Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
, 6, 811830, 2006
www.atmos-chem-phys.net/6/811/2006/
Author(s) 2006. This work is licensed
under a Creative Commons License.
Atmospheric
Chemistry
and Physics
Abstract. The sensitivity of ground-based instruments measuring in the infrared with respect to tropospheric water
vapour content is generally limited to the lower and middle troposphere. The large vertical gradients and variabilities avoid a better sensitivity for the upper troposphere/lower
stratosphere (UT/LS) region. In this work an optimised retrieval is presented and it is demonstrated that compared to
a commonly applied method, it improves the performance of
the FTIR technique. The reasons for this improvement and
the possible deficiencies of the method are discussed. Only
by applying the method proposed here and using measurements performed at mountain observatories can water vapour
variabilities in the UT/LS be detected in a self-consistent
manner. The precision, expressed as noise to signal ratio,
is estimated at 45%. In the middle and lower troposphere,
precisions of 22% are achieved. These estimations are confirmed by a comparison of retrieval results based on real
FTIR measurements with coinciding measurements of synoptical meteorological radiosondes.
1 Introduction
The composition of the Earths atmosphere has been profoundly modified throughout the last decades mainly by human activities. Prominent examples are the stratospheric
ozone depletion and the upward trend in the concentration
of greenhouse gases. While studies about the stratospheric
composition have progressed rather well, there still exists a
considerable deficiency for data from the free troposphere.
Knowing the composition and evolution of these altitude regions is essential for the scientific verification of the Kyoto
and Montreal Protocols and Amendments and for global climate modelling. Water vapour is the dominant greenhouse
Correspondence to: M. Schneider
(matthias.schneider@imk.fzk.de)
14
812
15
15
10
altitude [km]
altitude [km]
mean
standard
deviation
1.00
0.88
0.76
0.64
0.52
10
0.40
-0.40
-0.52
-0.64
10
15
10
altitude [km]
10
10
10
2.1
10
Fig.1.1.Description
Descriptionof
of a-priori
a-priori state. Left
Fig.
Left panel:
panel: correlation
correlationmatrix.
matrix.
Rightpanel:
panel:black
blackline:
line: mean
mean state; red line:
Right
line: standard
standarddeviation
deviationofof
meanstate.
state.
mean
probability [%]
5
1
2 Optimised
water vapour retrieval
0.1
0
10
20
30
log-normal distributed
vmrs
40
50
-1
H2O
H2O
Bx = Bxa
H2O
(2)
1122
(3)
wavenumber [cm ]
The study is based on the daily 12:00 UT soundings performed from 1999 to 2003. It has been observed that an
in-situ instrument located at the mountain observatory
and the sonde, when measuring at the observatorys altitude, detect quite different humidities because of their different locations, i.e. on the surface and in the free troposphere (see Sect. 4). For this reason the analysed profiles are
built up by a combination of the in-situ measurements at the
instruments site (for the lowest grid point; applied sensor:
Rotronic MP100H), and sonde measurements (for all other
grid points below 16 km). For higher altitudes a mean mixing ratio of 2.5 ppmv and covariances like those at 16 km are
applied. The left panel of Fig. 1 shows the correlation matrix
0a determined from these a-priori profiles. Here correlation
matrices are presented instead of the commonly shown covariance matrixes. The reason is that they can be more easily presented. Their elements are all of the same order of
magnitude (between 1 and 1), whereas in the case of water
vapor the elements of the covariance matrices extend over 8
orders of magnitude. Figure 1 demonstrates how variabilities at different altitudes typically correlate with each other.
In the real atmosphere the mixing ratios for different altitudes show correlation coefficients of at least 0.5 within a
layer of around 2.5 km. The a-priori covariance matrix Sa
is calculated from 0a by Sa =6a 0a 6a T , where 6a is a diagonal matrix containing the a-priori variabilities at a certain
altitude. These variabilities are depicted as a red line in the
right panel of Fig. 1. The black line shows the mean mixing
ratios. The determined mean and covariances only describe
the whole ensemble completely if mixing ratios are normally
distributed. This is generally assumed and often justified by
the fact that entropy is then maximised: if only the mean and
the covariance are known a supposed normal distribution is
thus the least restricting assumption about the a-priori state
(Sect. 10.3.3.2 in Rodgers, 2000). However, this does not
necessarily reflect the real situation!
A further examination of the sonde data reveals that the
mixing ratios at a certain altitude are not normally but lognormally distributed. Their pdf is:
The most probable state is the one which minimises Eq. (3).
Fig.
3. Spectral
regions
for retrieval.
is the situation
Here
(yT y )1
was applied
identified
by 2 . Plotted
It is obvious
that
for
a
real
measurement
taken
on
10
March
of
2003
(solar
elevation
the applied
a-priori
information
(B
and
x
)
influences
the
a
angle 50 ). Black line: measured spectrum; red line: simulated
solution. For water vapour the large amount of synoptispectrum; green line: difference between simulation and measurecal meteorological sonde (ptu-sonde) data allows a detailed
ment.
Px =
1
(ln x ln xa )2
exp
2 2
x 2
(4)
www.atmos-chem-phys.org/acp/6/1/
theoretical cdf
2
cdf for assumption of
normal distributed vmrs
2
cdf for assumption of
log-normal distributed
vmrs
80
60
40
20
5
1
0
10
20
30
40
50
Fig.
of a-priori
a-priori assumptions.
assumptions. Black
Blackline:
line:
Fig.2.2. 22 test
test for
for different of
theoretical 22 cumulative
cumulative distribution
theoretical
distribution function
function(cdf);
(cdf);black
blackfilled
filled
squares: 22 cdf
cdf of
of ensemble for
squares:
for assumed
assumed normal
normalpdf
pdfonona alinear
linear
scale;red
redcircles:
circles: 22 cdf of ensemble
scale;
ensemble for
forassumed
assumednormal
normalpdf
pdfonona a
logarithmicscale.
scale.
logarithmic
(5)
optimal solution. It is not related to the a-posteriori pdf in
the Bayesian sense. On a linear scaleHthe
a-priori state is logO
4
normally
distributed.
H O Therefore, seen from a statistical point
HO
HO
of view, the second term of the cost function over-constrains
states
3 above the mean and under-constrains states below the
median. As a consequence, the probability of states above the
mean is underestimated and below the median overestimated
2
the overestimation is greater the further away it is from the
centre of the a-priori distribution. Thus, if compared to a
measurement
1
retrieval solution, the retrieval tends to
correct
maximum a-posteriori
residuum
x 10
underestimate
the values of the real state
both
far above and
x 10
x 10
far below
the mean state.
0
However, the transformation on a logarithmic scale in1110 some
1111
1112
troduces
other problems:
it 1117.5
significantly 1121
increases1122
the
[cm ] requires decreasnon-linearity of the forwardwavenumber
model, which
ing the differences between each iteration step, thus lowerFig. 3. Spectral regions applied for retrieval. Plotted is the situation
ing the speed of convergence. This difficulty is overcome
for a real measurement taken on 10 March of 2003 (solar elevation
within
code
PROFFIT
by using
refined
min ). inversion
angle
50the
Black line:
measured
spectrum;
reda line:
simulated
imisation
scheme.
A
further
drawback
is
that,
in
the
retransspectrum; green line: difference between simulation and measureformed linear scale the constraints now depend on the solument.
tion, which may cause misinterpretations of the spectra. To
assess whether the linear or logarithmic retrieval performs
better both retrieval approaches are extensively examined
Atmos.
Phys., 6,
123,
first byChem.
a theoretical
(Sect.
3) 2006
and second by an empirical
validation (Sect. 4).
2
-1
99
95
0.1
2 = (x xa )T S1 (x xa )
99.9
probability [%]
813
-1
2.3
PROFFIT (Hase et al., 2004) is the inversion code used. It applies the Karlsruhe Optimised and Precise Radiative Transfer Algorithm (KOPRA, Hopfner et al., 1998; Kuntz et al.,
1998; Stiller et al., 1998) as the forward model, which was
developed for the analysis of MIPAS-Envisat limb sounder
spectra. PROFFIT enables the inversion on a linear and logarithmic scale. Hence, in the case of water vapour, it enables
the correct application of prior information to obtain a statistically optimal solution. PROFFIT does not employ a fixed
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 811830, 2006
814
I [F (x,
(p p)
y
p
p),
p]
I [F (x,
+
(y y)
y
I)(x xa ) + G
K
y)
p (p p)
+ G(y
= (A
H2O
-1
+
H2O
H2O
H2O
(6)
measurement
retrieval
residuum
1
x 10
x 10
x 10
1110
1111
1112
1117.5
1121
1122
-1
i.e. the difference between the retrieved and the real state
(xx)
the error can be linearised about a mean profile
and the measured
xa , the estimated model parameters p,
the averaging
Here I is the identity matrix, A
spectrum y.
the gain matrix, and K
p a sensitivity matrix
kernel matrix, G
to model parameters:
wavenumber [cm ]
Fig.
for retrieval.
retrieval. Plotted
Plottedisisthe
thesituation
situation
Fig.3.3. Spectral
Spectral regions
regions applied
applied for
for
a
real
measurement
taken
on
10
March
of
2003
(solar
elevation
for a real measurement taken on 10 March of 2003 (solar elevation
angle
spectrum; red
red line:
line: simulated
simulated
angle 50
50).). Black
Black line:
line: measured
measured spectrum;
spectrum;
between simulation
simulation and
andmeasuremeasurespectrum; green
green line:
line: difference
difference between
ment.
ment.
a-prioriChem.
value for
the 6,
measurement
Atmos.
Phys.,
123, 2006noise ( of Eq. 3). This
value is taken from the residuals of the fit itself, performing
an automatic quality control of the measured spectra. Furthermore, if the observed absorptions depend on temperature, PROFFIT allows the retrieval of temperature profiles.
For both the linear and logarithmic retrieval, the same retrieval setup is applied: three microwindows between 1110
and 1122 cm1 are fitted. Figure 3 shows a typical situation for an evaluation of a real measurement. The black line
represents the measurement, the red dotted line the simulated
spectrum and the green line the difference between both. The
H2 O signatures are marked in the Figure. One can observe
that two stronger lines (at 1111.5 and 1121.2 cm1 ) and two
relatively weak lines (at 1117.6 and 1120.8 cm1 ) lie within
these spectral regions, where additionally O3 is an important
absorber (numerous thin strong signatures). The profile of
this species is thus simultaneously retrieved. Other interfering gases are CO2 , N2 O, and CH4 , whereby the latter two
are also simultaneously retrieved by scaling their respective
climatological profiles, the former is kept fixed to a climatological profile. Spectroscopic line parameters are taken from
the HITRAN 2000 database Rothman et al. (2003), except
for O3 , where parameters from Wagner et al. (2002) are applied.
I [F (x,
p),
p]
F (x,
p)
I (x xa )
=G
K
A
p,
p]
= I [F (x,
G
y
p)
= F (x,
K
x
p)
p = F (x,
K
p
(7)
www.atmos-chem-phys.org/acp/6/1/
whereby K is the Jacobian. Equation (6) identifies three principle error sources. These are the inherent finite vertical resolution, the input parameters applied in the inversion procedure, and the measurement noise. This analytic error estimation may be applied if the inversion is performed on a linear
are
scale. In this case, the constraints and consequently G
However, if the inverconstant within the uncertainty of x.
sion is performed on a logarithmic scale the constraints are
constant on this scale, but variable on the retransformed linear scale. Changes of the state vector towards values above
the a-priori value are only weakly constrained, while changes
towards smaller values are more strongly constrained. As
cannot necessarily be considered constant
a consequence G
within the uncertainty of the retrieved state and some model
parameters. The latter is particularly problematic for water
vapour. The phase error of the instrumental line shape and
the temperature profile have a large impact on the spectra.
This is due to the broad and strong absorption signatures of
water vapor. Consequently, all these errors can only be estimated by a full treatment. Two forward calculations are
performed for each error estimation and for all profiles of the
large ensemble of the a-priori profiles: a first calculation with
correct parameters and a second with erroneous parameters.
Subsequently both spectra are retrieved with the correct parameter as input data. The parameter error is then given by
the difference of the two retrievals. The smoothing error is
the difference between the correct parameter retrieval and the
a-priori profile. In this work, all errors are estimated by this
full treatment for consistency reasons for both the linear and
the logarithmic retrieval.
Together with the error estimation a sensitivity assessment
is performed. Generally the averaging kernels (columns of
www.atmos-chem-phys.net/6/811/2006/
Smoothing error
Figure 4 shows correlation matrices in the absence of parameter errors. They document the sensitivity of the retrieval
www.atmos-chem-phys.net/6/811/2006/
815
816
logarithmic retrieval
15
10
1.00
0.88
0.76
0.64
0.52
0.40
-0.40
whole ensemble
15
10
1.00
0.88
0.76
0.64
0.52
0.40
-0.40
-0.52
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10
15
10
15
15
10
1.00
0.88
0.76
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0.40
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21
-2
15
10
1.00
0.88
0.76
0.64
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-0.40
-0.52
-0.64
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10
15
15
15
10
1.00
0.88
0.76
0.64
0.52
0.40
-0.40
-2
21
10
15
0.40
-0.52
10
1.00
0.88
0.76
0.64
0.52
0.40
-0.40
-0.52
-0.52
-0.64
-0.64
10
15
10
15
Fig. 4. Sensitivity
of observing
the absence
parameter error.
error. Depicted
areare
correlation
matrices
betweenbetween
assumed assumed
real profiles
Fig. 4. Sensitivity
of observing
systemsystem
in theinabsence
of of
parameter
Depicted
correlation
matrices
real profiles
and
retrieved
profiles.
Left
panels
for
retrieval
on
a
linear
scale,
right
panels
for
retrieval
on
a
logarithmic
scale.
Upper
panels
for
the
whole
and retrieved profiles. Left panels for retrieval on a linear
right panels for retrieval on a logarithmic scale.
Upper panels for the whole
21 scale,
2 sub-ensemble,
ensemble, middle panels for the LT slant<1010
and lower panels for the LT slant<51021 cm221
sub-ensemble.
21 cmcm
2 sub-ensemble,
ensemble, middle
panels
for
the
LT
slant<
10
10
and
lower
panels
for
the
LT
slant<
5
10 cm2 sub-ensemble.
Colors mark the values of the correlation coefficients () as given in legend.
Colors mark the values of the correlation coefficients () as given in legend.
www.atmos-chem-phys.org/acp/6/1/
www.atmos-chem-phys.net/6/811/2006/
-2
10
10
21
15
logarithmic retrieval
21
=1
10
20
30
=0.90; m=0.69
=0.99; m=0.96
00
10
20
30
=0.91; m=0.79
20
(9)
-2
tropopause (8.8-11.2km)
21
2
(LT-slant < 5x10 /cm )
10 0.4
0.2
0.2
=0.98; m=0.99
=0.97; m=0.95
0
0
10
15
0
20
=0.89; m=0.61
upper troposphere (7.6-10.0km)
2
0.0 < 10x10210.2
0.4
(LT-slant
/cm )
0.0
21
10
0.0
15
20
=0.94; m=0.66
0.0
-2
0.2
0.4
21
-2
21
(8)
15
10 0.4
00
15
-2
x2
20
x2
10
=0.99; m=0.99
-2
2reg
15
-2
noise/signal [%]
or
2 +
10
21
20
20
100
+ 2reg
30
2
reg
20
21
21
50
10
-2
Fig.5.5.Smoothing
Smoothing errors
errors in the retrieved profiles.
Fig.
profiles. Left
Leftpanel:
panel:linear
linear
retrieval. Right
Right panel:
panel: logarithmic
logarithmic retrieval.
retrieval.
retrieval. Colors
Colors as
asdescribed
describedinin
legend.
legend.
2reg ).
15
21
noise/signal [%]
100
50
5
10
lower0 troposphere
(2.3-3.3km)
20
altitude [km]
whole ensemble
LT slant
5
21
-2
<10x10 cm
LT slant
21
-2
<5x10 cm
10
-2
30
10
817
0,0
0,2
0,4
21
0,0
-2
0,2
0,4
21
-2
818
3.2
50
100
altitude [km]
21
10
50
50
100
noise/signal [%]
10
100
50
100
noise/signal [%]
noise/signal [%]
10
10
altitude [km]
-2
21
noise/signal [%]
10
pressure
broadening
phase error
T profile
(no retr. of T)
5
T profile
(simultaneaous
retrieval of T)
-2
solar angle
line intensity
pres. broad. coef.
S/N of 500
0.02 rad
2%
up to 2.5 K at surface
1 K rest of troposphere
0.1
5%
1%
10
whole ensemble
measurement noise
phase error
modulation eff.
T profilea
uncertainty
altitude [km]
error source
logarithmic retrieval
50
noise/signal [%]
100
50
100
noise/signal [%]
819
18
M.M.
Schneider
Watervapour
vapour
profiles
by ground-based
FTIR spectroscopy
Schneider et
et al.:
al.: Water
profiles
by ground-based
FTIR spectroscopy
820
linear retrieval
logarithmic retrieval
15
10
1.00
0.88
0.76
0.64
0.52
0.40
-0.40
whole ensemble
15
10
1.00
0.88
0.76
0.64
0.52
0.40
-0.40
-0.52
-0.52
-0.64
-0.64
10
15
10
15
15
10
1.00
0.88
0.76
0.64
0.52
0.40
-0.40
21
-2
15
10
1.00
0.88
0.76
0.64
0.52
0.40
-0.40
-0.52
-0.52
-0.64
-0.64
10
15
10
15
15
10
1.00
0.88
0.76
0.64
0.52
0.40
-0.40
10
21
-2
15
10
1.00
0.88
0.76
0.64
0.52
0.40
-0.40
-0.52
-0.52
-0.64
-0.64
15
10
15
Fig.
Same
butpresence
in the presence
of parameter
errorasaslisted
listed in Table
Fig. 8. Same
as8.Fig.
4 as
butFig.
in 4the
of parameter
error
Table1.1.
3.4
logarithmic retrieval
Systematic errors
altitude [km]
10
10
<10x10 cm
LT slant
21
-2
<5x10 cm
50
noise/signal [%]
100
www.atmos-chem-phys.net/6/811/2006/
50
noise/signal [%]
100
10
1.00
0.88
0.76
0.64
0.52
0.40
retrieved atmosph
retrieved atmosph
whole en
10
1.00
0.88
0.76
0.64
0.52
0.40
-0.40
-0.52
-0.52
-0.64
-0.64
10
15
10
821
15
Table 2. Estimated noise/signal of linear retrieval with simultaneous fitting of temperature [%]. The values for the 7.610.0 km and 8.8
real atmosphere [km]
real atmosphere [km]
11.2 km layers are for the LT slant<101021 cm2 and LT slant<51021 cm2 sub-ensembles, respectively.
15
15
21
smoothing
meas. noise
10
pha. err.
mod eff.
T. profile
solar angle5
line int.
pres. coef.
total
total
2.33.3 km
3
<1
2
<1
1
<1
<1
1
5
4
14
3
12
1
4
1
<1
7
10
21
4.36.4 km
1.00
0.88
0.76
0.64
0.52
0.40
-0.40
-0.52
-0.64
15
23
210
8
<1
2
<1 5
<1
7
24
7.610.0 km
8.811.2 km
44
8
24
<1
6
<1
2
7
50
45
9
18
2
5
1
1
5
15
47
-2
error source
15
1.00
0.88
0.76
0.64
0.52
0.40
-0.40
-0.52
-0.64
10
15
10
error source
total
2.33.3 km
21
-2
smoothing
2
10
21
meas. noise
1
4
2
5
5
pha. err.
2
19
10
mod eff.
<1
1
<1
T. profile
15
8
6
10
15
solar angle
1real atmosphere<1
<1
[km]
line int.
<1
1
1
pres. coef.
1
11
6
Fig. 8. Same as Fig. 4 but in the presence of parameter error as listed in Table 1.
total
4
22
24
0.76
0.64
0.52
0.40
-0.40
-0.52
-0.64
altitude [km]
linear retrieval
logarithmic retrieval
10
10
whole ens.
LT slant
21
-2
<10x10 cm 5
LT slant
21
-2
<5x10 cm
50
noise/signal [%]
100
50
100
noise/signal [%]
2 ) agrees
variance of the linear retrievals regression line (reg
less well with the real variance. According to Eq. (9) and
Atmos. Chem.
6, 123, 2006
2 Phys.,
since 2 =reg
/x2 is similar for both retrieval methods, the
absolute variance of the scattering around the regression line
(the random error) is then larger for the logarithmic retrieval.
However, this is a mean value for the whole ensemble. A
detailed analysis would reveal that the linear retrieval has increased absolute systematic errors and reduced absolute random errors only for large amounts. It is vice versa for small
www.atmos-chem-phys.net/6/811/2006/
8.811.2 km
1.00
44
7
33
<1
7 10
5
<1
real atmosphere
[km]
1
5
49
0.88
36
8
18
<1
315
<1
1
4
42
0.76
0.64
0.52
0.40
-0.40
-0.52
-0.64
M. Schneider
822 et al.: Water vapour profiles by ground-based
M. SchneiderFTIR
et al.:spectroscopy
Water vapour profiles by ground-based FTIR spectroscopy
linear retrieval
logarithmic retrieval
15
10
1.00
0.88
0.76
0.64
0.52
0.40
-0.40
whole ensemble
15
10
1.00
0.88
0.76
0.64
0.52
0.40
-0.40
-0.52
-0.52
-0.64
-0.64
10
15
10
15
15
10
1.00
0.88
0.76
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0.52
0.40
-0.40
21
-2
15
10
1.00
0.88
0.76
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0.52
-0.40
-0.52
-0.64
-0.64
10
15
15
15
10
1.00
0.88
0.76
0.64
0.52
0.40
-0.40
10
-2
21
10
15
0.40
-0.52
10
1.00
0.88
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0.64
0.52
0.40
-0.40
-0.52
-0.52
-0.64
-0.64
15
10
15
Fig. as
10.Fig.
Same8 as
8 but
with simultaneous
retrieval
temperature profile.
profile.
Fig. 10. Same
butFig.
with
simultaneous
retrieval
of of
temperature
Table 4. Estimated systematic errors of linear retrieval [%]. The values for the 7.610.0 km and 8.811.2 km layers are for the LT
slant<101021 cm2 and LT slant<51021 cm2 sub-ensembles, respectively.
logarithmic
error source
totalretrieval
2.33.3 km
linear retrieval
smoothing
10
line int.
altitude [km]
10
pres. coef.
0
5
0
3
5
+10
50
100
whole ens.
LT slant
21
-2
<10x10 cm 5
LT slant
21
-2
<5x10 cm
50
noise/signal [%]
100
4.36.4 km
7.610.0 km
8.811.2 km
6
3
8
31
3
1
38
4
4
www.atmos-chem-phys.net/6/811/2006/
noise/signal [%]
19
-2
21
10
1.00
10
1.00
0.40
error source
-0.40
2.33.310km
0.76
0.64
0.52
0.40
-0.40
-0.52
-0.52
-0.64
-0.64
15
4.36.4
km
5
7.610.0
km
10
8.811.2
km15
smoothing
1
4
1
line int.
5
5
2
Fig. 10. Same as Fig. 8 but with simultaneous retrieval of temperature profile.
pres. coef.
+2
+19
15
linear retrieval
823
0.88
23
4
+4
33
5
1
linear retrieval
logarithmic retrieval
logarithmic retrieval
30
-2
30
21
10
whole ens.
LT slant
21
-2
<10x10 cm 5
LT slant
21
-2
<5x10 cm
50
100
20
10
10
=0.98; m=0.98
50
20
100
10
20
=0.98; m=0.98
30
10
20
30
20
-2
20
altitude [km]
10
noise/signal [%]
15
15
10
10
21
noise/signal [%]
Fig.11.
11.Same
Sameas
as Fig.
Fig. 99 but
but with simultaneous
Fig.
simultaneous retrieval
retrievalofoftemperatemperatureprofile.
profile.
ture
=0.97; m=0.83
On a logarithmic scale all involved pdfs are Gaussian distributions. A correctly working retrieval should therefore produce a normal pdf for the posterior ensemble, or if referred
to the retransformed linear scale, a log-normal pdf. It should
not change the principle distribution characteristics of the apriori ensemble. The situation of the linear retrieval is different because it involves normal and log-normal pdfs. Consequently the posterior pdf may be something between a lognormal and normal pdf. A 2 test can check this issue. The
posterior covariance matrix is Sx ={x x T }. In contrast to the
a-priori covariance matrix Sa , the matrix Sx is singular, since
the solution space has fewer dimensions than the a-priori
space. The calculation of the 2 values according to Eq. (5)
is thus not straightforward. However, since the covariance
matrix is symmetric its singular value decomposition leads
to L3LT , with the columns of L containing its eigenvectors
and the diagonal matrix 3 its corresponding eigenvalues. As
S1 in Eq. (5) a pseudo inverse is applied, which only considers the 3 largest eigenvalues. The 2 calculated with this
inverse would thus have 3 degrees of freedom. The test is
performed for all aforementioned retrievals: with/without parameter errors and with/without simultaneous fitting of temwww.atmos-chem-phys.net/6/811/2006/
15
=0.97; m=0.86
20
10
15
20
21
-2
10
=0.87; m=0.55
0
0
=0.87; m=0.64
tropopause (8.8-11.2km)
21
2
(LT-slant < 5x10 /cm )
-2
0,4
0,4
0,2
0,2
21
3.5
=0.88; m=0.53
0,0
0,0
0,2
0,4
21
=0.91; m=0.62
0,0
0,0
-2
0,2
0,4
21
-2
Fig. 12. Same as Fig. 6 but in the presence of parameter errors and
with simultaneous retrieval of temperature profile.
perature. The calculations have to be performed on a logarithmic scale to check for a log-normal distribution and on
a linear scale to check for a normal distribution. In Fig. 13
the theoretical 2 cumulative distribution function (cdf) for
3 degrees of freedom (black line) is compared to the 2 cdf
derived from the different tests. The upper panels show the
test assuming a normal distribution. The left panels show the
linear retrieval and the right panel the logarithmic retrieval.
The black squares (in the graph partially hidden by the red
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 811830, 2006
21
-2
tropopause
(8.8-11.2km)
eider et al.: Water
vapour
profiles by ground-based FTIR spectroscopy
0.4
21
0.4
824
95
0.2
0.4
0.0
21
-2
probability [%]
probability [%]
0.0
logarithmic retrieval
=0.91; m=0.62
0.0
0.2
95
0.4
21
-2
60
40
2
60
0.64
probability [%]
80
60
40
3
10
Fig.
Upper panels:
panels: 22 test
test
Fig.13.
13. 22 test
test for
for posterior
posterior ensembles.
ensembles. Upper
2
2
assumingnormal
normaldistribution.
distribution. Lower
Lower panels:
assuming
test
test assuming
assumingloglognormaldistribution.
distribution.Left
Leftpanels:
panels: linear retrieval.
retrieval. Right
normal
Right panels:
panels:loglogarithmicretrieval.
retrieval. Black
Black line:
line: theoretical
theoretical 22 cumulative
arithmic
cumulative distribudistributionfunction
function(cdf)
(cdf) for
for 33 degrees
degrees of freedom; black
tion
black filled
filled squares:
squares:
empirical22cdf
cdfof
ofensemble
ensemble in
in absence
absence of parameter
empirical
parameter errors;
errors;black
black
circles:empirical
empirical22 cdf
cdf of
of ensemble
ensemble in
in the
circles:
the presence
presence of
of parameter
parameter
errorsand
andwithout
withoutretrieval
retrieval of
of temperature
temperature profile;
errors
profile; red
red circles:
circles:emempirical22cdf
cdfofofensemble
ensemble in
in the
the presence
presence of
pirical
of parameter
parameter errors
errorsand
and
simultaneousretrieval
retrievalof
of temperature
temperature profile.
profile.
simultaneous
rs and
0.62
10
2
2
Fig.14.
14.DOF
DOFvalues
valuesfor
forlogarithmic
logarithmic retrievals
retrievals with realistic
Fig.
realistic error
error
assumptionscompared
comparedtotoDOF
DOFvalues
valuesof
of logarithmic
logarithmic retrieval
assumptions
retrievalin
inthe
the
absenceofoferrors.
errors. Left
Leftpanel:
panel: no
no retrieval
retrieval of temperature
temperature profile.
absence
profile.
Rightpanel:
panel:simultaneous
simultaneousretrieval
retrievalof
of temperature
temperature profile.
Right
profile.
20
95
0.86
simultaneous
temperature
retrieval
30
=0.98
no temperature
retrieval
40
10
linear retrieval
=0.88; m=0.53
0.0
0.2
www.atmos-chem-phys.org/acp/6/1/
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 811830, 2006
4.1
Since March 1999 measurements of highly-resolved infrared solar absorption spectra are routinely performed at the
Izana Observatory, situated on the Canary Island of Tenerife
(28 180 N, 16 290 W) at 2370 m a.s.l. Its position in the Atlantic Ocean and above a stable inversion layer, typical for
subtropical regions, provides clean air and clear sky conditions most of the year. This offers good conditions for atmospheric observations by remote sensing techniques. The
spectra are obtained by a Bruker IFS 120M applying a resolution of 0.0036 to 0.005 cm1 and no numerical apodisation. The spectral intensities are determined by a liquidnitrogen cooled HgCdTe detector, which, in order to ensure
linearity, is operated in a photovoltaic mode. During short
periods in 1999 and 2001 a photoconductive detector was
www.atmos-chem-phys.net/6/811/2006/
825
the FTIR instrument and the sun. This is particularly problematic for the lowest layer above the FTIR instrument as,
while the FTIR instrument is located at the surface the sonde
is typically floating around 30 km south of the observatory
in the free troposphere. A comparison between the humidity
measured in-situ at the observatory and the sondes humidity
demonstrated that the water vapour amounts close to the surface are more variable and on average 40% larger than those
in the free troposphere.
4.4
Comparison
826
logarithmic retrieval
15
10
1.00
0.88
0.76
0.64
0.52
0.40
-0.40
whole ensemble
15
10
1.00
0.88
0.76
0.64
0.52
0.40
-0.40
-0.52
-0.52
-0.64
-0.64
10
15
10
15
15
10
1.00
0.88
0.76
0.64
0.52
0.40
-0.40
21
-2
15
10
1.00
0.88
0.76
0.64
0.52
0.40
-0.40
-0.52
-0.52
-0.64
-0.64
10
15
10
15
15
10
1.00
0.88
0.76
0.64
0.52
0.40
-0.40
21
-2
15
10
1.00
0.88
0.76
0.64
0.52
0.40
-0.40
-0.52
-0.52
-0.64
-0.64
10
15
10
15
Fig.as15.Fig.
Same
Fig.for
10 correlation
but for correlation
matrices
betweenmeasured
measured sonde
FTIR
profiles.
Fig. 15. Same
10asbut
matrices
between
sondeand
and
FTIR
profiles.
www.atmos-chem-phys.org/acp/6/1/
www.atmos-chem-phys.net/6/811/2006/
827
Table 6. Differences between sonde and FTIR column amounts as estimated from the correlation plots (Fig. 16). The values for the 7.6
10.0 km and 8.811.2 km layers are for the LT slant<101021 cm2 and LT slant<51021 cm2 sub-ensembles, respectively.
total
2.33.3 km
4.36.4 km
7.610.0 km
8.811.2 km
25
+6
40
+3
32
4
54
40
56
47
total
2.33.3 km
4.36.4 km
7.610.0 km
8.811.2 km
25
+6
47
4
33
+1
58
+2
51
10
random
systematic
random
systematic
828
21
-2
logarithmic retrieval
30
20
20
10
10
=0.91; m=1.03
0
0
20
=0.88; m=0.96
30
10
20
15
10
10
21
15
=0.95; m=0.96
21
-2
10
0,6
-2
21
=0.94; m=1.01
20
10
15
20
=0.81; m=0.60
0
15
0
1
=0.81; m=1.02
0
tropopause (8.8-11.2km)
21
2
(LT-slant < 5x10 /cm
and S/N > 200)
0,4
0,2
0,2
=0.83; m=0.53
0,0
0,2
0,6
0,4
0,0
0,4
0,6
21
20
30
-2
20
10
-2
=0.86; m=0.90
0,0
0,0
0,2
0,4
0,6
21
-2
Fig. 16. Same as Fig. 12 but for measured sonde and FTIR partial
column amounts.
829
tropopause (8.8-11.2km)
21
-2
for LT slant < 5x10 cm
0.2
0.4
0.1
0.2
0.0
UT (7.6-10.0km)
21
-2
for LT slant < 10x10 cm
0.5
1
0
20
0.0
MT (4.3-6.4km)
15
21
0.0
10
5
0
0
LT (2.3-3.3km)
20
5
10
0
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
Fig. 17. Time series of water vapour above Tenerife island determined from FTIR measurements.
measurements. From
From the
the top
top to
to the
the bottom:
bottom: tropopause
tropopause
column amounts (8.811.2 km), upper tropospheric column amounts (7.610.0 km), middle tropospheric
tropospheric column
column amounts
amounts (4.36.4
(4.36.4 km),
km), and
and
lower tropospheric column amounts (2.33.3 km). Black circles: measurements of Bruker IFS 120M.
120M. Red
Red crosses:
crosses: Measurements
Measurements of
of Bruker
Bruker
IFS 125HR.
www.atmos-chem-phys.net/6/811/2006/
Acknowledgements. We would like to thank the Bundesministerium fur Bildung und Forschung for funding via the DLR
(contracts 50EE0008 and 50EE0203). Furthermore, we are grateful
to the Izana Observatory for facilitating the sonde data and for
allowing us to use its infrastructure and to the Goddard Space Flight
Center for providing the temperature and pressure profiles of the
National Centers for Environmental Prediction via the automailer
system.
Edited by: M. G. Lawrence
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