Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
There are two ways of relating what a person has said: direct and
indirect. In both cases we deal with peculiar types of composite
sentences: She said, I have lost my book.
In indirect speech we report in our own words what another person
has said; therefore indirect speech is commonly called reported
speech: She said that she had lost her book.
Indirect speech is normally used in conversations.
When we turn direct speech into indirect some changes are usually
necessary, such as the backshifting of tenses, the change of persons,
adverbs and, sometimes, word order.
Indirect statement
When the introductory verb is in the past tense, the verbs in the
subordinate clauses change according to the rules of the sequence of
tenses. (am was; is working was working; was had been; has
eaten had eaten; will be would be)
Exceptions:
1) Past tenses used in time clauses do not normally change: He said,
When we were living in Paris we often saw Paul He said that
when they were living in Paris they often saw Paul.
2) A past tense used to describe a state of affairs which still exists
when the speech is reported remains unchanged: She said, I decided
not to buy the house because it was on main road. She said she
had decided not to buy the house because it was on a main road.
2. The Noun.
A noun is a word that names a person, place, or thing.
There are four kinds of noun in English:
Common nouns name any one of a class of person, place, or thing:
dog, man, table.
Proper nouns name a specific person, place, or thing: France,
Madrid, Tom, Stieshkina
Abstract nouns denote some quality, state, action, or idea: beauty,
charity, courage, fear, joy.
Collective nouns name groups of people or things: crowd, group,
team.
A noun can function as the subject of a verb, the complement of a
verb, the object of a verb. A noun can also be in possessive case.
Noun has three genders: a masculine, feminine, neuter.
The plural form of a noun is usually made by adding -s to the
singular. But there some exceptions. A few words dont change their
plural form at all (aircraft, craft, counsel). Some words are always
plural and take a plural verb (clothes, police, pants, pyjamas, trousers,
binoculars, pilers, scissors, spectacles, glasses, scales, scales, shears,
etc.)
Some words are plural in form but singular in meaning (news, mums,
billiards, darts, draughts, dominoes.)
Subjunctive Mood
Past
Can
Could
Could
May
Might
Might
Will
Would
Would
Some modal verbs, for instance must, should, ought, have only one
unchangeable form.
Modal verbs are called defective because they lack some grammatical
forms:
1) They do not take the s-inflexion in the 3rd person singular.
2) All of them lack verbals and analytical forms.
3) All of them, except ought and sometimes need, are followed by
the infinitive without participle to.
Probability:
First, they can be used when we want to say how sure we are that
something happened / is happening / will happen. We often call these
'modals of deduction' or 'speculation' or 'certainty' or 'probability'.
For example:
It's snowing, so it must be very cold outside.
I don't know where John is. He could have missed the train.
This bill can't be right. 200 for two cups of coffee!
Ability
We use 'can' and 'could' to talk about a skill or ability.
For example:
She can speak six languages.
4. The Participle.
PARTICIPLE I
I. The morphological characteristics. Participle I has the
grammatical categories of:
Voice
Active
Passive
Asking
Being asked
Writing
Being written
e.g. Reading the book, he tried to
make some notes.
Tense correlation
Non-perfect
Asking
Being asked
Writing
Being written
The
non-perfect
form
of
participle I of such verbs as to
enter, to arrive, to look, to
turn, etc. is used as an adverbial
modifier expresses priority:
e.g. Turning to his sister, he
grasped her hand.
e.g. Here is
the
telegram
announcing
his arrival.
He came
up to the
crying
child.
a) the complex
object
(noun
in
the
common case or
pronoun in the
objective case +
participle I):
e.g. I hate you
talking like that.
b) the complex
subject
(noun
in
the
common case or a
pronoun in the
nominative case +
participle I):
e.g. Two people
were
heard
quarrelling.
c) the nominative
absolute participle
construction
(a noun in the
common case or a
pronoun in the
nominative case +
participle I):
e.g. He ran into the
room, his eyes
shining.
the action of the verb-predicate or prior to it: e.g. This is the letter
written by you yesterday.
Participle II of objective verbs is always passive in meaning.
II. The syntactical characteristics. Participle II has the following
functions in the sentence:
An attribute The
An
adverbial A part of the
predicative
modifier
complex object
Look at that He
felt a) of time: When The
complex
broken cup. disappointed. asked he always object
with
Look at the She
was helped me.
participle II is
cup broken expensively
b)
of
clause: used after:
by you.
dressed.
Occupied by his 1) verbs with a
thoughts he didnt causative
hear my question. meaning
c) of condition: If denoting
that
asked he always something
is
helped me.
done or made for
d) of concession: the benefit of the
Though occupied person expressed
by his thoughts, he by the subject: I
willingly answered had my hair cut.
my question.
2) the verb of
e) of comparison: sense
He looked at me, perception:
as if bewildered by When I returned,
my question.
I found her gone.
3) the verbs
denoting wish: I
want the letter
posted at once.
5. Passive Voice.
Passive voice is used when the focus is on the action. It is not
important or not known, however, who or what is performing the
action.
Example: My bike was stolen.
In the example above, the focus is on the fact that my bike was stolen.
I do not know, who did it.
Sometimes a statement in passive is more polite than active voice, as
the following example shows:
Example: A mistake was made.
In this case, I focus on the fact that a mistake was made, but I do not
blame anyone (e.g. You have made a mistake.).
Form of Passive
Subject + finite form of to be + Past Participle (3rd column
of irregular verbs)
Example: A letter was written.
When rewriting active sentences in passive voice, note the following:
the object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive
sentence
the finite form of the verb is changed (to be + past participle)
the subject of the active sentence becomes the object of the passive
sentence (or is dropped)
Tense
Subject Verb
Object
Simple
Active: Rita
Present
by Rita.
Simple
Active: Rita
a letter.
Past
by Rita.
Present
Active: Rita
a letter.
Perfect
Future I
Active: Rita
Tense
Present
writes
a letter.
wrote
has written
will write
a letter.
by Rita.
Subject Verb
Object
Active: Rita
is writing
a letter.
by Rita.
Past
a letter.
Active: Rita
was writing
being by Rita.
written
Past
Active: Rita
had written
a letter.
Perfect
Future II
Active: Rita
would write
a letter.
would
II
written
have a letter.
6. The Gerund.
I. The morphological characteristics. The gerund has the
grammatical categories of:
Voice
Active
Passive
Asking
Being asked
Reading
Being read
e.g. She is fond of reading.
e.g. She is fond of being read
to.
Tense correlation
Non-Perfect
Perfect
Asking
Having asked
Being asked
Having been asked
Expresses priority:
Expresses priority:
after the prepositions on, He told me of her having gone
after
to the South for her holidays.
e.g. After reading the book he
returned it to the library.
after verbs of recollection,
gratitude, blame, reproach,
punishment and reward:
e.g. I regret telling him about it.
II. The syntactical characteristics. The gerund has the following
functions in the sentence:
A part of
The
the
An
An adverbial
An object
subject compound
attribute modifier
predicate
e.g.
a)
the a)
a
direct e.g. All a) of time:
Reading predicative: object after the liked the e.g. On entering
is useful e.g. Seeing verbs (to deny, idea of the room he
is believing to mind, to going to came up to me.
b) the part avoid, to delay, the
b) of manner
of
the etc.)
country and attending
compound
verbal
predicate:
e.g.
She
stopped
smoking
e.g.
Please,
avoid making
such mistakes.
b)aprepositional
object after the
verbs (to think
of, to insist on,
to thank for, to
prevent from,
etc.):
He
insisted
on
doing the work
himself.
circumstances:
e.g. He left the
room without
saying a word.
c)
of
concession:
e.g. In spite of
being tired they
decided to go
on with their
work.
d) of clause:
e.g. He didnt
say a word for
fear
of
interfering into
their
conversation.
7. THE VERB
Voice is a grammatical category of the verb which indicates the
relation between an action and its agent: It shows whether the subject is
the doer of the action or whether it is acted upon.
The verb in Modern English has two voice forms: the Active Voice
and the Passive Voice
The Active Voice shows that the person or thing denoted by the subject
is the doer of the action expressed by the predicate, i. e. the action is
performed by its subject: I write a letter.
The Passive Voice shows that the person or thing denoted by the
subject is acted upon, i. e. the subject is the recipient of the action: A
letter is written by me.
ACTIVE VOICE
The Present Simple Tense
A In the affirmative the present simple has the same form as the
infinitive but adds an s for the third person singular.
Irregular verbs form this tense in exactly the same way.
ought
should
fulfilled action
could
the verbs expressing hope or intention
WITH
THE
INFINITIVE
for
9. NUMERALS
The numeral is apart of speech which indicates number or the order
of persons and things in a series.
Accordingly numerals are divided into cardinals (cardinal numerals)
and ordinals (ordinal numerals).
Cardinal numerals
Cardinal numerals indicate exact number, they are used in counting.
As to their structure, the cardinal numerals from 1 to 12 and 100,
1000, 1,000,000 are simple words (one, two, three, etc., hundred,
thousand, million)', those from 13 to 19 are derivatives with the suffix
-teen (thirteen, fourteen, etc.)', the cardinal numerals indicating
tens are formed by means of the suffix -ty (twenty, thirty, etc.). The
numerals from 21 to 29, from 31 to 39, etc. are composite: twentytwo, thirty-five, etc.
Such cardinal numerals as hundred, thousand, million may be
used with articles (a hundred, a thousand, a million)', they maybe
substantivized and used in the plural (hundreds, thousands, millions).
When used after other numerals they do not take - s (two
hundred times, thirty thousand years etc.).
The word million may be used with or without -s (two million,
two millions).
Points to notice about cardinal numbers
a is more usual than one before hundred, thousand,
million etc., when these numbers stand alone or begin an expression:
100 a hundred, 1,000 a thousand, 100,000a hundred
thousand.
The words hundred, thousand, million and dozen,
when used of a definite number, are never made plural: six hundred
men, ten thousand pounds, two dozen eggs.
If however, these words are used loosely, merely to convey the
idea of a large number, they must be made plural: hundreds of
people, thousands of birds, dozens of times. Note also that in this case
the preposition of is placed after hundreds, thousands etc.
Note the collective numbers. 6 a half dozen/half a dozen; 12
a/one dozen; 20 a/one score; 24 is two dozen not two dozens;
144 a/one gross; three score years and ten (Biblical) 70 years,
the traditional average life-span of man.
Decimals (decimal fractions) are indicated by , which is read
point: 10 92 ten point nine two. A zero after a decimal point is
usually read nought: 8*04 eight point nought four.
When writing in words or reading fractions (vulgar fractions)
other than l/2 (a half) and 1/4 (a quarter), we use a combination of
cardinal and ordinal numbers: l/5 a/one fifth, 1/I0a lone one tenth
(a is more usual than "one).
Ordinal numerals
Ordinal numerals show the order of persons and things in a series.
With the exception of the first three (first, second, third) the ordinal
numerals are formed from cardinal numerals by means of the suffix
-th.
In ordinal groups only the last member of the group takes the ordinal
form: (the) sixty-fifth, (the) twenty-third.
Ordinal numerals are generally used with the definite article (the
first, the fifth, the tenth, etc.). Ordinal numerals may be used with the
indefinite article when they do not show a definite order of persons
and things in a series:
Points to notice about ordinal numbers
irregular spelling of fifth, eighth, ninth and twelfth.
When ordinal numbers are expressed in figures the last two letters
of the written word must be added (except in dates): first = 1st,
twenty-first = 21st, second = 2nd, forty-second = 42nd, third = 3rd,
sixty-third = 63rd, fourth = 4th, eightieth = 80th.
In compound ordinal numbers the rule about and is the same as
for compound cardinal numbers: 101 = the hundred and first.
The article the normally precedes ordinal numbers: the sixtieth
day, the fortieth visitor.
Dates are expressed by ordinal numbers, so when speaking we
say: March the tenth, July the fourteenth etc. or the tenth of March
etc. The year
10. THE SENTENCE
The sentence is the smallest unit of speech conveying a thought and
built in accordance with the laws of grammar.
It serves as a unit of communication. By using sentences in
conversation and in writing one tells something to others, asks them
about something or makes them do something: I am ready. Are you
ready? Get ready.
Unlike a word or word-group, a sentence is always characterized by
a certain intonation.
a) general questions
b) special questions
Imply
choice.
Structurally they
are formed with
two interrogative
clauses. The first
clause is spoken
with
a
rising
intonation,
the
c) alternative
questions
It is very cold
today, isn`t it?
A few people
knew the answer,
didn`t they? BUT:
Few people knew
the answer, did
they.
Singular
I me
you - you
he/she/it
him/her/it
Plural
we us
you you
they them
me, him, her, us, them can be direct objects of a verb: I saw
her. Tom likes them, or indirect objects: Bill found me a job. Ann
gave him a book, or objects of a preposition: with him, for her,
without them, to us.
II Possessive adjectives and pronouns
Possessive
adjectives
my
your
his/her/its
our
your
their
Possessive
pronouns
mine
yours
his/hers
ours
yours
theirs
IV
Emphasizing pronouns
VII BOTH
! both means one and the other. It takes a plural verb, both
can be used alone or followed by a noun: Both (doors) were open or
by (of) + the/these/those or possessives: both (of) the wheels, both
(of) your wheels or by of + us/you/ them: Both of us knew him.
VIII neither, either
! neither means not one and not the other. It takes an
affirmative singular verb. I tried both keys but neither (of them)
worked. Neither of them knew the way/Neither boy knew
! Pronouns and possessive adjectives with neither/either used of
people should technically be he/him, she/her and his/her, but in
colloquial English the plural forms are generally used: Neither of
them knows the way, do they? Neither of them had brought their
passports.
! neither nor + affirmative verb is an emphatic way of
combining two negatives
IX Indefinite/negative adjectives and pronouns (some, any, no and
none)
1. some and any mean a certain number or amount. They are
used with or instead of plural or uncountable nouns. Some is a
possible plural form of a/an and one: Have a biscuit/some
biscuits.
2. . some is used:
! With affirmative verbs
! In questions where the answer yes is expected
! In offers and requests:
3. any is used:
! With negative verbs: + hardly, barely, scarcely, without,
if/whether, no, none. I havent any matches.
no and none can be used with affirmative verbs to express a
negative: / have no apples. I had some last year but I have none this
year.
some or any used with singular, countable nouns
any can mean practically every, no particular (one): Any
dictionary will give you the meaning of these words.
X someone, somebody, something, anyone, anybody, anything, no
one, nobody, nothing
Compounds with some, any and no follow the above rules:
Someone/Somebody gave you a ticket for the pop concert. No
one/Nobody has ever given me a free ticket for anything. Do you want
anything from the chemist?
someone, somebody, anyone, anybody, no one, nobody can be
possessive: Someones passport has been stolen. Is this
somebodys/anybodys seat? I dont want to waste anyones time.
XI another, other, others with one and some A another, other,
others
Adjective
Pronoun
Singular
Plural
another
other
another
others
object
possessive
For things:
subject/object
whom, who
(pronoun)
whose (pronoun and
adjective)
13 The Adverb
The Adverb is part of speech which usually describe verbs, adjective,
other adverb
Classification of adverbs:
1)Adverb of the time: today, yesterday, now, etc.
2)Adverb of place: here, there, anywhere, up, down, etc.
3)Adverb of direction: forward, backward, away, etc.
4)Adverb of manner: quickly, quietly, kindly, etc.
5)Adverb of frequency: once, twice, often, always, etc.
6)Adverb of degree: very, rather, quite, etc.
Exceptions:
a) Adj ending in -ly have no adverb form.
b) The following adverb have the same form as their adjectives: high,
low, near, far, hard, fast, early, late, much, little.
c) The adverbs in -ly formed from the same root have different
meaning.
There are some adverbs formed from the roots of pronouns, the socalled pronominal adverbs. They include adverbs of all kinds and
indicate time, place, manner, etc. in a relative way, similar to the
found in pronouns.
Within this group of pronominal adverbs there is found a group of
conjunctive adverbs: when, where, how, etc.
Degrees of comparison:
a) In most cases they are formed by adding more and the most:
quickly-more quickly- the most quickly
b) One-syllable adverbs, however, add -er, -est: hard-harder-the
hardest
c)The adverb early forms degrees pf comparison in the same way as
one-syllable adj.: early-earlier-the earliest
d)Irregular forms: well-better-the best
! Age
! Shape
! Color
! Origin
! Material
Description of appearance: Height/ Build/ Age/ Facial features/
Hair/ Clothes
A postpositive attribute is usually expressed by a group of words:
! A prepositional phrase (a girl of about 7 dreams to see a unicorn)
! A verbal construction (there is nowhere else for you to go)
! An attributibe clause ( That is what I need)
! An adjective word group
! Adjectives in able ible (possible, imaginable)
! Adj with the prefix a- (I will stay alive)
! Some adj of French origin
! Some adverbs ( I heard his voice upstairs)
! An infinitive ( The President had no comment to make)
! Participle II (the methods used)
Apposition attribute denotes the class or group to which the
modifier belongs / It may be a title, profession, geographical name (
Uncle Tom, Professor Higgins )
Detached apposition is separated from headword with commas, and
has its own stress (John, my eldest son,)
Can be expressed by
! A group of homogeneous adjectives
" by an adverb;
" expressions of the
type at hand, by
chance, side by side,
tooth and nail, etc.;
" by a prepositional
phrase
" by a noun-word
group (without
preposition);
" a noun with an
attribute in postposition;
" by a verbal or its
complex;
" by a conjunctive
phrase;
" by a clause.
of time and
frequency;
of place and
direction;
of manner or
attending
circumstances;
of clause or reason;
of purpose;
of result;
of condition;
of concession.
! A.M. of frequency
(always, never,
often, seldom) are
placed before the
predicate.
! of degree, measure
and manner are
placed either after
the verb or after the
direct object.
! of time and place
are put either at the
end or at the
beginning.
! such modifiers as
never, no sooner,
only, only now, up,
in, off, away, so,
thus, etc. when
placed at the
beginning, may
invert word order.
now, up, in, off,
away, so, thus, etc.
when placed at the
beginning, may
invert word order.
15 The adjective
Adjectives describe nouns. They have same forms in the singular
and plural. They go before nouns, but after the verbs be, look, smell,
sound, fell, etc.
There are opinion adjectives(show what a person thinks of somebody
or something) and fact adjectives(give us factual information about
size, age, color, origin, material, etc).
Degrees of comparison
There are three degrees of comparison:
1) Positive: big
2) Comparative: bigger
3) Superlative: the biggest
Forming degrees of comparison:
a) One-syllable adj form their comparative and superlative be adding
-er and -es to the positive form (synthetical way)
b) Adj of three or more syllables from their comparative and
superlative by putting more and most before the positive
(analytical way)
c) Adj of two syllables follow one or other of above rules
Those ending in -ful or -re usually take more and most:
careful-more careful the most careful
Those ending in -er, -y and -ly add -er, -est: clevercleverer-the cleverest
d) Irregular degrees of comparison: good-better-the best
e) A few adj have two forms of comparison: the second form has a
special meaning and is actually a different word.
Far-further-the furthest(of distance and time)
Far-farther-the farthest(of distance only)
f) In compound adj the first element forms degrees of comparison
with -er, -est(If the two elements retain their separate meaning):
well-known - better-known the best-known
16.Word order
Word order in English is of much greater importance than in
Ukrainian. Due to the wealth of inflexions word order in Ukrainian is
rather free as the inflexions show the function of each word in a
sentence. As English words have hardly any inflexions and their
relation to each other is shown by their place in the sentence and not
by their form word order in English is fixed.
We cannot change the position of different parts of the sentence,
especially the subject and the object.
In Ukrainian such changes of word order are in most cases
possible.
Example of direct word order in an English declarative
sentence:
1. the subject;
2. the predicate;
3. objects;
4. adverbial modifier.
Any deviation from the rigid word order is termed inversion,
e.g. Often has he recollected the glorious days of the Civil War.
The direct object is usually placed after the verb unless the
indirect object precedes it, e.g. He offered me his help. Sometimes the
object is pushed to the front of the sentence, it occurs when:
1. The direct object is an interrogative word, which is naturally
placed at the head of the sentence to form a special question, e.g.
What did you do?
2. The object is separated from its verb by some other parts of the
sentence adverbial complements, prepositional objects when it is
intentionally placed at the end of the sentence for the sake of
emphasis, logical stress, e.g. And unexpectedly he saw against the
background of the forest two approaching figures.
The indirect object cannot be used in the sentence without the
direct object. The indirect object is regularly put before the direct
object. The prepositional objects can be put at the head of the sentence
for the sake of emphasis.
The back shifting of tenses is quite natural when the fact reported
belongs definitely to the past. (He told me that she was ill, but now (he
tells me that) she is all right again).
Very frequently the shifting is not required logically. The speaker
simply goes on speaking in the tense adapted to the main idea.
Thus there may be 2 kinds of sequence of tenses: formal and
logical.
The former is normally used in the object clauses, no matter how
illogical it may look.
However formal sequence of tenses is not observed where logical
time relations are of more significance than formal rules. (Columbus
proved that the earth is round).
BUT (I thought you were a gentleman. (now I see youre not).
Wish about past = Wish + Past perfect (I wish I hadnt eaten that
airplane food).
Conditionals
Zero conditional - This conditional is used when the result will
always happen. So, if water reaches 100 degrees, it always boils. It's a
fact. (We can make a zero conditional sentence with two present
simple verbs).
First conditional - The first conditional has the present simple
after 'if', then the future simple in the other clause. It's used to talk
about things which might happen in the future.
If it rains, I won't go to the park.
The second conditional uses the past simple after if, then 'would'
and the infinitive
First, we can use it to talk about things in the future that are
probably not going to be true. Maybe I'm imagining some dream for
example.
If I won the lottery, I would buy a big house.(I probably won't
win the lottery)
Second, we can use it to talk about something in the present which
is impossible, because it's not true. Is that clear? Have a look at the
examples:
If I had his number, I would call him. (I don't have his number
now, so it's impossible for me to call him).
We make the third conditional by using the past perfect after 'if'
and then 'would have' and the past participle in the second part of the
sentence:
It talks about the past. It's used to describe a situation that didn't
happen, and to imagine the result of this situation.
If I hadn't eaten so much, I wouldn't have felt sick (but I did eat a
lot, and so I did feel sick).
Mixed Conditional
(Past Condition, Present Result) - (Present Condition, Past Result)
1st caluse has its partial invertion (not only, butno sooner , than)
2nd part is more significant semanticaly.
Consecutive clauses
The second clause of this sentences is introduced by the conjunctive
pronoun WHICH.
This clause is not subordinated by to the first but its a kind of
afterthought, developing idea.
(I had to have my car filled, which held me up)
*** resemble complex sentence with attributive clause. Difference
that attributive clause is subordinated to some part of the principal
clause. (I had to take my new car, which I bought a week ago)