UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF METALLURGICAL AND
MATERIALS ENGINEERING

LECTURE NOTE ON MME 551

(INTRODUCTION TO COMPOSITE
MATERIALS)
3 UNITS

LECTURER: ENGR. I.C, EZEMA

COURSE CONTENT
1. General Overview: definition of matrices, reinforcements, classifications,
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

advantages, disadvantages.
Properties of matrices and types. Types and properties of reinforcements.
Fabrication processes of composites materials.
Factors affecting properties of composite materials.
Experimental characterization of composite materials.
Micromechanics of composites materials.
Application of composites.
Practical/Lab work on composite materials.

INTRODUCTION
WHAT IS A COMPOSITE?

Composite is a multiphase material having two or more physically and chemically

distinct components in which one of the components (reinforcements) has superior
mechanical properties.
In material science, the term composite is used to denote a material composed of a
matrix as a binder (continuous phase) containing a filler (fibrous or non-fibrous)
and reinforcements (discontinuous phase).
MATRIX = CONCRETE SAND, CEMENT, WATER, GRAVEL.
With the addition of ROD it becomes REINFORCED CONCRETE.
There should be a definite interface between the matrix and the reinforcements
usually of zero thickness. The properties of the composite depends upon those of
the individual components and on their interfacial capability.
Modern composite materials evolve from the simplest mixture of two or more
materials to gain a property which was not there before. The reinforcement of
materials such as mud and clay by straws; concrete and concrete reinforced with
steel, granite consisting of quartz, mica, feldspar, wood (cellulose fiber in lignin
matrix) are typical examples.
Composite are used because the overall properties of the composites are superior to
the individual properties of the components; for example, polymer/ceramic
composite has a greater modulus than the polymer component but are not as brittle

as the ceramic. The following are some of the reasons why composites are selected
for certain applications.
Typical, reinforcing materials are strong with low densities while the matrix is
usually a ductile or tough material. If the composite is designed and fabricated
correctly, it combines the strength of the reinforcements with the toughness of the
matrix to achieve the desired properties not available in a conventional material.
The downside is that such composite are often much expensive than conventional
materials. The downside is that such composites are often much expensive than
conventional materials e.g. diesel piston, brake pads, tyres, the beech aircraft in
which 100% of the structural components are composite materials.
The strength of the composite depends primarily on the amount, arrangement and
type of the fiber reinforcements in the resin.
Typically, the higher the reinforcement content, the greater the strength. In some
cases, glass fibers are combined with other fibers such as aramid to create a hybrid
composite that combines the properties of more than one reinforcing material. In
addition, the composites is often formulated with fillers and additives that change
the processing or performance parameters.

Composites have been classified generally into:

i.
ii.
iii.

Metal matrix composites (MMC)

Ceramic matrix composite (CMC)
Polymer matrix composite (PMC)

based on the matrix material that constitute the composite. Because of the low
processing temperature, the polymer matrix composites are more easier to fabricate
than the ceramic matrix composites. Several researchers all over the world
investigated the structures, properties and application of various composite
systems. Among the various composites fiber reinforced composites gain much
importance in various fields due to high strength to weight ratio (a very important
parameter in the design and fabrication of composites).

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOSITES BASED ON MATRIX

Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) include mixture of ceramics and metals
such as cemented carbides and other cermets, as well as Al or Mg reinforced
by strong high stiffness fibers.
Ceramic Matrix Composite (CMCs) include aluminium oxide and silicon
carbide embedded into ceramic matrix to improve properties especially in
high temperature applications.
In Polymer Matrix Composite (PMCs) thermoset resins are the most widely
used polymers in PMCs; epoxy, polyesters and phenolics are commonly are
mixed with fiber reinforcements.
MATRICES

POLYMER

METALS

CERAMIC

-THERMOSET
-THERMOPLASTIC

-STEEL
-ALUMINIUM
-TITANIUM
-MAGNESIUM, ETC.

-GLASS
-CERMETS
CEMENTS/CONCRET
E

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPOSITES

CARBON &
GRAPHITE

ADVANTAGES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

High mechanical properties.

Flexibility of design options.
Ease of fabrication
Light weight.
Corrosion resistance.
Impact resistance.
Excellent fatique strength.
Easy to machine.

DISADVANTAGES
1. Brittle failure mechanism.
2. High material cost.
3. High manufacturing cost.
4. Temperature limitations.
5. Actual mechanical properties not always as good as expected.
6. Mechanical properties very process dependent.
7. Not often environmentally friendly.
8. Low recyclability
9. It has an anisotropic property.
10. Low reusability.
11. Synthetic composites are not bio-degradable.
FUNCTIONS OF A MATRIX
In a composite material, the matrix material serves the following functions;
1. It holds the fibers together.
2. It protects the fibers from environment.
3. It distributes the load evenly between fibers, so that all fibers are subjected
to the same amount of strain.
4. It enhances the transverse properties of a laminate.
5. It improves impact and fracture resistance of a component.

6. It helps to avoid propagation of crack growths through the fiber by providing

alternate failure path along the interface between the fibers and the matrix.
7. It carries inter-laminar shear stress.
PROPERTIES OF A MATRIX
The following are the properties of a matrix;
1.
2.
3.
4.

Reduced moisture adsorption.

Low shrinkage.
Low coefficient of thermal expansion.
Good flow characteristics so that it penetrates fiber bundles completely and

eliminates voids during the compacting or curing process.

5. Reasonable strength, modulus and elongation (the elongation of the matrix
must be greater than that of the fiber).
6. The matrix must be elastic enough to transfer load to the fibers.
7. Strength at elevated temperature (depending on application)
8. Excellent chemical resistance (depending on application).
9. Low temperature capabilities (depending on application).
10. Should be easily processable into the final composite shape.
11. It must have dimensional stability.
TYPES OF MATRICES
1. POLYMER MATRIX:
Polymers make ideal materials as they can be processed easily, possesses
light weight and desirable mechanical properties. They are classified into
two main types; thermosets and thermoplastics e.g. for thermosets are
phenolics, polyester, polyimide, epoxy, etc. for thermoplastics we have
polyamide, polypropylene, polythene.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Thermosets and Thermoplastics

Thermosets
Thermoplastics
1. The resin(matrix) cost is low
The resin cost is slightly higher
2. Thermoset exhibit moderate The shrinkage for thermoplastics is low
shrinkage.
3. Inter-laminar structure toughness Inter-laminar structure toughness is
is low
4. Good resistance to solvents

high.
Poor resistance to solvents.

2. METAL MATRIX:
Metallic matrices are essential constituents for fabrication of metal matrix
composites (MMC), which have potential for structure materials at high
temperature. Metal matrix has advantage over polymer matrix in application
requiring a long term resistance to a severe environment such as high
temperature.
Again, the yield strength and modulus of most metals are higher than those of
polymers which is an important consideration for application requiring high
transverse strength and modulus as well as the compressive strength of the
composite.

Another advantage of using metals is that they can be physically deformed and
strengthen by a variety of thermal and mechanical treatment. However, metals
have a number of disadvantages, namely high melting point (high processing
temperature), tendency towards corrosion at the fiber matrix interface, high
specific gravity.
Other matrices include ceramic matric, carbon matrix, and reinforced concrete.

REINFORCEMENTS (FIBERS OR PARTICLES)

Reinforcement for the composites can be fibers, particles or whiskers. Fibers
are essentially characterized by one very long axis with the other two axis often
circular or near circular.
Particles have no preferred orientation and so does their shape.
Whiskers have a preferred shape but are small both in diameter and length when
compared to fibers.
Fibers are the most important class of reinforcement as they satisfy the desired
condition and transfer strength to the matrix constituents influencing and
enhancing their properties as desired. Glass fibers are the earliest known fibres

used to reinforce materials. Ceramic and metal fibers were discovered later to
render composites stiffer and more resistant to heat. Metallic fibers are those
used in tyre reinforcements.
The performance of a fiber in a composite depends on its length, shape,
orientation, composition of the fiber and the mechanical properties of the fiber.
The two major roles of a fiber in a composite are;
1. To carry the applied load,
2. To transfer load.
Four major types of glass fibers are;
1. E-glass (good strength and electrical restivity).
2. S-glass (40% higher strength than E-glass. Better retention of properties at
elevated properties).
3. C-glass (better corrosion resistance than all other type).
4. Quartz (low dielectric properties).
FORMS OF GLASS FIBER
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.

Rovings
Roving woven
Chopped strand mat
Continuous strand mat
Surface veil
Fabrics (glass fiber).

Other forms of fibres include;

i.
ii.

Carbon fibers
Organic fibers (natural fibers).
-Bast (stem) e.g. flax, jute, hemp, kenaf, banana, plantain.
-leaf e.g. sisals, banana, palm.
-seed e.g. cotton, kapor.
-fruit e.g. palm, coconut.
-wood fiber e.g. sawdust.
-stalk e.g. rice, bamboo, wheat, corn, etc.

Other additives relevant in composite production include

1. FILLERS: fillers are inert substances added to reduce the resin cost or
improve its physical properties such as hardness, stiffness, impact strength.

Commonly used fillers are calcium-carbonate, hydrated alumina, clay

(kaolin), calcium-sulphate, mica, feldspar, silica, talc, flake glass, milled
glass, etc.
2. COLORANTS: colorants are often used in composites to add color
throughout the part. Colorants can be mixed as part of the resin or applied as
part of the moulding process (as a gel coat). Also a wide range of coatings
can be applied after moulding.
3. RELEASE AGENTS: it is an agent that facilitates the removal of part from
the mold. This products can be added to the resin, applied to the mold or
bath. Correct selection of release agents can optimize not only cycle time but
also consistency of surface finish, minimizing post mold operations prior to
painting or bonding. Zinc Stearate is a popular type of release agents that is
mixed inside the resin for compression molding. Waxes, silicon oil, and
other release agents can be used at the lowest possible concentration
(because heating the mold too much will cause cracking). Use of excessive
amounts can reduce mechanical strength and affect adhesion characteristics
or may cause cracking of the composites.
CATALYSTS, ACCELERATORS/PROMOTERS AND INHIBITORS
In polyester for instance, the most important additive is catalyst or initiator. Typical
peroxide such as MEKP-Methyl Ethyl Ketone Peroxide is used for room

temperature curing processes or Benzoyl Peroxide is used for heat curing

processes.
PROMOTERS
In polyester, Cobalt Napthenate is used to cause the unsaturated resin to react
(croos-link) and become solid. Some additives such as TBC-Tertiary Butyl
Catechol are used to slow the rate of reaction and are called inhibitors. They are
used in polyester resin to extend their shelf life (the time during which the
polyester can still be useful). Accelerators such as DMA-Dimethyl Aniline speed
up curing process. It does the same work as cobalt naphthanate.
MAUFACTURING METHODS FOR COMPOSITES
Composites can be made using the following methods;
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Hand lay-up method.

Spray lay-up method.
Resin transfer molding.
Compression molding.
Injection.
Extrusion.
Pultrusion.
Filament winding.

All these methods are tailored for the specific material to be processed. Polymer
chemistry plays an important role in selecting the appropriate resin for the given
fabrication method.

ASSIGNMENT 1
Write short notes on the composite manufacturing methods.
MICROMECHANICS & MACROMECHANICS OF COMPOSITES
Micromechanics is the study of material behavior on small length scales
where the interplay of the individual component (fiber and matrix) as part of the
definition of the behavior of the heterogeneous material is investigated.
Macromechanics is the study of the material behavior on a large scale
whereby the material is considered a homogeneous continuum or structural
elements made from the material are considered or investigated.
VOLUME FRACTION OF COMPOSITES
Vf + Vm + Vv = 1
Where;
Vf = volume fraction of fibre
Vm = volume fraction of matrix
Vv = volume fraction of void content
But Vv = 0

Therefore, Vf + Vm = 1 or

Vm 1 V f

Vf + Vm = Vc
Where VC = volume fraction of composite
Volume fraction of fiber (in percentage)
Vf =

Vm
Vc

Volume fraction of matrix (in percentage)

Vm =

Vm
Vc

Mass fraction
Mf + Mm = 1
Mf + Mm = Mc
Mass fraction of fiber
Mf

Mf = M c
Mass fraction of matrix
Mm =

Mm
Mc

RULE OF MIXTURE EQUATION (ROM)

1. PARALLEL MODEL (UNIDIRECTIONAL DIRECTION)

F

a) Strength,

= fVf +

= fVf +

Vm

(1-Vf)

b) Youngs modulus, Ec = EfVf + EmVm

Ec = EfVf + Em (1-Vf)
c) Density, c = fVf + mVm
c = fVf + m (1-Vf)
2. SERIES MODEL (TRANSVERSE DIRECTION)

1 FV f Vm
=
+
c f m

Strength,

Modulus,

f m

c=
mVf + fVm

1 Vf Vm
= +
Ec Ef Em

Ec =

EfEm
EmVf + EfVm