pandito, Benton. Wat Suthat-Thepwararam The Palace of Indra. Bangkok:

Liang Chiang Press, 1997.
Planloi, Sombat. Mural Paintings. Bangkok: Office of the National Culture
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Sharma, Alexandra. Interview with Chuo Khun Suntom at Wat Suthat. Bangkok:
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deutscher Kulturfiilfe. Bangkok: Thai Visuel Co. Ltd, 1985. 106-121.

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APPENDIX I

The Chakri Dvnasw

Rama I

Phra Buddha Yodfa Chulalok

Rama II

Loetla Naphalay

Rama III

Nang Klao

Rama IV

Mongkut

Rama V

Chulafongkom

Rama VI

Vajiravudh

Rama VI1

Prajadhipok

Rama Vlll

Anandha Mahidoi

Rama IX

Bhumipol Adulysdej

APPENDIX II
Art ~eriodsin Thailand

- 1lm
AD)

Dvaravati Period

(6mor 7mcentury

Sn Vijaya Period

(em- 19'century)

Lopburi Penod

(1 1

- 13mcentury)

Central Thailand

Chiengsan Period

(11

- 18ncentury)

Northern Thailand

U-Thong Period

(1Zrn 1

Central Thailand

Sukhothai Penod
Ayutthaya Period

Southern Thailand

century)

- 15mcentury)
(14m- 1erncentury)
(13*

Rattanakosin or Bangkok Period (1 9@'century

Central Thailand

- present)

Northern Thailand
Central Thailand
Present Thailand

APPENDIX III
Interview with Chuo Khun Suntom. denutv abbot of Wat S h a t on June 30.1998
Alexandra Sharma: How do monks feel about restoration?
A painting ages through tirne. the paint flakes off, it dies. When you do
conservation you add something to the original, you put something on top
of the original. This means the original aura is lost. It is not the original
anymore. lt's a mixture of different hands.
Chuo Khun Suntorn: I agree that the original is lost when restoration work
is done.

S: Do you care about that? Personally?

CKS: The paintings in my temple, I love them. Like grandrnother and
grandfather. But now they are old, very old. And then they are sick. And
some part of the body doesn't work. What do you do?
If your grandfather is sick? A part of him does not work. What do you do?

S: You try to cure him. But on the other hand you know that your
grandfather will die. He is not here for etemity.
CKS: The doctor told you he must change his heart. And this heart is of
another person. HOWdo you feel?
How do you feel? What would you do first?

S: I would try everything to let him stay alive.

CKS: And after the doctor cured him and changed his heart. He is strong.
How do you feel?

S:I would feel better.

CKS: Why? This is a false thing. It is not true. This is not your grandfather.
Because it is not his heart. How do you feel?

S: I would still love him.

CKS: You are glad to see him strong and happy. Even though he has
another heart.
The wall painting is Iike a beloved person. You have to take care of them.
We have to restore the wall painting and then we try everything to
maintain the wall painting. What we do should be accepted by another
person.

S: The public?
CKS: Yes. As if you love somebody and you cut off his head and you put it
on to another one. Change the body. This is dead. this is living.
Your grandfather's face put on another one. How do you bel?
Can you respect them? Can you love them? No! This is a ghost.
When we restore the mural you mu& be careful and the artist is feeling
like this. Therefore if some parts of the mural are sick; the artist is like a
doctor, he must cure like a doctor.
S: But what do you do you when the face is lost. And you don't know how
it looked. Do you put a face in?
CKS: No.
S: Or do you leave it out?

CKS: In my temple, no.

S: You will leave it out.
CKS: Yes.

S:Because then it would be a ghost.

CKS: Yes.

S: The body you would repaint, but never the face.

CKS: Yes.

S: And hands?
CKS: You can. It's easy to change and repair. It's easy. And the body. But
not the face.

S: Because the head is very important.

CKS: Very important for mural.

LUICI (c. 126&13(i0)1" Caphano 13111

I
cap
CUIDO (c llk.1369) lnd

LUDOVIC0 (133442)

Cap. m, Alda d'bir (133341).

I
FRANCESCO (1366-1401) 4IhCap.
m. hiy M u MJbimtr (d. 1309)

LUDOVIC0 (14 Wl8J1"' Mu.

m. Bubn of Bdenburg (l4214lI)

CALUI MARCHERiTA CIANLUCIDO CECILM

(141746)
(1418.39)
(141346)
(1426.51)

ALESSANDRO
(1417.66)

dl Monidrliro.

~sAILLA

FRA~CLP

an

mi, C

(l53340)
hhe

(1537.70)

b i d d~ Auurl.
(i~wa)

MPICE~~I~I~I~~
in. Mu~twttir
a i Swuy

MALU ~ w m q

m. Culo Couni of Keihcl

(mabarc*)

m. UIonwr d Auurlr (I534.N)

FERDINANM
( i507. i626)

6' Duhe
Cud, 1600.15

LUW~CO
(1611.11)

LUDOVICO (ISSU
DridNwm,~rnt.lf!tthd
m. Hmkrud Ckm

M A R G H U I ~(IRI.IUI)
ni. Hcnrl Duhe of lomlne

Mmui t d c t i w A
(l6l2)

Lord of P a u o .

VINC&ZO II
(1
1627)
7' Duba
C d . 1615.16
m, lubdh God i Novdlui

5p

mUKX)

Lx

U~O~OM
(1591.1655)

m. n p
F a d h u d Il

ILLUSTRATIONS
Fig. 1:

Wat Suthat - vihan: Examp!e of bird's-eye-view and painting style Buddhavamsa (author)

Fig. 2:

Wat Suthat - vihan, detail of mural: Buddhavamsa - from the

legend of the 10'" Buddha Padumuttara (author)

Fig. 4:

Major sles of attraction in Bangkok (taken from Visit Wat

Suthat, lntelectual Services Ltd., Bangkok - no date. pp. 1-2)

Major sites of attraction in Bangkok

Wat Suthat Thepwararam

1. Phra Sumen Fort

2- Wat Chanasongkhram
3- The Monument of the First
Worfd War Volunteer Force
4. Bangkok National Museum
5- Wat Bowomniwet
6- The monu urne nt of Democracy
7. Phra Kan Fort
8. Golden Mount ( Wat Saket )
9. Wat Ratchanatdaram
IO. Wat Thepthidaram
13. Great Swing
12- Wat Mahannopphararn
13. Wat Buranisiri
14. Sanarnluang
15. Wat Mahathat
16. The Royal Grand Palace
17. Wat Ratchapradit
18. Wat Ratchabophit
19. Wat Phra Chetuphon (Wat Pho)
20- Wat Amn Ratchawararam (Temple of the Dawn) i:- ... '.
21. Vichai PrasitFort
... ...
.l

Fig. 5:

Wat Suthat - vihan :Phra Sisakayamuni. the giant bronze Buddha

(author)

Fig. 6:

1. Suchada H&

Plan of Wat Suthat (taken from Visit Wat Sulhat,

lntelectual Services Ltd., Bangkok no date. pp. 1 1-1 2 )

13. Bodhi Hall

-"

2- Sunanta Hd

14- Arhapab
Chetiya
3. Suthamma Hali
15- Mucalinda Chetiya
4. Suchittra Hall
16- Rachayatana Chetiya
5. Minor Chape1
17. Ratana Chongkom Chetiya
6. King Anand
18. Rahvrakara Chetiya
( Rama VIiI ) Statue
19. BunnithiPhra Krng Phra9hammapitaka Hal.
7. Vchayan Rasat
20. Phra KruigHall
8. Chitlada Garden
21- Koei Than
9- hkin Chape1 \l,'w&q
( Donation k k t a i or phiianthropist's Rdsstrl
( housing Phra Si
f i m where money or g,x& are widely nttered
Sakayamuni Buddha Image )
b
)
10. Mount Meru
22. Sema Stone
11. Animmis Chetiya
23. Chdination Ha ~ 8 o S o ~
12. Sn Maha Bodhi Chetiya
( houshg Phra E3uddha Tri iakachet )

24. TOM
25.
Thong'HaU
26. WonHall
27- Chantasin' L i i
28, ReachingHall
29- Bell T i

30. L

31- AbbotCeIl
32. &istant Abbot Ce1

33- Mditation HaU

34. Tiipitaka iibrary
35- Sorndet Ceii
36. Row Houses

37. Wat Suthat Municipal School

38. Monks' School

Fig. 7:

Wat Suthat vihan: exterior (author)

Wat SuMat - vihan: painted columns (author)

Fig. 9:

Wat Sufhat vihan: date inscriptions undemeath the murals

(author)

Fig. 10:

Wat Suthat vihan: protector deities on a door (author)

Fig. 11:

Wat Suthat vihan: framed murals atop a door (author)

Fig. 12:

Wat Sufhat vihan: bats hanging from the ceiling (before

restoration) (taken from Wat Sualat Ein Beispiel deutscher
Ku#urhiIfe, p. 168)

Fig. 13:

Wat Pho restoration project (June 1998); application of protective

layer (author)

Fig. 15:

Wat Suthat - restoration project; reconstruction of missing pieces

(taken from Wat Suthat Ein BeispieI deutscher Kultumife, pp.152)

Fig. 16:

Wat Phu restoration project (June 1998); reconstruction of

missing pieces (author)

Fig. 17:

Plan of the Palazzo Ducale in Mantua (taken fmm Giovanni

Paccagnini, Mantegna, La Camera degli Sposi(Milan: Fratelli
Fabri. 1968), p-4.

PALAZZO DUCALE DI hFANTOVA

La stanza contrassegrrata con

Fig. 18:

Camera degli Sposi splay of northwest window: the date of

commencement painted in mock graffito (taken from Cordaro, p.13)

Fig. 19:

Camera deglispost view of the north and West walls (taken from
Cordaro, p.70)

Fig. 20:

Camera deglisposi view of the east and south walls with mock
drapes (taken frorn Codaro, p. 15 )

Fig. 21:

Camera degli Spost part of west wall: the painted tablet with the
dedicatory inscription to Ludovico and Barbara. Mantegna's
signature and the date 1474 (taken from Cordaro. p.150)

Fig. 22:

Camera degli Sposk view of the north and west walls and vanous
elements of the ceiling (taken from Cordaro. p.14)

Fig. 23:

Camera degli Sposk Octavian Augustus (taken from Cordaro, p.

60)

Camera degli S ' O SArion

~ on the Dolphin (taken from Cordaro. p.
68)

Fig. 25:

Camera degli Sposi the vauk with the oculus (taken from Cordaro.
P- 56)

Fig. 26:

Camera degli Sposi view of the north wall with the 'court' scene
(taken frorn Cordaro, p-73)

Fig. 28:

Camera degli Sposk example of applied trateggio in the 'meeting'

scene (taken from Cordaro, p.161)

Fig. 29

Camera degli Sposk 'disappearing' Magi in the 'meeting' scene

(taken from Lightbown, p.89)