Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Aryal
Unit 1
Introduction
Organization Behavior Concept
Understanding one individual's behavior is a challenging problem in and of itself. The
work of organizations gets done through the behavior of people, individually or
collectively, on their own or in collaboration with technology. Thus, central to the
management task is the management of organizational behavior. To do this, there must
be the capacity to understand the patterns of behavior at individual, group, and
organization levels, to predict what behavior responses will be elicited by different
managerial actions, and finally to use understanding and prediction to achieve control.
Organizational behavior is the study of what people do in an organization and how that
behavior affects the performance of the organizations. It is an academic discipline
concerned with describing, understanding, predicting, and controlling human behavior in
an organizational environment.
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In 1776, Adam Smith advocated a new form of organizational structure which is based
on the division of labour. One hundred years later, German sociologist Max Weber wrote
about rational organizations and initiated discussion of charismatic leadership. Soon
after, Frederick Winslow Taylor, also known as father of scientific management,
introduced the systematic use of goal setting and rewards to motivate employees. In the
1920s, Australian-born Harvard professor Elton Mayo and his colleagues conducted
productivity studies at Western Electric's Hawthorne plant in the United States.
Although the above contributions traces its roots back to Max Weber and earlier
scientists, organizational behavioral studies is generally considered to have begun as an
academic field with the advent of scientific management of F.W. Taylor. In the
Taylorism, rationalizing the organization with specific sets of instructions and timemotion studies, individual compensation system can lead lead to the increased
productivity and efficiency.
After the First World War, the focus of organizational studies shifted to analysis of how
human factors and psychology affected organizations, a transformation propelled by the
identification of the Hawthorne Effect of Elton Mayo. This Human Relations Movement
focused on teams, motivation, and the actualization of the goals of individuals within
organizations, the Prominent scholars for it were, Frederick Herzberg, Abraham Maslow,
David McClelland, and Victor Vroom, those have contributed in motivational theories.
The Second World War further shifted the field, as the invention of large-scale logistics
and operations research and the management science. Interest grew in theory and
methods to the sciences of management rather that art, including systems theory, the
study of organizations with a complexity theory perspective and complexity strategy.
The major contributors were Herbert Alexander Simon and James G. March.
In the 1960s and 1970s, the field was strongly influenced by social psychology also and the emphasis
in academic study was on quantitative research. An explosion of theorizing, much of it at Stanford
University and Carnegie Mellon, produced Bounded Rationality, Informal Organization, Contingency
Theory, Resource Dependence, Institutional Theory, and Population Ecology theories, among many
others.
Starting in the 1980s, cultural explanations of organizations and change became an important part of
study. Qualitative methods of study became more acceptable, informed by anthropology, psychology
and sociology.
Specific Contributions
Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856-1915):
Taylor was the first person who attempted to study human behavior at work using a
systematic approach. Taylor studied human characteristics, social environment, task,
physical environment, capacity, speed, durability, cost and their interaction with each
other. His overall objective was to reduce and/or remove human variability. Taylor
worked to achieve his goal of making work behaviors stable and predictable so that
maximum output could be achieved. He relied strongly upon monetary incentive
systems, believing that humans are primarily motivated by money. He faced some
strong criticism, including being accused of telling managers to treat workers as
machines without minds, but his work was very productive and laid many foundation
principles for modern management study.
Elton Mayo:
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Elton Mayo, an Australian national, headed the Hawthorne Studies at Harvard. In his
classic writing in 1931, Human Problems of an Industrial Civilization, he advised
managers to deal with emotional needs of employees at work.
Mary Parker Follett:
Mary Parker Follett was a pioneer woman management consultant in the industrial
world, which was mainly dominated by males. As a writer, she provided analyses on
workers as having complex combinations of attitude, beliefs, and needs. She told
managers to motivate employees on their job performance, apull rather than a "push"
strategy.
Douglas McGregor:
Douglas McGregor proposed two theories/assumptions, which are very nearly the
opposite of each other, about human nature based on his experience as a management
consultant. His first theory was Theory X, which is pessimistic and negative; and
according to McGregor it is how managers traditionally perceive their workers. Then, in
order to help managers replace that theory/assumption, he gave Theory Y which takes
a more modern and positive approach. He believed that managers could achieve more if
managers start perceiving their employees as self-energized, committed, responsible
and creative beings. By means of his Theory Y, he in fact challenged the traditional
theorists to adopt a developmental approach to their employees. He also wrote a book
The Human Side of Enterprise in 1960; this book has become a foundation for the
modern view of employees at work.
Psychology
Psychology refers to the science that tries to measure, explain, predict and sometimes
change the behavior of humans. OB focuses on human psychology through learning,
perception, personality emotions, training, leadership, motivation, job satisfaction etc.
Sociology
It is the study of people in the organization in relation with others which includes, group,
teams, communication, power, conflict etc.
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Behavioral
Science
Psychology
Contribution
Unit of
Analysis
Output
Learning
Motivation
Personality
Emotions
Perception
Training
Leadership effectiveness
Job satisfaction
Individual decision
making
Performance appraisal
Attitude measurement
Employee selection
Work design
Work stress
Individua
l
Group dynamics
Work teams
Communication
Power
Conflict
Inter group behaviour
Sociology
Social
Psychology
Formal organization
theory
Organizational
technology
Organizational change
Organizational culture
Behavioral change
Attitude change
Communication'
Group process
Group decision making
Group
Organizationa
l System
Comparative values
Comparative attitudes
Cross-cultural analysis
Anthropolog
y
Study of
Organizationa
l Behavior
Organizational culture
Organizational
Environment
Conflict
Source: Stephen P. Robbins
Intraorganizational
psychologypolitics
Power
Political
science
Social
It is the combine of both Psychology and Sociology which focuses on influence of people
on one another. The fields of study are: Behavioral change, attitude change,
communication, group process and group decision making.
Anthropology
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It is the study about societies to identify about human beings and their activities such as
cultures and environments.
Political Science
Political science primarily focuses on studying the behavior of individuals and groups
within the political environment within the organization which includes conflict,
Intraorganizational politics and power.
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Managers need to cope those "temporariness" in job and workers. They need to
learn about flexibility, to predict, creating the organizational culture, overcome
the barriers to change, which can be learnt through OB.
10.
The use of computer and internet in workplace is increasing day by day. The
interlink between the organizations and workplace using communication
technologies is rapidly expanding, resulting the networked organizations.
Organization becomes complex allowing maximum number of people without any
physical distance, like a global village. Motivating, leading and communicating
those virtually connected employees is highly challenging. OB can be the
important insight for getting knowledge to help managing those logically
connected people.
11.
In recent days, employees often feel that they are unable to create balance
between the work and their personal life. They blame that their job create
problem in their family life because of lacking take care about their family, spouse
or children since they almost busy in office work even in home. The fast growing
organizations, these days, have no office hours, specially no closing hours. It
sometimes, creates conflict, bore and interfere in personal life and they are not
happy.
It has been seen that there should be the balance between the work and personal
life. They need flexibility in their work schedules, with equal emphasis on "life"
and "job". And if this happens, it is very difficult to attract the most capable and
motivated employees. OB offers different ideas, suggestions and guidance in
maintaining balance between these two and resolving the conflict.
12.
13.
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3.
4.
5.
Computerization in organizations
6.
7.
8.
9.
Unionization
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Unit 2
Perception
Concept
Perception is our sensory experience of the world around us and involves both the
recognition of environmental stimuli and actions in response to these stimuli. Through
the perceptual process, we gain information about properties and elements of the
environment that are critical to our survival. Perception not only creates our experience
of the world around us; it allows us to act within our environment.
"Perception is a process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory
impression in order to give meaning to their environment." S.P. Robbins
It is the process of becoming aware of something through the senses and achieving
understanding of it; the process of interpretation based on sensation; the psychological
ability to process or use information received through the sense organs
So that perception is the set of psychological processes by which people recognize,
organize, synthesize, and give meaning (in the brain) to the sensations received from
environmental stimuli (in the sense organs)
Why is it Important?
Study about perception is very important because peoples behavior is based on their
perception of what reality is, not on reality itself. The world that is perceived is the
world that is behaviorally important.
Sensation usually refers to the immediate, relatively unprocessed result of stimulation
of sensory receptors in the eyes, ears, nose, tongue, or skin. Perception, on the other
hand, better describes one's ultimate experience of the world and typically involves
further processing of sensory input. In practice, sensation and perception are virtually
impossible to separate, because they are part of one continuous process.
Perceptual Process
The perceptual process is a sequence of steps that begins with the environment and
leads to our perception of a stimulus and an action in response to the stimulus.
We speak of a 'sense of humor' because different people sense humor in different
things. What one person perceives (senses) to be funny, another person might not.
On the other hand when one has managed to perceive humor in something, laughter (in
one register or another) follows rather automatically. It is the behavioral response to the
perception of humor.
The perceptual process involves brain structuring, and how it organizes
incoming stimuli, determines what we experience.
The perceptual process is a sequence of steps that starts with the stimuli that happen in
our surroundings and leads through nerve transmission through peripheral and central
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nerves and the brain to our perception of what is going on. It also includes our resulting
action to the original stimulus.
So, the perceptual process involved when we go outside from a room with no windows
on a rainy day is that the stimulus from the environment - the fact that it is raining and
cold and we are getting wet - is recognized by our senses. Our eyes, ears, cold receptors
and touch receptors all send signals to the brain, which works out that its raining.
The cognitive process within the brain then comes up with the decision to go back inside
and pick up a coat and an umbrella before we set out again. This is our response to the
stimulus.
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Internal factors: The behavior that are believed to be under the personal control of
the individual.
(Late: Over slipping)
External factors: The result from outside cause; that is the person is seen as having
been forced into
the behavior by the situation. (Late: Traffic Jam)
Consistency:
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Perceiver
Target
Situation
2. When an individual looks at a target and attempts to interpret what he or she sees,
that interpretation is heavily influenced by personal characteristics of the individual
perceiver.
3. The more relevant personal characteristics affecting perception of the perceiver are
attitudes, motives, interests, past experiences, and expectations.
4. Characteristics of the target can also affect what is being perceived. This would
include attractiveness, gregariousness, and our tendency to group similar things
together. For example, members of a group with clearly distinguishable features or
color are often perceived as alike in other, unrelated characteristics as well.
5. The context in which we see objects or events also influences our attention. This
could include time, heat, light, or other situational factors.
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Unit 3
Learning
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Concept
Learning is one of the most important mental functions of humans, animals and artificial
cognitive systems. It relies on the acquisition of different types of knowledge supported by
perceived information. It leads to the development of new capacities, skills, values,
understanding, and preferences. Its goal is the increasing of individual and group
experience.
According to S.P. Robbins, Learning is any relatively permanent change in behavior
that occurs as a result of experience.
So that learning is the process of acquiring knowledge, skills, attitudes or values through
study, experience or teaching that causes a change of behaviour that is persistent,
measurable and specified or allows an individual to formulate a new mental construct or
revise a prior mental conduct. It is an ongoing process in occurring at all times.
Steps in Learning
The followings four are the steps in learning process:
1. Input: The communication or message, information or any other that you get from
the sensory organs is the input for learning.
2. Response: The response after getting input as an understanding of input It is the
acting shown by the learner, your immediate response whether you motivate or
not.
3. Motivation: The drive towards the learning process, showing the activity, interest
and attitude to learn. Individuals need high degree of motivation towards learning
4. Reinforcement: The final outcome of learning determines the reinforcement. It is
the process of forcing the learner to change his or her behavior. The learner is
reinforced to learn something using positive as well as negative ways. For eg.,
students get punishment if they became unable to answer.
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Models of Learning
Also known as theories of learning, models of learning explain about how individuals learn in
their life. The scientific investigation of the learning process was begun at the end of the
19th century by Ivan Pavlov in Russia and Edward Thorndike in the United States. Three
models are currently widely used to explain changes in learned behavior.
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c. Punishment:
Positive punishment (also called "Punishment by contingent stimulation")
occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by an aversive stimulus, such as
introducing a shock or loud noise, resulting in a decrease in that behavior.
Negative punishment (also called "Punishment by contingent withdrawal")
occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by the removal of a favorable
stimulus, such as taking away a child's toy following an undesired behavior,
resulting in a decrease in that behavior.
Unit 4
Personality
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Concept
As we meet different people in our daily lives, we talk about their personality. We need
to see personality not at parts of the person, but as a whole. Personality is the different
physical and mental characteristics that reflect how a person looks, feels, decides, acts
and reacts which comprises internal (invisible) and external (visible) character.
Personality can be defined as:
Determinants of Personality
Heredity
Researchers have discovered that almost fifty percent of human behavior and
personality characteristics are genetically inherited. Those are the parental and
biological factors, physiological and psychological factors.
Environment
The environment the individual grows up, the family background, culture and society,
norms andHeredity
belief, values and attitude, education, income, employment
influences the
Environment
personality.
Positive
&
negative
aspects
of
upbringing
affect
personality.
Family background
Physical structure
Facial attractiveness
Temperament
(nature)
Muscle Composition
Energy Level
Gender, age, race,
height, weight
Personality
Behavior
Education
Income
Employment
Experience
Society, culture
and friends
Situation
The situational
factors that shows
the certain behaviors
(Place, Function,
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Position)
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Situation
Even though environment and heredity determines the personality, the situation may
modify in individual's personality. The demand of the current situation, the place,
function and position greatly influences in showing the certain behavior. Some situations
are: in temple, at employment interview, at Picnic, Public Park.
Personality Traits
Personality traits are the bearing or enduring characteristics that describes the behavior
of an individual like shy, aggressive, lazy, ambitious, loyal, timid (fearful) etc..
Individuals show those traits repetitively in a noticeable form and those characters
become personality traits. Researchers believe that the personality traits could help in
employee selection, placement and career development.
Different scientists tried to identify the common personality traits and they spent many
years . The two popular models of Personality Traits are explained below.
Those who prefer Sensing Perception favor clear, tangible data and
information that fits in well with their direct here-and-now experience. They
like practical and prefer routine and order.
In contrast, those who prefer Intuition Perception are drawn to information
that is more abstract, conceptual, big-picture, and represents imaginative
possibilities for the future.
Sensing Characteristics
Intuitive Characteristics
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b) The second set of mental preferences identifies how people form "Judgments"
or make decisions. In the Myers MBTI Type Code, this is the third letter.
Those who prefer Thinking Judgment have a natural preference for making
decisions in an objective, logical, and analytical manner with an emphasis on
tasks and results to be accomplished.
Those whose preference is for Feeling Judgment make their decisions in a
somewhat global, visceral, harmony and value-oriented way, paying particular
attention to the impact of decisions and actions on other people.
Thinking Characteristics
Feeling Characteristics
Those who prefer Introversion draw their primary energy from the
inner world of information, thoughts, ideas, and other reflections. When
circumstances require an excessive amount of attention spent in the
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Introverted Characteristics
b) Judging vs Perceiving
Those who prefer Judging typically leads to a style oriented towards closure,
organization, planning, or in some fashion managing the things and or people
found in the external environment. The drive is to order the outside world.
They want control, to be ordered and well structured.
Those who prefer Perceiving typically results in an open, adaptable, flexible
style of relating to the things and people found in the outside world. The drive
is to experience the outside world rather than order it; in general lack of
closure is easily tolerated.
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Judging Characteristics
Perceiving Characteristics
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I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
am always prepared.
am exacting in my work.
follow a schedule.
get chores done right away.
like order.
pay attention to details.
leave my belongings around. (reversed)
make a mess of things. (reversed)
often forget to put things back in their proper place. (reversed)
shirk my duties. (reversed)
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themselves for other people. Sometimes their skepticism about others motives
causes them to be suspicious, unfriendly, and uncooperative.
Sample Agreeableness items
I am interested in people.
I feel others emotions.
I have a soft heart.
I make people feel at ease.
I sympathize with others feelings.
I take time out for others.
I am not interested in other peoples problems. (reversed)
I am not really interested in others. (reversed)
I feel little concern for others. (reversed)
I insult people. (reversed)
5. Emtional Etsbility (Neuroticism) - a tendency to experience unpleasant
emotions easily, such as anger, anxiety, depression, or vulnerability; sometimes
called emotional instability.
Neuroticism is the tendency to experience negative emotions, such as anger,
anxiety, or depression. It is sometimes called emotional instability. Those who
score high in neuroticism are emotionally reactive and vulnerable to stress. They
are more likely to interpret ordinary situations as threatening, and minor
frustrations as hopelessly difficult. Their negative emotional reactions tend to
persist for unusually long periods of time, which means they are often in a bad
mood. These problems in emotional regulation can diminish a neurotic's ability to
think clearly, make decisions, and cope effectively with stress.
At the other end of the scale, individuals who score low in neuroticism are less
easily upset and are less emotionally reactive. They tend to be calm, emotionally
stable, and free from persistent negative feelings. Freedom from negative
feelings does not mean that low scorers experience a lot of positive feelings.
Sample Neuroticism items
I am easily disturbed.
I change my mood a lot.
I get irritated easily.
I get stressed out easily.
I get upset easily.
I have frequent mood swings.
I often feel depressed.
I worry about things.
I am relaxed most of the time. (reversed)
I seldom feel depressed.(reversed)
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3. Self-Esteem
Self-esteem is a person's overall self-appraisal of his or her own worth. It is the
degree they like or dislike themselves. Self-esteem encompasses beliefs (for
example, "I am competent /incompetent") and emotions (for example,
success/failure, pride/ humiliation).
Self-esteem can apply specifically to a particular dimension (for example, "I
believe I am a good writer, and feel proud of that in particular") or have global
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extent (for example, "I believe I am a good person, and feel proud of myself in
general").
4. Self-Monitoring
The theory is proposed by Mark Snyder in 1974. The theory refers to the process
through which people regulate their own behavior in order to "look good" so that
they will be perceived by others in a favorable manner. It disintinguishes
between high self-monitors, who monitor their behaviour to fit different
situations, and low self-monitors, who are more cross-situationally consistent.
Some people are sensitive to how other sees them, and they always adjust their
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7. Proactive Personality
Proactive personality is the trait of the individual who identify opportunities, show
initiative, take action and preserve until meaningful change occurs. They create a
positive change in environment to remove obstacles and go forward. These
people are highly suitable for entrepreneurship, management and they are likely
to be success. Nevertheless, they may leave the organization to establish their
own business. They are very clever in maintaining relationship, influencing work
situations and career planning.
1. Person-Job Fit
In this context, John Holland Development Personality-Job Fit Theory. He explained it
Holland presents six personality types and proposes that satisfaction and the
propensity to leave a job depend on the degree to which individuals successfully
match their personalities to an occupational environment.
Each one of the six personality types has a congruent occupational environment.
The theory argues that satisfaction is highest and turnover lowest when
personality and occupation are in agreement.
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Type
Personal
Characteristics
Congruent
Occupation
Realistic:
Prefers
physical Shy, genuine, persistent, Mechanic, drill press
activities that require skill, stable,
conforming, operator, assembly-line
strength and coordination
practical
worker, farmer
Investigative: Prefers activities Analytical, original,
that involve thinking, organizing curious, independent
and understanding
Biologist, economist,
mathematician news
reporter
Sociable, friendly,
cooperative,
understanding
Accountant, corporate
manager, bank teller,
file clerk
Conventional:
Prefers
regulated,
orderly,
unambiguous activities
Painter, musician,
writer, interior decorator
Matching people to the organizational culture at the time of hiring should result in
higher employee satisfaction and reduced turnover.
Unit 5
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Motivation
Concept and Process
Since motivation influences productivity, supervisors need to understand what
motivates employees to reach peak performance. It is not an easy task to increase
employee motivation because employees respond in different ways to their jobs and
their organization's practices.
Motivation is the set of processes that moves a person toward a goal. Thus, motivated
behaviors are voluntary choices controlled by the individual employee. The supervisor
(motivator) wants to influence the factors that motivate employees to higher levels of
productivity.
Factors that affect work motivation include individual differences, job characteristics,
and organizational practices. Individual differences are the personal needs, values, and
attitudes, interests and abilities that people bring to their jobs. Job characteristics are
the aspects of the position that determine its limitations and challenges.
Organizational practices are the rules, human resources policies, managerial practices,
and rewards systems of an organization. Supervisors must consider how these factors
interact to affect employee job performance.
"The process that account for an individual's intensity direction and persistence of
effort toward attaining a goal." - S.P. Robbins
"Motivation is the set of forces that causes people to behave in certain ways." R.W.
Griffin
On any given day, an employee may choose to work as hard as possible
at a job, to work just a hard enough to avoid a reprimand (warning), or
to do as little as possible. The Level of motivation varies both between
individual and within individuals at different times which lead to show
the aforementioned behavior.
Choice of behavior to
satisfy need
Importance of Motivation
1. Optimum use of resources
2. Productivity improvement
Evaluation of Need
Satisfaction
Motivation
Feedback
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3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Motivation Theories
Early Theories
The theories which have not held up well under examination
1. Maslow's Need Hierarchy Theory
2. Hertzberg's Motivation Hygiene Theory
3. Theory X and Theory Y
Contemporary Theory
There are number of contemporary theories that have one ting in common-each has a
reasonable degree of valid supporting documentation.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Expectancy Theory
ERG Theory
Equity Theory
McClelland's Need Achievement Theory
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Achievement
Challenging job
Self Actualization
Needs
High order
needs
Status
Esteem Needs
Respect of others, and ego
or status needs
Friendship
Social needs
Belongingness, affection, friendship
Safety needs
Stability
Bodily needs
Criticisms
Physiological needs
Hunger, thirst, the activity, sleep, sex
Job Title
Friends at work
Pension Plans
Low order
needs
Base Salary
1. Theoretical difficulties
2. Not research based
3. Superfluous classification scheme: The model is based more on wisher of what an
'SHOULD BE' rather than what he 'ACTUALLY' is.
4. Individual difference
Assumption of Theory X
1. Employees inherently dislike work and, wherever possible, will attempt to avoid it.
2. Since employee dislike work, they must be coerced, controlled, or threatened punishment
to achieve goals.
3. Employees will avoid responsibility and seek formal direction whenever possible
4. Most workers place security above all other factors associated with work and will display
little ambition.
Assumption of Theory Y
1.
2.
3.
4.
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Motivational Factors
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
Achievement
Recognition
Work itself
Responsibility
Advancement
Growth
Contrasting views of Satisfaction
Traditional View
Satisfaction
Dissatisfaction
Herzberg's view
Motivators
Satisfaction
No satisfaction
Hygiene Factors
No dissatisfaction
Dissatisfaction
Criticisms
1. The procedure that Hertzberg used is limit by its methodology. When things are going
well, people tend to take credit themselves. They blame failure on the extrinsic
environment.
2. The reliability of Hertzberg's methodology is questioned.
3. No overall measure of satisfaction was used.
4. The theory is inconsistent with previous research. It ignores situational variables.
5. No relationship between satisfaction and productivity.
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4. ERG Theory
-
(Clayton Alderfer)
There are three groups of core needs: existence, relatedness and growth.
Growth
(Esteem,
actualization
needs)
Self
Relatednes
s
(Social
needs)
Existence
(Physiological
and
safety needs)
ERG Theory argues that satisfied lower-order needs lead to desire to satisfied higher-order needs;
but multiple needs can be operating as motivators at the same time, and frustrations in
attempting to satisfy a higher-level need can result in regression to a lower level need.
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?
=
Outcomes (Others)
Input (Others)
When employees perceive an inequity, they can be predicted to make one of six choices:
1) Change their inputs-effort
2) Change their outcomes-result (product)
3) Distort perception of self
4) Distort perception of others
5) Choose different referent
6) Leave the field/quit job
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PO
Individual
Performance
Valence
Organization
al Resources
Personal
Goals
Theory
Summary
Individual
Hierarchy of
Needs
Abraham
Maslow
Theory XTheory Y
Douglas
McGregor
MotivationHygiene
Frederick
Hertzberg
Argues that intrinsic job factors motivate whereas extrinsic factors only
placate employees.
ERG Theory
Clayton
Alderfer
Need
Achievement
David
McClelland
There are three groups of core needs: existence, relatedness and growth.
Existence: Physiological and safety needs
Relatedness: Social needs
Growth: Esteem, Self actualization needs
Proposes that there are three major needs in workplace situations:
achievement, affiliation and power: A high need to achieve has been
positively related to higher work performance when jobs provide
responsibility, feedback, and moderate challenge.
Equity
Theory
J. Stacey
Adams
Expectancy
Theory
Victor Vroom
Unit 6
Groups in Organization
Concept
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Group can be defined as two or more humans that interact with one another, accept
expectations and obligations as members of the group, and share a common identity. A
true group exhibits some degree of cohesion and is more than a simple collection or
aggregate of individuals, such as people waiting at a bus stop. Characteristics shared by
members of a group include interests, values, ethnic or social background, and kinship
ties. According to Paul Hare, the defining characteristic of a group is social interaction.
So that group can be defined as two or more freely interacting individuals who share a
common identity and purpose.
"Group is defined as two or more persons who interact regularly to accomplish a
common purpose or goal." - Gary Dessler
"A work group is a collection of two or more people who interact with each other, share
similar interests and come together to accomplish some work activity." - Arnold &
Feldman
"Two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who have come together to
achieve particular objectives."- S.P. Robbins
Characteristics of group
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
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Types of groups
1) Formal group:
Formal group is a collection of people created to do something productive that
contributes to the success of the larger organization. Formal group is defined by
organizational structure and established under formal authority.
a) Command group: A group created by the organization that report directly
to the specified manager and are controlled by him/her.
b) Task Groups: A group with cross command relationship who are not
limited to their hierarchical form and work together to complete a job or
task. They need high coordination among the group members and are
responsible for specific non-routine activities.
2) Informal group: A group created by its members for purpose that may or may
not be relevant to the organization's goals. It is not defined by organizational
structure and it does not have formal authority. It is a collection of people seeking
friendship and acceptance that satisfies esteem needs.
a) Interest group: Those who form a grouping to fulfil the certain interest
which is concerned by each member.
b) Friendship group: The group which is formed for social alliance and they
come together that have common characteristics for fostering friendship.
(Ethnic groups/Religious Groups of other )
Personal interest
- Temporary in nature
(Ethnic groups, politics affiliated unions are some examples)
To accomplish tasks that are not possible individually through formal relations
alone
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Forming
This is the initial stage when the group comes together and members begin to
develop their relationship with one another and learn what is expected of them. This
is the stage when team building begins and trust starts to develop and individuals
test themselves whether they can be the part of group. Group members will start
establishing limits on acceptable behavior through experimentation. In this stage, it
is uncertain about the purpose, structure of group and leader.
Forming
Test which
interpersonal
behaviors ate
acceptable and
which are
unacceptable to
the other members
Storming
Storming
Norming
Performing
Develop
group structure
Group's
agenda
Recognizing
leader
Pattern of
interaction
Acceptance
of roles and
understand
others role
Sense of
unity
Enacting
roles
Direct effort
toward goal
attainment and
performance
During this stage of group development, interpersonal conflicts arise and differences
of opinion about the group and its goals will surface. If the group is unable to clearly
state its purposes and goals or if it cannot agree on shared goals, the group may
collapse at this point. It is important to work through the conflict at this time and to
establish clear goals. It is necessary for there to be discussion so everyone feels
heard and can come to an agreement on the direction the group is to move in.
Norming
Once the group resolves its conflicts, it can now establish patterns of how to get its
work done. In this stage, we find the close relationship and cohesiveness among the
group members. Expectations of one another are clearly articulated and accepted by
members of the group. Formal and informal procedures are established in delegating
tasks, responding to questions, and in the process by which the group functions.
Members of the group come to understand how the group as a whole operates.
Performing
It is the final stage for the permanent work group. During this fourth stage of group
development, issues related to roles, expectations, and norms are no longer of major
importance. The group is now focused on its task, working intentionally and
effectively to accomplish its goals. The group will find that it can enjoy its
accomplishments and that members will be learning new skills and sharing roles.
After a group enters the performing stage, it is unrealistic to expect it to remain
there permanently. When new members join or some people leave, there will be a
new process of forming, storming, and norming engaged as everyone learns about
one another. External events may lead to conflicts within the group. To remain
healthy, groups will go through all of these processes in a continuous circle.
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Adjourning
The final stage of group development is adjourning which is only for the temporary
groups. In this stage, the temporary group members who has specific goal enclose all
their activities and formally end the group.
When conflict arises in a group, do not try to silence the conflict or to run from it. Let
the conflict come out into the open so people can discuss it. If the conflict is kept
under the surface, members will not be able to build trusting relationships and this
could harm the groups effectiveness. If handled properly, the group will come out of
the conflict with a stronger sense of cohesiveness then before.
Group Structure:
Concept
Group structure is the process of shaping the behavior of the individual members to
make it possible to explain and able to predicting their behavior for increasing the
group performance. We study the different variables of those group structure which
helps understanding and shaping the behavior.
Leadership
Leadership is a process by which a person influences others to accomplish an
objective and directs the organization in a way that makes it more cohesive and
coherent. Leaders carry out this process by applying their leadership attributes, such
as beliefs, values, ethics, character, knowledge, and skills. To be an effective leader,
your followers must have trust in you and they need to be sold on your vision.
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Roles
A role is a set of connected behaviors, rights and obligations as conceptualized by
actors in a social situation. It is mostly defined as an expected behavior in a given
individual social status and social position. A set of expectations govern the behavior of
persons holding a particular role in group; a set of norms that defines how persons in a
particular position should behave.
According to S.P. Robbins, Role is a set of expected behavior patterns attributed
to someone occupying a given position in a social unit.
Role Identity: It is the certain behaviors and attitudes of the individual which are
consistent with a role. Individuals have the ability to shift or change their roles rapidly
when the situation or environment changes. For Example, employee changes his or her
role rapidly after the promotion.
Role Perception: Role perception is the view of the individuals how they need to act
while playing roles in a given situation. We perceive to act in different situations by the
friend, society, teachers, videos or other source. An employee perceives managerial
roles observing the activities of seniors.
Role Expectation: It is the expectation from others how should you act in a given
situation. Psychological contract is an example in which management and employees do
unwritten contract what management expects and vice versa.
Role confusion is a situation where an individual has trouble determining which role
he/she should play. For example, one could be a college student who would attend a
convention of a particular recreational interest and find his or her teacher there. Conflict
between behaving as a student and as an enthusiast who shares the same interest
emerges, leading to confusion.
Role conflict characterises a situation where fulfilling a certain role has a conflict with
fulfilling another role. For example, you found your teacher made a mistake and should
you report that? If you did, you might disgrace him and if you didn't, you might not fulfil
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your role as student. While role conflict takes place across different role sets, role strain
happens within the same role set.
Every member of a group plays a certain role within that group. Some roles relate to the task aspect of
the group, while others promote social interaction. Here are the examples of some roles that group
members play.
Task-Oriented Roles
Social Roles
Individualistic Roles
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Status
Status is a position or rank given to groups or group members by the organization. It
can be the job title, benefits and services, facilities etc. which differentiates the
status from one to another. Status plays a dominant role in organizational behavior
since it affects motivation, leadership, job satisfaction and other behavioral
consequences.
In organization, people who control the group using their power tend to be in high
status. The leader or manager of a group will be in high status than the members or
employees. Besides this, status also depends upon to the contribution to the group.
For instance, in a playgroup, the individual who has extra performance can have
higher status event though they are in same group.
Norms
Norms are the standards (degrees of acceptability and unacceptability) for conduct
that helps individuals judge what is right or wrong and good or bad in a given social
setting. They:
To express key group values and enhance the groups unique identity.
Norms are effective guides for social behavior. Norms must be activated before they
can guide. Individuals are expected to fulfill their role in society. Society regulates
the behavior of different roles on a reward or punishment system. Individuals
primarily attempt to fulfill their roles for their own succession.
Rewarded- Individuals are rewarded for living up to their roles (i.e. students getting
an "A" on their exam)
Punished- Individuals are punished for not completing the duties of their role (i.e. a
salesman is fired for not selling enough product)
Size
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Size does matter at least as far as groups are concerned. In very small groups, the
addition or loss of one member can of course make a radical difference to the group
process. Larger groups need to be managed in quite different ways from smaller
ones. So let's tackle this systematically: "Formal" features refer to necessary
properties of the group, and are functions of the number of people and "Process"
features are more empirically determined. Those formality and process are more
important as the size gets greater.
Smaller groups are faster to complete the tasks and making decisions than the larger
one. But if the purpose of group is problem solving and fact finding, they can get
better result because of more inputs. Generally, seven members of group are found
to be effective and here should be odd number in group size.
Social loafing
The term social loafing is one important finding about the group size. Social
loafing is a tendency of the individuals to make less effort in group than
individually. So it claims that the sum total productivity of the individuals always
less than that of group. It indicates that increase in group size inversely related to
individual performance.
Composition
The group members should have the variety of abilities. The dissimilar abilities,
inclusive and participative group can be effective than the similar and homogenous.
There should be different personalities, gender, race, age, academic background and
level, skills, experience. But there can be different compositional factors according
to the group objectives and types. If there is high level of diversity, it creates conflict
and competition in group leading to high productivity if the leader is very able to
manage conflict.
Cohesiveness
Cohesiveness is the degree of being attractive, motivated and committed in the
group. It is the level of mutual understanding, cooperation and belongingness within
the members.
The group which are cohesive can spent hours of time in interaction, they can stay
together and collectively defend the external threats. It is the factor that keeps its
members within the group for long duration.
Performance Norms
Low
High
Low
High
Productivity
Low
Productivity
Moderate
productivity
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Moderate to
Low
Productivity
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Advantages
More information and knowledge
are available
More alternatives are likely to be
generated
More acceptance of the final
decisions is likely
Enhanced communication of
decision making may result
Better decision generally emerge
Disadvantages
1 The process takes longer, so it is
costlier
2 Compromise decision resulting from
indecisiveness may emerge`
3 One person may dominate the group
4 Group think may occur
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b) Groupshift: It is change in decision risk between the group's decision and the
individual decision that members within the group would make; can be with
towards conservatism or greater risk - S.P. Robbins. Group shift, also known as a
special case of group think, is a change in decision risk between the groups
decision and the individual decision that members within the group would make,
can be either toward conservatism (traditional or popular) or greater risk decision
in comparison to the decision by the individual alone. In group decision, the initial
positions of individual members of a group are exaggerated toward a more
extreme position
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Disadvantages
Credit for another persons ideas may impede participation
Works best when participants represent a wide range of disciplines
Characteristics
Panel of experts
Facilitator who leads the process (manager)
Anonymous participation
Makes it easier to change opinion
Iterative processing of the responses in several rounds
Interaction through questionnaires
Same arguments are not repeated
Estimates and associated arguments are generated by and presented to the
panel
Statistical interpretation of the forecasts
Individual Activity
Team members
receive description
of problem
Individuals silently
write down
possible solutions.
Individual Activity
Individuals silently
rank or vote on each
solution presented.
Advantages
Best for small group meetings
Fact finding and Idea generation
Search of problem or solution
Disadvantages
Not suitable for routine business and Bargaining
Problems with predetermined outcomes
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decision making, voting or other analysis and prediction of values. Web based
applications can also be used of offline software like o Excel, Access may also be used
for decisional purpose.
Advantages
Graphical support for problem structuring, value and probability elicitation
Facilitate changes to models relatively easily
Sensitivity analyses can be easily conducted
Analysis of complex value and probability structures
Possibility to carry out analysis in distributed mode
Unit 7
Leadership
Concept and Nature
Leader is a person who can influence the behaviour of others without having to rely on
force, who is a person accepted by others as a leader.
"Leadership is the ability to influence a group toward the achievement of goals." Robbins
"Leadership is a process, the use of noncoercieve influence to shape the group's
or organization' goals, motivate behaviour toward the achievement of those
goals, and help define group or organization culture; as a property, the set of
characteristics attributed to individuals who are perceived to be leaders." - Griffin
So that the leadership can be defined as a process that takes place in groups in which
one member influences and controls the behaviour of the other members toward some
common goal."
Management
Planning & Budgeting
- Establishing detailed
steps, allocating
resources
48
Leadership
Establishing direction
- Developing vision
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Developing a human
network for achieving
the agenda
Executing plans
Aligning people
- Communication
- Influencing
- Creating teams
Motivating and Inspiring
- Energizing people to overcome
major political, bureaucratic and
resource barriers
Functions of Leadership
a) Establishing direction : Giving the proper direction to the followers where
determining the destination
b) Aligning people: Keeping the followers within the control of leader
c) Motivating and inspiring: Motivate them and try to be inspired by the leader
d) Change management: Manage any type of organizational change convincing
the followers, creating trust to the management
e) Coordination: Coordinate where necessary
f) Determining goal: Determine both long and short-term goals and objectives to
be achieved
g) Representing organization: Manager represents on behalf of the organization.
h) Making quick and rational decision: Leaders should be able to make
immediate and rational decisions
i) Environmental adaptation: Make the change according to the environmental
change to adopt to it
j) Communication: Effective communication to its stakeholders
Honesty - Display sincerity, integrity, and candor in all your actions. Deceptive
behavior will not inspire trust.
Forward-looking Set goals and have a vision of the future. The vision must be
owned throughout the organization. Effective leaders envision what they want
and how to get it. They habitually pick priorities stemming from their basic
values.
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Leadership Theories
1) Trait Theory of Leadership
Trait theory assumes that some basic trait (character) or set of traits existed that
differentiated leaders from non leaders. Those traits include intelligence,
assertiveness, good looking, good vocabulary, attractiveness, self-confidence,
ability, commitment etc. It emphasizes on 'leaders by born'
It assumes that people inherit certain qualities and traits that make them better
suited to leadership. Trait theories often identify particular personality or
behavioral characteristics shared by leaders. But if particular traits are key
features of leadership, how do we explain people who possess those qualities but
are not leaders? This question is one of the difficulties in using trait theories to
explain leadership.
Decenzo and Robbins have mentioned six traits which differentiated leaders from
non-leaders.
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
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heroic, mythic and intended to rise to leadership when needed. The term Great
Man was used because, at the time, leadership was thought of primarily as a
male quality, especially in terms of military leadership. This was easy to verify,
by pointing to people such as Jesus and Buddha.
It concludes that leader is born and we can not make them since they need to act
and behave highly differently than non-leaders; they are the very great man in
organization and very difficult to find leaders everywhere
2) Behavioural Theory of Leadership (People can be trained to be leader)
Opposing the views of Trait Theory, behavioural perspectives of leadership argues
that leadership depends upon the individuals how they behave others. It claims
that leadership is highly behavioural which can be trained/educated to the
individuals. It tries to identify what leaders should do rather than what leaders do.
The followings are the theories under Behavioural Perspectives:
i)
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High
Concern for
people
1.9
9.9
5.5
1.1
9.1
Michigan Studies
The researchers of University of Michigan which was led by Rensis Likert in
1940, concluded that there are two types of behaviours of the managers in
the organization.
a) Job-centered leader behaviour
The behaviour of leader who pay close attention to the job and work
procedures involved with that job.
b) Employee-centered leader behaviour
The behaviour of leaders who develop cohesive (unified) work group and
ensuring employees' satisfaction, freedom and provide necessary
assistance to their subordinates.
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3) Contingency Theory
Contingency theories of leadership focus on particular variables related to the
environment that might determine which particular style of leadership is best
suited for the situation. According to this theory, no leadership style is best in all
situations. Success depends upon a number of variables, including the leadership
style, qualities of the followers, and aspects of the situation.
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Performanc
e
Task
Oriented
Relationship
Oriented
Good
Category
Poor
Leader-member
relations
Task structure
Position power
I Favorabl
II
Good
High
Stron
g
Goo
d
High
Wea
k
III
IV
VI
VII
VIII
Unfavorable
Good
Goo
d
Low
Wea
k
Poor
Poor
Poor
Poor
High
Stron
g
High
Wea
k
Low
Stron
g
Low
Wea
k
Low
Stron
g
Since his assumption is the fix of leadership style in individual, we have only two
ways to improve the effectiveness in leadership; those are i) change the leader
and ii) change the situation (relation, task structure and position power)
Unit 8
Communication
Concept
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Communication Structure
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
Sender
Encoding
Channels
Decoding
Receiver
Noise
Feedback
Types of communication
1. Formal and Informal Communication
Formal communication
Informal communication
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Some managers keep in touch with what's going on by wandering around and
talking with people
Barriers to Communication
Nothing is so simple that it cannot be misunderstood. - Freeman Teague, Jr.
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o
o
These barriers can be thought of as filters, that is, the message leaves the
sender, goes through the above filters, and is then heard by the receiver. These
filters muffle the message. And the way to overcome filters is through active
listening and feedback.
The following are the important points:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
Individual skills
-
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S.Aryal
Organizational skills
-
Follow up
Regulate information flows
Understand the richness of media
Unit 9
Conflict Management
Concept
Conflict is a situation of disagreement to others view, idea, principle or other matter. It is
the opposition in the decision or approach given by other employees. It may be
misunderstanding or miscommunication or real but inevitable element of interpersonal
relationships in organizations.
"Conflict is a disagreement between two or more
organizations." - Griffin
individual,
group or
"Conflict is a process that begins when one party perceives that another party has
negatively affected, or is about to negatively affect, something that the first party
cares about." - S.P. Robbins
Conflict may be job-related or personal, simple or strong, short-lived or for months or
even years. Traditionally, it viewed as a problem, but in modern days, it is viewed that
some conflicts are beneficial to the organizations. All the conflicts are not harmful.
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Thoughts of Conflict
Traditional view: The belief that all conflict is harmful and must be avoided
Human relations view: The belief that conflict is a natural and inevitable outcome in
any group.
Interactionist view: The belief that conflict is not only a positive force in a group but it
is absolutely necessary for a group to perform effective ly.
High
Low
Low
Conflict
High
If there is absolutely no conflict in the group or organization, its members may become
lazy with no competition in organization. As a result, group or organizational
performance and innovation may subsequently begin to suffer. A moderate level of
conflict among group or organizational members, on the other hand, can spark
motivation, creativity, innovation and initiative and raise performance. Too much
conflict though can produce undesirable results such as hostility and lack of cooperation,
which lower performance.
Stage II
opposition or
personalizatio
Stage III
Stage IV
Stage V
Conflict
Felt
Conflict
Competing
Collaborating
Compromising
Avoiding
59
Accommodating
Over conflict
Party's
behaviour
Other's
reaction
performanc
e
Decreased
group
performanc
e
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Stage V: Outcome
As a consequence of actions and reaction as behaviour of conflict, it mat increase or
decrease the organizational performance.
Functional Outcomes: Conflict can be highly constructible t when it improves the
quality of decisions, stimulates creativity and innovation, encourages interest and
curiosity among group member, provides the medium through which problems can be
raised and releasing tension and foster the environment for self-evaluation and change.
It focuses on majority decision and avoids the rubber-stamp of decision or group think.
Dysfunctional Outcomes: It is the destructive consequence of conflict that can be
destruction of group, reduction in group cohesiveness, fighting between group
members, halt of functioning threaten for group survival etc.
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Sources of Conflict
1) Interpersonal conflict
- Great variety in goals, perception, attitudes
- Personality clash, distrust each other's motives, dislike one another
- Gender problem
2) Inter group conflict
- Conflict between two or more organizational groups that may arise from
organizational causes than interpersonal causes
- Different department often have different goals, different targets
3) Conflict between organization and environment
- Conflict between the organizations because of competition
- Conflict between organization and its particular stakeholders
Interdepartmental Conflict
One of the major causes of organizational conflict is structural, also known as
interdepartmental. Organizations are designed around product lines, regions or
technical specialties. These activities are assigned to departments that often have
mutually exclusive structured interests and goals among the departmental employees
and they interact within a framework of scarce resources and task dependency. When
resources are relatively fixed and when one department's gain is at the expense of
another, conflict should be expected. For example, employee selection is the gain HR
Department but the cost involved in the selection is expense for finance department.
If two sub-units in an organizational system have differentiated goals and are
functionally interdependent, conditions exist for conflict. Interdependence produces the
need for team work, mutual cooperation and understanding but it also creates conflict.
Major causes of departmental conflict:
o
o
o
o
o
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includes most attempts at bargaining. It is generally used when basic rights are at
stake or to set a precedent. However, it can cause the conflict to escalate and
losers may try to retaliate.
2. Collaborating
It is the intention of the parties to solve the problem by clarifying differences,
cooperation and mutually beneficial outcome for all conflicting parties. This
results from a high concern for your group's own interests, matched with a high
concern for the interests of other partners. The outcome is "win/win." This
strategy is generally used when concerns for others are important. It is also
generally the best strategy when society's interest is at stake. This approach
helps build commitment and reduce bad feelings. The drawbacks are that it takes
time and energy. In addition, some partners may take advantage of the others'
trust and openness. Generally regarded as the best approach for managing
conflict, the objective of collaboration is to reach consensus.
3. Avoiding
It is avoiding the conflicting parties/people, withdrawing or ignoring. These results
from a low concern for self-group's own interests coupled with a low concern for
the interests of others. The outcome is "lose/lose." This strategy is generally used
when other issues are more pressing. It is also used when confrontation has a
high potential for damage or more information is needed. The drawbacks are that
important decisions may be made by default.
4. Accommodating
Sacrificing your goal so that others can achieve their goal (to maintain
relationship). his results from a low concern for your group's own interests
combined with a high concern for the interests of other partners. The outcome is
"lose/win." This strategy is generally used when the issue is more important to
others than to you.
5. Compromising
Each party in a conflict give up something and solve problem. his strategy results
from a high concern for your group's own interests along with a moderate concern
for the interests of other partners. The outcome is "win some/lose some." This
strategy is generally used to achieve temporary solutions, to avoid destructive
power struggles or when time pressures exist.
Approach Description
When to use
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Approach Description
When to use
perspective is considered and
represented, this approach will allow a
win-win situation to occur.
The forcing approach requires others to yield This approach should be used when
to the point of view of one side or another. It time is a critical factor. It is imperative
is also called the win-lose approach and can that the project manager provides the
increase conflict. The forcing approach
desired resolution to the conflict. This
involves you, as project manager, using your approach doesn't solve the conflict, but
influence and powers within the project
it does ensure that things get done.
team to simply resolve the issue yourself,
making a decision about the way to move
forward.
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Managing Conflict
A Guide for Watershed Partnerships
Understanding conflict.
What is conflict?
Conflict is a natural disagreement resulting from individuals or groups that differ in attitudes, beliefs, values or
needs. It can also originate from past rivalries and personality differences. Other causes of conflict include
trying to negotiate before the timing is right or before needed information is available.
The ingredients of conflict.
Needs - Needs are things that are essential to our well-being. Conflicts arise when we ignore others' needs,
our own needs or the group's needs. Be careful not to confuse needs with desires (things we would like, but
are not essential).
Perceptions - People interpret reality differently. They perceive differences in the severity, causes and
consequences of problems. Misperceptions or differing perceptions may come from: self-perceptions, others'
perceptions, differing perceptions of situations and perceptions of threat.
Power - How people define and use power is an important influence on the number and types of conflicts that
occur. This also influences how conflict is managed. Conflicts can arise when people try to make others
change their actions or to gain an unfair advantage.
Values - Values are beliefs or principles we consider to be very important. Serious conflicts arise when people
hold incompatible values or when values are not clear. Conflicts also arise when one party refuses to accept
the fact that the other party holds something as a value rather than a preference.
Feelings and emotions - Many people let their feelings and emotions become a major influence over how
they deal with conflict. Conflicts can also occur because people ignore their own or others' feelings and
emotions. Other conflicts occur when feelings and emotions differ over a particular issue.
Conflict is not always negative. In fact, it can be healthy when effectively managed. Healthy conflict can lead
to...
Growth and innovation
New ways of thinking
Additional management options
If the conflict is understood, it can be effectively managed by reaching a consensus that meets both the
individual's and society's needs. This results in mutual benefits and strengthens the relationship. The goal is for
all to "win" by having at least some of their needs met.
How public and private conflicts differ.
Most of us have experience with conflict management and negotiation in private disputes (with a salesman,
among family members or with your employer).
Public conflicts, like those that can occur during watershed management efforts and other environmental
issues often are rooted in trying to balance environmental protection and economic growth and jobs. Keep in
mind, however, that effective watershed management can result in both economic and environmental benefits.
Some complicating factors include:
Distribution of costs and benefits. Those who benefit may not be the same as those who pay the costs.
Perceptions of problems. People tend to blame others for causing the problem.
Speed of clean-up or other actions. Some will want changes to take place more quickly than others.
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Managing Conflict
There are five steps to managing conflict. These steps are:
Analyze the conflict
Determine management strategy
Pre-negotiation
Negotiation
Post-negotiation
Step 1: Analyze the conflict.
The first step in managing conflict is to analyze the nature and type of conflict. To do this, you'll find it helpful to
ask questions.
Answers may come from your own experience, your partners or local media coverage. You may want to
actually interview some of the groups involved. Additional information regarding analyzing conflicts can be
found in the Guide to Information and Resources.
Step 2: Determine management strategy.
Once you have a general understanding of the conflict, the groups involved will need to analyze and select the
most appropriate strategy. In some cases it may be necessary to have a neutral facilitator to help move the
groups toward consensus.
Conflict Management Strategies
Collaboration
Compromise
Competition
Accommodation
Avoidance
Collaboration - This results from a high concern for your group's own interests, matched with a high concern
for the interests of other partners. The outcome is "win/win." This strategy is generally used when concerns for
others are important. It is also generally the best strategy when society's interest is at stake. This approach
helps build commitment and reduce bad feelings. The drawbacks are that it takes time and energy. In addition,
some partners may take advantage of the others' trust and openness. Generally regarded as the best approach
for managing conflict, the objective of collaboration is to reach consensus. (See the Building Local Partnerships
guide for more information about consensus.)
Compromise - This strategy results from a high concern for your group's own interests along with a moderate
concern for the interests of other partners. The outcome is "win some/lose some." This strategy is generally
used to achieve temporary solutions, to avoid destructive power struggles or when time pressures exist. One
drawback is that partners can lose sight of important values and long-term objectives. This approach can also
distract the partners from the merits of an issue and create a cynical climate.
Competition - This strategy results from a high concern for your group's own interests with less concern for
others. The outcome is "win/lose." This strategy includes most attempts at bargaining. It is generally used when
basic rights are at stake or to set a precedent. However, it can cause the conflict to escalate and losers may try
to retaliate.
Accommodation - This results from a low concern for your group's own interests combined with a high
concern for the interests of other partners. The outcome is "lose/win." This strategy is generally used when the
issue is more important to others than to you. It is a "goodwill gesture." It is also appropriate when you
recognize that you are wrong.The drawbacks are that your own ideas and concerns don't get attention. You
may also lose credibility and future influence.
Avoidance -This results from a low concern for your group's own interests coupled with a low concern for the
interests of others. The outcome is "lose/lose." This strategy is generally used when the issue is trivial or other
issues are more pressing. It is also used when confrontation has a high potential for damage or more
information is needed. The drawbacks are that important decisions may be made by default.
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Step 4: Negotiation.
Interests - When negotiating be sure to openly discuss interests, rather than stated positions. Interests include
the reasons, needs, concerns and motivations underlying positions. Satisfaction of interests should be the
common goal.
Options - To resolve conflicts, concentrate on inventing options for satisfying interests. Do not judge ideas or
favor any of the options suggested. Encourage creativity, not commitment.
Evaluation - Only after the partners have finished listing options, should the options be discussed. Determine
together which ideas are best for satisfying various interests.
Written agreement - Document areas of agreement and disagreement to ensure common understanding. This
helps ensure that agreements can be remembered and communicated clearly.
Commitment - Every partner must be confident that the others will carry out their parts of the agreement.
Discuss and agree upon methods to ensure partners understand and honor their commitments.
When evaluating options...
Use objective criteria for ranking ideas
Make trade-offs among different issues
Combine different options to form acceptable agreements
Step 5: Post-negotiation.
Once negotiation is complete, the group will need to implement the decisions made. Some key steps include:
Ratification - The partners must get support for the agreement from organizations that have a role to play in
the agreement. These organizations should be partners and should have been involved in the previous steps.
Each organization will need to follow its own procedures to review and adopt the agreement.
Implementation - You and your partners' jobs are not done when you've reached agreement. Communication
and collaboration should continue as the agreement is carried out. The partnership will need to have a plan to
monitor progress, document success, resolve problems, renegotiate terms and celebrate success.
Negotiation skills.
Negotiation is an important skill for coming to an agreement when conflicts develop at home, at work and when
dealing with issues like those related to watershed management. When negotiating...
Separate people from the problem.
When negotiating, remember you're dealing with people who have their own unique needs, emotions and
perceptions.
Some conflicts are based on differences in thinking and perceptions. These conflicts may exist mainly in
peoples' minds. It helps for each party to put themselves into the other's shoes so they can understand each
other's point of view.
Identify and openly discuss differences in perceptions, being careful not to place blame. In addition, recognize
and understand the other side's emotions as well as your own.
Interest vs. Position
People often confuse interests with positions. An interest may be reducing litter in roadside ditches. There are
many possible ways of addressing this interest. One might be the position of mandatory recycling. Another
position might be a deposit on bottles and cans. Still another could be organizing a clean-up day.
Focus on interests, not positions.
Focusing on interests, rather than positions, makes it possible to come up with better agreements. Even when
people stand on opposite positions, they usually have a few shared interests.
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It takes time and effort to identify interests. Groups may not even be clear about their own interests. It helps to
write down each group's interests as they are discovered. It helps to ask why others take the positions or make
the decisions they do. Partners will have multiple interests. Interests involving important human needs (such as
security, economic well-being, a sense of belonging, recognition and control over one's life) are difficult to
negotiate.
Develop optional solutions.
When developing optional solutions that meet the interests of all sides, try to meet as many of each side's
interests as possible. Start by inviting all sides to brainstorm ideas (before reaching a decision). Brainstorming
is discussed in the Leading & Communicating guide.
Some obstacles to developing innovative options are:
Judging and rejecting prematurely
Searching for a single best answer
Putting limits on scope or vision
Considering only your own interests
To overcome these obstacles, view the situation through the eyes of different partners. Focus on shared
interests to make the process smoother for all involved. Look for meaningful opportunities, not simple solutions.
Developing objective criteria.
When developing criteria for selecting or combining possible alternatives, revisit the conflicting interests. These
can't be ignored or "wished" away. Instead discuss them as you begin developing criteria for judging
alternatives. Also keep in mind principles such as fairness, efficiency and scientific merit.
Strive for criteria that are legitimate, practical and unbiased. You may also find it helps to explore the criteria
used in making past decisions and discuss criteria with your partners or outside experts.
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3. Competing. Work to get your way, rather than clarifying and addressing the issue. Competitors love
accommodators.
a. Use when you have a very strong conviction about your position.
4. Compromising. Mutual give-and-take.
a. Use when the goal is to get past the issue and move on.
5. Collaborating. Focus on working together.
a. Use when the goal is to meet as many current needs as possible by using mutual
resources. This approach sometimes raises new mutual needs.
b. Use when the goal is to cultivate ownership and commitment.
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Unit 10
Force
Examples
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Technology
Faster,
cheaper
and
more
mobile
computers
Online music sharing
Deciphering of the human genetic code
Economic shocks
Competition
Global competitors
Mergers and consolidations
Growth of e-commerce
Social trends
World politics
Resistance to Change
Organizational change is an enviable phenomenon in every enterprise. However,
research has shown that people of the organization resists change. Such resistance
may severely interrupt the change process. The followings are the major forces for
resistance to change.
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Structural inertia: Organizations have built-in mechanisms like their section processes
ad formalized regulations- to produce stability. When organization is confronted
with change, this structural inertia acts as a counterbalance to sustain stability
Limited focus of change: Organizations are made up of a number of interdependent
subsystems. One can't be changed without affecting the others, So, limited
changes in subsystems tend to be nullified by the larger system.
Group inertia: Even if individuals want to change their behavior, group norms may act
as a constraints,
Threat to expertise: Changes in organizational patterns may threaten the expertise if
specialized groups
Threat to established power relationships: Any redistribution of decision-making
authority can threaten long-established power relationships within the
organization
Threat to established resource allocation: Groups in the organization that control
sizable resources often see change as a threat. They tend to be content with the
way things are.
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4. Confrontation: Problems should not be swept under rug, they should be openly
cont\fronted
5. Participation: The more that people who will be affected by a change are
involved in the decisions surrounding that change, the more they will be
committed to implementing those decisions. (Source: S.P. Robbins, 2005, 532)
Feedback and
Confrontation
Action
Planning
Interventions
Sensitivity Training
Survey Feedback
Process Consultation
Team Building
Inter-group
development
Appreciative
Inquiry
3. Feedback and confrontation: After the
initial diagnosis and identifying solutions, a
summary of collected data is provided to employees for their feedback. Confrontation
takes place with disagreement. The OD team is responsible to address those
disagreements and defines the areas of priority for change.
4. Action Planning: It is the specific plan with appropriate resource allocation. With
the consultation of experts, appropriate actions with alternatives are developed with
potential consequences.
5. Interventions: It is the process of implementing the change towards the
development. Interventions are the techniques of OD for bringing the change. Such
techniques are:
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