Nervous System

Endocrine system

Reproduction System
Female

Male

DNA

RNA

Similarities of DNA and RNA

What are the similarities?

As Shubhi mentions, both can carry genetic information and share three of the four letter
codes(molecules) that constitute them. Though both can serve as information repositories
DNA is a better information repository than RNA due to some differences.

One difference is in one of the four letter codes that constitute them - thymine in DNA vs
uracil in RNA. The choice of thymine over uracil may have to do with the advantages it
confers from DNA repair perspective http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/book...

Another and perhaps the key difference is the absence of an oxygen atom in DNA
backbone structure making it more stable and so a better information repository.

The presence of the additional oxygen ( hydroxyl group) in the backbone structure
makes RNA a better catalyst.

Perhaps it is this catalytic capability along with the information carrying capacity of RNA
that enabled life - a molecule that can catalyze its own replication with bootstrapping
being done by a soil/clay substrate (speculative).

Genetic Disorders
Genetic disorders are conditions caused by abnormalities in the genetic material
contained within our cells.
Some of these genetic abnormalities can lead to cancer, while others lead to various other
health conditions. Genetic disorders may be heritable and passed on from family members or
non-heritable and acquired during a persons lifetime. Acquired genetic disorders refer to
conditions caused by acquired mutations or changes in parts of the DNA. These conditions only
become heritable if the mutation occurs in the germ line. To what extent a person suffers form a
genetic condition may be determined to some degree by environmental factors.
Advances in our understanding of the human genome have led to the identification of
various genes and gene products as well as improving our understanding of gene expression, its
regulation and how these factors interact in genetic disorders.
Improved understanding of the human genome is also gradually demonstrating that
almost all diseases have a genetic component. These mutations may not necessarily manifest as
disease and may only cause symptoms in the presence of environmental toxins. For example,
cigarette smoke can raise the risk of lung cancer in susceptible individuals. Other genetic
disorders are congenital and affect a person from the moment they are born. Some disorders are
inherited but may only affect a person later in life, such as Huntingtons disease, a
neurodegenerative disorder where the typical age-of-onset is 35 to 44 years.
Genetic disorders can also be multifactorial inheritance disorders, meaning they are
caused by a combination of several mutations and environmental factors. Conditions as common
as heart disease and diabetes are now considered to be multifactorial disorders.

Geologic time scale

This clock representation shows

some of the major units of geological
time and definitive events of Earth
history. The Hadean eon represents the
time before fossil record of life on
Earth; its upper boundary is now
regarded as 4.0 Ga (billion years ago).[1]
Other subdivisions reflect the evolution
of life; the Archean and Proterozoic are
both eons, the Palaeozoic, Mesozoic
and Cenozoic are eras of the
Phanerozoic eon. The two million year
Quaternary period, the time of
recognizable humans, is too small to be
visible at this scale.
The geological time scale
(GTS) is a system of chronological measurement that relates stratigraphy to time, and is used by
geologists, paleontologists, and other Earth scientists to describe the timing and relationships
between events that have occurred throughout Earths history. The table of geologic time spans
presented here agrees with the nomenclature, dates and standard color codes set forth by the
International Commission on Stratigraphy.
Evidence from radiometric dating indicates that Earth is about 4.54 billion years old.[2][3]
The geology or deep time of Earths past has been organized into various units according to
events which took place in each period. Different spans of time on the GTS are usually delimited
by changes in the composition of strata which correspond to them, indicating major geological or
paleontological events, such as mass extinctions. For example, the boundary between the
Cretaceous period and the Paleogene period is defined by the CretaceousPaleogene extinction
event, which marked the demise of the non-avian dinosaurs and many other groups of life. Older
time spans which predate the reliable fossil record (before the Proterozoic Eon) are defined by
the absolute age.

STORM SURGE
Storm surge

Elements of a storm tide at high tide

A storm surge is a coastal flood or tsunami-like phenomenon of rising water commonly
associated with low pressure weather systems (such as tropical cyclones and strong extratropical
cyclones), the severity of which is affected by the shallowness and orientation of the water body
relative to storm path, and the timing of tides. Most casualties during tropical cyclones occur as
the result of storm surges.
The two main meteorological factors contributing to a storm surge are a long fetch of
winds spiraling inward toward the storm, and a low-pressure-induced dome of water drawn up
under and trailing the storm's center. The second effect is responsible for destructive
meteotsunamis associated with the most intense tropical systems.

Historic storm surges

Total destruction of the Bolivar Peninsula (Texas) by Hurricane Ike's meteotsunamic

storm surge in 2008
The deadliest storm surge on record was the 1970 Bhola cyclone, which killed up to
500,000 people in the area of the Bay of Bengal. The low-lying coast of the Bay of Bengal is
particularly vulnerable to surges caused by tropical cyclones. [1] The deadliest storm surge in the
twenty-first century was caused by the Cyclone Nargis, which killed more than 138,000 people
in Myanmar in May 2008. The next deadliest in this century was caused by the Typhoon Haiyan
(Yolanda), which killed more than 20,000 people in the central Philippines in 2013 [2][3][4] and
resulted in economic losses estimated at $14 billion (USD).[5]
The Galveston Hurricane of 1900, a Category 4 hurricane that struck Galveston, Texas,
drove a devastating surge ashore; between 6,000 and 12,000 lives were lost, making it the
deadliest natural disaster ever to strike the United States.[6]
The highest storm tide noted in historical accounts was produced by the 1899 Cyclone
Mahina, estimated at almost 44 ft (13 metres) at Bathurst Bay, Australia, but research published
in 2000 saw the majority of this was likely wave run-up, due to the steep coastal topography.[7] In
the United States, one of the greatest recorded storm surges was generated by 2005's Hurricane
Katrina, which produced a maximum storm surge of more than 25 ft (8 metres) in the
communities of Waveland (41.5 ft), Bay St. Louis (38 ft), Diamondhead (30 ft) and Pass
Christian (35 ft) in Mississippi.[8] Another record storm surge occurred in this same area from

Hurricane Camille in August 1969, with the highest storm tide of record noted from a high water
mark as 24.6 ft (7.5 m), also found in Pass Christian (the back side of St. Louis Bay got up to
35 ft).[9] A high storm surge occurred in New York City from Hurricane Sandy in October 2012,
with a high tide of 14 ft (4.2 m).
Question
What impacts storm surge and how are these impacts generalized?

Intensity (higher winds speeds=increased storm surge)

Central pressure (little impact)

Forward speed (slower storms=higher and broader storm surge inland

including bays and estuaries; faster storms=more storm surge along the open
coast)

Size (storm with large wind field=more storm surge; storm with small wind
field=less storm surge)

Angle of approach (perpendicular to coastline=more storm surge; parallel to

coastline=less storm surge)

Width and slope of continental shelf (wide shelf/gentle slope=more storm

surge with relatively small waves; narrow shelf/sharp slope=less storm surge
with relatively big waves)

TRIVIA
What is storm surge inundation?

This is simply referencing storm surge as height above ground level. For the
SLOSH model, this is done by subtracting the average elevation of each
SLOSH grid cell from the water level computed by the SLOSH model which is
referenced to a vertical datum. This helps to alleviate the confusion inherent
with vertical datums. Now, when we say twenty feet of water, we mean
twenty feet above ground level.